Abaqus Analysis Intro Book PDF

Introduction to Abaqus/Standard
and Abaqus/Explicit
www.3ds.com | © Dassault Systèmes
R 6.12
About this Course
Course objectives
Upon completion of this course you will be able to:
Complete finite element models using Abaqus keywords.
Submit and monitor analysis jobs.
View and evaluate simulation results.
Solve structural analysis problems using Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit, including the effects of
material nonlinearity, large deformation and contact.
Targeted audience
Simulation Analysts
Prerequisites
None
3 days
1
Day 1
Lesson 1 Defining an Abaqus Model
Workshop 1 Basic Input and Output
Lesson 2 Linear Static Analysis

Workshop 2 Linear Static Analysis of a Cantilever Beam:

Multiple Load Cases
Lesson 3 Nonlinear Analysis in Abaqus/Standard
Workshop 3 Nonlinear Statics
Day 2
Lesson 4 Multistep Analysis in Abaqus
Workshop 4 Unloading Analysis
Lesson 5 Constraints and Contact

Workshop 5 Seal Contact
Lesson 6 Introduction to Dynamics
Workshop 6 Dynamics
2
Day 3
Lesson 7 Using Abaqus/Explicit
Workshop 7 Contact with Abaqus/Explicit
Lesson 8 Quasi-Static Analysis in Abaqus/Explicit

Workshop 8 Quasi-Static Analysis (Optional)
Lesson 9 Combining Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit
Workshop 9 Import Analysis (Optional)
Additional Material
Appendix 1 Element Selection Criteria

Appendix 2 Contact Issues Specific to Abaqus/Standard
Appendix 3 Contact Issues Specific to Abaqus/Explicit
3
Legal Notices
The Abaqus Software described in this documentation is available only under license from Dassault
Systèmes and its subsidiary and may be used or reproduced only in accordance with the terms of such
license.
This documentation and the software described in this documentation are subject to change without
prior notice.
Dassault Systèmes and its subsidiaries shall not be responsible for the consequences of any errors or
omissions that may appear in this documentation.
No part of this documentation may be reproduced or distributed in any form without prior written
permission of Dassault Systèmes or its subsidiary.

© Dassault Systèmes, 2012.
Printed in the United States of America
Abaqus, the 3DS logo, SIMULIA and CATIA are trademarks or registered trademarks of Dassault
Systèmes or its subsidiaries in the US and/or other countries.
Other company, product, and service names may be trademarks or service marks of their respective
owners. For additional information concerning trademarks, copyrights, and licenses, see the Legal
Notices in the Abaqus 6.12 Release Notes and the notices at:
http://www.3ds.com/products/simulia/portfolio/product-os-commercial-programs.
Revision Status
Lecture 1 5/12 Updated for 6.12 Workshop 1 5/12 Updated for 6.12
Lecture 8 6/12 Minor edits Workshop 8 5/12 Updated for 6.12
Appendix 1 5/12 Updated for 6.12
4
Notes
5
Notes
6
L1.1
Lesson 1: Defining an Abaqus Model
Lesson content:
Introduction
Documentation
Components of an Abaqus Model
Details of an Abaqus Input File
Abaqus Input Conventions
Abaqus Output
Example: Cantilever Beam Model
Parts and Assemblies (optional)
Workshop Preliminaries
Workshop 1: Basic Input and Output (IA)
Workshop 1: Basic Input and Output (KW)
Both interactive (IA) and keywords (KW) versions

of the workshop are provided. Complete only one.
2 hours
L1.2
Introduction (1/14)
SIMULIA is the Dassault Systèmes brand that delivers a scalable portfolio of Realistic Simulation solutions
including
The Abaqus product suite for Unified FEA
Multiphysics solutions for insight into challenging engineering problems
Lifecycle management solutions for managing simulation data, processes, and intellectual property
Headquartered in Providence, RI, USA
R&D centers in Providence and in Velizy, France
7
L1.3
Introduction (2/14)
Course preliminaries
This course introduces Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit; basic knowledge of finite element
analysis is assumed.
This course introduces concepts in a manner that gives users a working knowledge of Abaqus as
quickly as possible—the lecture notes do not attempt to cover all the details of Abaqus completely.
There are several sources for additional information on the topics presented in this course:
SIMULIA Home Page (available via the Internet at

http://www.3ds.com/products/simulia/overview).
Abaqus documentation—all usage details are covered in the user’s manuals.
Extensive library of courses developed by SIMULIA on particular topics (course descriptions

available at http://www.3ds.com/products/simulia/overview).
L1.4
Introduction (3/14)
Abaqus FEA is a suite of finite element analysis modules

8
L1.5
Introduction (4/14)
Abaqus/CAE
Complete Abaqus Environment

for modeling, managing, and monitoring
Abaqus analyses, as well as visualizing
results.
Intuitive and consistent user interface

throughout the system.
Based on the concepts of parts

and assemblies of part instances, which are
common to many CAD systems.
Parts can be created within Abaqus/CAE or

imported from other systems as geometry
(to be meshed in Abaqus/CAE) or as
meshes.
Built-in feature-based parametric modeling

system for creating parts. Abaqus/CAE main user interface
L1.6
Introduction (5/14)
Analysis modules
Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit provide
the user with two complementary analysis
tools.*
Abaqus/Standard’s capabilities:
General analyses
Static stress/displacement
analysis:
I. Rate-independent response
II. Rate-dependent
(viscoelastic/creep/viscoplastic)
response
Transient dynamic stress/displacement
analysis
Transient or steady-state heat transfer
analysis Articulation of an automotive
boot seal
Transient or steady-state mass diffusion
analysis
Steady-state transport analysis
Abaqus/CFD is a computational fluid dynamics

analysis product; it is not discussed in this course.
9
L1.7
Introduction (6/14)
Multiphysics:
Thermal-mechanical analysis
Structural-acoustic analysis
Linear piezoelectric analysis
Thermal-electrical (Joule heating)

analysis
Thermal stresses in an exhaust manifold

Thermal-electrical-structural analysis
Fully or partially saturated

pore fluid flow-deformation
Fluid-structure interaction
L1.8
Introduction (7/14)
Harmonic excitation
Linear perturbation analyses of a tire
Static stress/displacement analysis:
I. Linear static
stress/displacement analysis
II. Eigenvalue buckling

load prediction
Dynamic stress/displacement analysis:
I. Determination of natural modes and frequencies
II. Transient response via modal superposition
III. Steady-state response resulting from harmonic loading
» Includes alternative ―subspace projection‖ method for efficient analysis of large

models with frequency-dependent properties (like damping)
IV. Response spectrum analysis
V. Dynamic response resulting from random loading
10
L1.9
Introduction (8/14)
Abaqus/Explicit’s capabilities:
High-speed dynamics
Quasi-static analysis
Coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian (CEL)

Adaptive meshing using ALE
Multiphysics
Thermal-mechanical analysis
I. Fully coupled: Explicit algorithms

for both the mechanical and
thermal responses
II. Can include adiabatic heating

effects
Structural-acoustic analysis
Drop test of a cell phone
Fluid-structure interaction
L1.10
Introduction (9/14)
Comparing Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit
Abaqus/Standard Abaqus/Explicit
A general-purpose finite element A general-purpose finite element

program. program for explicit dynamics.
I. Nonlinear problems require I. Solution procedure does not
iterations. require iteration.
Can solve for true static equilibrium in Solves highly discontinuous high-speed
structural simulations. dynamic problems efficiently.
Provides a large number of capabilities Coupled-field analyses include:

for analyzing many different types of I. Thermal-mechanical
problems. II. Structural-acoustic
I. Nonstructural applications. III. FSI
II. Coupled or uncoupled response.
11
L1.11
Introduction (10/14)
Interactive postprocessing
Abaqus/Viewer is the postprocessing module

of Abaqus/CAE.
Available with Abaqus/CAE or as a

stand-alone product
Can be used to visualize Abaqus results

whether or not the model was created in
Abaqus/CAE
Provides efficient visualization of large

models
Contour plot of an aluminum

wheel hitting a curb in
Abaqus/Viewer
L1.12
What is covered in this course

Introduction to the analysis modules and
interactive postprocessing
Details of using Abaqus to solve a variety of
structural analysis problems:
Linear Static Analysis
Workshop 1: Basic Input and Output—
analysis of forces on a connecting lug
Workshop 2: Linear Static Analysis of a

Cantilever Beam—multiple load cases
12
L1.13
Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis

Workshop 3: Nonlinear Statics—large
deformation analysis of a skew plate
Simulations with Several Analysis Steps
Workshop 4:Unloading analysis—unloading
of a skew plate
Contact among Multiple Bodies
Workshop 5: Seal Contact—compression
analysis of a rubber seal.
L1.14
Linear and Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis

Workshop 6: Dynamics—frequency analysis
and implicit and explicit free
vibration analysis of a cantilever beam
High-Speed Dynamics in Abaqus/Explicit
Workshop 7: Contact with Abaqus/Explicit—
pipe whip problem
13
L1.15
Quasi-Static Combined Analysis in

Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit
Workshop 8 (Optional): Quasi-Static
Analysis—deep drawing of a can bottom
Workshop 9 (Optional): Import Analysis—
springback analysis of formed can bottom
Nonstructural applications—such as heat
transfer, soils consolidation, and acoustics—
are not discussed.
All Abaqus analysis techniques use the

same framework.
The knowledge gained in this course will
help in learning to use Abaqus for other
applications.
L1.16
Documentation (1/7)
Primary reference materials

Abaqus Analysis User’s Manual
Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
Abaqus Example Problems Manual
Abaqus Benchmarks Manual
Abaqus Verification Manual
Abaqus Keywords Reference Manual
Abaqus User Subroutines Reference Manual
Abaqus Theory Manual
All documentation is available in HTML and PDF format

The documentation is available through the Help menu on the main menu bar of Abaqus/CAE.
14
L1.17
Documentation (2/7)
Additional reference materials

Abaqus Installation and Licensing Guide (print version available)
Installation instructions
Abaqus Release Notes
Explains changes since previous release
Advanced lecture notes on various topics (print only)
Tutorials
Getting Started with Abaqus: Interactive Edition
Getting Started with Abaqus: Keywords Edition

Programming
Scripting and GUI Toolkit manuals
SIMULIA home page
http://www.3ds.com/products/simulia/overview/
L1.18
Documentation (3/7)
HTML documentation
The documentation for Abaqus is organized into a collection, with manuals grouped by function.
Viewed through a web browser.
Can search entire collection or individual manuals
15
L1.19
Documentation (4/7)
Searching the documentation

Enter one or more search terms in the search field
Terms in the search field:

Appear in any order
May or may not be adjacent
Appear within the proximity criterion
(default is a single section)
The table of contents

entry is highlighted
The text frame displays the

corresponding section
L1.20
Documentation (5/7)
Searching the documentation (cont’d)

Use quotes to search for exact strings
16
L1.21
Documentation (6/7)
Advanced search
Advanced search allows you to control the proximity criterion
L1.22
Documentation (7/7)
Advanced search (cont’d)

17
L1.23
Components of an Abaqus Model (1/6)
The Abaqus analysis modules run as batch programs.
The primary input to the analysis modules is an input file, which contains options from element,
material, procedure, and loading libraries.
These options can be combined in any reasonable way, allowing a tremendous variety of problems to be
modeled.
The input file is divided into two parts: model data and history data.
Model data Geometric options—nodes, elements

Material options
Other model options
History data Procedure options
Loading options
Output options
L1.24
Model data—define the physical model

Discretized model
geometry—
nodes,elements
Material properties
18
L1.25
Model data
ENCASTRE pin dof 2 fixed
Fixed constraints
v0
Initial conditions
L1.26
History data—specify what happens to the model

Types of analysis procedures—static, dynamic, soil, heat transfer, etc.
Loadings
Prescribed constraints
Output requests— stresses, strains, reaction forces, contact pressure, etc.
ENCASTRE
X-symmetry
Y-symmetry
19
L1.27
History subdivided into analysis steps
Steps are convenient subdivisions in an analysis history.
Different steps can contain different analysis procedures—for example, static followed by dynamic.
Distinction between general and linear perturbation steps:

General steps define a sequence of events that follow one another.
I. The state of the model at the end of the previous general step provides the initial conditions
for the start of the next general step.
II. This is needed for any history-dependent analysis.
Linear perturbation steps provide the linear response about the base state, which is the state at
the end of the most recent general step.
L1.28
Example: Bow and arrow simulation
Step 3 = natural
frequency extraction
Step 1 = pretension Step 2 = pull back Step 4 = dynamic release
Step 1: String the bow

Step 2: Pull back on the bow string
Step 3: Linear perturbation step to extract the natural frequencies of the system—
has no effect on subsequent steps
Step 4: Release the arrow
20
L1.29
Details of an Abaqus Input File (1/9)
Option blocks
All data are defined in ―option blocks‖ that describe specific aspects of the problem definition, such as an
element definition, etc. Together the option blocks build the model.
Node option block Property reference

option block
Model Material option Element option Boundary conditions

data block block option block
Contact option Initial conditions

block option block
History Analysis procedure Output request

Loading option block
data option block option block
L1.30
Each option block begins with a keyword line (first character is *).
Data lines, if needed, follow the keyword line.
Comment lines, starting with **, can be included anywhere.
All input lines have a limit of 256 characters (including blanks).

Names can be up to 80 characters long and must begin with a letter. For example, the following would
be a permissible name:
nodes_at_the_top_of_the_block_next_to_the_gasket
Note: Regardless of whether you specify only a file name, a relative path name, or a full path
name, the complete name including the path can have a maximum of 80 characters .
21
L1.31
Keyword lines
Begin with a single * followed directly by the name of the option.
May include a combination of required and optional parameters, along with their values, separated by
commas.
Example: A material option block defines a set of material properties.

*MATERIAL, NAME=material name
keyword parameter parameter value
The first line in a material option block
L1.32
Data lines
Define the bulk data for a given option; for example, element definitions.
A keyword line may have many data lines associated with it.
Example: An element option block defines elements by specifying the element type, the element
numbers, and the nodal connectivity.
*ELEMENT, TYPE=B21 keyword line

560, 101, 102
564, 102, 103 data lines
572, 103, 104
:
: node numbers (as required
for beam B21 elements)
element numbers
22
L1.33
Example: The elastic material option block defines the type of elasticity model as well as the elastic
material properties.
*ELASTIC, TYPE=ISOTROPIC keyword line

200.0E4, 0.30, 20.0 data lines
150.0E3, 0.35, 400.0
·
· temperature
Poisson’s ratio
modulus of
elasticity
L1.34
Ordering of option blocks
Each option block belongs in either the model data or the history data—one or the other—as specified in
the user’s manual.
The ordering within the model data or history data is arbitrary, except for a few cases.
Examples:
*HEADING must be the first option in the input file.
*ELASTIC, *DENSITY, and *PLASTIC are suboptions of *MATERIAL. As such, they must
follow *MATERIAL directly. Suboptions have no name references of their own.
Procedure options (*STATIC, *DYNAMIC, and *FREQUENCY, etc.) must follow *STEP to
specify the analysis procedure for the step.
23
L1.35
Node sets and element sets
Used for efficient cross-referencing.
Allow you to refer to a set all at once instead of each node or element individually.
Example: Node sets Node set

*NODE, NSET=TOPNODES TOPNODES contains

101, 0.345, 0.679, 0.223 nodes 101,102, ...
102, 0.331, 0.699, 0.234
.
.
*BOUNDARY, TYPE=DISPLACEMENT Boundary condition
TOPNODES, YSYMM applied to all nodes in
node set TOPNODES
L1.36
Example: Element sets
*ELEMENT, TYPE=B21, ELSET=SEATPOST

560, 101, 102,
Element set SEATPOST
564, 102, 103
contains elements 560,
.
564, ...
.
*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=PIPE, MATERIAL=STEEL,
ELSET=SEATPOST
These beam cross-section

0.12, 0.004 properties apply to all
elements in element set
wall thickness SEATPOST
pipe radius
24
L1.37
Including data from other files
Abaqus reads data from an include file as if the data were directly in the Abaqus input file.
An include file can include any portion of an input file and can contain references to other include files.
Data must be in the same format as required for input file data—all rules that apply to input file syntax
apply to data from included files.
Example: Input file referencing an include file
*HEADING
*INCLUDE, INPUT=node_and_element_numbers.txt
.
.
Contents of include file node_and_element_numbers.txt:

*NODE, NSET=TOPNODES
101, 0.345, 0.679, 0.223
102, 0.331, 0.699, 0.234
*ELEMENT, TYPE=B21, ELSET=SEATPOST
560, 101, 102,
564, 102, 103
L1.38
Abaqus Input Conventions (1/8)
Units
Abaqus uses no inherent set of units.
It is the user’s responsibility to use consistent units.
Example:
I. N, kg, m, s
or
II. N, 103 kg, mm, s
etc.
Common systems of consistent units
25
L1.39
Example: Properties of mild steel at room temperature
Quantity U.S. units SI units
Conductivity 28.9 Btu/ft hr ºF 50 W/m ºC

2.4 Btu/in hr ºF
Density 15.13 slug/ft3 (lbf s2/ft4) 7800 kg/m3
0.730 × 10−3 lbf s2/in4
0.282 lbm/in3
Elastic modulus 30 × 106 psi 207 × 109 Pa
Specific heat 0.11 Btu/lbm ºF 460 J/kg ºC
Yield stress 30 × 103 psi 207 × 106 Pa
L1.40
Time measures
Abaqus keeps track of both total time in an analysis and step time for each analysis step.
Time is physically meaningful for some analysis procedures, such as transient dynamics.
Time is not physically meaningful for some procedures. In rate-independent, static procedures ―time‖ is
just a convenient, monotonically increasing measure for incrementing loads.
26
L1.41
Coordinate systems
For input of initial nodal coordinates:
The default is a rectangular Cartesian system.
Specify an alternative system using *SYSTEM or *NODE, SYSTEM=[RECTANGULAR |

CYLINDRICAL | SPHERICAL].
Do not affect loading or output because automatically converted internally to the global
rectangular Cartesian system.
L1.42
For nodal loads, boundary conditions, initial conditions:
The default is a rectangular Cartesian system.
Specify an alternative system using the *TRANSFORM option.
These directions do not rotate with the material in large-displacement analyses.

Example: Boundary conditions on a skew edge.
Use *TRANSFORM on
these nodes with YSYMM
boundary conditions
27
L1.43
For material point directions (directions

associated with each element’s material or
integration points):
Affect input: Anisotropic material

directions.
Default material directions for solid elements
Affect output: Stress/strain output
directions.
The default depends on the element

type.
I. Solid elements use a global

rectangular Cartesian system.
II. Shell and membrane elements

use a projection of the global
Cartesian system onto the
surface.
Default material directions for shell and

membrane elements
L1.44
Alternative local material coordinate systems can be specified using the *ORIENTATION option.
These directions rotate with the material in large-displacement analyses.
2
28
L1.45
Degrees of freedom
Primary solution variables at the nodes.
Available nodal degrees of freedom depend on the element type.
Each degree of freedom is labeled with a number: 1=x-displacement, 2=y-displacement,

11=temperature, etc.
L1.46
Abaqus Output (1/8)
Output
Four types of output are available:
Neutral binary output can be written to the output database (.odb) file using the *OUTPUT option
and related suboptions.
Printed output can be written to the data (.dat) file.

I. This is available only for Abaqus/Standard.
Restart output can be written to the restart (.res) file using the *RESTART option for the
purpose of conducting restart analyses (discussed in Lecture 4).
Results (.fil) file output can be written for use with third-party postprocessors.
29
L1.47
Abaqus Output (2/8)
Output to the output database file
The output database file is used by

Abaqus/Viewer.
An interface (API) is available

in Python and C++ to use for external
postprocessing (e.g.,
to add data to display in

Abaqus/Viewer).
Two types of output data: field and history

data.
Field data is used for model (deformed,

contour, etc.) and
X–Y plots:
*OUTPUT, FIELD
History data is used for X–Y plots:

*OUTPUT, HISTORY
L1.48
Abaqus Output (3/8)
Frequency of output for either type can be controlled
Field output can be requested according to
Number of increments (Abaqus/Standard only)

*OUTPUT, FIELD, FREQUENCY=n Every n increments
Number of intervals
*OUTPUT, FIELD, NUMBER INTERVAL=n At n evenly spaced time intervals
Time intervals
*OUTPUT, FIELD, TIME INTERVAL=x Every x units of time
Time points
*OUTPUT, FIELD, TIME POINTS=t_out At user-specified time
*TIME POINTS, name = t_out points
30
L1.49
Abaqus Output (4/8)
History output can be requested according to:
Number of increments
*OUTPUT, HISTORY, FREQUENCY=n
Number of intervals (Abaqus/Standard only)

*OUTPUT, HISTORY, NUMBER INTERVAL=n
Time intervals
*OUTPUT, HISTORY, TIME INTERVAL=x
Time points (Abaqus/Standard only)

*OUTPUT, HISTORY, TIME POINTS=t_out
*TIME POINTS, name=t_out
L1.50
Abaqus Output (5/8)
Requesting output to the output database file
If you have no output requests in your model, behavior depends on environment file (abaqus_v6.env)
settings:
odb_output_by_default=ON: pre-selected output is written to the ODB
I. This is the default setting; output depends on the procedure type

odb_output_by_default=OFF: no ODB will be generated for your analysis
Default output can be overridden using any of the following suboptions of *OUTPUT :
*NODE OUTPUT
*ELEMENT OUTPUT
*ENERGY OUTPUT
*CONTACT OUTPUT
*INCREMENTATION OUTPUT (Abaqus/Explicit only)
31
L1.51
Abaqus Output (6/8)
Pre-selected ODB output
Pre-selected output depends on the procedure type.
For example, for a general static procedure:
The default field output requests are for:

Stresses – S
Total Strains – E (or logarithmic strain LE if NLGEOM is active)
Plastic Strains – PE, PEEQ, and PEMAG
Displacements and Rotations – U
Reaction Forces and Moments– RF
Concentrated (applied) Forces and Moments – CF
Contact Stresses – CSTRESS
Contact Displacements – CDISP
The default history output request includes all model energies
For other procedures, see the Abaqus Analysis User’s Manual
L1.52
Abaqus Output (7/8)
Output to the printed output file
These options allow tabular data to be written to an ASCII file that can be read with a text editor.
These options are available only for Abaqus/Standard.
Syntax:
*NODE PRINT
*EL PRINT
*ENERGY PRINT
32
L1.53
Abaqus Output (8/8)
Output to the restart file
If a simulation stops prematurely, the restart data can be used to start the simulation from some
intermediate point without repeating any calculations.
*RESTART, WRITE
This option is discussed further in Lecture 4.

Output to the results file
The results file can be used by third-party postprocessors.
*FILE OUTPUT (This option required for Abaqus/Explicit only)

*NODE FILE
*EL FILE Select specific output variables
*ENERGY FILE
L1.54
Example: Cantilever Beam Model (1/11)
Finite element model using beam elements
boundary conditions node number element number
point load
33
L1.55
Abaqus input file with some annotations

Model data This line will appear on each page of output.
*HEADING
CANTILEVER BEAM EXAMPLE heading option block
UNITS IN MM, N, MPa
*NODE
1, 0.0, 0.0 node option block
:
11, 200.0, 0.0
*NSET, NSET=END
node set definition
11,
*ELEMENT, TYPE=B21, ELSET=BEAMS
1, 1, 3
element option block
:
5, 9, 11
*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=RECT, ELSET=BEAMS, MATERIAL=MAT1 property reference
50.0, 5.0 option block
** Material from XXX testing lab comment line
*MATERIAL, NAME=MAT1
*ELASTIC material option block
elastic option block
2.0E5, 0.3
*BOUNDARY fixed boundary condition
1, ENCASTRE option block
L1.56
History data
The history data begin with
*STEP
the first *STEP option.
APPLY POINT LOAD
*STATIC
*CLOAD
11, 2, -1200.0
*OUTPUT, FIELD, VARIABLE=PRESELECT, FREQUENCY=10
*OUTPUT, HISTORY, FREQUENCY=1
*NODE OUTPUT, NSET=END

U,
*EL PRINT, FREQUENCY=10
S, E
*NODE FILE, FREQUENCY=5
U,
*END STEP The history data end with
the last *END STEP option.
34
L1.57
Property references using set names

1, 1, 3
*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=RECT, ELSET=BEAMS, MATERIAL=MAT1
50.0, 5.0
*ELASTIC
2.0E5, 0.3
The property reference *BEAM SECTION associates the element set BEAMS with the material definition
MAT1.
The option can also provide geometric information. In this case the
cross-section type is rectangular (RECT); the width is 50.0, and the height is 5.0.
All elements in a model must have an appropriate property reference. Solid elements reference *SOLID
SECTION, shell elements reference *SHELL SECTION, etc.
L1.58
Material data
*MATERIAL, NAME=MAT1 material name
*ELASTIC
2.0E5, 0.3 Poisson’s ratio
elastic modulus
Definition for an isotropic linear elastic material

Abaqus interprets the options following a *MATERIAL option as part of the same material option block
until the next *MATERIAL option or the next nonmaterial property option, such as the *NODE option, is
encountered.
Options such as *ELASTIC are called suboptions and must be used in conjunction with the *MATERIAL
option.
35
L1.59
Fixed boundary conditions

*BOUNDARY
1, 1, 6
range of degrees of freedom or type of BC (pinned, encastre, symmetry, antisymmetry)
node or node set
Fixed boundary condition constraints are applied to active DOFs.

Prescribed nonzero boundary conditions can be included only in the history data.
Abaqus activates only the necessary degrees of freedom at a node. Thus, for this two-dimensional
example with only degrees of freedom 1, 2, and 6 active, the following are equivalent input data:
1, 1, 2
1, 6, 6
or
1, 1, 6 The input file processor will issue a warning about
inactive degrees of freedom.
or
1, ENCASTRE
L1.60
History definition
*STEP Begins the history data
APPLY POINT LOAD This line appears on every page of results
*STATIC Specifies a static analysis procedure
The *STEP option block can include a title of any length.
The procedure definition must be the first option after *STEP.

36
L1.61
Loading
Definition of a concentrated load in the global negative 2-direction:
*CLOAD
11, 2, -1200.0
magnitude
degree of freedom
node or node set
Many distributed loadings are also available, including surface pressure, body forces, centrifugal and
Coriolis loads, etc.
L1.62
Output requests
*OUTPUT, FIELD, VARIABLE=PRESELECT, FREQUENCY=10

*NODE OUTPUT, NSET=END output to the output
U, database file
In this case we have requested field output of a preselected set of the most commonly used output
variables.
We have also requested history output of displacements for the previously defined node set END.
Since history output is usually requested at relatively high frequencies, the sets should be as
small as possible.
Each output request includes a FREQUENCY parameter.
If the analysis requires many increments, the FREQUENCY parameter specifies how often
results will be written.
37
L1.63
*EL PRINT, FREQUENCY=10 Printed output to the data file

S, E
*NODE FILE, FREQUENCY=5 Output to the results file
U,
Tabular output is printed to the data (.dat) file for visual inspection using the *EL PRINT option.
In this case we have requested output of the stress (S) and strain (E) components.
Binary output is written to the legacy Abaqus results (.fil) file using the *NODE FILE option; output is
used for postprocessing in other postprocessors.
In this case we have requested output of the displacement (U) components.
L1.64
End of step
ends the
*END STEP analysis step
Each analysis step ends with the *END STEP option.
The final option in the input file is the *END STEP option for the final analysis step.
38
L1.65
Parts and Assemblies (1/4)
The input file can be defined in terms of parts, part instances, and an assembly.
The same concept is employed when building a model in Abaqus/CAE.
Provides an inherent means of referring to distinct regions of the model. The user need not define
separate sets for this purpose.
Allows reuse of part definitions, which is valuable for creating large, complex models.
Labels—node and element numbers, set names—need be unique only within the level in which they are
defined.
L1.66
Defining parts
A part is defined by using the *PART and *END PART options, which must appear outside of the
assembly definition. Each part must have a unique name.
Defining part instances
A part instance is defined by using the *INSTANCE and *END INSTANCE options within the assembly
definition. Each part instance must have a unique name.
Defining an assembly
The assembly is defined by using the *ASSEMBLY and *END ASSEMBLY options. Only one assembly
can be defined in a model.
Additional sets and surfaces, as well as constraints and rigid body definitions, must appear in the
assembly definition.
39
L1.67
Example assembly input file
*HEADING ...
... *MATERIAL, NAME=Rubber
*PART, NAME=Tire *AMPLITUDE
Node, element, section, set, and surface definitions *INITIAL CONDITIONS
*END PART *PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
*PART, NAME=Rim ...
Node, element, section, set, and surface definitions *STEP
*END PART *STATIC

... *BOUNDARY
*ASSEMBLY, NAME=Tire_and_rim I_Rim.101, 1, 3, 0.0
*INSTANCE, NAME=I_Tire, PART=Tire *CLOAD
<positioning data> I_Tire.514, 2, 1000.0
set and surface definitions (optional)
*NODE OUTPUT, NSET=Output
*END INSTANCE
RF, CF
*INSTANCE, NAME=I_Rim, PART=Rim
*END STEP
<positioning data>
set and surface definitions (optional)
*END INSTANCE
Additional set and surface definitions
*NSET, NSET=Output
I_Tire.514, I_Tire.520
I_Rim.101, I_Rim.102
*END ASSEMBLY
L1.68
Node labels for parts and the assembly
node label: I_Rim.101

node label: 101
Part: Rim
node label:
514 node label: I_Tire.514
Part: Tire Assembly: Tire_and_rim
40
L1.69
Workshop Preliminaries (1/2)
1. Objectives
a. When you complete this exercise you will be able to extract all the files necessary to complete the
demonstrations and workshops associated with this course
2. Workshop file setup (option 1: installation via plug-in)

a. From the main menu bar, select
Plug-ins→Tools →Install Courses.
b. In the Install Courses dialog box:
i. Specify the directory to which the files will be written.

ii. Chooses the course(s) for which the files will be
extracted.
iii. Click OK.
5 minutes
L1.70
Workshop Preliminaries (2/2)
3. Workshop file setup (option 2: manual installation)

a. Find out where the Abaqus release is installed by typing
abqxxx whereami
where abqxxx is the name of the Abaqus execution procedure on your system. It can be defined to
have a different name. For example, the command for the 6.12–1 release might be aliased to abq6121.
This command will give the full path to the directory where Abaqus is installed, referred to here as
abaqus_dir.
b. Extract all the workshop files from the course tar file by typing
UNIX: abqxxx perl abaqus_dir/samples/course_setup.pl

Windows NT: abqxxx perl abaqus_dir\samples\course_setup.pl
c. The script will install the files into the current working directory. You will be asked to verify this and to
choose which files you wish to install. Choose y for the appropriate lecture series when prompted. Once
you have selected the lecture series, type q to skip the remaining lectures and to proceed with the
installation of the chosen workshops.
5 minutes
41
L1.71
Workshop 1: Basic Input and Output (IA)
Interactive version. Choose either the interactive
1. Workshop tasks or keywords version of this workshop.
1. Use some of the Abaqus utility programs.
2. Open the online documentation, and search for useful information.
3. Use the online documentation to determine the syntax for various options.
4. Complete the model of a connecting lug.
5. Submit analyses a few different ways (datacheck only, complete analysis, interactive, and batch
submission).
6. View the results using Abaqus/Viewer.
7. Become familiar with the contents of the printed output files.

8. Modify the model, and understand the changes to the results.
1 hour
L1.72
Workshop 1: Basic Input and Output (KW)
Keywords version. Choose either the interactive
1. Use some of the Abaqus utility programs.
2. Open the online documentation, and search for useful information.
3. Use the online documentation to determine the syntax for various options.
4. Add some details to an existing input file to complete the model of a connecting lug.
5. Submit analyses a few different ways (datacheck only, complete analysis, interactive, and batch
submission).
7. Become familiar with the contents of the printed output files.

8. Modify the model, and understand the changes to the results.
1 hour
42
Notes
43
Notes
44
L2.1
Lesson 2: Linear Static Analysis
Lesson content:
Linear and Nonlinear Procedures

Linear Static Analysis and Multiple Load Cases
Multiple Load Case Usage
Examples
Workshop 2: Linear Static Analysis of a Cantilever Beam (IA)
Workshop 2: Linear Static Analysis of a Cantilever Beam (KW)

2 hours
L2.2
Linear and Nonlinear Procedures (1/6)
A fundamental concept in Abaqus is the division of the problem history into steps.
A step is any convenient phase of the history—a thermal transient, a creep hold, a dynamic
transient, etc.
In its simplest form a step can be just a static analysis of a load change from one magnitude to
another.
For each step the user chooses an analysis procedure.
This choice defines the type of analysis to be performed during the step: static stress analysis,
dynamic stress analysis, eigenvalue buckling, transient heat transfer analysis, etc.
The rest of the step definition consists of load, boundary, and output request specifications.
45
L2.3
For example, consider the bow and arrow in the

figure. The analysis consists of four steps:
Step 1: Pretension the bowstring

(static response). Step 3 = Natural frequency
extraction
Step 2: Pull back the string

(static response).
Step 3: Investigate the natural

frequencies of the loaded
system.
Step 4: Release the bowstring

(dynamic response).
L2.4
Abaqus distinguishes between two kinds of analysis procedures:
General analysis procedures*
Response can be linear or nonlinear.
Steps that use general procedures are known as general steps.

The starting point for each general step is the state of the model at the end of the last general
step.
Linear perturbation procedures
Response can only be linear.
The linear perturbation is about a base state, which can be either the initial or the current
configuration of the model.
I. Response prior to reaching the base state can be nonlinear.
Steps that use linear procedures are known as perturbation steps.
* Abaqus/Explicit offers only general analysis steps.
46
L2.5
General procedures Linear procedures

Static Static
Direct cyclic Eigenvalue buckling
Dynamic (transient) Linear dynamics
Implicit Natural frequency extraction
Explicit Transient modal dynamics
Heat transfer Steady-state dynamics

Mass diffusion Response spectrum analysis
Coupled-field analysis Random response analysis
Thermal-mechanical
Thermal-electrical
Thermal-electrical-structural
Pore fluid diffusion/stress
L2.6
Default amplitude references

Different defaults for different analysis procedures
AMPLITUDE=RAMP for procedures without natural time scales:
*STATIC
*HEAT TRANSFER, STEADY STATE
*COUPLED TEMPERATURE-DISPLACEMENT, STEADY STATE
*SOILS, STEADY STATE
*COUPLED THERMAL-ELECTRICAL, STEADY STATE

*STEADY STATE TRANSPORT
47
L2.7
AMPLITUDE=STEP for procedures with natural time scales:

*DYNAMIC
*VISCO
*HEAT TRANSFER (transient)
*COUPLED TEMPERATURE-DISPLACEMENT (transient)
*DYNAMIC TEMPERATURE-DISPLACEMENT, EXPLICIT
*COUPLED THERMAL-ELECTRICAL (transient)
*SOILS, CONSOLIDATION
*STEADY STATE DYNAMICS Note: Frequency domain proceduresamplitude

*RANDOM RESPONSE references define load versus frequency.
*MODAL DYNAMIC
A nonzero displacement boundary condition prescribed in an explicit dynamic procedure
(*DYNAMIC, EXPLICIT) must refer to an amplitude option.
L2.8
Linear Static Analysis and Multiple Load Cases (1/5)
Static analysis is the only procedure that can be performed as either a general or perturbation step:
General step: response can be linear or nonlinear
*STEP
*STATIC
Perturbation step: linear response
*STEP, PERTURBATION
*STATIC
One advantage of static linear perturbation steps is that they can consider multiple load cases.
A load case defines a set of loads and boundary conditions and may contain the following:
Concentrated and distributed loads
Boundary conditions (may change from load case to load case)
Inertia relief
In addition to the static linear perturbation procedure, multiple load cases can also be used for steady-
state dynamic (SSD) analysis (either direct or SIM-based modal analysis).
For SIM-based SSD analysis, base motion may also be defined
as part of a load case.
48
L2.9
Multiple load cases are advantageous when analyzing components that are subjected to many different types
of loads.
Common in many industries.
For example, an aircraft experiences different loads during take-off, climb, cruise, descent, landing, and
taxiing.
Each load case is applied independently.
If the stiffness of the structure is assumed constant over all phases of the loading history (linear
assumption), a multiple load case analysis is an attractive option to determine the loading
envelope.
When investigating the linear static response of a structure subjected to distinct sets of loads and
boundary conditions, it is convenient (and generally more efficient) to use multiple load cases in a single
linear perturbation step rather than using multiple general or linear perturbation steps.
L2.10
Multiple *LOAD CASE Multiple *STEP, PERTURBATION
Element loop Element loop

(stiffness/ (stiffness/
multiple RHS) single RHS)
Primary factorization Factorization

(w/ possibly multiple (or read factorized
small factorizations) matrix from .fct file)
Simultaneous
Backsubstitution
backsubstitution
Element loop
Element loop
(simultaneous
(recovery)
recovery)
Next *STEP
49
L2.11
Example: An agricultural implement

This is an agricultural implement attached to and towed behind a tractor through a 3-point hitch.
The purpose of the hitch is to transfer towing loads to the implement, but otherwise to allow the
implement to float and move more or less independently of the tractor.
L2.12
Three load cases

The connection is very flexible and the loads on the implement are not well defined, but are a
combination of many different types of loads.
Forward Loads
Lateral Loads
Vertical Loads
50
L2.13
Multiple Load Case Usage (1/7)
Example: Bending of a plate

*Step, perturbation
*Static Node set right
*Load Case, name="Bending A"
*Boundary
right, 1, 6
*Cload
left, 3, 1.
*End Load Case

Bending A
*Load Case, name="Bending B"
*Boundary Node set left
left, 1, 6
*Cload
right, 3, 1.
*End Load Case
*End Step
Bending B
L2.14
Basic rules
• Load case names (Load Case, name=...) must be unique.
• Load options specified outside of load cases apply to all load cases.
• Base state boundary conditions propagate to all load cases.
• Rules for using OP=NEW:
• If used anywhere in a load case step, must be used everywhere in that step.
• If used on any BOUNDARY in a load case step, propagated boundary conditions will be
removed in all load cases.
• LOAD CASE options do not propagate.
51
L2.15
Changing boundary conditions from load case to load case

No performance penalty when boundary conditions change only in magnitude.
Limit number of boundary conditions that change location from load case to load case.
Depending on number and distribution of boundary conditions that change location, multiple load
case analysis may be significantly slower than equivalent multiple step analysis (very problem
dependent).
If in doubt, run datacheck analyses (multiple step versus multiple load case) and compare solver
information in data (.dat) file (e.g., memory requirements, number of floating point operations,
etc.).
L2.16
Problem size
Combination of number of degrees of freedom and number of load cases determines “problem size.”
Multiple load case analyses may require more:
Memory than equivalent multiple step analyses (e.g., all right-hand sides must be kept in core
during backsubstitution).
Disk space (element and nodal databases).
If necessary, “spread” load cases over several steps to reduce memory/disk usage per step.
Worst case: Resort to multiple perturbation steps (again, compare solver information in data
(.dat) file).
52
L2.17
Output
Output requested per step (not per load case)
Available for the output database (.odb) and
data (.dat) files
For the output database file:
All output variables for a load case are
mapped to a frame.
I. Similar to the way increments are
mapped to frames.
Frame contains load case name.
Field output only (no history output).
L2.18
Postprocessing with Abaqus/Viewer

Operations on entire frames supported
For selected frames, can create:
Linear combinations (e.g., linear
combination of load cases)
Min/Max envelope (e.g., find max
stresses over all load cases)
53
L2.19
Mises stress: Bending A Mises stress: Bending B

Max value of Mises stress over both

frames
L2.20
Examples (1/5)
Square plate benchmark
# variables
Model # nodes/edge
(# dof)
1 101 61206
2 201 242406
3 501 1506006
4 751 3384006
Changing BCs
Number of load cases: 8 and 16

*Static, perturbation
Changing boundary condition locations at corners
Default output
54
L2.21
Examples (2/5)
Performance results: Total CPU time
4.E+04
8 Steps
8 Load Cases
3.E+04
CPU time (sec)
16 Steps
16 Load Cases
2.E+04
1.E+04
0.E+00
0.E+00 1.E+06 2.E+06 3.E+06 4.E+06
Number of variables
L2.22
Examples (3/5)
Performance: Details for 751  751 model
Relative CPU time—3.4 M variable case
8 steps/8 load Cases 16 steps/16 load cases

Solver 7.52 14.3
Total 5.04 7.48
55
L2.23
Examples (4/5)
Modify 501  501 model

8 load cases
Boundary conditions on opposite edges
changing per load case
Relative total CPU time: ~0.153
(multiple load case ~6.6 slower!)
Watch number and location of changing
boundary conditions!
Changing BCs
L2.24
Examples (5/5)
A steady-state dynamics example : Chassis-bracket

mobility analysis
Number of variables: 534,000
Number of equations: 483,000
Number of load cases: 60
*Steady-state dynamics, direct
(10 frequency points)
Output: U (output database)
CPU time (sec)

60 steps (projected
60 load cases
based on 1 step)
Solver 1290  60 = 77,400 1990 (39 faster)
Total 1965  60 = 117,600 11,600 (10 faster)
56
L2.25
Workshop 2: Linear Static Analysis of a Cantilever Beam (IA)
1. Objectives or keywords version of this workshop.
a. When you complete this workshop you will be able to

i. Run a linear static analysis using a perturbation procedure with linear load cases
ii. Combine load case results and create envelope plots
Force-X Force-Y Force-Z
Moment-X Moment-Y Moment-Z
1 hour
L2.26
Workshop 2: Linear Static Analysis of a Cantilever Beam (KW)
1. Objectives or keywords version of this workshop.
a. When you complete this workshop you will be able to

i. Run a linear static analysis using a perturbation procedure with linear load cases
ii. Combine load case results and create envelope plots
1 hour
57
58
Notes
59
Notes
60
L3.1
Lesson 3: Nonlinear Analysis in Abaqus
Lesson content:
Nonlinearity in Structural Mechanics

Equations of Motion
Nonlinear Analysis Using Implicit Methods
Nonlinear Analysis Using Explicit Methods
Input File for Nonlinear Analysis
Status File
Message File
Output from Nonlinear Cantilever Beam Analysis
Workshop 3: Nonlinear Statics (IA)
Workshop 3: Nonlinear Statics (KW)

2 hours
L3.2
Nonlinearity in Structural Mechanics (1/4)
Sources of nonlinearity
Material nonlinearities:
Nonlinear elasticity
Plasticity
Material damage
Failure mechanisms
Etc.
Some examples of material nonlinearity
Note: material dependencies on temperature or field variables do not introduce nonlinearity if the
temperature or field variables are predefined.
61
L3.3
Boundary nonlinearities:
Contact problems
I. Boundary conditions change
during the analysis.
II. Extremely discontinuous form of
nonlinearity.
An example of self-contact: Example

Problem 1.1.17, Compression of a jounce
bumper
L3.4
Geometric nonlinearities:
Large deflections and deformations
Large rotations
Structural instabilities (buckling)
Preloading effects
An example of geometric nonlinearity: elastomeric

keyboard dome
62
L3.5
Typical nonlinear problems have all three forms of nonlinearity.
Must include the nonlinear terms in the equations.
Generally, the nonlinear equations for each degree of freedom are coupled.
L3.6
Equations of Motion (1/3)
Static equilibrium
The basic statement of static equilibrium is that the internal forces exerted on the nodes I (resulting from
the element stresses) and external forces P acting at every node must balance:
P  I  0.
Dynamic equilibrium
The major difference between a static and a dynamic analysis is the inclusion of the inertial forces Mu :
P  I  Mu,
where M is the mass and u is the acceleration of the structure.
This equation is simply Newton’s second law of motion.
63
L3.7
L3.8
Incremental solution schemes

Nonlinear problems are generally solved in an incremental fashion.
For a static problem a fraction of the total load is applied to the structure and the equilibrium
solution corresponding to the current load level is obtained.
I. The load level is then increased (i.e., incremented) and the process is repeated until the full
load level is applied.
For a dynamic problem, the equations of motion are numerically integrated in time using discrete
time increments.
There are two techniques available to solve the nonlinear equations:

Implicit method
Can solve for both static and dynamic equilibrium.
Requires direct solution of a set of matrix equations to obtain the state at the end of the
increment.
I. Iteration required.
This method is used by Abaqus/Standard and is the focus of this lecture.
Explicit method
Can only solve the dynamic equilibrium equations.
I. Can perform quasi-static simulations, however.
The state at the end of the increment depends solely on the state at the beginning of the
increment
I. No iteration required.
This method is used by Abaqus/Explicit and will be discussed in a later lecture.
64
L3.9
Nonlinear Analysis Using Implicit Methods (1/4)
Steps, increments, and iterations

Analysis steps
The load history for a simulation consists of one or more steps.
Increments
An increment is part of a step.
I. In static problems the total load applied in a step is broken into smaller increments so that
the nonlinear solution path may be followed.
II. In dynamic problems the total time period is broken into smaller increments to integrate the
equations of motion.
Iterations
An iteration is an attempt at finding the equilibrium solution in an increment.
Newton-Raphson method
Abaqus/Standard uses an incremental-iterative solution technique based on the Newton-Raphson
method.
The method is unconditionally stable (any size increments can be used).
Accuracy in dynamic analysis is affected by the increment size.
Each increment usually requires several iterations to achieve convergence, and each step is usually
made up of several increments.
L3.10
Additional iterations
Two convergence criteria:
not shown
1 Small residuals
Residual 1
2
Small corrections
Internal force 2
Correction
65
L3.11
Equilibrium in a mesh: summary

1. Apply an increment of load or time.
2. Iterate until the sum of all forces acting on each node is small (statics) or is equal to the inertia force
(dynamics).
3. Update the state once equilibrium has been satisfied.
4. Go back to Step 1, and apply the next increment.
L3.12
Automatic time incrementation

Abaqus automatically adjusts the size of the increments so that nonlinear problems are solved easily
and efficiently.
Heuristic algorithm (based on many years of experience).
In static problems it is based on number of iterations required to converge.
Convergence is easily achieved:
I. increase increment size
Convergence difficult or divergence occurs:
I. cut back increment size

Otherwise:
I. maintain same increment size
Tip: For highly nonlinear problems, it is recommended that the initial time increment be chosen as a
small fraction (e.g., 10%) of the total step time.
In implicit dynamic problems, automatic time incrementation is based on the convergence behavior of
the Newton iterations and the accuracy of the time integration.
Details of the time increment control algorithm depend on the type of dynamic application.
Discussed further later.
Automatic time incrementation works very well. You should not change it without good reason.
66
L3.13
Nonlinear Analysis Using Explicit Methods
Abaqus/Explicit solves for dynamic equilibrium using an explicit solution scheme:
u (t )  M 1  ( P  I ) (t ) .
Velocity and displacements at time t + Dt updated explicitly.

Solution is trivial:
Diagonal mass matrix.
No iteration is required!
Conditionally stable.
The size of the time increment must be controlled.
Explicit methods generally require many, many more time increments than implicit methods for
the same problem.
Discontinuous forms of nonlinearity (e.g., contact) are handled more easily by explicit methods.
Explicit dynamics will be discussed further later.
L3.14
Input File for Nonlinear Analysis (1/4)
*HEADING
CANTILEVER BEAM EXAMPLE--LARGE DISPLACEMENT
*NODE
1, 0., 0.
11, 200., 0.
*NGEN
1, 11, 1
*ELEMENT, TYPE=B21
1, 1, 3
*ELGEN, ELSET=BEAMS
1, 5, 2, 1
*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=RECT, ELSET=BEAMS, MATERIAL=MAT1
50., 5.
*ELASTIC
2.E5, .3
*BOUNDARY
1, 1, 6
*AMPLITUDE, NAME=RAMP
0.0, 0.0, 0.5, 0.3, 1.0, 1.0
*RESTART, WRITE,FREQ=3
67
L3.15
*STEP, NLGEOM=YES, INC=25 major differences

time period of from linear input
the step APPLY POINT LOAD minimum time
*STATIC increment
suggested initial maximum time
time increment 0.1, 1.0, 0.001, 1.0 increment
*CLOAD, AMPLITUDE=RAMP
11, 2, -1200. major differences

from linear input
*END STEP
previously defined
amplitude function for
load application
L3.16
Step and procedure input
*STEP, NLGEOM=YES, INC=25

NLGEOM=YES: include all nonlinear geometric effects due to:
Large deflections, rotations, deformation.
Preloading (initial stresses).
Load stiffness.
If the above effects are not significant, the predicted response of the model will be the same as with
NLGEOM=NO (default), but the analysis will be more expensive.

INC=25: maximum of 25 increments allowed in this example:
Abaqus will stop if the maximum number of increments is reached before the total load is applied.
Keeps the analysis from running too long—you can always restart.
Default value is 100.
68
L3.17
Similar time incrementation data exist for all transient procedures, which include
*STATIC
*DYNAMIC
*HEAT TRANSFER
*VISCO
*COUPLED TEMPERATURE-DISPLACEMENT
*SOILS
*MODAL DYNAMIC (allows only fixed time incrementation)
*COUPLED THERMAL-ELECTRIC
Physical or normalized time scale depending on the procedure and the presence of time-dependent or
rate-dependent behavior.
L3.18
Status File
Status (.sta) file

Summarizes how analysis proceeds—shows automatic time incrementation at work.
You can check the status file while the job is running.
One line written after each successful increment.
SUMMARY OF JOB INFORMATION:

STEP INC ATT SEVERE EQUIL TOTAL TOTAL STEP INC OF DOF IF
DISCON ITERS ITERS TIME/ TIME/LPF TIME/LPF MONITOR RIKS
ITERS FREQ
1 1 1 0 3 3 0.100 0.100 0.1000

1 2 1 0 2 2 0.200 0.200 0.1000
1 3 1 0 2 2 0.350 0.350 0.1500
1 4 1 0 2 2 0.575 0.575 0.2250
1 5 1 0 4 4 0.913 0.913 0.3375
1 6 1 0 2 2 1.00 1.00 0.08750
THE ANALYSIS HAS COMPLETED SUCCESSFULLY
69
L3.19
Message File
Message (.msg) file includes:

All convergence controls:
The *CONTROLS option overrides defaults—not usually needed
Details about certain model features:
Nondefault model features
Use of NLGEOM
Frequency of restart writes
All iteration details
Useful troubleshooting information:

Locations of highest residuals
Locations of excessive deformation
Locations of contact changes
Solver messages
Numerical singularities These indicate that so many digits are lost during linear
equation solution that the results are not reliable. The most
common cause is an unconstrained rigid body mode in a static
stress analysis.
Zero pivots These occur during linear equation solution when there is a
force term but no corresponding stiffness. Common causes are
unconstrained rigid body modes and overconstrained degrees
of freedom.
Negative eigenvalues Negative eigenvalues indicate that the stiffness matrix is not
positive definite. For example, a buckling load may have been
exceeded.
L3.20
Output from Nonlinear Cantilever Beam Analysis (1/17)
S T E P 1 S T A T I C A N A L Y S I S
APPLY POINT LOAD
AUTOMATIC TIME CONTROL WITH -

A SUGGESTED INITIAL TIME INCREMENT OF 0.100
AND A TOTAL TIME PERIOD OF 1.00
THE MINIMUM TIME INCREMENT ALLOWED IS 1.000E-03

THE MAXIMUM TIME INCREMENT ALLOWED IS 1.00
LINEAR EQUATION SOLVER TYPE DIRECT SPARSE
CONVERGENCE TOLERANCE PARAMETERS FOR FORCE

CRITERION FOR RESIDUAL FORCE FOR A NONLINEAR PROBLEM 5.000E-03
CRITERION FOR DISP. CORRECTION IN A NONLINEAR PROBLEM 1.000E-02
INITIAL VALUE OF TIME AVERAGE FORCE 1.000E-02
AVERAGE FORCE IS TIME AVERAGE FORCE
ALTERNATE CRIT. FOR RESIDUAL FORCE FOR A NONLINEAR PROBLEM 2.000E-02
CRITERION FOR ZERO FORCE RELATIVE TO TIME AVRG. FORCE 1.000E-05
CRITERION FOR RESIDUAL FORCE WHEN THERE IS ZERO FLUX 1.000E-05
CRITERION FOR DISP. CORRECTION WHEN THERE IS ZERO FLUX 1.000E-03
CRITERION FOR RESIDUAL FORCE FOR A LINEAR INCREMENT 1.000E-08
FIELD CONVERSION RATIO 1.00
CRITERION FOR ZERO FORCE REL. TO TIME AVRG. MAX. FORCE 1.000E-05
CRITERION FOR ZERO DISP. RELATIVE TO CHARACTERISTIC LENGTH 1.000E-08
70
L3.21
CONVERGENCE TOLERANCE PARAMETERS FOR MOMENT

CRITERION FOR RESIDUAL MOMENT FOR A NONLINEAR PROBLEM 5.000E-03
CRITERION FOR ROTATION CORRECTION IN A NONLINEAR PROBLEM 1.000E-02
INITIAL VALUE OF TIME AVERAGE MOMENT 1.000E-02
AVERAGE MOMENT IS TIME AVERAGE MOMENT
ALTERNATE CRIT. FOR RESIDUAL MOMENT FOR A NONLINEAR PROBLEM 2.000E-02
CRITERION FOR ZERO MOMENT RELATIVE TO TIME AVRG. MOMENT 1.000E-05
CRITERION FOR RESIDUAL MOMENT WHEN THERE IS ZERO FLUX 1.000E-05

CRITERION FOR ROTATION CORRECTION WHEN THERE IS ZERO FLUX 1.000E-03
CRITERION FOR RESIDUAL MOMENT FOR A LINEAR INCREMENT 1.000E-08
FIELD CONVERSION RATIO 1.00
CRITERION FOR ZERO MOMENT REL. TO TIME AVRG. MAX. MOMENT 1.000E-05
VOLUMETRIC STRAIN COMPATIBILITY TOLERANCE FOR HYBRID SOLIDS 1.000E-05

AXIAL STRAIN COMPATIBILITY TOLERANCE FOR HYBRID BEAMS 1.000E-05
TRANS. SHEAR STRAIN COMPATIBILITY TOLERANCE FOR HYBRID BEAMS 1.000E-05
SOFT CONTACT CONSTRAINT COMPATIBILITY TOLERANCE FOR P>P0 5.000E-03
SOFT CONTACT CONSTRAINT COMPATIBILITY TOLERANCE FOR P=0.0 0.100
CONTACT FORCE ERROR TOLERANCE FOR CONVERT SDI=YES 1.00
DISPLACEMENT COMPATIBILITY TOLERANCE FOR DCOUP ELEMENTS 1.000E-05
ROTATION COMPATIBILITY TOLERANCE FOR DCOUP ELEMENTS 1.000E-05
EQUILIBRIUM WILL BE CHECKED FOR SEVERE DISCONTINUITY ITERATIONS
L3.22
TIME INCREMENTATION CONTROL PARAMETERS:

FIRST EQUILIBRIUM ITERATION FOR CONSECUTIVE DIVERGENCE CHECK 4
EQUILIBRIUM ITERATION AT WHICH LOG. CONVERGENCE RATE CHECK BEGINS 8
EQUILIBRIUM ITERATION AFTER WHICH ALTERNATE RESIDUAL IS USED 9
MAXIMUM EQUILIBRIUM ITERATIONS ALLOWED 16
EQUILIBRIUM ITERATION COUNT FOR CUT-BACK IN NEXT INCREMENT 10
MAXIMUM EQUILIB. ITERS IN TWO INCREMENTS FOR TIME INCREMENT INCREASE 4
MAXIMUM ITERATIONS FOR SEVERE DISCONTINUITIES 50
MAXIMUM CUT-BACKS ALLOWED IN AN INCREMENT 5
MAXIMUM DISCON. ITERS IN TWO INCREMENTS FOR TIME INCREMENT INCREASE 50
CUT-BACK FACTOR AFTER DIVERGENCE 0.2500

CUT-BACK FACTOR FOR TOO SLOW CONVERGENCE 0.5000
CUT-BACK FACTOR AFTER TOO MANY EQUILIBRIUM ITERATIONS 0.7500
CUT-BACK FACTOR AFTER TOO MANY SEVERE DISCONTINUITY ITERATIONS 0.2500
CUT-BACK FACTOR AFTER PROBLEMS IN ELEMENT ASSEMBLY 0.2500
INCREASE FACTOR AFTER TWO INCREMENTS THAT CONVERGE QUICKLY 1.500
MAX. TIME INCREMENT INCREASE FACTOR ALLOWED 1.500
MAX. TIME INCREMENT INCREASE FACTOR ALLOWED (DYNAMICS) 1.250
MAX. TIME INCREMENT INCREASE FACTOR ALLOWED (DIFFUSION) 2.000
MINIMUM TIME INCREMENT RATIO FOR EXTRAPOLATION TO OCCUR 0.1000
MAX. RATIO OF TIME INCREMENT TO STABILITY LIMIT 1.000
FRACTION OF STABILITY LIMIT FOR NEW TIME INCREMENT 0.9500
TIME INCREMENT INCREASE FACTOR BEFORE A TIME POINT 1.000
GLOBAL STABILIZATION CONTROL IS NOT USED
71
L3.23
PRINT OF INCREMENT NUMBER, TIME, ETC., EVERY 1 INCREMENTS
RESTART FILE WILL BE WRITTEN EVERY 3 INCREMENTS
THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF INCREMENTS IN THIS STEP IS 25

LARGE DISPLACEMENT THEORY WILL BE USED
LINEAR EXTRAPOLATION WILL BE USED
CHARACTERISTIC ELEMENT LENGTH 40.0
DETAILED OUTPUT OF DIAGNOSTICS TO DATABASE REQUESTED
PRINT OF INCREMENT NUMBER, TIME, ETC., TO THE MESSAGE FILE EVERY 1 INCREMENTS
EQUATIONS ARE BEING REORDERED TO MINIMIZE WAVEFRONT
COLLECTING MODEL CONSTRAINT INFORMATION FOR OVERCONSTRAINT CHECKS
COLLECTING STEP CONSTRAINT INFORMATION FOR OVERCONSTRAINT CHECKS
L3.24
INCREMENT 1 STARTS. ATTEMPT NUMBER 1, TIME INCREMENT 0.100
CONVERGENCE CHECKS FOR EQUILIBRIUM ITERATION 1
AVERAGE FORCE 1.251E+03 TIME AVG. FORCE 1.251E+03

LARGEST RESIDUAL FORCE -4.637E+03 AT NODE 11 DOF 1
LARGEST INCREMENT OF DISP. -1.84 AT NODE 11 DOF 2
LARGEST CORRECTION TO DISP. -1.84 AT NODE 11 DOF 2 × 0.005
FORCE EQUILIBRIUM NOT ACHIEVED WITHIN TOLERANCE.
6.25
AVERAGE MOMENT 7.200E+03 TIME AVG. MOMENT 7.200E+03
LARGEST RESIDUAL MOMENT 28.8 AT NODE 9 DOF 6
LARGEST INCREMENT OF ROTATION -1.382E-02 AT NODE 11 DOF 6
LARGEST CORRECTION TO ROTATION -1.382E-02 AT NODE 11 DOF 6
ROTATION CORRECTION TOO LARGE COMPARED TO ROTATION INCREMENT . × 0.005
36
AVERAGE FORCE 37.8 TIME AVG. FORCE 37.8

LARGEST RESIDUAL FORCE 0.215 AT NODE 11 DOF 1 × 0.005
LARGEST CORRECTION TO DISP. -1.007E-02 AT NODE 11 DOF 1 0.2

LARGEST RESIDUAL MOMENT -0.346 AT NODE 5 DOF 6 × 0.005
36
LARGEST CORRECTION TO ROTATION 5.898E-07 AT NODE 11 DOF 6
THE MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS HAVE CONVERGED
72
L3.25

LARGEST RESIDUAL FORCE -2.281E-06 AT NODE 11 DOF 1 × 0.005
LARGEST INCREMENT OF DISP. -1.84 AT NODE 11 DOF 2 0.2
LARGEST CORRECTION TO DISP. 3.349E-05 AT NODE 11 DOF 2
THE FORCE EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS HAVE CONVERGED

LARGEST RESIDUAL MOMENT 1.523E-05 AT NODE 7 DOF 6 × 0.005
LARGEST INCREMENT OF ROTATION -1.382E-02 AT NODE 11 DOF 6 36
ITERATION SUMMARY FOR THE INCREMENT: 3 TOTAL ITERATIONS, OF WHICH

0 ARE SEVERE DISCONTINUITY ITERATIONS AND 3 ARE EQUILIBRIUM ITERATIONS. 4 or fewer
iterations
TIME INCREMENT COMPLETED 0.100 , FRACTION OF STEP COMPLETED 0.100 (do this again
STEP TIME COMPLETED 0.100 , TOTAL TIME COMPLETED 0.100 and Dt
can increase)
L3.26
INCREMENT 2 STARTS. ATTEMPT NUMBER 1, TIME INCREMENT 0.100 no increase

LARGEST RESIDUAL FORCE 0.861 AT NODE 11 DOF 1
LARGEST CORRECTION TO DISP. -2.013E-02 AT NODE 11 DOF 1


LARGEST RESIDUAL MOMENT -1.38 AT NODE 5 DOF 6
73
L3.27
AVERAGE FORCE 144. TIME AVG. FORCE 90.9

LARGEST RESIDUAL FORCE -6.928E-05 AT NODE 11 DOF 1

LARGEST RESIDUAL MOMENT 1.218E-04 AT NODE 7 DOF 6
TIME INCREMENT MAY NOW INCREASE TO 0.150 2 consecutive increments with
4 or fewer iterations: Dt = 1.5Dtold
0 ARE SEVERE DISCONTINUITY ITERATIONS AND 2 ARE EQUILIBRIUM ITERATIONS.
TIME INCREMENT COMPLETED 0.100 , FRACTION OF STEP COMPLETED 0.200

STEP TIME COMPLETED 0.200 , TOTAL TIME COMPLETED 0.200
L3.28
INCREMENT 3 STARTS. ATTEMPT NUMBER 1, TIME INCREMENT 0.150 Dt = 1.5Dtold
AVERAGE FORCE 133. TIME AVG. FORCE 105.



74
L3.29

LARGEST RESIDUAL FORCE -7.965E-04 AT NODE 11 DOF 1

TIME INCREMENT MAY NOW INCREASE TO 0.225

0 ARE SEVERE DISCONTINUITY ITERATIONS AND 2 ARE EQUILIBRIUM ITERATIONS. 4 or
fewer
RESTART INFORMATION WRITTEN IN STEP 1 AFTER INCREMENT 3
L3.30
AVERAGE FORCE 1.528E+03 TIME AVG. FORCE 490.


LARGEST CORRECTION TO DISP. -1.82 AT NODE 11 DOF 2

LARGEST RESIDUAL MOMENT -344. AT NODE 9 DOF 6
MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM NOT ACHIEVED WITHIN TOLERANCE.
75
L3.31


TIME INCREMENT MAY NOW INCREASE TO 0.338


L3.32


LARGEST RESIDUAL MOMENT -4.323E+03 AT NODE 9 DOF 6
LARGEST INCREMENT OF ROTATION -0.107 AT NODE 11 DOF 6
MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM NOT ACHIEVED WITHIN TOLERANCE.

76
L3.33

LARGEST RESIDUAL FORCE -28.9 AT NODE 11 DOF 1
LARGEST CORRECTION TO DISP. 0.130 AT NODE 11 DOF 2

ESTIMATE OF ROTATION CORRECTION -1.004E-06
MOMENT EQUILIB. ACCEPTED BASED ON SMALL RESIDUAL AND ESTIMATED CORRECTION
The residual is within tolerance, but the rotation
correction is too large. The estimate of the rotation
AVERAGE FORCE 1.053E+03 correction of the FORCE
TIME AVG. next iteration is acceptably
354. small.
LARGEST RESIDUAL FORCE 1.092E-03 AT NODE 11 DOF 2
LARGEST RESIDUAL MOMENT -2.910E-02 AT NODE 7 DOF 6


L3.34
INCREMENT 6 STARTS. ATTEMPT NUMBER 1, TIME INCREMENT 8.750E-02


ESTIMATE OF ROTATION CORRECTION -1.594E-05
MOMENT EQUILIB. ACCEPTED BASED ON SMALL RESIDUAL AND ESTIMATED CORRECTION


77
L3.35

TIME INCREMENT COMPLETED 8.750E-02, FRACTION OF STEP COMPLETED 1.00

RESTART INFORMATION WRITTEN IN STEP 1 AFTER INCREMENT 6

THE ANALYSIS HAS BEEN COMPLETED
ANALYSIS SUMMARY:
TOTAL OF 6 INCREMENTS
0 CUTBACKS IN AUTOMATIC INCREMENTATION
15 ITERATIONS INCLUDING CONTACT ITERATIONS IF PRESENT
15 PASSES THROUGH THE EQUATION SOLVER OF WHICH
Look here for warning 15 INVOLVE MATRIX DECOMPOSITION, INCLUDING
and error messages. 0 DECOMPOSITION(S) OF THE MASS MATRIX
Search the message 1 REORDERING OF EQUATIONS TO MINIMIZE WAVEFRONT
file and data file to 0 ADDITIONAL RESIDUAL EVALUATIONS FOR LINE SEARCHES
determine the causes 0 ADDITIONAL OPERATOR EVALUATIONS FOR LINE SEARCHES
of these messages. 3 WARNING MESSAGES DURING USER INPUT PROCESSING
0 WARNING MESSAGES DURING ANALYSIS
0 ANALYSIS WARNINGS ARE NUMERICAL PROBLEM MESSAGES
0 ANALYSIS WARNINGS ARE NEGATIVE EIGENVALUE MESSAGES
0 ERROR MESSAGES
L3.36
Visual diagnostics in Abaqus/Viewer
A similar display is given for

rotational degrees of freedom
Toggle on to see the locations in

the model where the largest
residuals and displacement
increments and corrections
occur.
78
L3.37
Workshop 3: Nonlinear Statics (IA)
1. Define alternate material directions
corresponding to the skew angle of the plate.
2. Analyze the deformation of the skew plate with and
without considering nonlinear geometric effects.
3. Include plasticity in the material definition.
1 hour
L3.38
Workshop 3: Nonlinear Statics (KW)
1. Define alternate material directions
corresponding to the skew angle of the plate.
2. Analyze the deformation of the skew plate with and
without considering nonlinear geometric effects.
3. Include plasticity in the material definition.
1 hour
79
80
Notes
81
Notes
82
L4.1
Lesson 4: Multistep Analysis in Abaqus
Lesson content:
Multistep Analyses
Restart Analysis in Abaqus
Workshop 4: Unloading Analysis (IA)
Workshop 4: Unloading Analysis (KW)

1 hour
L4.2
Multistep Analyses (1/9)
It is often convenient to divide an Abaqus analysis into multiple steps

so that loads or boundary conditions can be applied in steps or output requests can be modified.
Usually there are several general analysis steps.
Response can be linear or nonlinear
General steps can be punctuated by perturbation steps.
Response is linear perturbation about a base state
What is the ―base state?‖

The base state is the current state of the model at the end of the last general analysis step (prior to the
linear perturbation step).
83
L4.3
Possible step sequences

General step followed by another general step
General step continues from where previous general step ended
Loads are considered total loads
General step followed by perturbation step
Perturbation response about preceding general step
Loads are considered perturbation loads
Perturbation step followed by another perturbation step
These act as a series of independent steps in the analysis

Some ordering rules apply (e.g., frequency extraction before modal dynamics)
Perturbation step followed by a general step
General step continues from end of previous general step (if any)
The perturbation response is ignored in the general step that follows
L4.4
Some comments on following a general step with a perturbation step

Perturbation step results are perturbations about the base state.
If geometric nonlinearity is included in the general analysis upon which a linear perturbation study
is based, stress stiffening or softening effects and load stiffness effects (from pressure and other
follower forces) are included in the linear perturbation analysis.
Eigenvalue buckling analyses are an exception:
I. The base state in a buckling analysis always includes the effects of stresses from previous
general steps even if geometric nonlinearity was not considered.
The contact state of the most recent general step is enforced in the perturbation step.
84
L4.5
Vibrating cable simulation—Approach 1

Step Action Step type

1 Stretch cable General analysis step with NLGEOM
2 Frequency Linear perturbation step performed about the ending
extraction condition of Step 1 (base state)
3 More stretching General analysis step continuing from the ending
condition of Step 1 (last nonlinear step)
4 Another frequency Linear perturbation step performed about the ending
extraction condition of Step 3 (new base state)
L4.6
Vibrating cable simulation—Approach 2

The history could be modified to be a series of separate general analysis steps to obtain the
eigenfrequency of the lowest mode:
Step Action
1 Stretch cable
2 Deflect cable in the transverse direction
3 Release the applied deflection, and watch the cable vibrate
85
L4.7
History definition:
*STEP, NLGEOM
STEP 1: STRETCH CABLE
*STATIC
*CLOAD This load remains throughout
13, 1, 500. the analysis unless it is
*RESTART, WRITE explicitly modified or removed.
*NODE FILE
U
*EL PRINT
S, MISES, E
*NODE PRINT
U, RF, CF
*END STEP
**
*STEP, NLGEOM
STEP 2: DEFLECT MIDPOINT
*STATIC
.1, 1.
*BOUNDARY, OP=MOD The midpoint deflection is added to the
7, 2, 2, -1. other boundary conditions specified in the
*END STEP model definition.
L4.8
**
*STEP, NLGEOM, INC=200
STEP 3:RELEASE & SEE VIBRATE
*DYNAMIC
** use fixed time incs for
** this example
** dtinit, ttot, dtmin, dtmax
.0002, .04
*BOUNDARY, OP=NEW All previously specified boundary conditions are
1, 1, 2 removed, and the pin and roller conditions are

13, 2 redefined. The midpoint deflection is removed
*PRINT, FREQUENCY=100 since it is not redefined.
*EL PRINT, FREQUENCY=0
*NODE PRINT, FREQUENCY=0
*END STEP
86
L4.9
The status file (jobid.sta) summarizes the incrementation of the analysis.

DISCON ITERS ITERS TIME/ TIME/LPF TIME/LPF MONITOR RIKS
ITERS FREQ
1 1 1 0 2 2 1.00 1.00 1.000
2 1 1 0 2 2 1.10 0.100 0.1000
2 2 1 0 1 1 1.20 0.200 0.1000
2 3 1 0 1 1 1.35 0.350 0.1500
2 4 1 0 1 1 1.58 0.575 0.2250

2 5 1 0 1 1 1.91 0.913 0.3375
2 6 1 0 1 1 2.00 1.00 8.7500E-02
3 1 1 0 1 1 2.00 2.000E-04 2.0000E-04
3 2 1 0 1 1 2.00 4.000E-04 2.0000E-04
3 3 1 0 1 1 2.00 6.000E-04 2.0000E-04
---------------------------------------------------------------
.
.
.
---------------------------------------------------------------
3 195 1 0 1 1 2.04 3.900E-02 2.0000E-04
3 196 1 0 1 1 2.04 3.920E-02 2.0000E-04
3 197 1 0 1 1 2.04 3.940E-02 2.0000E-04
3 198 1 0 1 1 2.04 3.960E-02 2.0000E-04
3 199 1 0 1 1 2.04 3.980E-02 2.0000E-04
3 200 1 0 1 1 2.04 4.000E-02 2.0000E-04
L4.10
The dynamic response in Step 3 can be examined as an X–Y plot in Abaqus/Viewer.

87
L4.11
Restart Analysis in Abaqus (1/7)
Restart files are used to:

Continue analyses that stop at intermediate points.
A job may stop because:
I. The maximum number of increments specified for the step was reached.
II. There was not enough disk space, or the machine failed.
III. The job failed to converge.
You may wish to continue the job after:
I. Examining results up to a particular point.
II. Modifying history: procedure, loading, output, or controls.

Import results between Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit.
L4.12
Restart option syntax: Abaqus/Standard
*RESTART, READ, STEP= , INC= , END STEP, WRITE, FREQUENCY | NUMBER INTERVAL= ,
TIME MARKS=, OVERLAY
READ, STEP, and INC Used to specify that restart data from a previous analysis should be read at
a particular step and increment. (The default is to read from the last
available restart data.)
END STEP Used when reading restart data; described later.
WRITE, FREQUENCY, Control when restart data are written during an analysis. Restart data and
NUMBER INTERVAL, TIME MARKS are always written at the end of a step if WRITE is specified.
OVERLAY Causes Abaqus to save only the last set of restart data. (There will be only
one set of restart data per step.)
88
L4.13
Restart option syntax: Abaqus/Explicit

The Abaqus/Explicit restart files allow an analysis to be completed up to a certain point (an ―interval‖ of
restart output) in a particular run and restarted and continued in a subsequent run.
The package, state, and initial restart files are needed to restart an Abaqus/Explicit simulation.
The syntax for restarting an Abaqus/Explicit simulation is just slightly different from that used for
Abaqus/Standard:
*RESTART, READ, STEP=P, INTERVAL=Q
In this example the analysis is restarted just after the completion of interval Q of step P.
L4.14
Submission of a restart job:

abaqus job=job-name oldjob=oldjob-name
name of the
name of the restart file
new input file created by the
previous run
The following model data can be changed in a restart analysis:

Amplitude definitions
Node sets
Element sets
89
L4.15
Vibrating cable simulation—Approach 3: Restart analysis

Another approach to the vibrating cable simulation is to perform a restart analysis.
Analysis Job 1 Step 1 Apply tension

Write restart data
Analysis Job 2 Step 2 Read restart information
Deflect midpoint of cable
Step 3 Release midpoint and study vibration
L4.16
*HEADING
READ SOLUTION AT END OF STEP 1 AND
CONTINUE
THE VIBRATING CABLE SIMULATION
*RESTART, READ, STEP=1, INC=1
** Model definition and Step 1
*STEP, NLGEOM data are read from the restart
STEP 2: DEFLECT MIDPOINT file that was produced by the
*STATIC original analysis.
.1, 1.
*BOUNDARY, OP=MOD
7, 2, 2, -1.
*END STEP
**
*STEP, NLGEOM, INC=200
STEP 3: RELEASE & SEE VIBRATE
*DYNAMIC
.0002, .04
*BOUNDARY, OP=NEW
1, 1, 2
13, 2
*END STEP
90
L4.17
Managing complex analyses

The flexible restart capabilities in Abaqus are very helpful for managing complex analyses. There are
three important rules to remember:
1 It is not possible to append to a restart file.
I. Abaqus always reads from an old restart file and writes to a new one.
II. Analyses consisting of several restarts will also have several restart files.
III. Like the restart file, the output database (.odb) file is not appended to.
» Each restart analysis has its own output database file.
IV. The results (.fil) file for a restarted run contains the previous results plus the results from
the current analysis (by default).
2 All output requests and loads from the previous run remain in effect upon job restart unless
explicitly modified in a new step.
3 If Abaqus is restarting from an ―unfinished‖ run, it will first try to finish the step it was working on
during the original analysis before starting any new steps.
I. Abaqus will finish only the step it was working on during the original analysis.
» It will not attempt any additional steps defined in the original analysis.
» Those steps must be included in the restart analysis input file if they are to be
performed.
II. Use the END STEP parameter to terminate the step from which the restart is read before
continuing with a newly defined step.
III. Use the END STEP parameter to continue an analysis that stopped because the maximum
number of increments was reached.
L4.18
Workshop 4: Unloading Analysis (IA)
a. Perform a restart analysis.
i. Unload the plate.
b. Postprocess the results.
30 minutes
91
L4.19
Workshop 4: Unloading Analysis (KW)
a. Perform a restart analysis.
i. Unload the plate.
b. Postprocess the results.
30 minutes
92
Notes
93
Notes
94
L5.1
Lesson 5: Constraints and Contact
Lesson content:
Constraints
Tie Constraints
Rigid Bodies
Shell-to-solid Coupling
Contact
Defining General Contact

Defining Contact Pairs
Contact Pair Surfaces
Local Surface Behavior
Relative Sliding of Points in Contact
Adjusting Initial Nodal Locations for Contact
Contact Output
Workshop 5: Seal Contact (IA)
Workshop 5: Seal Contact (KW)

2.5 hours
L5.2
Constraints (1/4)
What are constraints?

Constraints allow you to model kinematic relationships between points.
These relationships are defined between degrees of freedom in the model.
Examples:
Tie constraints
Rigid body constraints
Shell-to-solid coupling
Multi-point constraints
95
L5.3
Constraints (2/4)
Tie constraints
Allow you to fuse together two regions even though the meshes created on the surfaces of the
regions may be dissimilar.
Tie constraints used to join a mesh

containing hexahedral and
tetrahedral elements.
L5.4
Constraints (3/4)
Rigid body constraints

Allow you to constrain the motion of
regions of the assembly to the motion of
a reference point.
Used to model parts which are massive
and stiff compared to other bodies in the
assembly (e.g., tools in a forming
analysis).
Rollers are
modeled as rigid
Rolling of a symmetric I-section
Shell-to-solid coupling
Couples the motion of a shell edge to
the motion of an adjacent solid face
96
L5.5
Constraints (4/4)
Multi-point constraints (MPCs)

Linear or nonlinear constraints between nodes.
Linear equations are a form of MPC
i th node
u1i  u1bot  0
This linear equation

constraint is applied to all
nodes on the right-hand
Infinite plate quenching problem edge of the model to
impose generalized plane
strain conditions.
bot
L5.6
Tie Constraints (1/3)
In Abaqus fully constrained contact behavior is defined using tie constraints.

A tie constraint provides a simple way to bond surfaces together permanently.
Easy mesh transitioning.
Surface-based constraint using a master-slave formulation*.
The constraint prevents slave nodes from separating or sliding relative to the master surface.
Tie constraints
*The concept of master/slave surfaces as well as the

steps to define surfaces will be discussed shortly.
97
L5.7
Syntax:
*TIE, NAME=name, ADJUST=[YES | NO],
[POSITION TOLERANCE | TIE NSET]
SLAVE, MASTER
The POSITION TOLERANCE parameter defines the distance within which nodes on the slave
surface must lie from the master surface to be tied.
I. Nodes on the slave surface that are farther away from the master surface than this distance
will not be tied.
Alternatively, the TIE NSET parameter can be used to indicate the node set that includes the
nodes on the slave surface that will be tied to the master surface.
I. Nodes included in the slave surface but not included in this node set will not be tied.
L5.8
The ADJUST parameter is optional.

Setting it to YES moves all slave nodes (within the distance defined by the optional POSITION
TOLERANCE parameter) onto the master surface in the initial configuration, without any strain.
The status of a slave node (open or closed) is given in the data (.dat) file.
A warning is issued in the printed output file for slave nodes in tie constraints that are not in
contact.
By default, both translational and rotational degrees of freedom are constrained.

Use the NO ROTATION parameter if rotation degrees of freedom should not be constrained.
Do not apply boundary conditions, equations, or MPCs to the slave nodes of a tie constraint; this will
cause the nodes to be overconstrained, resulting in errors in the analysis.
Symptoms:
I. Zero pivot warnings in the message (.msg) file in Abaqus/Standard
II. Deformation wave speed errors in Abaqus/Explicit
98
L5.9
Rigid Bodies (1/13)
Abaqus has a general rigid body capability.

A rigid body is a collection of nodes and elements whose motion is governed by the motion of a
single node called a “reference node.”
Any body or part of a body can be defined as a rigid body.
A rigid body can undergo arbitrarily large rigid body motions.
Rigid bodies are computationally efficient.
Their motion is described completely by no more than six degrees of freedom.
There are no element calculations for elements making up a rigid body.

Model a body as rigid if it is much stiffer than other bodies with which it will come in contact; for
example, dies in a metal forming simulation.
L5.10
Rigid Bodies (2/13)
Three approaches to geometry definition for rigid bodies:

Define a rigid body using a combination of element types (including rigid elements) and declaring
the body to be rigid.
I. Discrete geometry of general shape
Define an analytical rigid surface.
I. Surface geometry of limited shape
Write a user subroutine (RSURFU; Abaqus/Standard only).
The first two approaches are discussed in this lecture.
99
L5.11
Rigid Bodies (3/13)
A rigid body definition consists of

1 reference node
and at most:
1 element set (discrete rigid body)
1 tie node set
1 pin node set
1 analytical surface
Each rigid body definition must be unique.
Rigid body definitions cannot share nodes, elements, or reference nodes.
L5.12
Rigid Bodies (4/13)
Discrete rigid bodies

Most element types can be part of a rigid body.
For example, solid elements or rigid elements can be used to model the same effect as long as a
*RIGID BODY option is used to assign the elements to the rigid body.
Example of defining a rigid body containing solid elements:
*ELEMENT, TYPE=C3D8R, ELSET=SOLID1

...
*SOLID SECTION, ELSET=SOLID1, MATERIAL=STEEL
*MATERIAL, NAME=STEEL
*ELASTIC
200.0E9, 0.3
*DENSITY
7800.0,
*RIGID BODY, REF NODE=10000, ELSET=SOLID1
100
L5.13
Rigid Bodies (5/13)
Pin vs. Tie nodes

Each rigid body slave node can be specified to be one of two types: a pin node or a tie node
Even when rigid bodies contain elements, additional node sets can be included in the constraint to
provide more connection points for deformable elements.
*RIGID BODY, REF NODE=10000, PIN NSET= , TIE NSET=

Pin nodes have only their translational degrees of freedom associated with the rigid body.
Connections from a rigid body to deformable elements through a pin node transmit only
displacement and force.
Tie nodes have both their translational and rotational degrees of freedom associated with the rigid body.
Connections from a rigid body to deformable elements through a tie node transmit rotation and
moment in addition to displacement and force.
L5.14
Rigid Bodies (6/13)
rigid pin node

tie node
deformable
Initial configuration
Final configuration after

counterclockwise rotation through
45º
101
L5.15
Rigid Bodies (7/13)
The default “tie” classification takes precedence for nodes attached to more than one element type.
For example, if a node is attached to both CPE3 and B21 elements, the node will be a tie node by
default.
Default node types can be overridden by including the same node in a pin or tie node set.
*RIGID BODY, REF NODE=node, ELSET=element set, PIN NSET=node set,

TIE NSET=node set

thickness
L5.16
Rigid Bodies (8/13)
Analytical rigid surfaces
Three types of analytical surfaces are available using the *SURFACE option:
Use TYPE=SEGMENTS to define a two-dimensional rigid surface.
Use TYPE=CYLINDER to define a three-dimensional rigid surface that is extruded infinitely in the
out-of-plane direction.
Use TYPE=REVOLUTION to define a three-dimensional surface of revolution.
Analytical rigid surfaces are not smoothed automatically. Contact calculations are easier with smoothed
surfaces, however.
Use the FILLET RADIUS parameter to provide the radius used to smooth segments of the
analytical rigid surface.
Use the *RIGID BODY option to assign the surface to a rigid body and assign the reference node.
102
L5.17
Rigid Bodies (9/13)
Example of analytical rigid surface input syntax:

TYPE=SEGMENTS
*SURFACE, TYPE=SEGMENTS, NAME=SRIGID

START, 15.0, 5.0
Order of segments determines normal n by defining s. n = z × s, where z
CIRCL, 10.0, 0.0, 10.0, 5.0
is a unit vector parallel to the z-axis and contact is in the direction of n.
LINE, 5.0, 0.0
*RIGID BODY, ANALYTICAL SURFACE=SRIGID, REF NODE=10000
L5.18
Rigid Bodies (10/13)
Kinematics of rigid bodies

The motion of a rigid body is controlled by the motion of the rigid body reference node—either by
boundary conditions or by forces applied to the rigid body.
The other nodes forming the rigid body are called “rigid body slave nodes.”
Nodes forming a rigid body
103
L5.19
Location of the rigid body reference node

You can place the rigid body reference node anywhere in a model.
The location is important if the rigid body is to move freely under applied loads during the analysis; in
this case the node should be placed at the center of mass of the rigid body.
Abaqus can calculate the center of mass and relocate the reference node to this location automatically.
Abaqus will use the mass distribution from the elements making up the rigid body to determine the center
of mass.
If the reference node is relocated at the center of mass of the rigid body, the new coordinates of the
reference node are also printed out at the end of the printed output file.
Syntax:
*RIGID BODY, REF NODE=node, ELSET=element set,
POSITION=CENTER OF MASS
L5.20
Inertial properties of rigid bodies

The mass and rotary inertia of a meshed rigid body can be calculated based on the contributions from
its elements, or they can be assigned specifically by using MASS and ROTARYI elements defined at the
slave nodes of a rigid body or the rigid body reference node.
The mass, the center of mass, and the moments of inertia about the center of mass of each rigid
body appear in the printed output file.
Using rigid bodies for model verification

It may be useful to specify parts of a model as rigid for model verification purposes.
For example, in complex models where all potential contact conditions cannot be anticipated,
elements far away from the region of interest could be included as part of a rigid body, resulting in
faster run times while developing a model.
When you are satisfied with the model and contact pair definitions, rigid body definitions can be
removed and an accurate deformable finite element representation can be incorporated
throughout.
104
L5.21
Example: Tennis racket frame

Tennis racket striking a tennis ball
The interactions between the ball and the strings are of

primary interest. Since the frame is very stiff, it is initially
modeled as a rigid body for computational efficiency.
Once this analysis has been verified, the rigid body
definition can be removed to consider deformation of
the racket.
L5.22
Shell-to-solid Coupling (1/2)
Allows for a transition from shell element

modeling to solid element modeling
Useful when local modeling requires 3D solid
elements but other parts of the structure can
be modeled as shells
Couples the motion of a “line” of nodes along
the edge of a shell model to the motion of a set
of nodes on a solid surface
Uses a set of internally defined

distributing coupling constraints
105
L5.23
Shell-to-solid Coupling (2/2)
Defining shell-to-solid coupling

*SHELL TO SOLID COUPLING, CONSTRAINT NAME=C1

shell_surface, solid_surface
The shell surface must be edge based solid_surface (face)

*SURFACE, TYPE=ELEMENT, NAME=shell_surface
shell_surface_E1, E1
an edge identifier
shell_surface (edge)
L5.24
Contact (1/12)
What is contact?
When two solid bodies touch, force
is transmitted across their common
surface.
In some cases only forces normal to the
contact surfaces are transmitted.
If friction is present, a limited amount of force tangent to the contact surfaces also can be
transmitted.
I. Frictional forces cause shear stresses along the contact surfaces.

General objective: Determine contacting areas and stress transmitted.
Contact is a severely discontinuous form of nonlinearity.
Either a constraint must be applied (that the surfaces cannot interpenetrate) or the constraint is
ignored.
106
L5.25
Contact (2/12)
Contact examples
Gap contact
Point contact is modeled as node-to-node contact.
This example is taken from “Detroit Edison pipe whip experiment,”

Example Problem 2.1.2 in the Abaqus Example Problems Manual.
L5.26
Contact (3/12)
Hertz contact
Small displacements of the contact surfaces relative to each other.
Contact over a distributed surface area.
Typical Examples: bearing design, hard gaskets, and shrink fits. The
example shown here comes from “Coolant manifold cover gasketed
joint,” Example Problem 5.1.4 in the Abaqus Example Problems
Manual.
107
L5.27
Contact (4/12)
Large-sliding contact between deformable

bodies
This is the most general category of
contact.
Example: threaded connector.
These problems typically involve an
initial interference fit (because of the
tapered thread), followed by finite
sliding between bodies made of

similar strength materials.
Contact pressure
distribution due to
interference
resolution
This example is loosely based on “Axisymmetric analysis

of a threaded connection,” Example Problem 1.1.20 in the
Abaqus Example Problems Manual.
L5.28
Contact (5/12)
Self-contact SURF1
Self-contact is contact of a single (rigid)
surface with itself. It is available in two-
and three-dimensional models in
Abaqus. SURF2
It is convenient when a surface will
deform severely during the analysis and
it is not possible, or it is very difficult, to
determine individual contacting regions
in advance.
Self-contact is defined by specifying a
single contact surface as a contact pair
instead of two different surfaces.
Contour of minimum principal stress
Example: Compression of a rubber gasket

(taken from “Self-contact in rubber/foam
components: rubber gasket,” Example Problem
1.1.18 in the Abaqus Example Problems
Manual).
108
L5.29
Contact (6/12)
Deformable to rigid
body contact
Finite sliding between
the surfaces (large
displacements).
Finite strain of the
deforming components.
Typical examples:
I. Rubber seals
II. Tire on road
III. Pipeline on seabed
IV. Forming simulations
(rigid die/mold,
deformable component).
Example: metal forming simulation
This example is taken from “Superplastic

forming of a rectangular box,” Section 1.3.2
in the Abaqus Example Problems Manual.
L5.30
Contact (7/12)
Abaqus provides two approaches for modeling

surface-based contact:
General contact allows you to define contact
between many or all regions of a model with a
single interaction.
The surfaces that can interact with one
another comprise the contact domain
and can span many disconnected
regions of a model.
Contact pairs describe contact between two

surfaces.
Requires more careful definition of
contact.
One contact domain in general contact
I. Every possible contact pair
interaction must be defined.
Has many restrictions on the types of
surfaces involved.
Multiple contact pairs required
109
L5.31
Contact (8/12)
The general contact algorithm

The contact domain spans multiple bodies
(both rigid and deformable)
Default domain is defined automatically
via an
all-inclusive element-based surface
The method is geared toward models with
multiple components and complex topology
Greater ease in defining contact model
L5.32
Contact (9/12)
The contact pair algorithm

Requires user-specified pairing of individual surfaces
Often results in more efficient analyses since contact surfaces are limited in scope
Slave surfaces for

contact pair analysis
110
L5.33
Contact (10/12)
The choice between general contact and contact pairs is largely a trade-off between ease of defining contact
and analysis performance
Robustness and accuracy of both methods are similar
In some cases, the contact pair approach is required in order to access specific features not available with
general contact.
These include:
Analytical rigid surfaces (Abaqus/Standard)
Two-dimensional models (Abaqus/Explicit)
Node-based surfaces
Small sliding
Rough or Lagrange friction (Abaqus/Standard)
See the Abaqus Analysis User’s Manual for a complete list of general contact limitations
L5.34
Contact (11/12)
Some additional details

Abaqus/Standard
Contact pairs: "Node-to-surface" contact
discretization is used by default:
I. Nodes on one surface
(the slave surface) contact the discretized
segments on the other surface (the master surface).
II. Also known as a strict master/slave formulation
General contact: “Surface-to-surface" contact discretization

I. Contact is enforced in an average sense.
II. This form of contact discretization may also be used with contact pairs
Abaqus/Explicit
A balanced master/slave formulation is used in most cases.
I. The contact constraints are applied twice and averaged, reversing the master and slave
surfaces on the second application.
II. Decreases potential contact penetrations.
Shell thickness in contact

By default, Abaqus considers shell thickness in contact calculations with the exception of finite-
sliding, node-to-surface contact in Abaqus/Standard.
To ignore thickness effects, use the NO THICKNESS parameter on the *CONTACT PAIR option.
111
L5.35
Contact (12/12)
Contact pairs in Abaqus/Standard

The default strict master/slave formulation
used in Abaqus/Standard has certain
implications.
Slave nodes cannot penetrate master
surface segments.
Nodes on the master surface can
penetrate slave surface segments.
The contact direction is always normal

to the master surface.
I. The contact condition is checked
along the normal to the master
surface.
II. Normal contact forces are
transmitted along the normal
direction.
III. Frictional forces are transmitted
tangent to the contacting surfaces.
L5.36
Defining General Contact (1/3)
The simplest definition of contact quite common:
*CONTACT
*CONTACT INCLUSIONS, ALL EXTERIOR
“Automatic contact” for entire model
The contact definition can gradually become more detailed, as called for by the analysis
Global/local friction coefficients and other contact properties
User control of contact thickness (especially for shells)
Pair-wise specification of contact domain (instead of ALL EXTERIOR)
112
L5.37
Main option
*CONTACT
Suboptions
Commonly used:
*CONTACT INCLUSIONS
*CONTACT PROPERTY ASSIGNMENT
Less commonly used:
*SURFACE PROPERTY ASSIGNMENT

*CONTACT EXCLUSIONS
L5.38
Can assign contact properties independently of specifying the contact domain
*CONTACT

, , prop_1 (reassigns properties globally)
alum_surf, steel_surf, prop_2 (local modification)
alum_surf, alum_surf, prop_3 (local modification)
113
L5.39
Defining Contact Pairs (1/5)
Three steps for defining contact:
1 Define surfaces based on the underlying elements, analytically

defined geometry, or underlying nodes.
2 Define pairs of surfaces that can interact.
3 Define surface interaction properties: friction, softened layers, etc.

L5.40
Example of the complete contact syntax in the

input file:
*SURFACE, NAME=ASURF
SLIDER, S1
*SURFACE, NAME=BSURF
BLOCK, S3
*CONTACT PAIR, INTERACTION=FRIC1
ASURF, BSURF
*SURFACE INTERACTION, NAME=FRIC1

1.0,
*FRICTION
0.4,
These options are explained in detail on the following pages.
114
L5.41
Defining surfaces
The surfaces are defined using the *SURFACE option.
The faces of each element set are specified using face label identifiers.
Either element set names or element numbers can be used to specify surfaces.
*SURFACE, NAME=ASURF
SLIDER, S1 Contact occurs on bottom (S1) face of element set SLIDER
*SURFACE, NAME=BSURF
BLOCK, S3 Contact occurs on top (S3) face of element set BLOCK
L5.42
Defining pairs of surfaces that can interact

Once you have defined surfaces, you can define “contact pairs.”
Each contact pair specifies two surfaces that can contact each other during the analysis.
In Abaqus/Standard the first surface is the slave surface and the second surface is the master
surface.
In Abaqus/Explicit the order of the surfaces does not usually affect the contact calculations.

ASURF, BSURF
115
L5.43
Defining surface interaction properties

The *SURFACE INTERACTION option block defines the surface interaction properties.
Defines surface behavior properties such as friction.
Defines contact interface out-of-plane thickness for two-dimensional cases.
This option is always necessary in Abaqus/Standard, even when additional properties are not
specified.
I. It is optional in Abaqus/Explicit.
The *CONTACT PAIR option refers to a *SURFACE INTERACTION option by name.

ASURF, BSURF
*SURFACE INTERACTION, NAME=FRIC1
1.0, Out-of-plane thickness
*FRICTION
List surface constitutive
0.4,
properties as suboptions of
*SURFACE INTERACTION
L5.44
Contact Pair Surfaces (1/8)
Use the *SURFACE, TYPE=ELEMENT option to define surfaces on deformable bodies or meshed rigid
bodies.
Define surfaces by specifying element face identifier labels
or
Allow Abaqus to automatically determine the “free surfaces” of a body of continuum elements
Use the *SURFACE, TYPE=[SEGMENTS | CYLINDER | REVOLUTION] option with the *RIGID BODY
option to define analytical rigid surfaces.
Discussed earlier in the context of rigid bodies
Use the *SURFACE, TYPE=NODE option to specify individual nodes that may experience contact.
116
L5.45
Defining surfaces on solid elements

Using face label identifiers
Example: 4-node quad element (CPE4, CAX4,
etc.)
*SURFACE, NAME=EXAMPLE1
1, S4
1, S1
2, S1
2, S2
...
L5.46
Using automatic surface definition

*SURFACE, NAME=EXAMPLE2
ELSET1, No face identifier
117
L5.47
Defining surfaces on structural elements (shell,

membrane, rigid, beam)
Structural element normals dictate the direction
of expected contact.
Normals are based on element local node
numbering.
Positive normal direction = SPOS
surface.
Shells and membranes
Negative normal direction = SNEG (S4R,S8R,M3D4,etc.)

surface.
2-D trusses and beams

(B21,T2D2,etc.)
L5.48
Surface normals should be consistent within a

surface definition.
*ELEMENT, TYPE=B21, ELSET=BOTTOM
10, 1, 2
11, 2, 3
12, 3, 6
*ELEMENT, TYPE=B21, ELSET=TOP
20, 4, 5
*SURFACE, NAME=SURF1
21, 5, 6 BEAMS, SPOS

*ELSET, ELSET=BEAMS
BOTTOM, TOP
*SURFACE, NAME=SURF1
BOTTOM, SPOS
TOP, SNEG
118
L5.49
Node-based surfaces
Alternative way to define points for contact.
Instead of specifying element faces as a contact surface, a node-based surface contains only
nodes.
Node-based surfaces are always considered slave surfaces.
Example: tennis racket strings

Ball: element-
based surface
Strings: node-
based surface
*SURFACE, TYPE=NODE, NAME=STRINGS define surface containing

STRINGS, contact nodes
*CONTACT PAIR, INTERACTION=SMOOTH
STRINGS, BALL
previously defined
surface
L5.50
General rules
All elements underlying a surface must be
compatible. They must be:
Of the same dimension (two- or three-
dimensional).
I. For two-dimensional surfaces: all
planar or all axisymmetric (but not
both).
Of the same order of interpolation (first-

or second-order).
All deformable or all rigid (but not both).
Additional restrictions
Surface normals
Master surface normals must be
consistent
Master surface normals should point
toward the slave surface.
I. Otherwise convergence difficulties
will occur.
Rigid surfaces
All surfaces defined on rigid bodies
must be specified as master surfaces.
119
L5.51
Master contact pair surfaces in Abaqus/Standard (when using the default node-to-surface algorithm) and
all contact pair surfaces in Abaqus/Explicit have an additional restriction:
It must be possible to traverse between any two points on the surface without leaving the surface,
passing through it, or passing through a single point.
Traversal cannot take

place through a point.
Traversal requires
passing through or
leaving the surface.
valid master surfaces invalid master surfaces
L5.52
Local Surface Behavior (1/7)
Contact modeling allows for interactions in the

normal and
tangential
contact directions.
Other contact interaction properties include contact damping and geometric properties such as out-of-
plane thickness.
120
L5.53
Behavior in the contact normal direction

Hard contact Pressure-clearance relationship
“Hard” contact is the default local
behavior in all contact problems.
Contact constraints enforced via a:
Direct method (contact pairs only)
Lagrange Multipliers for Abaqus/Standard

Precise kinematic compliance for

Abaqus/Explicit
Penalty method (default for general
contact)
*surface interaction, name=...
(Abaqus/Standard)
*surface behavior, penalty
*contact pair, mechanical=penalty (Abaqus/Explicit)

Augmented Lagrange method
*surface behavior, augmented lagrange (Abaqus/Standard only)
L5.54
Alternatives to hard contact

The *SURFACE BEHAVIOR
option is used as a suboption
of the *SURFACE
INTERACTION option to
specify:
Softened contact
(exponential or tabular
pressure-clearance
relationship)
Contact without separation
Other options:
Clearance-dependent viscous damping (*CONTACT DAMPING).
Contact with overclosure or tensile contact forces (*CONTACT CONTROLS; Abaqus/Standard
only).
121
L5.55
Behavior in the contact tangential direction

Frictional shear stresses, , may develop at the interface between contacting bodies.
If the magnitude reaches a critical value, the bodies will slip; otherwise they will stick.
L5.56
Friction is a highly nonlinear effect.

Solutions are more difficult to obtain.
Do not use unless physically important.
Friction is nonconservative.
In Abaqus/Standard friction causes the equation system to be unsymmetric. The *STEP,
UNSYMM=YES option is used automatically for high  ( >0.2) .
Using UNSYMM=NO will give slower convergence, but the solution will be correct (if obtained). It
may also use less disk space.
This behavior is not an issue with Abaqus/Explicit, where there are no systems of equations to
solve.
122
L5.57
Abaqus uses the Coulomb friction model by default.

The critical frictional stress depends on contact pressure:
cr =  p.
Basic syntax:
*FRICTION

The friction coefficient, , can be a function of the relative slip velocity, pressure, temperature,
and field variables ( eq , p,  , f i ).
For computational reasons the default friction model in Abaqus/Standard uses an approximation
to the ideal behavior, allowing a small amount of elastic slip before nonrecoverable slip occurs:
 p2
G2
 p1
G1
 cr 
L5.58
A combined static kinetic friction model can be defined.

Exponential decay, as a function of  , of  from s (static) to k (kinetic).
Other alternatives are available for frictional behavior, including user-defined friction models:
FRIC in Abaqus/Standard VFRIC in Abaqus/Explicit
123
L5.59
Relative Sliding of Points in Contact (1/3)
Two slide distance options:
Finite sliding Finite sliding is the most general—used by default. Arbitrarily large sliding
*CONTACT PAIR between surfaces and large rotations are allowed. Contact is governed by
evolving contact surfaces in current configuration.
Small-sliding Small relative sliding between surfaces. Allows large rotations of the
surfaces, as long as the surfaces do not move significantly relative to each
*CONTACT PAIR, other.

SMALL SLIDING Contact governed by the presence of local contact planes/lines defined in
the initial configuration.
Computationally less expensive than finite sliding since does not require the
generality of the finite-sliding algorithm.
Only available for contact pairs
L5.60
Some of the differences between finite and

small sliding will be illustrated by example.
Consider the model shown at right.
The rigid punch is displaced horizontally while
maintaining the clearance indicated in the
figure. Afterwards, it is pushed downward into
the deformable body.
With finite sliding, no contact occurs while the
clearance is maintained (as expected).
124
L5.61
Now consider the case of small sliding.

Recall that small sliding contact is governed by
the presence of local contact planes (3D) or Contact
lines (2D/axisymmetric). lines
In the figure at right the local contact lines are
highlighted.
The slave nodes highlighted in the figure will
establish contact with the local contact lines as
the punch is dragged horizontally even though

a physical clearance is maintained between
the two parts!
L5.62
Adjusting Initial Nodal Locations for Contact (1/6)
The initial positions of the nodes on the contact surfaces can be adjusted without stress or strain prior to
the analysis.
Abaqus/Standard: default treatment of initially overclosed nodes depends on contact modeling
approach
I. General contact: By default, small initial overclosures are adjusted free of strain (i.e., nodes
are adjusted prior to the analysis) such that surfaces are “just-touching;” alternatively, these
can be treated as interference fits
II. Contact pairs: By default, all initial overclosures are treated as interference fits;
alternatively; may adjust position without strain

III. For either approach may also choose to specify precise clearance or interference (not
discussed here)
Abaqus/Explicit: does not allow an initial overclosure of contact surfaces.
I. The nodes on the contact surfaces will be adjusted automatically to remove any initial
overclosure prior to the analysis. In subsequent steps the adjustments will cause strains.
Gross adjustments can severely distort initial element shapes.
If you see error messages that suggest this is a problem, run a datacheck analysis and look for
the problem in Abaqus/Viewer.
125
L5.63
Adjusting slave nodes using general contact (Abaqus/Standard)

Large initial overclosures and initial gaps can be adjusted
Specify search distances above and below the surfaces
I. Search above to close gaps
II. Search below to increase default overclosure tolerance
The adjustments are applied to surface pairs
*Contact Initialization Data,

name=adjust-1,
SEARCH ABOVE=1e-05,
SEARCH BELOW=0.02
*Contact Initialization Assignment

allHeads , topFlange_outer , adjust-1
L5.64
Adjusting slave nodes using contact pairs

(Abaqus/Standard)
Specifying an absolute distance to adjust:
*CONTACT PAIR, INTERACTION=FRIC1,
ADJUST=a
All initially open slave nodes that fall
within the adjust band (a) are moved
onto the master surface.
The adjustment distance (a) is

measured along the normal direction to
the master surface.
All initially overclosed slave nodes are
relocated to the surface.
126
L5.65
Specifying a node set of slave nodes to adjust:
Overclosed slave nodes not in the node set will remain overclosed and will cause strains when
forced back onto the contact surface during the analysis.
Example of specifying an ADJUST node set:
*NSET, NSET=CONNODE, GENERATE

1, 8, 1
*CONTACT PAIR, INTERACTION=RIG, ADJUST=CONNODE
L5.66
Visualizing strain-free adjustments

In Abaqus/Standard, output variable STRAINFREE is provided to visualize strain-free adjustments
This output variable is written by default if any initial strain-free adjustments are made
This variable is only available in the initial output frame at t = 0
Initial configuration
Symbol plot of
STRAINFREE without contact
127
L5.67
The following inconsistency exists between Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit with respect to strain-free
adjustments:
x = xo + u
Abaqus/Explicit adjusts u
Abaqus/Standard adjusts xo
Technique in Abaqus/CAE
Desired aspect to visualize
Abaqus/Standard model Abaqus/Explicit model
Nodal adjustment vectors Symbol plot of STRAINFREE at t=0 Symbol plot of U at t=0
Nodal adjustment magnitudes Contour plot of STRAINFREE at t=0 Contour plot of U at t=0
Undeformed shape or deformed

Adjusted configuration Deformed shape at t=0
shape at t=0
Configuration prior to Substitute -STRAINFREE for U in

Undeformed shape
adjustments deformed plot (t=0)
L5.68
Contact Output (1/4)
Nodal contact output

For both Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit:
Contact stresses: CSTRESS (contact pressure CPRESS and frictional shear stresses CSHEAR1
and CSHEAR2)
Contact forces (CFORCE)
For Abaqus/Standard you can also request:
Contact displacements: CDISP (contact opening COPEN, relative tangential motions CSLIP1 and
CSLIP2)
Nodal contact areas (CNAREA)

Contact status (CSTATUS)
For Abaqus/Explicit you can also request:
Slip velocity: FSLIPR
Accumulated slip displacements: FSLIP
128
L5.69
Whole surface contact output
Output Description
variable
CAREA Total area of slave surface in contact

CFN Total force vector due to contact pressure and frictional shear stress of slave
CFS surface, respectively
CMN Total moment vector about the origin due to contact pressure and frictional
CMS shear stress of slave surface, respectively
CFT Vector sum of CFN and CFS

CMT Vector sum of CMN and CMS
XN Coordinates of a point about which the total moment due to the contact
pressure on a slave surface is equal to zero
XS Coordinates of a point about which the total moment due to the frictional stress
on a slave surface is equal to zero
XT Coordinates of a point about which the total moment due to the contact
pressure and frictional stress on a slave surface is equal to zero
L5.70
Example: two surfaces contacting at two locations

129
L5.71
Two other options exist for generating printed output relevant to Abaqus/Standard contact analyses:
*PREPRINT, CONTACT=YES:
I. Controls output to the printed output file during preprocessing
II. Gives details of internally generated contact elements
III. Recommended for small-sliding contact problems to verify master-slave node interaction
IV. Use to check that surface definitions and interactions are correct
*PRINT, CONTACT=YES:
I. Controls output to the message file during the analysis phase
II. Gives details of the iteration process

III. Use to understand where difficulties are occurring during contact
L5.72
Workshop 5: Seal Contact (IA)
1. Evaluate a hyperelastic material model.
2. Define contact
1. Contact pairs
2. General contact
3. Apply boundary conditions
4. Perform large displacement analysis
5. Visualize the results.
1 hour
130
L5.73
Workshop 5: Seal Contact (KW)
1. Evaluate a hyperelastic material model.
2. Define contact
1. Contact pairs
2. General contact
3. Apply boundary conditions
4. Perform large displacement analysis
5. Visualize the results.
1 hour
131
132
Notes
133
Notes
134
L6.1
Lesson 6: Introduction to Dynamics
Lesson content:
What Makes a Problem Dynamic?

Equations for Dynamic Problems
Linear Dynamics
Nonlinear Dynamics
Comparing Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit
Nonlinear Dynamics Example

Workshop 6: Dynamics (IA)
Workshop 6: Dynamics (KW)

2 hours
L6.2
What Makes a Problem Dynamic?
A problem is dynamic when the inertial forces (d’Alembert forces) are significant and vary rapidly in time.
Inertial forces are proportional to the acceleration of the mass in the structure.
Solving a dynamic problem may require the integration of the equations of motion in time.
I. Direct Integration (Expensive)

II. Modal Transient (Effective for Linear Problems)
Many dynamic vibration problems can be studied effectively in the frequency domain.
I. Frequency Response or Steady State Dynamics implies Harmonic Excitation and Response
and thus does not require integration
Sometimes we have large inertia loads but can do static analyses because the loads vary slowly
with time (constant acceleration, centrifugal loads)
I. However, centrifugal loads in flexible systems may lead to whirls (Complex Eigenvalues)
135
L6.3
Equations for Dynamic Problems
Dynamic equilibrium
The dynamic equilibrium equations are written for convenience with the inertial forces isolated from the
other forces:
Mu  I  P  0
Assumptions:
M (the mass matrix) is constant in time.
I and P may depend on nodal displacements and velocities but not on any higher-order time
derivatives.
I. Thus, the system is second order in time, and damping/dissipation are included in I and P.
If I  Ku  Cu where K (stiffness) and C (damping) are constant, the problem is linear.
These equilibrium equations are completely general.

They apply to the behavior of any mechanical system and contain all nonlinearities.
When the first term—the inertial or dynamic force—is small enough, the equations reduce to the
static form of equilibrium.
L6.4
Linear Dynamics (1/12)
Linear dynamics problems require the use of an implicit solution scheme (i.e., Abaqus/Standard).
Several classes of linear dynamics problems can be solved with Abaqus:
Natural frequency extraction *
Modal superposition
Implicit (direct-integration) dynamics
Harmonic loading *
Response spectrum analysis *
Random loading *
In this section we focus on natural frequency extraction and give a brief overview of modal-superposition
methods.
*No integration required.
136
L6.5
Natural frequency analysis
Studies of the vibration characteristics of a structural system often begin with a natural frequency (or
eigenvalue) analysis.
The *FREQUENCY procedure in Abaqus/Standard extracts eigenvalues of an undamped system:
Mu  Ku  0
Eigenvalues and mode shapes describe the free vibration or the frequency content of the structure.
Any preload applied prior to calculation of the eigenvalues will affect the results if nonlinear geometry is
used.
Setting NLGEOM=YES on the *STEP option causes Abaqus to consider nonlinear geometry
effects, including preloads (preloads contribute to K).
L6.6
Three eigensolvers are available for symmetric real eigenvalue extraction problems.
Automatic multi-level substructuring (AMS)
I. Most efficient solver when a large number of eigenvalues are required
Lanczos (default)
I. For very large models, use SIM architecture*
Subspace iteration
The structure may be unconstrained or constrained.
If constrained, preload effects may be included.
*SIM is a high-performance linear dynamics architecture.
137
L6.7
Example: Frequency extraction of an engine block
Modeled with 10-node tetrahedral elements (C3D10)
Linear elastic material model
Steel
The structure is unrestrained.
L6.8
Step definition
Natural frequency
extraction procedure Invokes SIM-based architecture.
*STEP
*FREQUENCY,EIGENSOLVER=LANCZOS, SIM
100, 1., ,
# modes
requested
Set equal to LANCZOS to invoke the
LANCZOS eigensolver.
Specify minimum frequency to exclude

rigid body modes. Leave maximum frequency blank to be sure
you get all 100 modes
*OUTPUT, FIELD Output is restricted to nodal

*NODE OUTPUT displacements for the purpose of
U visualizing mode shapes.
*END STEP
Note: It is not necessary to specify the number of modes; simply specify a maximum frequency of
interest
138
L6.9
The first 10 nonrigid body eigenmodes are shown below

Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3
Mode 4 Mode 5 Mode 6
Mode 7 Mode 8 Mode 9 Mode 10
L6.10
Modal superposition
The eigenmodes of a structure can be used in several different mode-based procedures to study its
linear dynamic response:
Modal dynamics
I. Calculates linear dynamic response in time domain

II. Direct integration also available
Steady-state dynamics
I. Calculates dynamic response due to harmonic excitation
II. Direct solution or modal
Response spectrum
I. Estimates peak response to dynamic motion
Random response
I. Predicts response to random continuous excitation
139
L6.11
Steady-state dynamics
When a damped structure is excited with a harmonic load, it has a transient response that disappears
rather quickly and is rarely of much interest.
Eventually the structure reaches a steady state that is characterized by a harmonic response.
The STEADY STATE DYNAMICS procedure provides the solution to the linear dynamic equations of
motion when the loading is harmonic.
Three options are available for steady-state dynamic analysis:
Direct
Mode-based
Subspace projection
L6.12
Example: Harmonic excitation of a tire
Investigating the frequency response of a tire

about a static footprint solution.
The excitation is due to a harmonic vertical

load that is applied to the reference point of the
road.
The rim of the tire is held fixed.
Reference: “Subspace-based steady-state

dynamic tire analysis,” Section 3.1.3 of the
Abaqus Example Problems Manual.
The road is modeled as a

rigid surface.
140
L6.13
Step definitions
*STEP, NLGEOM=YES
*STATIC
*BOUNDARY
RIM, 1, 3
ROAD, 1, 2
ROAD, 4, 6 Static preload
*DSLOAD (“footprint” step)
INSIDE, P, 200.E3
*CLOAD
ROAD, 3, 3300.
*END STEP
L6.14
*STEP
*FREQUENCY,EIGENSOLVER=LANCZOS
Frequency 20
extraction *END STEP Subspace-based steady-state
dynamics procedure
*STEP,NLGEOM=YES
*STEADY STATE DYNAMICS,
SUBSPACE PROJECTION=ALL FREQUENCIES,
INTERVAL=EIGENFREQUENCY, FREQUENCY SCALE=LINEAR
Frequency 80, 130, 3

range *CLOAD
The load is purely in-
ROAD, 3, 200.
phase:
*END STEP
Fz  200cos t
141
L6.15
Results
Contour of displacement magnitude Vertical displacement of the road’s reference point
L6.16
Nonlinear Dynamics (1/8)
Overview
Abaqus/Standard
Uses implicit time integration to calculate the transient dynamic or quasi-static response of a
system.
Three application types:
I. dynamic responses requiring transient fidelity and involving minimal energy dissipation;
II. dynamic responses involving nonlinearity, contact, and moderate energy dissipation; and
III. quasi-static responses in which considerable energy dissipation provides stability and
improved convergence behavior for determining an essentially static solution.

Abaqus/Explicit
Uses explicit time integration scheme to calculate the transient dynamic or quasi-static response
of a system.
142
L6.17
Time integration of the equations of motion
Nonlinear dynamics problems require direct integration of the equations of motion.
The spatial discretization (finite element approximation) turns the partial differential equations describing
dynamic equilibrium into a set of coupled, nonlinear, ordinary differential equations in time.
Time integration is needed to solve this system of ordinary differential equations.

The methods used to integrate these equations through time distinguish Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
L6.18
Abaqus/Standard
Uses a second-order accurate, implicit scheme called the Hilber-Hughes-Taylor (HHT) rule unless
the application type is quasi-static.
I. This is a generalization of the Newmark method.
Second-order accurate means the scheme integrates a constant acceleration exactly.

The method is unconditionally stable: any size time increment can be used and the solution will
remain bounded.
Abaqus/Explicit
Uses a second-order accurate, explicit integration scheme to calculate the transient dynamic or
quasi-static response of a system.
The method is conditionally stable—it gives a bounded solution only when the time increment is
less than a critical value.
143
L6.19
Automatic time incrementation in Abaqus/Standard

Incrementation scheme depends on dynamic application type
Transient fidelity applications (default for models without contact)
I. *DYNAMIC, APPLICATION=TRANSIENT FIDELITY
II. Require minimal energy dissipation
III. Small time increments required to accurately resolve the vibrational response of the
structure, and numerical energy dissipation is kept at a minimum
Moderate dissipation (default for models with contact)
I. *DYNAMIC, APPLICATION= MODERATE DISSIPATION

II. A moderate amount of energy is dissipated by plasticity, viscous damping, or other effects
III. Accurate resolution of high-frequency vibrations is usually not of interest
IV. Improved convergence for analyses involving contact
Quasi-static
I. *DYNAMIC, APPLICATION=QUASI-STATIC
II. These problems typically show monotonic behavior, and inertia effects are introduced
primarily to regularize unstable static behavior
L6.20
Default Integration
Default incrementation Time integration
Application half-increment residual parameters
scheme method
tolerance*
Transient fidelity Conservative: 1000*time average force HHT a 0.05

a. Same rules as for (no contact) b 0.275625
g 0.55
static analyses
b. Dtmax0.01*Tstep 10000*time average
c. Limit on half force (with contact)
increment residual
Moderate a. Same rules as for Not considered unless HHT a 0.41421

dissipation static analyses use conservative b 0.5
b. Dtmax0.1*Tstep incrementation g 0.91421
Quasi-static Aggressive: Not considered Backward Euler N/A

a. Same rules as for
static analyses
*The half-increment residual is the out-of-balance force that

exists halfway through a time increment.
144
L6.21
Automatic time incrementation in Abaqus/Explicit

The time increment size is controlled by the stable time increment.
The explicit dynamics procedure gives a bounded solution only when the time increment is less
than a critical or stable time increment.
The stability limit is given in terms of the highest eigenvalue in the model max and the fraction of critical
damping ( ) in the highest mode:
2
Dtmin  ( 1   2   ).
max
Damping reduces the stable time increment!

Not feasible to compute max, so easy-to-compute conservative estimates are used instead.
L6.22
The concept of a stable time increment is explained easily by considering a one-dimensional problem.
One-dimensional problem
The stable time increment is the minimum time that a dilatational wave takes to move across any
element in the model.
A dilatational wave consists of volume expansion and contraction.
The dilatational wave speed, cd , can be expressed for a one-dimensional problem as
E
cd  ,

where E is the Young's modulus and  is the current material density.

Based on the current geometry each element in the model has a characteristic length, Le.
145
L6.23
Thus, the stable time increment can be expressed as

Le
Dt  .
cd
Decreasing Le and/or increasing cd will reduce the size of the stable time increment.
Decreasing element dimensions reduces Le.
Increasing material stiffness increases cd.
Decreasing material compressibility increases cd.

Decreasing material density increases cd.
Abaqus/Explicit monitors the finite element model throughout the analysis to determine a stable time
increment.
L6.24
Comparing Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit (1/3)
Time increment size is not limited: generally fewer Time increment size is limited: generally many more
time increments required to complete a given time increments are required to complete a given
simulation. simulation.
Each time increment is relatively expensive since Each time increment is relatively inexpensive
the solution for a set of simultaneous equations is because the solution of a set of simultaneous
required for each. equations is not required.
Most of the computational expense is associated with

element calculations (forming and assembling I).
146
L6.25
Ideal for problems where the response period of Ideal for high-speed dynamic simulations
interest is long compared to the vibration frequency
of the model. Require very small time increments; implicit dynamics
inefficient.
Difficult to use explicit dynamics effectively
because of the limit on the time increment Usually more reliable for problems involving
size. discontinuous nonlinearities.
Use for problems that are mildly nonlinear and where Contact behavior is discontinuous and involves
the nonlinearities are smooth (e.g., plasticity). impacts, both of which cause problems for implicit
time integration.
With a smooth nonlinear response
Abaqus/Standard will need very few iterations Other sources of discontinuous behavior include
to find a converged solution. buckling and material failure.
L6.26
Example of a problem well suited for Abaqus/Explicit

Pipe whip
This example simulates
a pipe-on-pipe impact resulting from the
rupture of a high-pressure line in
a power plant.
A sudden release of fluid causes one
segment of the pipe to rotate about
its support and strike a neighboring

pipe.
147
L6.27
Nonlinear Dynamics Example (1/3)
Reference: “Double cantilever elastic beam under point load,” Section 1.3.2 in the Abaqus Benchmarks
Manual.
L6.28
Abaqus/Standard input file
*HEADING
NONLINEAR ELASTIC BEAM
*NODE *STEP, INC=400, NLGEOM=YES
1, 0. *DYNAMIC
6, 10. 25.E-6, 5.E-3
*NGEN *BOUNDARY
1, 6 1, 1, 2
*NSET, NSET=NFIL 1, 6
6, 6, 1
*ELEMENT, TYPE=B23 6, 6
1, 1, 2 *CLOAD
*ELGEN, ELSET=BEAM 6, 2, 320.
1, 5 *END STEP
*BEAM SECTION, ELSET=BEAM,
SECTION=RECT, MATERIAL=A1
1., .125
0., 0., -1.
3
*MATERIAL, NAME=A1
*ELASTIC
30.E6,
*DENSITY
2.5362E-4,
*RESTART, WRITE, FREQUENCY=10
148
L6.29
Comparing the Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit results

The results obtained with the default incrementation schemes show excellent agreement.
Using a tighter half-increment residual tolerance for the implicit analysis further improves the
agreement.
*DYNAMIC, HALFINC SCALE FACTOR=0.05
In the non-default case shown here, the

half-increment scale factor was set to 0.05
(the default value is 1000)
L6.30
Workshop 6: Dynamics (IA)
1. Complete the model and
perform a frequency extraction analysis.
2. Examine the printed output for relevant frequency results.
3. View the eigenmodes in Abaqus/Viewer.
4. Evaluate the effects of mesh density and element dimension and order.
5. Perform a free-vibration analysis using the implicit dynamics method.
1 hour
149
L6.31
Workshop 6: Dynamics (KW)
1. Modify an existing input file, and
perform a frequency extraction analysis.
2. Examine the printed output for relevant frequency results.
3. View the eigenmodes in Abaqus/Viewer.
4. Evaluate the effects of mesh density and element dimension and order.
5. Perform a free-vibration analysis using the implicit dynamics method.
1 hour
150
Notes
151
Notes
152
L7.1
Lesson 7: Using Abaqus/Explicit
Lesson content:
Overview of the Explicit Dynamics Procedure

Abaqus/Explicit Syntax
Rigid Bodies
Workshop 7: Contact with Abaqus/Explicit (IA)
Workshop 7: Contact with Abaqus/Explicit (KW)

2 hours
L7.2
Overview of the Explicit Dynamics Procedure (1/6)
The explicit dynamics procedure is often complimentary to an implicit solver such as Abaqus/Standard.
From a user standpoint the distinguishing characteristics of the explicit and implicit methods are:
Explicit methods require a small time increment size.
Depends solely on the highest natural frequencies of the model.
Independent of the type and duration of loading.
Simulations generally take on the order of 104 to 106 increments, but the computational cost per
increment is relatively small.
Implicit methods do not place an inherent limitation on the time increment size.
Increment size is generally determined from accuracy and convergence considerations.
Implicit simulations typically take orders of magnitude fewer increments than explicit simulations.
However, since a global set of equations must be solved in each increment, the cost per
increment of an implicit method is far greater than that of an explicit method.
Knowing these characteristics of the two procedures can help you decide which methodology is
appropriate for your problems.
153
L7.3
Stress wave propagation

This stress wave propagation example illustrates how the explicit dynamics solution procedure works
without iterating or solving sets of linear equations.
We consider the propagation of a stress wave along a rod modeled with three elements. We study the
state of the rod as we increment through time.
Mass is lumped at the nodes.
Initial configuration of a rod with a

concentrated load, P, at the free end
L7.4
P  u
u1 
M1 
 u1  u1dt  el1  1  d el1  el1dt
l 
  el1   0  d el1   el1  E el1
Configuration at the end of Increment 1
154
L7.5
P  Fel1 u 2  u1
u1 
M1 
 u1  u1old  u1dt el1 
l 
 d el1  el1dt
Fel1   el1  1  d el1

u2 
M2 
 u 2  u2 dt
  el1  E el1
Configuration of the rod at the beginning of Increment 2
Configuration of the rod at the beginning of Increment 3
L7.6
Example of a problem well suited for Abaqus/Explicit

Pipe whip
This example simulates
a pipe-on-pipe impact resulting from the
rupture of a high-pressure line in
a power plant.
A sudden release of fluid causes one
segment of the pipe to rotate about
its support and strike a neighboring

pipe.
155
L7.7
Hydroforming
Uses fluid pressure to form a component.
Abaqus/Explicit captures the unstable
wrinkling of excess blank material.
A draw cap is
added to
decrease the
wrinkling effects.
L7.8
Abaqus/Explicit Syntax (1/3)
The basic input structure and options for an Abaqus/Explicit model are the same as those for an
Abaqus/Standard model.
This allows users to leverage their knowledge of Abaqus/Standard toward learning Abaqus/Explicit.
An Abaqus/Explicit analysis is performed when the input file contains the *DYNAMIC, EXPLICIT procedure
option.
In the majority of Abaqus/Explicit analyses you provide just the total step time and the time increment size is
chosen automatically so that it always satisfies the stability limit.
*STEP
*DYNAMIC, EXPLICIT
, 70.E-3
Options for controlling the time increment size are available for special circumstances.
156
L7.9
Unlike Abaqus/Standard, Abaqus/Explicit uses a finite-strain, large-displacement, large-rotation formulation by

default.
The NLGEOM parameter is not needed on the *STEP option.
Geometrically linear analysis (small-deformation analysis) can be obtained by setting NLGEOM=NO.
The numerics of the explicit dynamic procedure require that elements with lumped mass matrices be used.
Since solution efficiency is usually an important factor when using Abaqus/Explicit, only first-order reduced-
integration elements are generally available.
Exceptions:
Modified triangles and tetrahedrals (CPS6M, CPE6M, C3D10M),
second-order beam elements (B22 and B32),
fully-integrated membrane element (M3D4),
fully-integrated shell elements (S4, S4T), and
fully-integrated first-order hex elements (C3D8, C3D8I, C3D8T).
L7.10
Some options unique to Abaqus/Explicit

The following model definition and history options are available only in Abaqus/Explicit (output and
control options are not listed):
Analysis *DYNAMIC, EXPLICIT: This procedure specifies an explicit dynamics step

procedures and that Abaqus/Explicit will be the solver program.
*DYNAMIC TEMPERATURE-DISPLACEMENT, EXPLICIT: This procedure

specifies a coupled thermal-mechanical step.
*ANNEAL: This procedure sets all nodal velocities to zero and sets all state
variables, such as stress and plastic strain, to zero.
Material *EOS: The equation of state material model can be used to model a
hydrodynamic (explosive) material or a nearly incompressible fluid.
*EXTREME VALUE: This option specifies critical variables whose extreme
values will be monitored every increment.
*TRACER PARTICLE: This option defines tracer particles that track material
points in an adaptive mesh domain.
157
L7.11
Rigid Bodies
As noted previously, Abaqus has a general rigid body capability.
Two additional points are relevant when using this capability with Abaqus/Explicit.
The elements in a rigid body do not affect the stable time increment.
It is possible to define the thickness and density of rigid elements on the *RIGID BODY option.
*RIGID BODY, REF NODE=node, ELSET=element set, DENSITY=#

thickness
A constant thickness can be specified as a value on the data line following the *RIGID BODY
option.
A variable thickness can be specified by using the NODAL THICKNESS parameter on the *RIGID
BODY option.
L7.12
Workshop 7: Contact with Abaqus/Explicit (IA)
a. Define general contact between
the two pipes.
b. Assign boundary conditions and initial velocities.
c. Perform impact analysis.
d. View deformation and energy histories.
1 hour
158
L7.13
Workshop 7: Contact with Abaqus/Explicit (KW)
a. Define general contact between
the two pipes.
b. Assign boundary conditions and initial velocities.
c. Perform impact analysis.
d. View deformation and energy histories.
1 hour
159
160
Notes
161
Notes
162
L8.1
Lesson 8: Quasi-Static Analysis in Abaqus/Explicit
Lesson content:
Introduction
Solution Strategies
Quasi-Static Simulations Using Explicit Dynamics
Energy Balance
Example: Load Rates
Example: Mass Scaling

Adaptive Meshing
Summary
Workshop 8: Quasi-Static Analysis (IA)
Workshop 8: Quasi-Static Analysis (KW)

2 hours
L8.2
Introduction (1/3)
In the previous lectures we discussed how to solve nonlinear static and dynamic problems using
Abaqus.
We now revisit the subject of nonlinear static problems with a particular focus on problems involving:
Very complex contact conditions
Very large deformations
I. Mesh distortion possible
Typical application: metal forming simulations
Bulk forming (drawing, rolling, extrusion, upsetting, etc.)
Sheet metal forming (stretching, drawing)
163
L8.3
Introduction (2/3)
Rolling Upsetting
Rolling of a symmetric I-section Upsetting of a cylindrical billet
L8.4
Introduction (3/3)
Hydroforming
Uses fluid pressure to form a component.
Unstable wrinkling of excess blank material.
A draw cap is
added to
decrease the
wrinkling effects.
164
L8.5
Solution Strategies (1/3)
Two solvers:
Implicit solver (Abaqus/Standard)
Solves for either true static or true dynamic equilibrium.
Explicit solver (Abaqus/Explicit)
Solves for true dynamic equilibrium.
At first glance it appears the implicit solver would be the appropriate choice for modeling highly
nonlinear static problems.
However, explicit solvers are more efficient for this class of problems.
This is especially true for three-dimensional problems involving contact and very large
deformations.
L8.6
Example: Simulation of a deep drawing process used

to form an oil pan
The pan is formed by displacing the punch
downward while holding the die and blank
holder fixed. blank holder
The blank is modeled with shell elements; the
tools are assumed rigid. punch
Analysis performed with both implicit
(Abaqus/Standard) and explicit die

(Abaqus/Explicit) solvers.
blank
165
L8.7
The final deformed configuration is shown at

right.
Near the end of the punch stroke, the
blank pulls through the blank holder and
begins to wrinkle.
The Abaqus/Standard job was about 20 times
more expensive (in terms of CPU cost) than
the Abaqus/Explicit job.
Abaqus/Standard fails to converge at the point

where the blank begins to wrinkle.
L8.8
Quasi-Static Simulations Using Explicit Dynamics (1/10)
Introduction
The explicit dynamics procedure is a true dynamic procedure. It was originally developed to model high-
speed impact events.
Explicit dynamics solves for the state of dynamic equilibrium where inertia can play a dominant
role in the solution.
Application of explicit dynamics to model quasi-static events, such as metal forming processes, requires
special consideration:
It is computationally impractical to model the process in its natural time period.
I. Recall that stability considerations limit the size of the allowable increment:
Le
t  .
cd
II. Literally millions of time increments would be required.
Artificially increasing the speed of the process in the simulation is necessary to obtain an
economical solution.
166
L8.9
Two approaches to obtaining economical quasi-static solutions with an explicit dynamics solver
Increased load rates
Artificially reduce the time scale of the process by increasing the loading rate.
Material strain rates calculated in the simulation are artificially high by the same factor applied to
increase the loading rate.
I. This is irrelevant if the material is rate insensitive.
Mass scaling
If strain rate sensitivity is being modeled, erroneous solutions can result if the load rates are
increased. Mass scaling allows you to model processes in their natural time scale when
considering rate-sensitive materials.
I. Artificially increasing the material density by a factor of f 2 increases the stable time
increment by a factor of f.
L8.10
How much can I increase the load rate or scale the mass?
Increased load rates and mass scaling achieve the same effect.
Increased load rates reduce the time scale of the simulation.
Mass scaling increases the size of the stable time increment.
With both approaches, fewer increments are needed to complete the job.
As the speed of the process is increased, a state of static equilibrium evolves into a state of dynamic
equilibrium.
Inertia forces become more dominant.
The goal is to model the process in the shortest time period (or with the most mass scaling) in which
inertia forces are still insignificant.
167
L8.11
Suggested approach
Run a series of simulations in the order from the fastest load rate to the slowest (or largest mass scaling
to the smallest), since the analysis time is greater for slower load rates (or smaller mass scaling).
Examine the results (deformed shapes, stresses, strains, energies) to get an understanding for the
effects of varying the model.
For example, excessive tool speeds in explicit sheet metal forming simulations tend to suppress
wrinkling and to promote unrealistic localized stretching.
Excessive tool speeds in explicit bulk forming simulations cause ―jetting‖—hydrodynamic-type
response.
L8.12
Jetting
Consider the following bulk forming process (180 section of an axisymmetric model).
When the tool speed is too large, highly localized deformation develops (jetting).
jetting
tool speed = 10 m/s tool speed = 500 m/s
Effect of tool speed on deformed shape
168
L8.13
Example: sheet metal

This figure shows a simple model of a standard door beam intrusion test for an automobile door.
The circular beam is fixed at each end, and the beam is deformed by a rigid cylinder.
The actual test is quasi-static.
Rigid cylinder impacting a deformable beam
L8.14
At an extremely high impact velocity,

400 m/sec, there is highly localized
deformation and no structural response
by the beam.
V
The dominant response in a static test
will be in the first structural mode of the
beam. The frequency of this mode is
used to estimate the impact velocity.
The frequency of the first mode is Velocity 400 m/s:
approximately 250 Hz. Localized effect

This rate corresponds to a period
of 4 milliseconds.
Using a velocity of 25 m/sec, the
cylinder will be pushed into the 0.1 m
beam 0.1 m in 4 milliseconds. V
Velocity 25 m/s:
Good global result
169
L8.15
Why is the velocity 25 m/sec appropriate?

The frequency ( f ) of the first mode is approximately 250 Hz.
This corresponds to a period t = 0.004 seconds.
During this period, the rigid cylinder is pushed into the beam d = 0.1 m.
Thus, the velocity v is estimated to be v = d / t = 0.1/0.004 = 25 m/sec.
Recall, the wave speed of metals is about 5000 m/sec, so the impact velocity 25 m/sec is about 0.5% of
the wave speed.

The impact velocity should be limited to less than 1% of the wave speed of the material.
A more accurate solution could be obtained by ramping up the velocity smoothly from zero over the
analysis step.
L8.16
Use the SMOOTH STEP amplitude curve

A quasi-static solution is also promoted by applying loads gradually:
A constant velocity condition applied to a tool results in a sudden impact load onto the metal
blank.
This may induce propagation of a stress wave through the blank, producing undesired results.
Ramping up the tool velocity gradually from zero minimizes these adverse effects.
Ramping down the tool velocity to zero as the tool is moved to its final position is also
recommended for the same reasons.
170
L8.17
The SMOOTH STEP amplitude definition

creates a fifth-order polynomial transition
between two amplitude values such that the
first and second time derivatives are zero at
the beginning and the end of the transition.
When the displacement time history is defined
using the SMOOTH STEP definition, the
velocity and the acceleration will be zero at
every amplitude value specified.
*AMPLITUDE, NAME=SSTEP, DEFINITION=SMOOTH STEP

0.0, 0.0, 1.0E-5, 1.0
*BOUNDARY, TYPE=DISPLACEMENT, AMP=SSTEP
12, 2, 2, 2.5
L8.18
Energy Balance (1/4)
An energy balance equation can be used to help evaluate whether a simulation is yielding an appropriate quasi-
static response.
In Abaqus/Explicit this equation is written as
EKE  EI  EV  EFD   EW  EPW  ECW  EMW  ETOT  constant,
where Work done by contact and constraint penalties, and

by propelling added mass due to mass scaling
EKE is the kinetic energy,
EI is the internal energy (both elastic and plastic strain energy and the artificial energy associated
with hourglass control),
EV is the energy dissipated by viscous mechanisms,
EFD is the frictional dissipation energy,
EW is the work due to loads and boundary conditions, and
ETOT is the total energy in the system.
171
L8.19
Consider a pull test applied to a uniaxial tensile

specimen.
If the physical test is quasi-static, the work
applied by the external forces in stretching the
specimen equals the internal energy in the
specimen.
Uniaxial pull test
L8.20
The energy history for the quasi-static test would

appear as shown in the figure at right:
Inertia forces are negligible.
The velocity of material in the test specimen is
very small.
Kinetic energy is negligible.
As the speed of the test increases:
The response of the specimen becomes less
static, more dynamic.

Material velocities and, therefore, kinetic
energy become more significant.
Energy history for quasi-static pull test
172
L8.21
Hence, examination of the energy content provides another measure to evaluate whether the results from an
Abaqus/Explicit metal forming simulation reflect a quasi-static solution.
The kinetic energy of the deforming material should not exceed a small fraction of its internal energy
throughout the majority of the forming process.
A small fraction typically means 1–5%.
I. It is generally not possible to achieve this in early stages of the process since the blank will
be moving before it develops any significant deformation.
II. Use smooth step amplitude curves to improve early response.
Not interested in kinetic energy of the tools.

I. Subtract their contribution from global model kinetic energy or restrict energy output to
deforming components.
L8.22
Example: Load Rates (1/4)
Cylindrical cup deep drawing

The quarter-symmetric finite element model is
shown in the figure.
Friction is modeled along all contact interfaces:
Punch and blank: m = 0.25.
Die and blank: m = 0.125.
Blank holder and blank: m = 0.
The deep drawing simulation is conducted by

applying a downward force of 22.87 kN to the
blank holder, then displacing the punch
downward 36 mm.
Initial configuration for cylindrical cup

deep drawing
173
L8.23
We examine three different punch speeds:

3 m/s
30 m/s
150 m/s
The computation cost of each cylindrical cup deep drawing simulation is summarized in the following
table:
Punch speed Time increments Normalized CPU time

(m/s)
3 (1X) 27929 1.0
30 (10X) 2704 0.097
150 (50X) 529 0.019
L8.24
Contours of blank thickness in final

formed configuration
Excessive punch speeds lead
to results that do not
correspond to the physics. At
150 m/s unrealistic thinning
of the blank is predicted.
Results obtained at 30 m/s and
3 m/s are very similar, even
though the difference in

Vpunch = 3 m/s Vpunch = 30 m/s
computation cost is a factor of
10.
Vpunch = 150 m/s
174
L8.25
Comparison of internal and kinetic energies

At a punch speed of 150 m/s the kinetic energy of the blank is a significant fraction of its internal energy.
At punch speeds of 3 m/s and 30 m/s the kinetic energy is only a small fraction of the internal energy
over the majority of the forming process history.
L8.26
Example: Mass Scaling (1/2)
Uniaxial tension test
The figure shows the problem definition for a

tension test on a plane strain bar with the
material properties of a mild steel.
It is modeled with quarter symmetry.

Mass scaling is available through the *FIXED

MASS SCALING option.
Mass scaling applied at the beginning of
a step.
Syntax:
*FIXED MASS SCALING,
ELSET=name, FACTOR= f 2
The density of every element in the
specified element set is increased by f 2,
thus increasing each element’s stable
time increment by f . Uniaxial tension test
175
L8.27
Example: Mass Scaling (2/2)
This figure shows the results of three different

analyses.
The results on the left and in the center
are almost identical.
The solution for the results in the
center requires one-fifth the
computer time of the first solution.
The solution on the right gives an
essentially meaningless result compared

to the original static solution.
Mass
scaling 1 25 10000
factor
Contours of PEEQ
L8.28
Adaptive Meshing (1/8)
Motivation
In many nonlinear simulations the material in the structure or process undergoes very large
deformations.
These deformations distort the finite element mesh, often to the point where the mesh is unable
to provide accurate results or the analysis terminates prematurely for numerical reasons.
In such simulations it is necessary to use adaptive meshing tools to minimize the distortion in the
mesh periodically.
Note: In this course we restrict our attention to the ALE adaptive meshing capability available in
Abaqus/Explicit.
The adaptive remeshing capability available in Abaqus/Standard and the Coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian
capability available in Abaqus/Explicit are not discussed here.
176
L8.29
Adaptive meshing is useful in a broad range of applications:

Can be used as a continuous adaptive meshing tool for transient analysis problems undergoing
large deformations, such as:
I. Dynamic impact
II. Penetration
III. Sloshing
IV. Forging
Can be used as a solution technique to model steady-state processes, such as:
I. Extrusion
II. Rolling
Can be used as a tool to analyze the transient phase in a steady-state process.
L8.30
Adaptive meshing basics

Adaptive meshing is performed in Abaqus/Explicit using the arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE)
method. The primary characteristics of the adaptive meshing capability are:
The mesh is smoothed at regular intervals to reduce element distortion and to maintain good
element aspect ratios.
The same mesh topology is maintained—the number of elements and nodes and their
connectivity do not change.
It can be used to analyze Lagrangian (transient) problems and Eulerian (steady-state) problems.
177
L8.31
Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) method

Lagrangian Nodes move exactly with material points.
description It is easy to track free surfaces and apply boundary conditions.
The mesh will become distorted with high strain gradients; default description in Abaqus.
Eulerian Nodes stay fixed while material flows through the mesh
description It is more difficult to track free surfaces.
No mesh distortion because mesh is fixed.
Available using the Coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian (CEL) capability.
ALE Mesh motion is constrained to the material motion only where necessary (at free
boundaries), but otherwise material motion and mesh motion are independent.
L8.32
Motion of mesh and material with various methods

178
L8.33
ALE simulation of an axisymmetric forging problem
Undeformed model
Deformed meshes at 70% of die travel
L8.34
By using the adaptive meshing capability, a high-quality mesh can be maintained throughout the entire
forging process.
Nodes along the free boundary move

with the material in the direction normal
to the material’s surface. They are
allowed to adapt (adjust their position)

tangent to the free surface.
Interior nodes adaptively adjust in all directions
ALE simulation: deformed mesh at 100% of die travel
179
L8.35
In a transient (Lagrangian-type) problem, such as this forging simulation, minimal additional input is
required to invoke the adaptive meshing capability.
*HEADING
....
*ELSET, ELSET=BLANK
....
*STEP
*DYNAMIC, EXPLICIT
....
*ADAPTIVE MESH, ELSET=BLANK [, FREQUENCY=..., MESH SWEEPS=...]
....
*END STEP
Adaptive meshing is available for all first-order, reduced-integration continuum elements.
Other element types may exist in the model.
L8.36
Summary
Excessive loading rates can produce solutions with significant inertia effects.
A general guideline is to restrict loading rates so that, for example, tool speeds are less than 1% of the
material wave speed.
Ramping loads up from zero also promotes a quasi-static response.
Use the SMOOTH STEP amplitude definition.
Mass scaling can be used for problems with rate-dependent material behavior, allowing the process to
be modeled in its natural time period.
The energy balance can be used to assist in evaluating whether a given solution represents a quasi-
static response to applied loads.

Since results can depend strongly on the process speed (real or artificially adjusted by mass scaling), it
is vital to ensure that unrealistic results are not being generated by excessive artificial process speed
scaling.
To confirm that the Abaqus/Explicit results are realistic, it may be useful to study a simplified
version of the problem as a static analysis in Abaqus/Standard for comparison.
The easiest way to create a suitable simplified test case for this purpose is often to define a two-
dimensional version of part of the problem.
Adaptive meshing is used to maintain a high-quality mesh in the presence of very large deformations.
180
L8.37
Workshop 8: Quasi-Static Analysis (IA)
1. Exercise simulates the deep drawing of a or keywords version of this workshop.
can bottom
2. Workshop tasks include: This workshop is optional.
1. Perform a frequency extraction analysis to
determine an appropriate analysis time for this quasi-static process.
2. Complete the geometry definition of the rigid tools, and include contact and material definitions.
3. Include a SMOOTH STEP amplitude definition to improve quasi-static behavior.
4. Include mass scaling to reduce the analysis time without degrading the results.
5. Perform the analysis, and determine whether or not the results are acceptable.
1 hour
L8.38
Workshop 8: Quasi-Static Analysis (KW)
1. Exercise simulates the deep drawing of a or keywords version of this workshop.
can bottom
2. Workshop tasks include: This workshop is optional.
1. Perform a frequency extraction analysis to
determine an appropriate analysis time for this quasi-static process.
2. Complete the geometry definition of the rigid tools, and include contact and material definitions.
3. Include a SMOOTH STEP amplitude definition to improve quasi-static behavior.
4. Include mass scaling to reduce the analysis time without degrading the results.
5. Perform the analysis, and determine whether or not the results are acceptable.
1 hour
181
182
Notes
183
Notes
184
L9.1
Lesson 9: Combining Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit
Lesson content:
Introduction
Abaqus Usage
Springback Calculation Using Abaqus/Standard
Workshop 9: Import Analysis (IA)
Workshop 9: Import Analysis (KW)

1 hour
L9.2
Introduction (1/3)
Abaqus provides a capability to transfer a deformed mesh and an associated state between an
Abaqus/Explicit analysis and an Abaqus/Standard analysis.
This capability provides great flexibility, for example, in modeling springback in metal forming processes.
The deformed model can be transferred from Abaqus/Explicit to Abaqus/Standard to, for example:
Obtain the final static configuration after a dynamic event.
Simulate springback after a metal forming operation.
Perform eigenvalue or buckling simulations on a formed part.

Simulate the movement of rigid tools more efficiently.
The deformed model can be transferred from Abaqus/Standard to Abaqus/Explicit to, for example:
Simulate additional forming steps after an intermediary springback phase.
Simulate forming processes that occur after a part cools down from a heat treatment phase (thermal
stresses are calculated in Abaqus/Standard).
Continue a simulation following a phase of the analysis that was done more efficiently in
Abaqus/Standard.
Follow the steady-state rolling of a tire in Abaqus/Standard with a transient rolling along a bumpy road in
Abaqus/Explicit.
185
L9.3
Introduction (2/3)
Import summary
The ability to import the material state and the nodal positions is the main requirement of importing
results between the analysis modules.
The following table summarizes the import capabilities:
Can be imported Need to be respecified Cannot be imported

Material state * Boundary conditions Some materials *

Nodal positions Loads
Elements, element sets Contact definitions
Nodes, node sets Output requests
Temperatures Multi-point constraints
Nodal transformations
Amplitude definitions
L9.4
Introduction (3/3)
Comments regarding material states

Only the material states for the some materials are imported correctly for further analysis. These
include:
Linear elastic
Hyperelastic
Mullins effect
Hyperfoam
Mises plasticity (including the kinematic hardening models)
Viscoelastic
User-defined materials (UMAT and VUMAT)
See Section 9.2.1 of the Abaqus Analysis User's Manual for a complete list of supported materials
186
L9.5
Abaqus Usage (1/4)
Performing an import analysis requires the following:
A restart (.res) file containing the current state of the model.

If transferring from Abaqus/Standard to Abaqus/Explicit, also require the
I. analysis database (.mdl and .stt),
II. part (.prt), and
III. output database (.odb) files.
If transferring from Abaqus/Explicit to Abaqus/Standard, also require the
I. state (.abq),
II. analysis database (.stt),
III. package (.pac),
IV. part (.prt), and
V. output database (.odb) files.
The additional files noted above are written by default; do not delete them if planning on
performing a restart analysis.
A new input (.inp) file for the next analysis stage that contains:
The *IMPORT option directly after the *HEADING option
Any additional model data
History data for the next stage of the simulation
L9.6
Abaqus Usage (2/4)
Executing an import analysis
During an Abaqus/Explicit or Abaqus/Standard simulation, a restart file must be written at the time when
transfer of the model’s state is desired.
Using the Abaqus driver, set the job parameter to the new job name and set the oldjob parameter to the
job name associated with the restart file from the previous analysis stage.
abaqus job=new_jobname oldjob=previous_jobname
Specifying the analysis increment for import
Importing from Abaqus/Explicit into an Abaqus/Standard model:

The *IMPORT option specifies the STEP and INTERVAL of the restart file from which the model
state is to be imported:
*IMPORT, STEP=step number, INTERVAL=interval number
Importing from Abaqus/Standard into an Abaqus/Explicit model:

The *IMPORT option specifies the STEP and INCREMENT of the restart file from which the
model state is to be imported:
*IMPORT, STEP=step number, INC=increment number
187
L9.7
Abaqus Usage (3/4)
Elements and nodes
Specify the element sets that are to be imported on the data line of the *IMPORT option.
*IMPORT, STEP=step number, INTERVAL=interval number
elset_1, elset_2, elset_3
Each element set name specified on the data line of the *IMPORT option must have been used in
a section definition option (e.g., *SOLID SECTION) in the original analysis.
The current thickness of shell and membrane elements is imported automatically and becomes the initial
thickness for the element if UPDATE=YES.
All nodes attached to imported elements are imported.
Additional nodes and elements can be defined in the new analysis.
L9.8
Abaqus Usage (4/4)
Material state and reference configuration
By default, the material state (for supported materials) is imported in an import analysis (STATE=YES on
the *IMPORT option).
For the analysis to continue without resetting the reference configuration, set UPDATE=NO on the
*IMPORT option:
*IMPORT, UPDATE=NO
In some cases it may be desirable to obtain springback displacements and strains relative to the
geometry at the start of the springback analysis (reset to zero at the start of the springback step). Set
UPDATE=YES on the *IMPORT option:
*IMPORT, UPDATE=YES
UPDATE=YES should not be used if additional forming stages will follow because the reference
configuration will not be consistent.
Other combinations of the STATE and UPDATE parameters are available but are not discussed here.
The setting of NLGEOM is imported and becomes the setting for the new analysis.
188
L9.9
Springback Calculation Using Abaqus/Standard (1/7)
The blank shown in the figure at right undergoes

large deformations during the sheet metal forming
process.
Once the forming process is complete and the

confining tools are removed, the blank will
attempt to recover its elastic deformation.
This springback phenomenon may lead to

unacceptable warping of the formed product.
Forming tools must be designed to

compensate for springback effects.
L9.10
For the calculation of springback associated with sheet metal forming processes:
Generally, the forming process is simulated using Abaqus/Explicit because it is more efficient for such
analyses.
The deformed mesh of the blank and its associated material state at the end of the forming process are
imported into an Abaqus/Standard model to analyze springback.
The springback calculation is performed more efficiently in Abaqus/Standard than in Abaqus/Explicit.
The displacements that Abaqus/Standard calculates are the totals from the forming and springback
stages if UPDATE=NO is used on the *IMPORT option.
189
L9.11
Equilibrium
Upon importing the deformed blank and its current state into Abaqus/Standard, the model is not in static
equilibrium. Dynamic forces, contact forces, and boundary conditions that exist in Abaqus/Explicit but
not in Abaqus/Standard contribute to this condition:
Dynamic forces:
The forming process is simulated using a dynamic procedure, so the deformed blank is in a state
of dynamic equilibrium. Inertia and damping forces are present.
In a quasi-static forming simulation the state of dynamic equilibrium is relatively close to a state of
static equilibrium.
Boundary and contact conditions:
Contact forces are not imported.
Boundary conditions can be modified in the import analysis.
L9.12
Achieving static equilibrium during springback analysis
When the deformed blank is imported with the material state into Abaqus/Standard, a set of artificial
internal stresses are automatically applied that equilibrate the imported stresses so that static
equilibrium is obtained at the start of the analysis.
These artificial stresses are ramped off during the springback calculation step.
As these stresses are removed, the blank deforms further (referred to as springback) as a result of
redistribution of internal forces.
The final configuration following springback is achieved after complete removal of the artificial stresses
or initial out-of-balance forces.
190
L9.13
Example: Springback calculation for cylindrical cup
The following input in Abaqus/Standard is used to define the springback analysis:
*HEADING
Springback Calculation
*IMPORT, STEP=1, INTERVAL=10, UPDATE=YES, STATE=YES
BLANK,
*STEP, NLGEOM
*STATIC
0.1, 1.
*BOUNDARY
NodeX, XSYMM
NodeY, YSYMM Must have sufficient boundary conditions to
1, 3, 3, 0.0 prevent rigid body motion
*RESTART, WRITE, FREQUENCY=5
*EL PRINT, ELSET=BLANK, FREQUENCY=99
S,
*END STEP
L9.14
Element set BLANK is the only element set whose state is imported into Abaqus/Standard.
Node set definitions NodeX and NodeY are imported and subsequently used to define symmetry
boundary conditions.
The z-translation of node 1 is restrained to preclude rigid body motion of the deformed blank.
The NLGEOM parameter must be used with the *STEP option, since Abaqus/Explicit includes nonlinear
geometry by default.
The *STATIC procedure is carried out incrementally.

The initial out-of-balance forces are ramped down in accordance with the time incrementation.
191
L9.15
The configuration after springback is shown in the figure. A magnification factor of 10 is applied to the
displacements for visualization purposes.
Deformed configuration after springback
L9.16
Workshop 9: Import Analysis (IA)
1. This exercise simulates the springback of a or keywords version of this workshop.
formed can bottom
This workshop is optional.
2. Workshop tasks include:
1. Import the results into an Abaqus/Standard analysis to examine springback.

30 minutes
192
L9.17
Workshop 9: Import Analysis (KW)
1. This exercise simulates the springback of a or keywords version of this workshop.
formed can bottom
This workshop is optional.
2. Workshop tasks include:
1. Import the results into an Abaqus/Standard analysis to examine springback.

30 minutes
193
194
Notes
195
Notes
196
A1.1
Appendix 1: Element Selection Criteria
Lesson content:
Elements in Abaqus
Structural (Shells and Beams) vs. Continuum Elements
Modeling Bending Using Continuum Elements
Stress Concentrations
Contact
Incompressible Materials
Mesh Generation
Solid Element Selection Summary
1.5 hours
A1.2
Elements in Abaqus (1/8)
The wide range of elements in the Abaqus element library provides flexibility in modeling different geometries
and structures.
Each element can be characterized by considering the following:
Family
Number of nodes
Degrees of freedom
Formulation
Integration
197
A1.3
Family
A family of finite elements is the broadest category used to classify elements.
Elements in the same family share many basic features.
There are many variations within a family.
beam elements
continuum (solid elements) shell elements
rigid elements membrane elements truss elements
special-purpose
infinite elements elements like springs,
dashpots, and masses
A1.4
Number of nodes (interpolation)

An element’s number of nodes determines how the nodal degrees of freedom will be interpolated over
the domain of the element.
Abaqus includes elements with both first- and second-order interpolation.
First-order Second-order
interpolation interpolation
198
A1.5
Degrees of freedom
The primary variables that exist at the nodes of an element are the degrees of freedom in the finite
element analysis.
Examples of degrees of freedom are:
Displacements
Rotations
Temperature
Electrical potential
Some elements have internal degrees of freedom that are not associated with the user-defined nodes.
A1.6
Formulation
The mathematical formulation used to describe the behavior of an element is another broad category
that is used to classify elements.
Examples of different element formulations:
Plane strain Small-strain shells

Plane stress Finite-strain shells
Hybrid elements Thick-only shells

Incompatible-mode elements Thin-only shells
Integration
The stiffness and mass of an element are calculated numerically at sampling points called ―integration
points‖ within the element.
The numerical algorithm used to integrate these variables influences how an element behaves.
199
A1.7
Abaqus includes elements with both ―full‖ and ―reduced‖ integration.

Full integration:
I. The minimum integration order required for exact integration of the strain energy for an
undistorted element with linear material properties.
Reduced integration:
I. The integration rule that is one order less than the full integration rule.
Full Reduced
integration integration
First-
order
interpolation
2x2 1x1
Second-
order
interpolation
3x3 2x2
A1.8
Element naming conventions: examples
B21: Beam, 2-D, S8RT: Shell, 8-node, Reduced

1st-order interpolation integration, Temperature
CAX8R: Continuum,
AXisymmetric, 8-node, CPE8PH: Continuum, Plane strain,
Reduced integration 8-node, Pore pressure, Hybrid
DC3D4: Diffusion (heat transfer), DC1D2E: Diffusion (heat transfer),

Continuum, 3-D, 4-node Continuum, 1-D, 2-node, Electrical
200
A1.9
Comparing Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit element libraries
Both programs have essentially the same element families: continuum, shell, beam, etc.
Abaqus/Standard includes elements for many analysis types besides stress analysis: heat transfer, soils
consolidation, acoustics, etc.
Acoustic elements are also available in Abaqus/Explicit.

Abaqus/Standard includes many more variations within each element family.
Abaqus/Explicit includes mostly first-order reduced-integration elements.
Exceptions: second-order triangular and tetrahedral elements; second-order beam elements;

first-order fully-integrated brick (including incompatible mode version), shell, and membrane
elements.
Many of the same general element selection guidelines apply to both programs.
A1.10
Structural (Shells and Beams) vs. Continuum Elements (1/3)
Continuum (solid) element models can be large and expensive, particularly in three-dimensional problems.
If appropriate, structural elements (shells and beams) should be used for a more economical solution.
A structural element model typically requires far fewer elements than a comparable continuum element
model.
For structural elements to produce acceptable results, the shell thickness or the beam cross-section
dimensions should be less than 1/10 of a typical global structural dimension, such as:
The distance between supports or point loads
The distance between gross changes in cross section
The wavelength of the highest vibration mode
201
A1.11
Shell elements
Shell elements approximate a three-

dimensional continuum with a surface model.
Model bending and in-plane

deformations efficiently.
If a detailed analysis of a region is needed, a

local three-dimensional continuum model can 3-D continuum surface model

be included using multi-point constraints or
submodeling.
shell model of a hemispherical dome subjected

to a projectile impact
A1.12
Beam elements
Beam elements approximate a three-

dimensional continuum with a line model.
Model bending, torsion, and axial forces

efficiently.
Many different cross-section shapes are

available. 3-D continuum line model
Cross-section properties can also be

specified by providing engineering
constants.
framed structure modeled using

beam elements
202
A1.13
Modeling Bending Using Continuum Elements (1/10)
Physical characteristics of pure bending

xx
Plane cross-sections remain plane throughout the deformation.

The axial strain xx varies linearly through the thickness.
The strain in the thickness direction yy is zero if  = 0.
No membrane shear strain.
Implies that lines parallel to the beam axis lie on a circular arc.
A1.14
Modeling bending using second-order solid elements (CPE8, C3D20R, …)

Second-order full- and reduced-integration solid elements model bending accurately:
The axial strain equals the change in length of the initially horizontal lines.
The thickness strain is zero.
The shear strain is zero.
lines that are initially vertical do not

change length (implies yy= 0).
Because the element edges can assume a curved

shape, the angle between the deformed isoparametric
lines remains equal to 90o (implies xy= 0).
203
A1.15
Modeling bending using first-order fully-integrated solid elements (CPS4, CPE4, C3D8)
These elements detect shear strains at the integration points.
Nonphysical; present solely because of the element formulation used.
Overly stiff behavior results from energy going into shearing the element rather than bending it
(called ―shear locking‖).
integration point
Because the element edges must

remain straight, the angle between the
deformed isoparametric lines is not
equal to 90º (implies  xy  0 ).
Do not use these elements in regions dominated by bending!
A1.16
Modeling bending using first-order reduced-integration elements (CPE4R, …)

These elements eliminate shear locking.
However, hourglassing is a concern when using these elements.
Only one integration point at the centroid.
A single element through the thickness does not detect strain in bending.
Deformation is a zero-energy mode (deformation but no strain; called ―hourglassing‖).
Change in length is zero (implies no strain

is detected at the integration point).
Bending behavior for a single first-order

reduced-integration element
204
A1.17
Hourglassing can propagate easily through a mesh of first-order reduced-integration elements, causing
unreliable results.
Hourglassing is not a problem if you use multiple elements—at least four through the thickness.
Each element captures either compressive or tensile axial strains but not both.
The axial strains are measured correctly.
The thickness and shear strains are zero.
Cheap and effective elements.
A1.18
Detecting and controlling hourglassing

Hourglassing can usually be seen in deformed shape plots.
Example: Coarse and medium meshes of a simply supported beam with a center point load.
Abaqus has built-in hourglass controls that limit the problems caused by hourglassing.
Verify that the artificial energy used to control hourglassing is small (<1%) relative to the internal
energy.
Same load and displacement magnification

(1000)
205
A1.19
Use the X–Y plotting capability in Abaqus/CAE to compare the energies graphically.
internal energy internal energy
artificial energy artificial energy
Two elements through the thickness: Four elements through the thickness: Ratio
Ratio of artificial to internal energy is 2% of artificial to internal energy is 0.1%
A1.20
Modeling bending using incompatible mode elements

(CPS4I, …)
Perhaps the most cost-effective solid continuum elements for bending-dominated problems.
Compromise in cost between the first- and second-order reduced-integration elements, with many of the
advantages of both.
Model shear behavior correctly—no shear strains in pure bending.
Model bending with only one element through the thickness.
No hourglass modes, and work well in plasticity and contact problems.
The advantages over reduced-integration first-order elements are reduced if the elements are severely
distorted; however, all elements perform less accurately if severely distorted.
206
A1.21
Example: Cantilever beam with distorted elements

Parallel distortion Trapezoidal distortion
A1.22
Summary
Element type xx yy xy Notes

Physical behavior 0 0 0
Second-order 0 0 0 OK
First-order, full integration 0 0 0 Shear locking
First-order, reduced 0 0 0 Hourglassing if too few elements

integration through thickness
0 0 0 OK if enough elements through the

thickness
Incompatible mode 0 0 0 OK if not overly distorted
207
A1.23
Stress Concentrations (1/6)
Second-order elements clearly outperform first-order elements in problems with stress concentrations and are
ideally suited for the analysis of (stationary) cracks.
Both fully-integrated and reduced-integration elements work well.
Reduced-integration elements tend to be somewhat more efficient—results are often as good or better
than full integration at lower computational cost.
A1.24
Second-order elements capture geometric features, such as curved edges, with fewer elements than
first-order elements.
Physical model
Model with first-order Model with second-order

elements—element faces elements—
are straight line segments. element faces are
quadratic curves.
208
A1.25
Both first- and second-order quads and bricks become less accurate when their initial shape is distorted.
First-order elements are known to be less sensitive to distortion than second-order elements and,
thus, are a better choice in problems where significant mesh distortion is expected.
Second-order triangles and tetrahedra are less sensitive to initial element shape than most other
elements; however, well-shaped elements provide better results.
ideal okay bad
undistorted distorted
A1.26
A typical stress concentration problem, a NAFEMS benchmark problem, is shown at right. The analysis
results obtained with different element types follow.
P
elliptical shape
209
A1.27
First-order elements (including incompatible mode elements) are relatively poor in the study of stress
concentration problems.
Element s yy at D (Target=100.0)
type Coarse mesh Fine mesh
CPS3 55.06 76.87

CPS4 71.98 91.2
CPS4I 63.45 84.37
CPS4R 43.67 60.6
CPS6 96.12 101.4
CPS8 91.2 100.12
CPS8R 92.56 97.16
A1.28
Second-order elements such as CPS6, CPS8, and CPS8R give much better results.
Well-shaped, second-order, reduced-integration quadrilaterals and hexahedra can provide high
accuracy in stress concentration regions.
Distorted elements reduce the accuracy in these regions.
210
A1.29
Contact
If the surface-to-surface contact discretization is used:

No fundamental issues or element type restrictions
Abaqus/Standard always uses this formulation for general contact
If the node-to-surface contact discretization is used:
Best to avoid having second-order tetrahedral elements (C3D10, C3D10I) underlying the slave surface
with this contact discretization
Susceptible to poor convergence and extreme contact pressure noise
Use ―modified‖ versions of these elements (C3D10M) instead
Sometimes C3D10 or C3D10I elements work fine if penalty enforcement of contact is specified
Abaqus automatically activates supplementary constraints for this combination of features
But the extra (supplementary) constraints can be another source of convergence problems
A1.30
Incompressible Materials (1/3)
Many nonlinear problems involve incompressible materials ( = 0.5) and nearly incompressible materials
( > 0.475).
Rubber
Metals at large plastic strains
Conventional finite element meshes often exhibit overly stiff behavior due to volumetric locking, which is
most severe when these materials are highly confined.
overly stiff behavior of an elastic-

plastic material with volumetric
locking
correct behavior of an
elastic-plastic material
Example of the effect of volumetric locking
211
A1.31
For an incompressible material each integration point’s volume must remain almost constant. This
overconstrains the kinematically admissible displacement field and causes volumetric locking
For example, in a refined three-dimensional mesh of 8-node hexahedra, there is—on average—1
node with 3 degrees of freedom per element.
The volume at each integration point must remain fixed.
Fully integrated hexahedra use 8 integration points per element; thus, in this example, we have
as many as 8 constraints per element, but only 3 degrees of freedom are available to satisfy
these constraints.
The mesh is overconstrained—it ―locks.‖
Volumetric locking is most pronounced in fully integrated elements.

Reduced-integration elements have fewer volumetric constraints.
Reduced integration effectively eliminates volumetric locking in many problems with nearly
incompressible material.
A1.32
Fully incompressible materials modeled with solid elements must use the ―hybrid‖ formulation (elements
whose names end with the letter ―H‖).
In this formulation the pressure stress is treated as an independently interpolated basic solution
variable, coupled to the displacement solution through the constitutive theory.
Hybrid elements introduce more variables into the problem to alleviate the volumetric locking
problem. The extra variables also make them more expensive.
The Abaqus element library includes hybrid versions of all continuum elements (except plane
stress elements, where this is not needed).
Hybrid elements are only necessary for:

All meshes with strictly incompressible materials, such as rubber.
Refined meshes of reduced-integration elements that still show volumetric locking problems.
Such problems are possible with elastic-plastic materials strained far into the plastic range.
Even with hybrid elements a mesh of first-order triangles and tetrahedra is overconstrained when
modeling fully incompressible materials.
Hence, these elements are recommended only for use as ―fillers‖ in quadrilateral or brick-type
meshes with such material.
212
A1.33
Mesh Generation (1/5)
Meshes
Typical element shapes are shown at right.
Most elements in Abaqus are topologically
equivalent to these shapes.
For example, CPE4 (stress), DC2D4
(heat transfer), and AC2D4 (acoustics)
are topologically equivalent to a linear
quadrilateral.
A1.34
Quad/hex vs. tri/tet elements

Of particular importance when generating a mesh is the decision regarding whether to use quad/hex or
tri/tet elements.
Quad/hex elements should be used wherever possible.
They give the best results for the minimum cost.
When modeling complex geometries, however, the analyst often has little choice but to mesh with
triangular and tetrahedral elements.
Turbine blade with platform modeled with

tetrahedral elements
213
A1.35
First-order tri/tet elements (CPE3, CPS3, CAX3, C3D4, C3D6) are poor elements; they have the
following problems:
Poor convergence rate.
I. They typically require very fine meshes to produce good results.
Volumetric locking with incompressible or nearly incompressible materials, even using the
―hybrid‖ formulation.
These elements should be used only as fillers in regions far from any areas where accurate results are
needed.
Second-order tri/tet elements (C3D10, C3D10I, etc.)

Suitable for general usage
Less sensitive to initial element shape that quads/hex but convergence rate is slower
Guidelines for contact analysis
I. Surface-to-surface contact discretization
» No restriction on element type (use C3D10, C3D10I, C3D10M, etc.)
II. Node-to-surface contact discretization
» Restrict usage to modified second-order elements (e.g., C3D10M)
A1.36
Mesh refinement and convergence

Use a sufficiently refined mesh to ensure that the results from your Abaqus simulation are adequate.
Coarse meshes tend to yield inaccurate results.
The computer resources required to run your job increase with the level of mesh refinement.
It is rarely necessary to use a uniformly refined mesh throughout the structure being analyzed.
Use a fine mesh only in areas of high gradients and a coarser mesh in areas of low gradients.
Can often predict regions of high gradients before generating the mesh.
Use hand calculations, experience, etc.
Alternatively, you can use coarse mesh results to identify high gradient regions.
Some recommendations:
Minimize mesh distortion as much as possible.
A minimum of four quadratic elements per 90o should be used around a circular hole.
A minimum of four elements should be used through the thickness of a structure if first-order,
reduced integration solid elements are used to model bending.
Other guidelines can be developed based on experience with a given class of problem.
214
A1.37
It is good practice to perform a mesh convergence study.

Simulate the problem using progressively finer meshes, and compare the results.
I. The mesh density can be changed very easily using Abaqus/CAE since the definition of the
analysis model is based on the geometry of the structure.
When two meshes yield nearly identical results, the results are said to have ―converged.‖
I. This provides increased confidence in your results.
A1.38
Solid Element Selection Summary (1/2)
Class of problem Best element choice Avoid using

General contact between First-order quad/hex Second-order elements with the node-to-
deformable bodies surface contact discretization
Contact with bending Incompatible mode First-order fully integrated quad/hex or

second-order elements with the node-to-

surface contact discretization
Bending (no contact) Second-order quad/hex First-order fully integrated quad/hex
Stress concentration Second-order First-order
Nearly incompressible First-order elements or second- Second-order fully integrated

( >0.475 or large strain order reduced integration
plasticity pl >10%) elements
215
A1.39
Solid Element Selection Summary (2/2)
Class of problem Best element choice Avoid using

Completely incompressible Hybrid quad/hex, first-order if large deformations
(rubber  = 0.5) are anticipated
Bulk metal forming First-order reduced integration quad/hex Second-order

(high mesh distortion) quad/hex
Complicated model geometry Second-order quad/hex if possible (if not overly

(linear material, no contact) distorted) or second-order tet/tri (because of
meshing difficulties)
Complicated model geometry First-order quad/hex if possible (if not overly
(nonlinear problem or contact) distorted). If meshing requirements dictate,
use second-order tet/tri (modified form; use
regular form only with surface-to-surface
contact discretization)
Natural frequency Second-order
(linear dynamics)
Nonlinear dynamic (impact) First-order Second-order
216
Notes
217
Notes
218
A2.1
Appendix 2: Contact Issues Specific to Abaqus/Standard
Lesson content:
Contact as Part of the Model Definition

Mesh Density Considerations
Contact Logic in Abaqus/Standard
30 minutes
A2.2
Contact as Part of the Model Definition
For Abaqus/Standard the entire contact definition is model data (it must appear before the first *STEP
option).
Contact pairs can be activated or deactivated during the analysis history using the *MODEL CHANGE
option.
*MODEL CHANGE, TYPE=CONTACT PAIR, [ADD | REMOVE]

surface_1, surface_2
219
A2.3
Mesh Density Considerations (1/2)
Contact pairs: Mesh density considerations of the (default) strict master/slave approach
The slave surface should be meshed more finely than the master surface.
If mesh densities are equal, the slave surface usually should be the surface with the softer underlying
material.
A2.4
Mesh Density Considerations (2/2)
General contact: Master-slave roles are assigned automatically

Largely based on mesh refinement.
Internal, component surfaces ranked by Overall general

suitability as master contact surface
220
A2.5
Contact Logic in Abaqus/Standard (1/10)
Contact requires the imposition of constraints between the points that are in contact.
Different ways of imposing constraints.
For most of the contact algorithms, Abaqus/Standard uses the Lagrange multiplier method by default.
For each potential contact point the contact condition is described by a single, often nonlinear, inequality
constraint:
h(u1 , u 2 , u3 , ...)  0,
where h is the “penetration” and uN are degrees of freedom.

A2.6
Schematic of (default) behavior within an increment
Begin
increment
Identify initially Form and Identify changes in

1 active contact 2 solve system 3 contact constraint
constraints of equations status
Newton
Yes iterations
Determine if Check if solution

End
5 tending toward 4 has converged increment
No convergence No Yes
(Reduce increment (At least one (Within

size and try again) convergence criterion is convergence
not satisfied) tolerances)
221
A2.7
Default contact algorithm (refer to flowchart on previous page):
1 Determine the initial contact state at each point (closed or open).

For first increment of a step, based on initial model state; otherwise, based on solution
extrapolation (if any)
2 Calculate the stiffness, imposing contact constraints accordingly. Form the system of equations and
pass through the equation solver.
3 Are contact pressures and clearances consistent with the assumed contact state?
Contact status changes (open/closed or stick/slip) often cause significant changes to the system
of equations
Iterations with contact status changes are flagged as severe discontinuity iterations (SDIs)
A2.8
4 Has convergence been achieved?

By default, Abaqus quantifies the contact incompatibilities associated with SDIs. These
incompatibilities must be sufficiently small to achieve convergence with respect to the contact
state.
Also have to ensure that the force residuals and solution corrections are sufficiently small to
achieve equilibrium.
If the contact state and equilibrium conditions satisfy their respective convergence criteria, the
increment is complete.
5
If convergence is not achieved, is it likely to be achieved?

Abaqus evaluates trends, such as the number of contact status changes in successive iterations,
to determine whether or not to continue iterating or cut back the increment size.
If convergence is likely, update the contact constraints based on 3 and the stiffness, and re-
solve the system of equations; otherwise, try again with a smaller increment size.
222
A2.9
Contact printout example

Reference: Example Problem 1.3.4, “Deep drawing of a cylindrical cup”
Status (.sta) file:

MONITOR NODE: 200 DOF: 2
DISCON ITERS ITERS TIME/ TIME/LPF TIME/LPF MONITOR
RIKS
ITERS FREQ
1 1 1 1 1 2 1.00 1.00 1.000 0.000

2 1 1 0 1 1 2.00 1.00 1.000 0.000
3 1 1 10 0 10 2.01 0.0100 0.01000 -0.000600
3 2 1 7 1 8 2.02 0.0200 0.01000 -0.00120
3 3 1U 10 0 10 2.02 0.0200 0.01500 -0.00120
3 3 2 5 0 5 2.02 0.0238 0.003750 -0.00142
3 4 1 3 1 4 2.03 0.0294 0.005625 -0.00176
3 5 1 2 3 5 2.04 0.0378 0.008438 -0.00227
3 6 1 4 1 5 2.05 0.0505 0.01266 -0.00303
3 7 1 4 1 5 2.07 0.0695 0.01898 -0.00417
3 8 1 6 1 7 2.10 0.0979 0.02848 -0.00588
3 9 1U 8 0 8 2.10 0.0979 0.04271 -0.00588
3 9 2 4 3 7 2.11 0.109 0.01068 -0.00652
3 10 1 2 3 5 2.12 0.125 0.01602 -0.00748
3 11 1 4 2 6 2.15 0.149 0.02403 -0.00892
.
.
.
A2.10
Message file, Step 3, Increment 6:
INCREMENT 6 STARTS. ATTEMPT NUMBER 1, TIME INCREMENT 1.266E-02

CONTACT PAIR (ASURF,BSURF) NODE 167 IS NOW SLIPPING. Slave nodes that slip; stick/slip
messages cause SDIs only if
CONTACT PAIR (ASURF,BSURF) NODE 171 IS NOW SLIPPING.
Lagrange friction is used or if slip
: reversal occurs.
*PRINT, CONTACT=YES causes this detailed printout.
:
: (Useful for troubleshooting)
:
CONTACT PAIR (ASURF,BSURF) NODE 153 OPENS. CONTACT PRESSURE/FORCE IS -845822..
Incompatibilities
CONTACT PAIR (ASURF,BSURF) NODE 161 OPENS. CONTACT PRESSURE/FORCE IS -1.50656E+006.
detected in the
CONTACT PAIR (ASURF,BSURF) NODE 163 OPENS. CONTACT PRESSURE/FORCE IS -108355..
assumed contact state
CONTACT PAIR (ASURF,BSURF) NODE 165 OPENS. CONTACT PRESSURE/FORCE IS -620880..  SDI
CONTACT PAIR (CSURF,DSURF) NODE 363 OPENS. CONTACT PRESSURE/FORCE IS -3.5893E+006.
CONTACT PAIR (ESURF,FSURF) NODE 309 IS NOW SLIPPING.
6 SEVERE DISCONTINUITIES OCCURRED DURING THIS ITERATION.
5 POINTS CHANGED FROM CLOSED TO OPEN
Due to slip 1 POINTS CHANGED FROM STICKING TO SLIPPING
reversal
223
A2.11
Message file, Step 3, Increment 6 (cont'd):
CONVERGENCE CHECKS FOR SEVERE DISCONTINUITY ITERATION 1
MAX. PENETRATION ERROR -8.16193E-009 AT NODE 331 OF CONTACT PAIR (ESURF,FSURF)

Convergence checks for
MAX. CONTACT FORCE ERROR -4369.44 AT NODE 363 OF CONTACT PAIR (CSURF,DSURF) contact state
THE ESTIMATED CONTACT FORCE ERROR IS LARGER THAN THE TIME-AVERAGED FORCE.

Convergence checks for
equilibrium
LARGEST INCREMENT OF DISP. -7.782E-04 AT NODE 329 DOF 2
FORCE EQUILIBRIUM NOT ACHIEVED WITHIN TOLERANCE. Not only is the contact incompatibility too
large, but force equilibrium has not been
AVERAGE MOMENT 114. TIME AVG. MOMENT
achieved
89.8
either
ALL MOMENT RESIDUALS ARE ZERO
LARGEST INCREMENT OF ROTATION 1.853E-33 AT NODE 100 DOF 6
A2.12
Four additional iterations are required; the first three are SDIs (involve contact incompatibilities).
In the final iteration both the contact and equilibrium checks pass and the increment converges.
CONVERGENCE CHECKS FOR SEVERE DISCONTINUITY ITERATION 2 ...

No SDIs in this
iteration
MAX. PENETRATION ERROR -1.38869E-014 AT NODE 331 OF CONTACT PAIR (ESURF,FSURF)
MAX. CONTACT FORCE ERROR -0.00111133 AT NODE 331 OF CONTACT PAIR (ESURF,FSURF)
THE CONTACT CONSTRAINTS HAVE CONVERGED.

LARGEST INCREMENT OF DISP. -7.809E-04 AT NODE 129 DOF 2
AVERAGE MOMENT 109. TIME AVG. MOMENT 89.0

ALL MOMENT RESIDUALS ARE ZERO
LARGEST INCREMENT OF ROTATION 1.925E-33 AT NODE 100 DOF 6
THE MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM RESPONSE WAS LINEAR IN THIS INCREMENT
224
A2.13
Increment summary:

CURRENT VALUE OF MONITOR NODE 200 D.O.F. 2 IS -3.028E-03
TIME INCREMENT COMPLETED 1.266E-02, FRACTION OF STEP COMPLETED 5.047E-02

STEP TIME COMPLETED 5.047E-02, TOTAL TIME COMPLETED 2.05
A2.14
Contact diagnostics in Abaqus/Viewer
Constrained nodes want to open:

incompatible contact state
Toggle on to see the locations in

the model where the contact state
is changing.
225
226
Notes
227
Notes
228
A3.1
Appendix 3: Contact Issues Specific to Abaqus/Explicit
Lesson content:
Contact Pairs as Part of the History Data

Enforcing the Contact Constraints
Double-Sided Contact
Initial Kinematic Compliance
30 minutes
A3.2
Contact Pairs as Part of the History Data (1/2)
For Abaqus/Explicit the contact pair definition is part of the history data in the input file.
*HEADING
.
.
*STEP
*DYNAMIC, EXPLICIT
, 200E-3
*CONTACT PAIR Contact pairs are defined, or
ASURF, BSURF removed, on a step-by-step basis as
. needed.
.
.
*STEP
*DYNAMIC, EXPLICIT
, 200E-3
*CONTACT PAIR
ASURF, DSURF
229
A3.3
Contact Pairs as Part of the History Data (2/2)
The *CONTACT PAIR option has the OP parameter, which can have the value ADD or DELETE.
Example:
*STEP
*DYNAMIC, EXPLICIT
.
.
*CONTACT PAIR
ASURF, BSURF
*END STEP
*STEP
.
.
*CONTACT PAIR, OP=DELETE Delete the contact pair involving surfaces
ASURF and BSURF.
ASURF, BSURF
*CONTACT PAIR, OP=ADD Add a contact pair involving surfaces
BSURF, CSURF BSURF and CSURF.
*END STEP
A3.4
Enforcing the Contact Constraints (1/3)
Contact constraints can be enforced with one of the following algorithms:
Kinematic compliance (only available for contact pair algorithm)
Penalty
In most cases the kinematic and penalty algorithms will produce nearly the same results; however, in some
cases one method may be preferable to the other.
230
A3.5
Kinematic compliance contact
The default kinematic contact formulation achieves precise compliance with the contact conditions.
It works well in most cases, but some problems with chattering contact may work more easily using
penalty contact.
Cannot model rigid-to-rigid contact.

Available only for the contact pair algorithm.
A3.6
Penalty contact
The penalty contact algorithm provides less stringent enforcement of contact constraints than the
kinematic algorithm.
The penalty algorithm allows for treatment of more general types of contact; for example, contact
between two rigid bodies.
Since the penalty algorithm introduces additional stiffness behavior into a model, this stiffness can
influence the stable time increment.
Penalty contact is used with the general contact algorithm.
To invoke penalty contact for the contact pair algorithm:

Set the MECHANICAL CONSTRAINT parameter to PENALTY on the *CONTACT PAIR option.
The “spring” or “penalty” stiffness that relates the contact force to the penetration distance is chosen
automatically by Abaqus/Explicit. Conflicting criteria must be considered:
The effect on the maximum stable time increment should be minimal.
The allowed penetration must not be significant in most analyses.
For the general contact algorithm:
The penalty stiffness can be scaled using the *CONTACT CONTROLS ASSIGNMENT,
TYPE=SCALE PENALTY option.
For the contact pair algorithm:
You can specify a factor by which to scale the default penalty stiffnesses by using the SCALE
PENALTY parameter on the *CONTACT CONTROLS option.
231
A3.7
Double-Sided Contact (1/3)
A single surface defined on shell, membrane, and rigid elements can include both the top (SPOS) and bottom
(SNEG) faces of these elements.
The general contact algorithm automatically uses double-sided surfaces.
For the contact pair algorithm:
Define a double-sided surface by omitting the face identifier from the *SURFACE option.
Consistent element normals are not required.
Contact can occur on either face of the elements forming the double-sided surface.
For example, a slave node can start out on one side of a double-sided surface and then pass around the
perimeter to the other side during the analysis.
Double-sided surfaces are often necessary in such situations.
The additional computational cost when performing an analysis with double-sided contact is minimal.
A3.8
Example: Compression of nested cylindrical shells
rigid lid deformable cylinders

rigid box
Front view Oblique view (front and
side of box removed)
232
A3.9
General contact Contact pairs
*HEADING *HEADING
: :
*CONTACT *SURFACE, NAME=RING1
*CONTACT INCLUSIONS, RING1
ALL EXTERIOR *SURFACE, NAME=RING2
: RING2
*STEP *SURFACE, NAME=RING3
*DYNAMIC, EXPLICIT RING3

: *SURFACE, NAME=BOX
*END STEP BOX
*SURFACE, NAME=LID
LID Double-sided contact allows simple
: definition of complex contact conditions
*STEP when using contact pairs.
*DYNAMIC, EXPLICIT
Since the shell thickness is not shown in
:
plots, the displaced shape indicates gaps
*CONTACT PAIR
RING1, RING2
between the contacting surfaces (recall shell
RING1, RING3 thickness is accounted for in contact
RING2, RING3 calculations).
RING1, BOX
RING2, BOX
RING3, BOX
RING1, LID
:
*END STEP
A3.10
Initial Kinematic Compliance
Abaqus/Explicit does not allow an initial overclosure of contact surfaces.
The nodes on the contact surfaces will be adjusted to remove any initial overclosure prior to the
analysis:
Only nodes on the contact surface are moved.
The displacements associated with adjusting the surface do not cause any initial strain or stress
for contact pairs defined in the first step of the analysis.
In subsequent steps :
The initial overclosures are ignored with the general contact algorithm.
The adjustments will cause strains with the contact pair algorithm.
Both surfaces will be adjusted if the contact pair is a balanced master/slave pair.
Detailed information regarding resolution of initial overclosures can be written to the message (.msg) file
using the *DIAGNOSTICS option.
233
234
Notes
235
Notes
236
Workshop 1
Basic Input and Output
Interactive Version
Note: This workshop provides instructions in terms of the Abaqus GUI

interface. If you wish to use the Abaqus Keywords interface instead, please
see the “Keywords” version of these instructions.
Please complete either the Keywords or Interactive version of this

workshop.
Goals
 Learn to use Abaqus utilities and documentation.
 Understand the basic structure of an Abaqus/CAE model, and be able to make
simple modifications to it.
 Learn how to perform a datacheck analysis and how to submit an analysis job in
Abaqus/CAE.
 Gain familiarity with the Visualization module.
 Explore the structure and contents of the printed output (.dat) file.
Abaqus utilities and documentation

Abaqus provides various utilities for obtaining information on usage, system
configuration, example problems, and environment settings for the analysis package.
1. At the prompt, enter the command
abaqus information=system
to obtain information on the system.

Note that abaqus is a generic command that may have been renamed on your
system. For example, if more than one version is installed on the system, the
command might include the version number, as in abq6121. In the remainder of
this workshop as well as all subsequent workshops, use the appropriate command
for your system.
© Dassault Systèmes, 2012 Introduction to Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit
237
W1.2
Question W1–1: What is the processor on your machine?

Question W1–2: What is the operating system (OS) level?
2. Open the online documentation with the command

abaqus doc
Open the Abaqus Analysis User’s Manual, and search for the string DSLOAD to
find information on the DSLOAD option. You can find information related to
the data line syntax in the Abaqus Keywords Reference Manual (use the hyperlink
for the DSLOAD option, or open the Keywords Manual directly). The online
documentation graphical user interface is shown in Figure W1–1.
Figure W1–1. Online documentation
3. Open the online Abaqus Example Problems Manual. Search for plate
buckling to find example problems that discuss plate buckling.
Question W1–3: What are the four example problems that fit the search
criteria?
4. Go to Example Problem 1.1.14 in the online Abaqus Example Problems Manual.

In the left panel of the window, display the subtopics of the problem and click
238
W1.3
Input files. In the right panel of the window, the list of input files associated with
this problem appears. You can select any input filename from the list; a separate
window will open containing that file.
5. All example problem input files are included in the Abaqus release and can be
obtained using the abaqus fetch utility. In your terminal window, enter
abaqus fetch job=damagefailcomplate_cps4
at the command line prompt.
6. Use the online documentation to determine the input syntax for some options.
followed directly by the keyword
option. Parameters and their associated values appear on the keyword line,
separated by commas. Many options require data lines, which follow directly after
their associated keyword line and contain the data specified in the Abaqus
Keywords Reference Manual for each option. Data items are separated by
commas. Refer to the discussions of keyword line and data line syntax in Lecture
1, as necessary.
Question W1–4: How would you run a script from within the Abaqus/CAE
environment?
Hint: Search for “run script” in the Abaqus/CAE

User’s Manual
Question W1–5: In the space provided, write which Category option you
would choose to define a displacement/rotation boundary
condition in Abaqus/CAE.
Hint: Search displacement/rotation boundary condition in
the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual.
239
W1.4
Analyzing a connecting lug
Figure W1–2. Sketch of the connecting lug
In this workshop you will model the connecting lug shown in Figure W1–2. The lug is
welded to a massive structure at one end, so we assume that this end is fixed. The other
end contains a hole through which a bolt is placed when the lug is in service. You have to
calculate the deflection of the lug when a load of 30 kN is applied to the bolt along the
negative 2-direction.
To model this problem, you will use three-dimensional continuum elements and perform
a linear analysis with elastic materials. You will model the load transmitted to the lug
through the bolt as a uniform pressure load applied to the bottom half of the hole, as
shown in Figure W1–2. In this workshop SI units (N, m, and s) will be used.
Preliminaries
1. Enter the working directory for this workshop:
../abaqus_solvers/interactive/lug
2. Run the script ws_solver_lug.py using the following command:
abaqus cae startup=ws_solver_lug.py
The above command creates an Abaqus/CAE database named Lug.cae in the current
directory. The geometry, mesh, and step definitions for the lug are included in a model
named standard.
240
W1.5
Before completing the model, view the contents of the model using the Model Tree on
the left hand side of the main window.
Question W1–6: How many steps are there in this analysis?
Use the Query information tool (or select Tools→Query from the main menu bar)
to query element information of the lug. Switch to the Mesh module and click . In the
Query dialog box, select Element in the General Queries field. Select one element of
the lug in the viewport. Read the query results reported in the message area at the bottom
of the main window.
Question W1–7: What element type is used to model the lug?
Completing the model

You will now add the material definition, and create the boundary conditions and the
pressure load to complete the lug model.
1. Note that a dummy material named Steel has already been created and assigned
to the part Lug. Add the steel material properties to this material.
a. In the Model Tree, expand the Materials container and double-click Steel.
The material editor appears.
b. From the material editor’s menu bar, select
Mechanical→Elasticity→Elastic. Enter the following elastic material
properties: Elastic modulus E = 200.E9 Pa and Poisson’s ratio  = 0.3.
Question W1–8: Do you need to define a density to complete the material
definition? Material density is necessary for what types of
analyses?
2. In the Model Tree, double-click the BCs container to create an ENCASTRE
boundary condition on the flat end as highlighted in Figure W1–3. The
ENCASTRE boundary condition constrains all active structural degrees of
freedom.
a. In the Create Boundary Condition dialog box, name the boundary
condition Fix left end, choose the category Mechanical and the type
Symmetry/Antisymmetry/Encastre, and click Continue.
b. Select the flat end of the lug as shown in Figure W1–3. Use [Shift]+Click
to select both regions. Adjust your view, if necessary, to see the model
geometry more clearly.
c. Click mouse button 2 in the viewport or click Done in the prompt area to
confirm the selections.
The boundary condition editor appears.
241
W1.6
d. The Edit Boundary Condition dialog box, choose ENCASTRE

(U1=U2=U3=UR1=UR2=UR3=0) and click OK to exit the boundary
condition editor.
The arrow symbols appear on the flat end indicating the constrained
degrees of freedom.
Question W1–9: How else could you define a completely constrained boundary
condition?
Fully constrain this end
Figure W1–3. Region for fully constrained boundary condition
3. In the Model Tree, double-click the Loads container to create a distributed

pressure load with a magnitude of 50 MPa on the highlighted surfaces shown in
Figure W1–4.
a. In the Create Load dialog box, name the load Pressure Load, select
the step LugLoad, choose the category Mechanical and the type
Pressure, and click Continue.
b. Select the surfaces highlighted in Figure W1–4.
confirm the selections.
The load editor appears.
d. In the Edit Load dialog box, accept the Uniform distribution, enter a value
of 50E6 for the Magnitude, and click OK to exit the load editor.
242
W1.7
Note that the magnitude of the applied uniform pressure is determined by

dividing the total load by the projected horizontal area of the hole, where
30kN
 50MPa .
2  0.015m  0.02m
Region for
Pressure Load
Figure W1–4. Region for distributed pressure load
Submitting a datacheck analysis

You will first perform a datacheck analysis and then a full analysis.
1. In the Model Tree, double-click the Jobs container. In the Create Job dialog
box, name the job lug and click Continue. In the Edit Job dialog box, accept all
default settings and click OK to exit the job editor.
2. Save your model database.
3. In the Model Tree, expand the Jobs container. Click mouse button 3 on the job
lug and select Data Check from the menu that appears.
4. Click mouse button 3 on the job lug and select Monitor from the menu that
appears to monitor any warnings or errors that may occur during the datacheck
analysis.
5. In the job monitor, open the Data File tabbed page. Search for the string
P R O B L E M to see the summary of the problem size. Include spaces between
the letters of the search string.
Question W1–10: How many elements are there in the model? How many
variables are there?
243
W1.8
Running a full analysis

1. In the Model Tree, expand the Jobs container. Click mouse button 3 on the job
lug and select Continue from the menu that appears.
If Abaqus/CAE asks if you want to overwrite old job files, click OK. This means
that output files with the same job name that exist from a previous analysis will be
overwritten.
2. Monitor the job’s progress.
Postprocessing the results

When the analysis is complete, use the following procedure to view the analysis results in
the Visualization module:
1. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the job lug and select Results from
the menu that appears to open the file lug.odb in the Visualization module.
2. When the output database is opened in the Visualization module, the undeformed
model shape is displayed by default. To change the plot mode, you can use either
the Plot menu or the toolbox icons displayed on the left side of the viewport (see
Figure W1–5). You can identify the function of each tool in the toolbox by
positioning your cursor above the icon for that tool; a label for the icon pop-ups
describing its function.
1. To plot the deformed shape, click the Plot Deformed Shape tool in the
toolbox or select Plot→Deformed Shape from the main menu bar.
3. Open the Common Plot Options dialog box by clicking in the toolbox.
Turn on the node and element numbers, and make the nodes visible.
4. Use the display option tools (see Figure W1–5) to switch to hidden line, filled, or
wireframe display.
244
W1.9
View manipulation tools Display option tools
Results
Tree
Toolbox
Figure W1–5. Abaqus/Viewer main window
5. Note the displacement magnification factor shown in the bottom of the title. By
default, Abaqus/CAE automatically scales the displacement according to the
maximum model dimensions for a small-displacement analysis. Displacements
are scaled so that the deformed shape will be clear. For a large-displacement
analysis the scale factor is 1.0 by default.
Set the displacement magnification factor to 1.0 so that you can see the actual
displacement, and redraw the displaced shape plot.
Hint: You will have to use the Common Plot Options dialog box.
6. Create a contour plot of the Mises stress by clicking the Plot Contours on
Deformed Shape tool .
7. Frequently users want to remove all annotations that are written on the plots,
especially when they are creating hard-copy images or animations. From the main
menu bar, select Viewport→Viewport Annotation Options to suppress the
annotations used in the plots.
245
W1.10
The annotations are divided into three categories: legend, title block, and state
block. Each category can be controlled separately. The title block contains
information about which Abaqus version was used and when the analysis was
performed. The state block contains the step title, the increment and step time of
the data being displayed, and information on the variable and magnification factor
used to calculate the shape of the model.
8. Probe the displacement of the nodes around the hole in the lug.
a. Click the Query information tool . In the Query dialog box that
appears, select Probe values in the Visualization Module Queries field.
b. In the Probe Values dialog box that appears, click to change the
default field output variable to the displacement component U2.
c. In the Field Output dialog box that appears, select U as the output
variable and U2 as the component and click OK to save the selection and
exit the Field Output dialog box.
d. In the Probe Values dialog box, select Nodes as the item to probe.
e. Select a node in viewport to obtain its displacement along the 2-direction.
Click on a node to query its displacement value along the 2 direction.
9. Use a similar procedure to probe the Mises stress in the elements around the hole
in the lug.
Modifying the model and understanding changes in the results

1. Switch to the Load module.
2. Reduce the amplitude of the distributed pressure load to 25 MPa.
3. Create a new job named lugmod and submit the analysis.
4. View the results in the Visualization module.
Question W1–11: How have the displacement and stress results changed after
the load reduction? Do the results reflect the reduction in
loading?
Note: A script that creates the complete model described in these

instructions is available for your convenience. Run this script if you
encounter difficulties following the instructions or if you wish to check your
work. The script is named ws_solver_lug_answer.py and is available using
the Abaqus fetch utility.
246
W1.11
Answers

Answer: It depends on the system you are using.

criteria?
Answer: Problem 1.1.14, ―Damage and failure of a laminated
composite plate‖
Problem 1.2.2, ―Laminated composite shells: buckling of a
cylindrical panel with a circular hole‖
Problem 1.2.5, ―Unstable static problem: reinforced plate
under compressive loads‖
Problem 9.1.8, ―Deformation of a sandwich plate under
CONWEP blast loading‖
Question W1–4: How would you run a script from within the Abaqus/CAE
environment?
Answer: From the main menu bar, select File→Run Script.
Question W1–5: In the space provided, write which Category option you
would choose to define a displacement/rotation boundary
condition in Abaqus/CAE.
Answer: You would choose the Mechanical category option.

Answer: Not including the initial step which is automatically created by
Abaqus/CAE, there is only one step in this analysis.
Question W1–7: What element type is used to model the lug?

Answer: C3D20R elements—i.e., 20-node brick elements (three-
dimensional, quadratic, hexahedral continuum elements) with
reduced integration—are used to model the lug.
247
W1.12

analyses?
Answer: No. The density is necessary for analysis procedures that
consider inertia effects. In a static analysis inertia effects are
not considered.
condition?
Answer: You could have chosen to fix all six degrees of freedom
separately by choosing the Displacement/Rotation type
boundary condition and specifying zero values for all degrees
of freedom from 1 through 6.
Answer: The model has 288 elements. The total number of variables,
including degrees of freedom plus any Lagrange multiplier
variables, is 5211.
Question W1–11: How have the displacement and stress results changed after
the load reduction? Do the results reflect the reduction in
loading?
Answer: The displacements and stresses have decreased by a factor of
two, since this is a linear analysis and our load was decreased
by a factor of two.
248
Notes
249
Notes
250
Workshop 2
Linear Static Analysis of a Cantilever Beam:

Multiple Load Cases
Interactive Version

workshop.
Introduction
In this workshop you will become familiar with using load cases in a linear static
analysis. You will model a cantilever beam. The left end of the beam is encastred while a
series of loads are applied to the free end. Six load cases are considered: unit forces in the
global X-, Y-, and Z-directions as well as unit moments about the global X-, Y-, and Z-
directions. The model is shown in Figure W2–1. You will solve the problem using a
single perturbation step with six load cases and (optionally) using six perturbation steps
with a single load case in each step.
Figure W2–1. Cantilever beam model
251
W2.2
Preliminaries
1. Enter the working directory for this workshop
../abaqus_solvers/interactive/load_cases
2. Run the script ws_solver_load_cases.py using the following command:
abaqus cae startup=ws_solver_load_cases.py.
The above command creates an Abaqus/CAE database named Beam.cae in the current
directory. The geometry, mesh and boundary condition definitions for the beam are
included in the model named LoadCases. You will add the step, load, and load case
definitions to complete the model.
Defining a linear perturbation static step

1. In the Model Tree, double-click the Steps container.
2. In the Create Step dialog box, name the step BeamLoadCases, choose the
Linear perturbation procedure type, and select Static, Linear perturbation from
the list of procedures, and click Continue.
The step editor appears.
3. In the Basic tabbed page of the step editor, type Six load cases applied
to right end of beam in the Description field.
4. Click OK to create the step and to exit the step editor.
Defining loads and load cases

As indicated in Figure W2–1, we wish to apply forces and moments to the right end of
the beam. However, the beam is modeled with solid C3D8I elements which possess only
displacement degrees of freedom. Thus, only forces may be directly applied to the model.
Rather than applying force couples to the model, we will apply concentrated moments to
the end of the beam. To this end, all loads will be transmitted to the beam through a rigid
body constraint. This approach is adopted to take advantage of the fact that the rigid body
reference node possesses six degrees of freedom in three-dimensions: 3 translations and 3
rotations and thus allows direct application of concentrated moments. Rigid bodies and
constraints will be discussed further in Lecture 5.
Note that a rigid body constraint named Constraint-1 has been created to constrain
the free end of the beam with a predefined reference point named RP-1; therefore, the
forces and moments which you will specify on RP-1 will be transmitted to the beam
through this rigid body constraint (see Figure W2–2).
252
W2.3
Apply all forces and

moments here.
Figure W2–2. Rigid body reference point
To define loads:
1. In the Model Tree, double-click the Loads container.
2. In the Create Load dialog box, name the load Force-X, select the step
BeamLoadCases, choose the category Mechanical and the type Concentrated
force, and click Continue.
3. Select the reference point RP-1 as the point to which the load will be applied.
4. Click mouse button 2 in the viewport or click Done in the prompt area to accept
the selection.
5. In the Edit Load dialog box, enter a value of 1.0 for CF1.
6. Click OK to complete the load definition.
7. Using a similar procedure, create two additional Concentrated force loads
named Force-Y and Force-Z and three Moment loads named Moment-X,
Moment-Y, and Moment-Z, with the definitions as listed in Table W2–1.
Tip: To define the additional forces, simply copy Force-X into a new name and
edit its definition; to define the moments, first create Moment-X and then
copy/edit it to define the additional loads.
Abaqus/CAE displays arrows at the reference point indicating the loads applied to
the model.
253
W2.4
Table W2–1. Load definitions

Load name Definition
Force-X CF1 = 1.0
Force-Y CF2 = 1.0
Force-Z CF3 = 1.0
Moment-X CM1 = 1.0
Moment-Y CM2 = 1.0
Moment-Z CM3 = 1.0
To define load cases:

1. In the Model Tree, expand the branch of the step BeamLoadCases underneath
the Steps container and double-click Load Cases to create a load case in the
step.
2. In the Create Load Case dialog box, name the load case LC-Force-X, accept
BeamLoadCases as the step, and click Continue.
The load case editor appears.
3. Click at the bottom of the Edit Load Case dialog box.

4. In the Load Selection dialog box that appears, select Force-X and click OK to
confirm the selection and to return to the load case editor.
5. Click OK to exit the Edit Load Case dialog box.
6. Create five additional load cases: one for each of the remaining loads. Name the
load cases LC-Force-Y, LC-Force-Z, LC-Moment-X, LC-Moment-Y, and
LC-Moment-Z and add the corresponding load to each.
Tip: Copy/edit LC-Force-X to define the additional load cases.
Note that the fixed-end boundary conditions were defined in the initial step, and
as such, are active in each load case of the analysis step.
Creating and submitting the analysis job
To create and submit the analysis job:

1. Create a job named LoadCases for this linear static perturbation analysis.
Tip: To create a job, double-click Jobs in the Model Tree.
2. Save your model database file and submit the job for analysis. In the Model Tree,
click mouse button 3 on the job name and select Submit from the menu that
appears. From the same menu, you can select Monitor to monitor the job’s
progress.
254
W2.5
Viewing the analysis results

When the job is complete, click mouse button 3 on the job LoadCases in the Model Tree
and select Results from the menu that appears.
Abaqus/CAE switches to the Visualization module and opens the output database
LoadCases.odb. Examine the results of the analysis. Note that load case output is
stored in separate frames in the output database. Use the Frame Selector (click in
the context bar) to choose which load case is displayed (alternatively, open the
Step/Frame dialog box by selecting Result→Step/Frame). Figure W2–3 shows contour
plots of the Mises stress for each of the load cases.
Figure W2–3. Mises stress contours
255
W2.6
Combining results from the load cases and envelope plots

You will now linearly combine the results of each load case to plot the stress and
deformation in the beam under a given load combination. Recall that each load case is
based on a unit load; the results of each load case will be scaled relative to those obtained
for LC-Force-Y when combining the data.
1. From the main menu bar, select Tools→Create Field Output→From Frames.
2. In the dialog box that appears, accept Sum values over all frames as the
operation.
3. In the Frames tabbed page, click . In the Add Frames dialog box that
appears, choose BeamLoadCases as the step from which to obtain the data.
Click Select All and then click OK to close the dialog box.
4. Remove the initial frame; for the remaining frames, enter the scale factors shown
in Figure W2–4.
Figure W2–4 Scale factors for linear combination of load cases.
5. Switch to the Fields tabbed page to examine the data that will be combined.
Accept the default selection (all available field data) and click OK to close the
dialog box.
6. From the main menu bar, select Result→Step/Frame.
256
W2.7
7. In the Step/Frame dialog box, select Session Step as the active step for output
and click OK.
8. Plot the Mises stress as shown in Figure W2–5. Note that this figure has been
customized to overlay the undeformed model shape on the contour plot and a
deformation scale factor of 5e4 has been used.
Figure W2–5 Mises stress due to combined loading.
9. Now create an envelope plot of the maximum stress in the beam:

a. From the main menu bar, select Tools→Create Field Output→From
Frames.
b. In the dialog box that appears, select Find the maximum value over all
frames as the operation.
c. In the Frames tabbed page, click . In the Add Frames dialog box
that appears, choose BeamLoadCases as the step from which to obtain
the data. Select all but the initial frame then click OK to close the dialog
box.
d. Switch to the Fields tabbed page. Unselect all output and then select only
S and U.
e. Click OK to close the dialog box.
f. From the main menu bar, select Result→Step/Frame.
g. In the Step/Frame dialog box, select Session Step as the active step for
output and The maxmum value over all selected frames as the frame,
as shown in Figure W2–6.
257
W2.8
Figure W2–6 Frame selection for envelope plot.
h. In the Field Output dialog box (Result→Field Output), select S_max as

the primary variable and U_max as the deformed variable.
i. Plot the Mises stress as shown in Figure W2–7. Note that this figure has
been customized to overlay the undeformed model shape on the contour
plot and a deformation scale factor of 5e4 has been used.
Figure W2–7 Envelope plot of maximum Mises stress.
258
W2.9
Using Multiple Perturbation Steps (Optional)

Now perform the same analysis using multiple perturbation steps rather than multiple
load cases.
1. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the model LoadCases and select
Copy Model from the menu that appears. Name the new model MultiSteps.
2. For the model MultiSteps, delete the step BeamLoadCases.
Note that all of the loads and load cases will be deleted when you delete the step
BeamLoadCases.
3. Create six new linear perturbation static steps named Step-FX, Step-FY, Step-
FZ, Step-MX, Step-MY, and Step-MZ.
4. In the Model Tree, double-click the Loads container for the model MultiSteps
and define a concentrated force load called Force-X in the step Step-FX with
CF1=1.0 at the reference point.
5. Similarly, create loads named Force-Y, Force-Z, Moment-X, Moment-Y, and
Moment-Z in steps Step-FY, Step-FZ, Step-MX, Step-MY, and Step-MZ,
respectively. Here CF2=1.0, CF3=1.0, CM1=1.0, CM2=1.0, and CM3=1.0 at
the reference point in the respective loads.
Note that the fixed-end boundary conditions were defined in the initial step, and
therefore, are active in each analysis step.
6. Create a new job named MultiSteps for the model MultiSteps and make sure to
select the new model for the source. Submit the new job for analysis and monitor
the job’s status.
7. When the job is complete, open the output database MultiSteps.odb in the
Visualization module and compare the results obtained using both modeling
approaches. You will find that the results are identical.
Comparing solution times

Next, open the message (.msg) file for each job in the job monitor. Scroll to the bottom
of the file and compare the solution times. You will notice that the multiple step analysis
required 2.5 times as much CPU time as the multiple load case analysis. For a small
model such as this one, the overall analysis time is small so speeding up the analysis by a
factor of three may not appear significant. However, it is clear that for large jobs, the
speedup offered by multiple load cases will play a significant role in reducing the time
required to obtain a solution for a given problem.
259
W2.10
Multiple load case analysis:
ANALYSIS SUMMARY:
1 ITERATIONS
:
:
THE SPARSE SOLVER HAS BEEN USED FOR THIS ANALYSIS.
JOB TIME SUMMARY

USER TIME (SEC) = 0.10000
SYSTEM TIME (SEC) = 0.10000
TOTAL CPU TIME (SEC) = 0.20000
WALLCLOCK TIME (SEC) = 1
Multiple perturbation step analysis:
ANALYSIS SUMMARY:
6 ITERATIONS
:
:
JOB TIME SUMMARY

Note: A script that creates the complete models described in these

work. The script is named ws_solver_load_cases_answer.py and is
available using the Abaqus fetch utility.
260
Notes
261
Notes
262
Workshop 3
Nonlinear Statics
Interactive Version

workshop.
Goals
 Define alternate nodal and material directions.
 Include nonlinear geometric effects by adding the NLGEOM parameter.
 Include nonlinear material effects by defining plastic material behavior.
 Become familiar with the output for an incremental analysis.
Introduction
In this workshop you will model the plate shown in Figure W3–1. It is skewed at 30 to
the global X-axis, built-in at one end, and constrained to move on rails parallel to the
plate axis at the other end. You will determine the midspan deflection when the plate
carries a uniform pressure. You will modify the model to include alternate nodal and
material directions as well as nonlinear effects.
263
W3.2
All degrees of freedom at this end are

constrained except along the axis of
the plate.
Figure W3–1. Sketch of skewed plate
Preliminaries
../abaqus_solvers/interactive/skew
2. Run the script ws_solver_skew_plate.py using the following command:
abaqus cae startup=ws_solver_skew_plate.py.
The above command creates an Abaqus/CAE database named SkewPlate.cae in the
current directory. A model named linear includes the geometry, mesh and material
definitions for the plate. You will first add the necessary data to complete the linear
analysis model. You will later perform the simulation considering both geometrically and
material nonlinear effects. In a subsequent workshop a restart analysis will be performed
to study the unloading of the plate.
Defining the local material directions

The orientation of the structure in the global coordinate system is shown in
Figure W3–1. The global Cartesian coordinate system defines the default material
directions, but the plate is skewed relative to this system. It will not be easy to interpret
the results of the simulation if you use the default material directions because the direct
stress in the material 1-direction (i.e., global X-direction), 11, will contain contributions
from both the axial stress, produced by the bending of the plate, and the stress transverse
264
W3.3
to the axis of the plate. It will be easier to interpret the results if the material directions
are aligned with the axis of the plate and the transverse direction. Therefore, a local
rectangular coordinate system is needed in which the local x-direction lies along the axis
of the plate (i.e., at 30º to the global X-axis) and the local y-direction is also in the plane
of the plate.
You will define the datum coordinate system (CSYS) and then assign the material
orientation.
1. Switch to the Property module and define a rectangular datum coordinate system
as shown in Figure W3–2 using the Create Datum CSYS: 2 Lines tool .
a. Note the small black triangles at the base of the toolbox icons. These
triangles indicate the presence of hidden icons that can be revealed. Click
the Create Datum CSYS: 3 Points tool but do not release the mouse
button. When additional icons appear, release the mouse button.
b. Select the Create Datum CSYS: 2 Lines tool . It appears in the

toolbox with a white background indicating that you selected it.
c. In the Create Datum CSYS dialog box, name the datum CSYS Skew,
select the Rectangular coordinate system type, and click Continue.
Make the next two selections as indicated in Figure W3–2.
Select this edge

to be in the
local x-y plane
Select this edge to be along the

local x-direction
Figure W3–2. Datum coordinate system used to define local directions
2. Assign the material orientations to the plate.
a. In the toolbox, click the Assign Material Orientation tool .

b. Select the entire part as the region to be assigned a local material
orientation.
265
W3.4
confirm the selection.
d. Click Datum CSYS List in the prompt area.
e. In the Datum CSYS List dialog box, select skew and click OK. In the
material orientation editor, select Axis 3 for the direction of the
approximate shell normal. No additional rotation is needed about this axis.
f. Click OK to confirm the input.
Tip: To verify that the local material directions have been assigned correctly,
select Tools→Query from the main menu bar and perform a property query
on the material orientations.
Once the part has been meshed and elements have been created in the model, all
element variables will be defined in this local coordinate system.
Prescribing boundary conditions and applied loads

As shown in Figure W3–1, the left end of the plate is completely fixed; the right end is
constrained to move on rails that are parallel to the axis of the plate. Since the latter
boundary condition direction does not coincide with the global axes, you must define a
local coordinate system that has an axis aligned with the plate. You can use the datum
coordinate system that you created earlier to define the local directions.
1. In the Model Tree, double-click the BCs container and define a
Displacement/Rotation mechanical boundary condition named Rail
boundary condition in the Apply Pressure step.
In this example you will assign boundary conditions to sets rather than to regions
selected directly in the viewport. Thus, when prompted for the regions to which
the boundary condition will be applied, click Sets in the prompt area of the
viewport.
2. From the Region Selection dialog box that appears, select the set Plate-1.EndB.
Toggle on Highlight selections in viewport to make sure the correct set is
selected. The right edge of the plate should be highlighted. Click Continue.
3. In the Edit Boundary Condition dialog box, click to specify the local
coordinate system in which the boundary condition will be applied. In the
viewport, select the datum CSYS Plate-1.Skew. The local x-direction is
aligned with the plate axis.
Note that Plate-1.Skew is the assembly-level datum CSYS generated by the
part-level datum CSYS Skew.
4. In the Edit Boundary Condition dialog box, fix all degrees of freedom except for
U1 by toggling them on and entering a value of 0 for each.
The right edge of the plate is now constrained to move only in the direction of the
plate axis. Once the plate has been meshed and nodes have been generated in the
model, all printed nodal output quantities associated with this region
266
W3.5
(displacements, velocities, reaction forces, etc.) will be written in this local

coordinate system.
5. Create another boundary condition named Fix left end to fix all degrees of
freedom at the left edge of the plate (set Plate-1.EndA). Use the default global
directions for this boundary condition.
6. Define a uniform pressure load named Pressure across the top of the shell in the
Apply Pressure step. Select both regions of the part using [Shift]+Click, and
choose the top side of the shell (Brown) as the surface to which the pressure load
will be applied. You may need to rotate the view to more clearly distinguish the
top side of the plate. Specify a load magnitude of 2.0E4 Pa.
Running the job and postprocessing the results

1. Create a job named SkewPlate with the following description: Linear
Elastic Skew Plate, 20 kPa Load.
2. Save your model database file.
3. Submit the job for analysis and monitor the solution progress.
When the analysis is complete, use the following procedure to postprocess the
analysis results.
4. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the job SkewPlate and select Results
from the menu that appears to open the file SkewPlate.odb in the Visualization
module.
5. Click the Plot Deformed Shape tool to plot the deformed shape.
6. Use the the Query information tool to probe the value of the midspan
deformation.
a. In the Query dialog box, select Probe values in the Visualization
Module Queries field.
b. Change the displayed field variable to the displacement along the 3-
direction. In the Probe Values dialog box, click to change the default
field output variable to U3. In the Field Output dialog box that appears,
select U as the output variable and U3 as the component and click OK.
c. In the Probe Values dialog box, select Nodes as the item to probe.
d. Click on a node (as indicated in Figure W3–3) along the midespan to
probe its displacement along the 3-direction. Enter this value in the
“Linear” column of Table W3–1.
267
W3.6
Figure W3–3. Midspan node
Adding geometric nonlinearity

Now perform the simulation considering geometrically nonlinear effects. Copy the model
named linear to a new model named nonlinear. You will add geometric nonlinearity
into the model nonlinear; the changes required for this model are described next.
1. In the Model Tree, expand the Steps container and double-click Apply Pressure
to edit the step definition.
a. In the Basic tabbed page of the Edit Step dialog box, toggle on Nlgeom
to include geometric nonlinearity effects and set the time period for the
step to 1.0.
b. In the Incrementation tabbed page, set the initial increment size to 0.1.
Note that the default maximum number of increments is 100; Abaqus may
use fewer increments than this upper limit, but it will stop the analysis if it
needs more.
You may wish to change the description of the step to reflect that it is now a
nonlinear analysis step.
2. Create a job named NlSkewPlate for the model nonlinear and give it the
description Nonlinear Elastic Skew Plate. Save your model database file.
The Job Monitor is particularly useful in nonlinear analyses. It gives a brief
summary of the automatic time incrementation used in the analysis for each
increment. The information is written as soon as the increment is completed, so
you can monitor the analysis as it is running. This facility is useful in large,
complex problems. The information given in the Job Monitor is the same as that
given in the status file (NlSkewPlate.sta).
4. When the job is complete, open the output database NlSkewPlate.odb in the
Visualization module and plot the deformed model shape.
268
W3.7
5. Query the vetical displacement (U3) of the same midspan node as discribed
earlier and enter the displacement result in the “Nlgeom” column of Table W3–1.
Table W3–1. Midspan displacements

Load (kPa) Linear (m) Nlgeom (m)
20
60
6. Triple the pressure in both the linear and nonlinear analysis models. Create new
jobs and run each of these analyses
7. Upon job completion, look at the results and enter the vertical displacement of the
same node in Table W3-1.
Question W3–1: How does tripling the load affect the midspan displacement in
the linear analyses?
Question W3–2: How do the results of the nonlinear analyses compare to each
other and to those from the linear analyses?
Adding Plasticity
You will now include another source of nonlinearity: plasticity. The material data are
shown in Figure W3–4 (in terms of true stress vs. total log strain). Abaqus, however,
requires the plastic material data be defined in terms of true stress and plastic log strain.
Thus, you will need to determine the plastic strains corresponding to each data point (see
the hint below). The changes described below are to be made to the nonlinear model.
1. In the Model Tree, expand the Materials container and double-click Steel.
2. In the Edit Material dialog box, add plasticity by choosing
Mechanical→Plasticity→ Plastic.
3. Enter the data lines corresponding to points A and B on the stress-strain curve as
shown in Figure W3–4.
The Young’s modulus for this material is 30E9 Pa.
Hint: The total strain tot at any point on the curve is equal to the sum of the
elastic strain el and plastic strain pl. The elastic strain at any point on the curve
can be evaluated from Young’s modulus and the true stress:el= / E. Use the
following relationship to determine the plastic strains to include on the plastic
option:
 pl   tot   el   tot   E .
269
W3.8
You can use the command line interface (CLI) of Abaqus/CAE as a simple
calculator. For example, to compute the plastic strain at B, type
0.02-(3e7/3e10) in the command line interface and hit [Enter]. The value
of the plastic strain is printed (in this case the plastic strain at B is 0.019).
Note that the command line interface is hidden by default, but it uses the same
space that is occupied by the message area at the bottom of the main window.
To access the command line interface, click the yellow prompt button in
the bottom left corner of the main window.
Question W3–3: Why is the second entry on the first data line of the plasticity
option equal to 0.0?
4. Change the pressure to 10 kPa.

a. In the Model Tree, double-click Pressure underneath the Loads
container.
b. In the Edit Load dialog box that appears, enter a value of 10000 for
Magnitude.
5. Request restart output every increment in the step named Apply Pressure (switch
to the Step module; select Output→Restart Requests).
Note that the step name is important for the restart analysis to be performed later.
6. Create a new job named PlSkewPlate and give it the description Nonlinear
Plastic Skew Plate.
Figure W3–4. Stress versus strain curve
270
W3.9
Postprocessing an incremental analysis

When the job is complete, visualize the output database PlSkewPlate.odb in the
Visualization module.
1. By default, the last increment of the last step is selected. Use the Frame Selector
in the context bar to select other steps or increments; alternatively, use the
Step/Frame dialog box (Result→Step/Frame).
2. Use the view manipulation tools to position the model as you wish. Turn
perspective on or off by clicking the Turn Perspective On tool or the Turn
Perspective Off tool in the toolbar.
3. Plot the deformed shape by clicking the Plot Deformed Shape tool .
A sample deformed shape plot is shown in Figure W3–5. Your plot may look
different if you have positioned your model differently
Figure W3–5. Final deformed shape
4. Create a contour plot of variable S11 by following this procedure:
a. Click the Plot Contours tool in the toolbox.

b. Select Result→Field Output.
c. In the Field Output dialog box, select S11 as the stress component.
d. Click Section Points to select a section point.
e. In the Section Points dialog box that appears, select Top and bottom as
the active locations and click OK.
Your contour plot should look similar to Figure W3–6. Abaqus plots the
contours of the Mises stress on both the top and bottom faces of each shell
element. To see this more clearly, rotate the model in the viewport.
271
W3.10
Figure W3–6. Contour plot of S11: SPOS, top image; SNEG, bottom image
Question W3–4: Where do the peak displacements and stresses occur in the
model?
5. Click the Animate: Time History tool to animate the results.

You can stop the animation and move between frames and steps by using the
arrow buttons in the context bar.
6. Render the shell thickness (View→ODB Display Options; toggle on Render
shell thickness).
The plot appears as shown in Figure W3–7. Note that for the purpose of
visualization, a linear interpolation is used between the contours on the top and
bottom surfaces of the shell.
272
W3.11
Figure W3–7 Contour plot with shell thickness visible.
7. Create a displacement history plot of U3 of the midspan node you tracked in the
previous analyses:
a. In the Results Tree, expand the History Output container underneath the
output database named PlSkewPlate.odb.
b. Click History Output and press F2; filter the container according to *U3*.
c. Double-click the data object for the node tracked in the previous analyses.
Your plot should look similar to Figure W3–8. Note this figure has been
customized.
Figure W3–8. History of displacement at the midspan
273
W3.12

work. The script is named
ws_solver_skew_plate_answer.py
and is available using the Abaqus fetch utility.
274
W3.13
Answers
Answer: The midspan displacement is tripled in the linear analysis.
Answer: The midspan displacement is not tripled in the nonlinear
analysis when the load is tripled. At the higher load, the value
of the displacement predicted by the nonlinear analysis is less
than the value predicted by the linear analysis.
Question W3–3: Why is the second entry on the first data line of the plastic
option equal to 0.0?
Answer: The first data line of the plastic option defines the initial yield
point. The plastic strain at this point is zero.
model?
Answer: The peak value of vertical displacement occurs at the midspan.
The supports of the plate are likely to be heavily stressed; this
is confirmed by contour plots of S11.
275
276
Notes
277
Notes
278
Workshop 4
Unloading Analysis of a Skew Plate
Interactive Version

workshop.
Introduction
You will now continue the analysis of the plate shown in Figure W4–1. Recall our
analysis includes geometric and material nonlinearity. We previously determined the
plate exceeded the material yield strength and therefore has some plastic deformation.
Since we requested restart output, we can resume the analysis to determine the residual
stress state. In this workshop we will remove the load in order to recover the elastic
deformation; the plastic deformation will remain.

the plate.
Figure W4–1 Sketch of the skew plate.
279
W4.2
Adding a restart model

Open the database ../abaqus_solvers/interactive/skew/SkewPlate.cae
created in the previous workshop and copy the model named nonlinear to a new model
named restart. The changes required for this model are described next.
Model Attributes
1. In the Model Tree, double-click the model restart to edit the attributes for the
restart analysis model. (Alternatively, from the main menu bar, select
Model→Edit Attributes→restart.)
2. On the Restart tab of the Edit Model Attributes dialog box:
a. Click the checkbox to indicate the (previous) job where the restart data
was saved (recall this job was named PlSkewPlate).
b. Indicate the step from which to restart the analysis (recall this step was
named Apply Pressure) and that the restart analysis will commence from
the end of the step.
Step definition
1. In the Model Tree, double-click the Steps container to add a new general static
step after the Apply Pressure step.
2. Name the step Unload.
3. In the Basic tabbed page of the Edit Step dialog box, Nlgeom should already be
on to include geometric nonlinearity effects.
4. Set the time period for the step to 1.0.
5. As before, in the Incrementation tabbed page, set the initial increment size to
0.1.
Loads
1. Use the Load Manager to deactivate the pressure load in the step named Unload.
Alternatively, you could simply edit the load magnitude (for example, to examine
the effect of a load reversal).
Job definition
1. Create a new job named PlSkewPlate-unload using the model restart and
enter the following job description: Unload Plastic Skew Plate.
Note that the job type is set to Restart.
3. Submit the job for analysis, and monitor the solution progress.
4. Correct any modeling errors, and investigate the source of any warning messages.
280
W4.3
Postprocessing
In the Visualization module, contour the U3 displacement component in the plate:
1. Click the Plot Contours tool in the toolbox.

2. From the list of variable types on the left side of the Field Output toolbar, select
Primary (if it is not already selected).
3. From the list of available output variables in the center of the toolbar, select
output variable U (spatial displacement at nodes).
4. From the list of available components and invariants on the right side of the Field
Output toolbar, select U3.
5. Compare to the results at the end of the Apply Pressure step.
Note that in this output database file, the results for frame 0 correspond to the
results at the end of the Apply Pressure step (use the Frame Selector to
switch to a different frame).
The difference between the final state of the model and its initial state is due to
the elastic springback that has occurred. The deformation that remains is
permanent and unrecoverable.

work. The script is named ws_solver_skew_plate_answer.py and is
281
282
Notes
283
Notes
284
Workshop 5
CLD Analysis of a Seal using Abaqus/Standard
Interactive Version

workshop.
Goals
 Evaluate a hyperelastic material.
 Define contact interactions using contact pairs and general contact.
 Perform a large displacement analysis with Abaqus/Standard.
 Use the Visualization module to create a compression load-deflection curve.
Introduction
In this workshop, a compression analysis of a rubber seal is performed to determine the
seal’s performance. The goal is to determine the seal’s compression load-deflection
(CLD) curve, deformation and stresses. The analysis will be performed using
Abaqus/Standard. Two analyses are performed: one using contact pairs and the other
using general contact.
As shown in Figure W5–1, the top outer surface of the seal is covered with a polymer
layer, and the seal is compressed between two rigid surfaces (the upper one is displaced
along the negative Y-direction; the lower one is fixed). During compression, the cover
contacts the top rigid surface; the outer surface of the seal is in contact with the cover and
the bottom rigid surface; in addition the inner surface of the seal may come into contact
with itself.
285
W5.2
Cover U2
Rigid
Surfaces
Seal
fixed
Figure W5–1. Seal model: meshed assembly
Preliminaries
../abaqus_solvers/interactive/seal
2. Run the script ws_solver_seal.py using the following command:
abaqus cae startup=ws_solver_seal.py.
The above command creates an Abaqus/CAE database named seal.cae in the current
directory. The geometry, mesh, and material definitions are included in the model named
Seal. You will first perform a material evaluation to evaluate the stability of the
hyperelastic material model, add the necessary data to complete the model, run the job,
and finally postprocess the results.
Material Evaluation
It is important to determine whether the material model of the seal will be stable during
the analysis. Before completing the model, evaluate the material definition used for the
seal.
1. Review the material definition. In the Model Tree, double-click Santoprene
underneath the Materials container. It is a hyperelastic material with a first-order
polynomial strain energy potential. The coefficients are already chosen for the
analysis.
2. Evaluate the material definition. Abaqus/CAE provides a convenient Evaluate
option that allows you to view the behavior predicted by a hyperelastic material
by performing standard tests to choose a suitable material formulation. You will
use this option to view the behavior predicted by the material Santoprene.
286
W5.3
a. From the main menu bar in the Property module, choose

Material→Evaluate→Santoprene.
b. The Evaluate Material dialog box appears. Notice that you can choose
either the Coefficients or Test data source for evaluating the material.
Typically the test data are used to define a material model; you can use the
Evaluate option to view the predicted behavior and adjust the material
definition as necessary. In this workshop you will only evaluate the
stability of the material model for the given coefficients.
c. In the Evaluate Material dialog box, accept all defaults and click OK.
Abaqus/CAE creates and submits a job to perform the standard tests using
the material Santoprene; at the same time, Abaqus/CAE switches to the
Visualization module and displays the evaluation results when the job is
complete. Figure W5–2 shows the Material Parameters and Stability
Limit Information dialog box; Figure W5–3 shows three stress vs. strain
plots from uniaxial, biaxial, and planar tests.
Question W5–1: What do the plots indicate about the stability of the material?
Based on these results, you can have confidence that your material will remain
stable.
Figure W5–2. Material parameters and stability limit information
287
W5.4
Figure W5–3. Material evaluation results for uniaxial, biaxial, and planar tests
After evaluating the material, you will now complete the model definition. Close the
viewports and dialog box displaying the material evaluation results, if necessary, to view
the model for the subsequent procedure.
288
W5.5
Part 1: Analysis using contact pairs
Defining the step and the contact pairs

1. In the Model Tree, double-click the Steps container to create a static, general step
named PushDown.
a. In the Basic tabbed page of the step editor, set the time period to 1 and
turn on Nlgeom.
b. In the Incrementation tabbed page, enter a value of 0.005 for Initial
Increment size and 200 for Maximum number of increments.
c. In the Other tabbed page, select Unsymmetric as the matrix storage
scheme (it is recommended when the surface-to-surface contact
discretization method is used).
2. Define a contact pair between the seal and the bottom rigid surface.
a. In the Model Tree, double-click the Interactions container. In the Create
Interaction dialog box, name the interaction BotSeal and select the step
PushDown and Surface-to-surface contact (Standard). Click
Continue.
b. You will be prompted to select a master surface. In the prompt area, click
Surfaces. In the Region Selection dialog box that appears, select the
predefined surface Bottom and toggle on Highlight selections in
viewport to view this surface. Click Continue.
c. In the prompt area, select Surface as the slave surface type. In the Region
Selection dialog box that appears, select the predefined surface
SealOuter and visualize this surface. Click Continue.
The interaction editor appears.
d. In the Edit Interaction dialog box accept all defaults and click OK.
Note that Abaqus/CAE automatically assigns the predefined (also the only
available) interaction property frictionless to this interaction.
3. Using a similar procedure, define the following contact pairs as listed in Table
W5–1 with the interaction property frictionless.
Table W5–1. Contact pairs

Interaction Name Master Surface Slave Surface
TopCover Top Cover
SealCover Cover SealOuter
Question W5–2: In the interaction SealCover, why do we choose SealOuter

as the slave surface?
289
W5.6
4. Create a self-contact interaction for the inner surface of the seal.

Interaction dialog box, name the interaction SealSelf and select the
step PushDown and Self-contact (Standard). Click Continue.
b. In the Region Selection dialog box that appears, select the predefined
surface SealInner and visualize this surface. Click Continue.
c. In the Edit Interaction dialog box accept all defaults and click OK.
Defining boundary conditions and output requests

Asymmetric lateral sliding of the model is prevented by constraining the seal and the
cover along their vertical symmetry axes in the X-direction. The bottom rigid surface is
fixed, and a displacement of –6 units is applied to the top rigid surface along the Y-
direction to compress the seal between the two surfaces. To complete these boundary
conditions:
1. In the Model Tree, double-click the BCs container to create a
Displacement/Rotation type boundary condition named Fix1 in the step
PushDown.
a. When prompted to select the region, click Sets in the prompt area (if
necessary).
b. In the Region Selection dialog box, select the predefined set Fix1, toggle
on Highlight selections in viewport to visualize the selection, and click
Continue.
c. In the Edit Boundary Condition dialog box, toggle on U1, accept the
default value of 0, and click OK.
2. Create a Symmetry/Antisymmetric/Encastre type boundary condition named
FixBot to encastre the predefined set BotRP (the reference node of the bottom
rigid surface).
3. Create a Displacement/Rotation type boundary condition named PushDown in
the step PushDown to define the displacement of the top rigid surface.
a. Select the predefined set TopRP (the reference node of the top rigid
surface).
b. Specify a value of 0 for U1 and UR3, and -6 for U2.
4. Edit the field output request named F-Output-1 to include the nominal strain, NE.
5. Create a new history output request in the step PushDown for the set TopRP to
write the history of the variables Displacements: U and Forces: RF to the output
database file.
290
W5.7

1. Create a job named seal for the model Seal.
2. Save your model database, submit the job for analysis, and monitor the job’s
process.
When the job is complete, open the output database file seal.odb in the
Visualization module and postprocess the results.
3. Plot the undeformed and the deformed model shapes. To distinguish between the
different instances, color code the model based on part instances.
Tip: From the toolbar, select Part instances from the color-coding pull down
menu, as shown in Figure W5–4 (or use the Color Code Dialog tool to
customize the color for each part instance).
Figure W5–4. Color-coding pull down menu
4. Use the Animate: Time History tool to animate the deformation history.
5. Display only the seal. In the Results Tree, expand the Instances container
underneath the output database file named seal.odb. Click mouse button 3 on
the instance SEAL-1 and select Replace from the menu that appears.
Abaqus/CAE now displays only this instance.
6. Contour the Mises stress of the seal on the deformed shape. If necessary, use the
frame selector in the context bar to select the final increment.
The contour plot is shown in Figure W5–5.
291
W5.8
Figure W5–5. Mises contour plot
7. Contour the minimum and maximum principal nominal strains. Elastic strains can
be very high for hyperelastic materials. Because of this, the linear elastic material
model is not used because it is not appropriate for elastic strains greater than
approximately 5%.
8. Display the reaction force history at the reference node of the top rigid surface: In
the Results Tree, expand the History Output container underneath the output
database file named seal.odb and double-click Reaction force: RF2 PI: TOP-1
Node 3 in NSET TOPRP.
9. You will now create the CLD curve.
a. In the History Output container, click mouse button 3 on Reaction force:
RF2 PI: TOP-1 Node 3 in NSET TOPRP and select Save As from the
menu that appears. Save the data as Force.
b. Click mouse button 3 on Spatial displacement: U2 PI: TOP-1 Node 3 in
NSET TOPRP and select Save As from the menu that appears. Save the
data as Disp.
c. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData. In the Create XY Data dialog
box that appears, select the Operate on XY data source and click
Continue.
The Operate on XY Data dialog box appears.
d. From the Operators listed in the Operate on XY Data dialog box, select
combine(X, X) and then abs(A). Note that the abs(A) operator is used to
obtain the absolute values. In the XY Data field, double-click the curve
Disp. The current expression reads combine(abs("Disp")). Move the
cursor before the far-right bracket, enter a comma, and then select the
operator abs(A). In the XY Data field, double-click the curve Force. The
final expression reads combine(abs("Disp"), abs("Force") ).
Click Plot Expression to plot this expression. Save this plot as CLD.
292
W5.9
10. Customize the plot as follows:

a. From the main menu bar, select Options→XY Options→Plot.
 In the Plot Options dialog box, fill the plot background in white.
b. Double-click anywhere on the chart to open the Chart Options dialog
box.
 In the Grid Display tabbed page, toggle on the major X- and Y-
grid lines. Set the line color to blue and the line style to dashed.
 Change the fill color using the following RGB values: red: 175;
green: 250; blue: 185.
In the Grid Area tabbed page, select Square as the size and drag
the slider to 80. From the list of auto-alignments, choose the one
that places the chart in the center of the viewport
c. Double-click the legend to open the Chart Legend Options dialog box.
 In the Contents tabbed page, click to increase the legend text
font size to 10.
 In the Area tabbed page, toggle on Inset.
 Toggle on Fill to flood the legend with a white background.
 In the viewport, drag the legend over the chart.
d. Double-click either axis to open the Axis Options dialog box.
 In the X Axis region of the dialog box, select the displacement
axis.
 In the Scale tabbed page, place 4 major tick marks on the X-axis at
(use the By count method).
 In the Title tabbed page, change the X-axis title to Displacement
(inch).
 In the Y Axis region of the dialog box, select the force axis.
 In the Scale tabbed page, specify that the Y-axis should extend
from 0 (the Y-axis minimum) to 250 (the Y-axis maximum).
 Increase the number of Y-axis minor tick marks per increment to 4.
 In the Title tabbed page, change the Y-axis title to Force (lbf).
 In the Axes tabbed page, change the font size for both axes to 10.

e. Expand the list of plot option icons in the toolbox:
293
W5.10
f. Examine the remaining options. Add the following plot title: CLD
Diagram. Double-click the plot title to open the Plot Title Options dialog
box.
 In the Title tabbed page, click to change the legend text style to
bold.
 In the viewport, drag the plot title above the chart.
g. Click in the toolbox to open the Curve Options dialog box. Change
the legend text to Top Surface Ref Point and toggle on Show
symbol. Set the color for both the line and symbols to red. Use large filled
squares for the symbols. Reposition the legend as necessary.
The final plot appears as shown in Figure W5–6.
Figure W5–6. Compression load deflection diagram
Question W5–3: What does the inverted peak near 4 inches of deflection
represent?
294
W5.11
Part 2: Analysis using general contact

1. Copy the model named Seal to one named Seal_gc.
Make all subsequent modifications to the new model.
2. In the Model Tree, expand the Interactions container and select the 4 interactions
defined earlier.
3. Click mouse button 3 and select Delete from the menu that appears, as shown in
Figure W5–7.
Figure W5–7. Contact pairs to be deleted
4. In the Model Tree, double-click Interactions (or select Interaction→Create).

5. In the Create Interaction dialog box that appears, set the step to Initial and
choose General contact (Standard) as the type. Click Continue.
6. In the interaction editor, select frictionless from the list of available Global
property assignment options, as shown in Figure W5–8.
295
W5.12
Figure W5–8. General contact interaction
7. Click OK to complete the operation.

8. Create a job named seal_gc for the model Seal_gc.
process.
When the job is complete, open the output database file seal_gc.odb in the
Visualization module and postprocess the results.
10. Compare the results with those obtained using contact pairs. A comparison of the
stress state in the seal is shown in Figure W5–9 while a comparison of the force-
displacement curve is shown in Figure W5–10.
The agreement between the two approaches is excellent. The general contact
approach, however, provides a much simpler user interface since the entire
contact domain is defined automatically and properties are assigned globally.
296
W5.13
Figure W5–9. Comparison of the stress state in the seal

(general contact, top; contact pairs, bottom)
Figure W5–10. Comparison of force-displacement curves
297
W5.14
Note: A script that creates the complete seal model is available for your
convenience. Run this script if you encounter difficulties following the
instructions or if you wish to check your work. The script is named
ws_solver_seal_answer.py
298
W5.15
Answers
Answer: The plots never have a negative slope, indicating that the
material is stable throughout the entire strain range.
Question W5–2: In the interaction SealCover, why do we choose SealOuter

as the slave surface?
Answer: SealOuter has a more refined mesh and should therefore be
specified as the slave surface.
represent?
Answer: This peak represents the inward buckling that occurs at the
bottom corners of the seal during compression. If you look at
the deformed shape at the time corresponding to
approximately 3.7 inches of displacement, you will observe
this phenomenon.
299
300
Notes
301
Notes
302
Workshop 6
Dynamics
Interactive Version

workshop.
Goals
 Become familiar with the Abaqus/CAE procedures for frequency extraction and
implicit dynamic analyses.
 Become more familiar with monitoring job status.
 Learn how to plot eigenmodes and create history plots using Abaqus/CAE.
Introduction
In this workshop the dynamic response of the cantilever beam shown in Figure W6–1 is
investigated. A frequency extraction is performed to determine the 10 lowest vibration
modes of the beam. The effects of mesh refinement, element interpolation order, and
element dimension will be considered.
The problem is also solved by performing a direct integration dynamic analysis to
simulate the vibration of the beam upon removal of the tip load. The frequency of the
vibration predicted by the transient analysis will be compared with the natural frequency
results.
Figure W6–1. Problem description
303
W6.2
Preliminaries
../abaqus_solvers/interactive/dynamics
2. Run the script ws_solver_beam.py using the following command:
abaqus cae startup=ws_solver_beam.py.
The above command creates an Abaqus/CAE database named Beam.cae in the current
directory. The model named static includes the beam model for a static, general
analysis. Currently 5 B21 elements are used to discretize the beam. You will edit this
model further as described below.
Part 1: Frequency extraction analysis

Perform a frequency extraction analysis to determine the 10 lowest eigenmodes of the
structure. In the current model do the following.
1. Add a density of 2.3E6 unit to the beam material definition named MATEA.
 In the Model Tree, expand the Materials container and double-click the
material MATEA.
 In the material editor, select General→Density from the menu bar.
 Enter the value 2.3E-6 for Mass Density in the Density field.
2. The frequency analysis procedure will be used instead of the general static one.
Thus, suppress the general static step named Displace (do not delete it since it
will be used later).
a. In the Model Tree, expand the Steps container and click mouse button 3
on the step Displace and select Suppress from the menu that appears.
b. Create a new step named Frequency; select Linear perturbation as the
procedure type and Frequency from the list of available perturbation
steps.
c. Click Continue.
d. In the step editor, accept the default Lanczos eigensolver and enter a
value of 10 for Number of eigenvalues requested.
e. Click OK to save the change and exit the step editor.
3. Create a job named frequency.
process.
304
W6.3
Visualizing results
When the analysis is complete, use the following procedure to view the eigenmodes and
eigenvalues from the frequency analysis in the Visualization module:
1. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the job frequency and select Results
from the menu that appears to open the file frequency.odb in the Visualization
module.
2. Plot the first eigenmode (plot the deformed model shape and use the Frame
Selector or the Step/Frame dialog box to choose the frame corresponding to
Mode 1).
3. Using the arrow keys in the context bar, select different mode shapes.
4. The results for modes 1 and 4 are shown in Figure W6–2. These correspond to the
first and fourth transverse modes of the structure.
5.
Figure W6–2. First and fourth transverse modes
(coarse mesh; 2D linear beam elements)
Question W6–1: Are there modes of the physical system that cannot be
captured by your model because of limitations in element type
or mesh? (Remember that the elements are planar and the
mesh is somewhat coarse.)
Question W6–2: Do any of the mode shapes for your model look non-physical?
305
W6.4
Effect of mesh on extracted modes

From Figure W6–2 it is apparent that such a coarse mesh of linear-interpolation elements
is unable to adequately represent the mode shapes associated with the higher modes. In
fact the current mesh is unable to represent anything beyond the fifth mode.
To obtain accurate results for all extracted modes, a sufficiently refined mesh is required.
Thus, increase the mesh refinement. Also, switch to quadratic interpolation elements
since these provide superior accuracy for frequency extraction analysis.
1. Remesh the part using a global seed size of 5.
2. Change the element type to B22.
3. Create a new job, run it, and compare the results with those obtained previously.
The results for modes 1 and 4 are shown in Figure W6–3.

(fine mesh; 2D quadratic beam elements)
The results indicate that the refined mesh is able to represent all extracted modes.
The natural frequency of the first mode predicted by the fine-mesh model is
within 2% of that predicted by the coarse mesh model. The difference in results
for the fourth mode is more significant: there is an 8% difference in the predicted
natural frequency for this mode.
Note that all modes with the exception of modes 6 and 10 are transverse modes.
Modes 6 and 10 are longitudinal modes. To see the longitudinal modes more
clearly, superimpose the undeformed model shape on the deformed model shape.
306
W6.5
Torsional and out-of-plane modes

The current model, given that it uses two-dimensional beam elements, is unable to
capture any torsional or out-of-plane modes. For this a three-dimensional model is
required (using either beam, solid, or shell elements). With three-dimensional beam
elements, however, it is not possible to visualize the modes. Thus, in what follows, shell
elements are used to capture the out-of-plane modes.
A predefined model named shell is available that uses three-dimensional quadratic shell
elements to represent the beam structure. The shell part is 200 units long by 50 units
wide. The part mesh consists of 40 S8R elements along the length of the structure and 10
along its width. Homogeneous shell section properties with the same material properties
used earlier and a thickness of 5 units are assigned to the part.
1. Create a job for the shell model, run it, and compare the results with those
obtained previously.
2. The results for the first and fourth transverse modes are shown in Figure W6–4.
The agreement in terms of both mode shape and natural frequency between the
(refined) beam and shell models is excellent (compare with Figure W6–3).
Figure W6–4. First and fourth transverse modes (3D shell model)
307
W6.6
3. The three-dimensional model captures the torsional and out-of-plane modes that
are suppressed by the two-dimensional model. The first three of these modes are
Figure W6–5. Torsional and out-of-plane modes (3D shell model)
308
W6.7
Part 2: Transient dynamic analysis

You will now investigate the free vibration of the beam upon removal of the tip load,
using an implicit dynamic procedure (Abaqus/Standard).
1. Copy the model named static to a model named dynamic. Make the following
changes to the dynamic model.
2. Delete the frequency extraction step.
3. Resume the static, general step named Displace.
4. Create a dynamic, implicit step after the static, general step.
a. In the Model Tree, double-click the Steps container.
b. In the Create Step dialog box, name the step Release.
c. Select Dynamic, Implicit from the list of available General procedure
types, and click Continue.
d. In the Edit Step dialog box, accept the default step time 1.
e. In the Incrementation tabbed page, choose Automatic time
incrementation, enter a value of 200 for the maximum number of
increments, and 0.01 for the initial increment size.
f. Click OK to save the data and exit the step editor.
5. Deactivate the load in the step named Release.
a. In the Model Tree, expand the branch of the load DisplaceTip underneath
the Loads container, as shown in Figure W6–6a.
b. Click mouse button 3 on Release (propagated) under the States sub-
container and select Deactivate from the menu that appears.
Note that Release (propagated) is changed into Release (Inactive), as
shown in Figure W6–6b, to indicate that the load is deactivated in this
step.
(a) (b)
Figure W6–6. Loads container in the Model Tree
309
W6.8
A part-level set named TIP has been predefined. This set will be used for writing
the displacement history of the tip node to the output database file and also to
monitor the solution progress. This set is indicated in Figure W6–3.
TIP
Figure W6–3. Part-level node set
6. Add a history output request to write the displacement history every increment for
the set TIP to the output database file.
a. In the Model Tree, double-click the History Output Requests container.
In the Create History dialog box, select the step Displace and click
Continue.
b. In the Edit History Output Request dialog box, select the domain Set
and the set Beam-1.TIP.
c. Expand the Displacement/Velocity/Acceleration branch in the Output
Variables field and toggle on U, Translations and rotations.
d. Click OK to exit the history output editor.
7. It is useful to be able to monitor the progress of an analysis by tracking the value
of one degree of freedom.
a. From the main menu bar of the Step module, select Output→DOF
Monitor to open the DOF Monitor dialog box.
b. Activate the stippled entries by toggling on Monitor a degree of freedom
throughout the analysis.
c. Click to select the set Beam-1.TIP as the Region.

Tip: Click Points in the prompt area to select the set Beam-1.TIP from the
Region Selection dialog box.
d. Enter 2 as the Degree of freedom.
e. Click OK to exit the DOF Monitor dialog box.
8. Create a job named dynamic for the model dynamic.
process.
310
W6.9
Visualizing results
When the analysis is complete, plot the transverse displacement history (U2) at the tip
node.
1. Open the file dynamic.odb in the Visualization module.

2. Plot the history of the displacement component U2 at the tip node. In the Results
Tree, expand the History Output container underneath the output database named
dynamic.odb and double-click Spatial displacement: U2 at Node … in NSET
TIP.
The tip response is shown in Figure W6–7. From this plot, you can estimate the
frequency of the first vibration mode. Note that there are nearly 6 cycles in a 1
second time period. This is in agreement with the results obtained earlier using the
natural frequency extraction procedure (5.95 Hz).
Figure W6–7. Tip node displacement history
Question W6–3: How does this compare with the frequency calculated in the
eigenvalue analysis?
Note: A script that creates the complete model described in these

encounter difficulties following the instructions outlined here or if you wish
to check your work. The script is named ws_solver_beam_answer.py and is
311
W6.10
Answers
mesh is somewhat coarse).
Answer: Because the model is two-dimensional, it cannot capture the
modes that occur out of the plane of the model, including
torsional modes.
The mesh is too coarse to capture modes other than the first
five. Use more elements to look at all 10 requested modes.
Question W6–2: Do any of the mode shapes for your model look nonphysical?
Answer: No.
Answer: The frequency calculated from the history plot of the tip
displacement is approximately 5.9, which agrees very closely
with the frequency calculated in the eigenvalue analysis.
312
Notes
313
Notes
314
Workshop 7
Contact with Abaqus/Explicit
Interactive Version

workshop.
Goals
 Define a rigid body constraint.
 Define a general contact interaction.
 Apply boundary and initial conditions.
 Perform an impact analysis.
 Use Abaqus/Viewer to view results.
Introduction
This workshop involves the simulation of a pipe-on-pipe impact resulting from the
rupture of a high-pressure line in a power plant. It is assumed that a sudden release of
fluid could cause one segment of the pipe to rotate about its support and strike a
neighboring pipe. The goal of the analysis is to determine strain and stress conditions in
both pipes and their deformed shapes. The simulation will be performed using
Abaqus/Explicit.
315
W7.2
fixed end
impacting pipe
axis of rotation
Figure W7–1. Pipe whip model assembly
Both pipes have a mean diameter of 6.5 inches with a 0.432 inch wall thickness and a
span of 50 inches between supports. The fixed pipe is assumed to be fully restrained at
both ends, while the impacting pipe is allowed to rotate about a fixed pivot located at one
of its ends, with the other end free. We exploit the symmetry of the structure and the
loading and thus model only the geometry on one side of the central symmetry plane, as
Preliminaries
../abaqus_solvers/interactive/pipe_whip
2. Run the script ws_solver_pipe_whip.py using the following command:
abaqus cae startup=ws_solver_pipe_whip.py
The above command creates an Abaqus/CAE database named pipeWhip.cae in the
current directory. A model named contact consists of the geometry and mesh
definitions for the pipes. You will add necessary data to complete the model for the
impact analysis.
Defining material and section properties

Both pipes are made of steel. A von Mises elastic, perfectly plastic material model is
used, with a yield stress of 45,000 psi.
1. In the Model Tree, double-click Materials to create a material named Steel with
the following properties:
Modulus of elasticity: 30.0E6 psi
Poisson’s ratio: 0.3
Yield Stress: 45.0E3 psi
Density: 7.324E–4 lb-sec2/in4
316
W7.3
Question W7–1: Why is density required in the material model definition? Can
you comment on the units of density used in this problem?
2. In the Model Tree, double-click Sections to create a homogeneous shell section

named PipeSection. In the Basic tabbed page of the Edit Section dialog box,
select During analysis for the section integration, specify a shell thickness of
0.432 in, select the Gauss thickness integration rule, and view and accept all
other default settings. Click OK to exit the section editor.
3. In the Model Tree, expand the branch of each part underneath the Parts container
and double-click Section Assignments to assign this shell section to both parts.
Question W7–2: Why are only three integration points used through the
thickness?
Defining rigid body constraint

You will define a rigid body constraint between the nodes at the pivot end of the
impacting pipe and the reference point, as shown in Figure W72.
1. In the Model Tree, double-click Constraints.
2. In the Create Constraint dialog box, select Rigid body as the constraint type and
click Continue.
3. In the Edit Constraint dialog box, select the region type Tie (nodes) and click
in the right side of the dialog box.
4. Select the edge(s) shown in Figure W7–2 as the tie region for the rigid body.
5. Similarly, select the reference point RP-1 in the viewport as the rigid body
reference point.
6. In the Edit Constraint dialog box, click OK to apply the constraint.
tie region
Figure W7–2. Rigid body constraint
317
W7.4
Question W7–3: In order to drive both the translations and rotations of the pipe
edge nodes, what type of node set needs to be used in the rigid
body constraint?
Defining step and output requests

Because of the high-speed nature of the event, the simulation is performed using a single
explicit dynamics step.
1. In the Model Tree, double-click Steps to create a Dynamic, Explicit step with a
time period of 0.015 seconds. Accept all defaults for the time incrementation and
other parameters.
2. In the Model Tree, expand the Field Output Requests container and double-
click F-Output-1. In the Edit Field Output Requests dialog box, review the
preselected field output variables. Change the frequency at which the output is
written to 12 evenly spaced time intervals.
3. In the Model Tree, double-click History Output Requests to create a history
output request for reaction forces at the constrained end of the fixed pipe. In the
Edit History Output Request dialog box:
a. Select Set in the Domain field and select RefPt from the Set drop down
list. Note that the set RefPt contains the reference point.
b. Request history output at 100 evenly spaced time intervals during the
analysis.
c. From the list of available output variables, click the arrow next to
Forces/Reactions and toggle on RF, Reaction forces and moments
from the list that appears.
d. Click OK.
Defining contact interaction

1. In the Model Tree, double-click Interaction Properties.
2. In the Create Interaction Property dialog box, accept Contact as the interaction
type and click Continue.
3. In the Edit Contact Property dialog box, select Mechanical→Tangential
Behavior and choose the Penalty friction formulation. Specify a friction
coefficient of 0.2. Click OK to close the dialog box.
4. In the Model Tree, double-click Interactions.
5. In the Create Interaction dialog box, accept Step-1 as the step in which the
interaction will be created and General contact (Explicit) as the interaction type.
Click Continue.
6. In the Edit Interaction dialog box, accept the All* with self contact domain.
7. Choose the contact property defined earlier and click OK to close the dialog box.
318
W7.5
Defining Initial conditions

The impacting pipe is given an initial angular velocity of 75 radians/sec about its
supported (pinned) end.
Question W7–4: How can you use the coordinates of the reference point to
define the axis of rotation?
1. Perform a Point/Node query ( ) to determine the coordinates of two end points

on the axis of rotation at the pivot end of impacting pipe, as shown in
Figure W7–3.
first point
second point
Figure W7–3. Points on axis of rotation
The coordinates will be printed out to the message area as shown in Figure W7–4.
Figure W7–4. Point coordinates
2. In the Model Tree, double-click Predefined Fields.

3. In the Create Predefined Field dialog box, select the Initial step, the Mechanical
category, and the Velocity type. Click Continue to proceed.
4. Select the impacting pipe as the region to which the initial velocity will be
assigned, and click Done.
319
W7.6
5. In the Edit Predefined Field dialog box, change the field definition to Rotational
only. Enter a value of 75 for the Angular velocity. Use the coordinates of the
first point indicated in Figure W7–3 to define Axis point 1 and the coordinates of
the second point indicated in Figure W7–3 to define Axis point 2.
Tip: Copy and paste the coordinates from the message area into the dialog box.
Question W7–5: What keyword was added to the input file when you created
the angular velocity field? Search the Abaqus Keywords
Reference Manual and read the documentation on this
keyword.
Hint: You can see how Abaqus/CAE creates the input file for
a given model by selecting Model→Edit Keywords from the
main menu bar and viewing its contents. In order to find what
keyword was added in a given step, check the keyword editor
before and after the step in Abaqus/CAE and note the changes.
Defining boundary conditions

The edges located on the symmetry plane must be given appropriate symmetry boundary
conditions. One end of the impacting pipe and both ends of the fixed pipe are fully
restrained.
1. In the Model Tree, double-click BCs.
2. In the Create Boundary Condition dialog box, accept Symmetry/
Antisymmetry/Encastre as the boundary condition type and click Continue to
create the boundary conditions shown in Figure W7–5.
• Symmetry boundary conditions: Select the edges shown in Figure W7–5;
and in the Edit Boundary Condition dialog box, choose the ZSYMM
(U3=UR1=UR2=0) boundary condition.
• Fully constrained boundary conditions: Select the edge shown in
Figure W7–5; and in the Edit Boundary Condition dialog box, choose
the ENCASTRE (U1=U2=U3=UR1=UR2=UR3=0) boundary condition.
• Pinned Boundary condition: Select RP-1 in the viewport. In the Edit
Boundary Condition dialog box, choose the PINNED (U1=U2=U3=0)
boundary condition.
320
W7.7
fully constrained end:

ENCASTRE BC
symmetry: ZSYMM BC
(all edges on this plane) PINNED BC
Figure W7–5. Boundary conditions
Question W7–6: Would the results of this analysis differ if both halves of the
pipe were modeled instead of using symmetry boundary
conditions?

2. A job named pipe-whip has been already been created for you. Submit the job
for analysis, and monitor its progress.
3. When the analysis has completed, open the output database file pipe-whip.odb
in the Visualization module.
4. Plot the undeformed and the deformed model shapes. Use the Color Code Dialog
tool to customize the color for each instance, as shown in Figure W7–6.
Figure W7–6. Deformed model shape
321
W7.8
6. Contour the Mises stress and equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ) on the deformed
shape, as shown in Figure W7–7.
MISES PEEQ
Figure W7–7. Contour plots
7. Create X–Y plots of the model’s kinetic energy (ALLKE), internal energy
(ALLIE), and plastic dissipated energy (ALLPD). The energy plot is shown in
Figure W7–8. Note this figure has been customized for clarity.
Tip: Expand the History Output container in the Results Tree and select the three
curves noted above. Click mouse button 3 and select Plot from the menu that
appears.
Figure W7–8. Energy histories
Question W7–7: What do the energy history plots indicate?
322
W7.9
8. Select the pinned node reaction force components RF1, RF2, and RF3. The
reaction force plot is shown in Figure W7–9. Note this figure has been customized
for clarity.
Figure W7–9. Reaction force histories
Note: A script that creates the complete pipe assembly model is available
for your convenience. Run this script if you encounter difficulties following
the instructions or if you wish to check your work. The script is named
ws_solver_pipe_whip_answer.py and is available using the Abaqus fetch
utility.
323
W7.10
Answers
Answer: All Abaqus/Explicit analyses require a density value because
Abaqus/Explicit solves for dynamic equilibrium (i.e., inertia
effects are considered). The units for all material parameters
must be consistent; in this problem, the English system is used
with pounds and inches as the units for force and length,
respectively. Thus, the consistent unit for density is lb-sec2/in4.
thickness?
Answer: Three section points are used to reduce the run time of the job.
body constraint?
Answer: A tie node set needs to be used.
Answer: The axis passes through the reference point and is parallel to
the 3-direction. Thus, define the axis using two points. Each of
the “axis” points must have the same 1- and 2-coordinates as
the reference point; the values of the 3-coordinates of the
“axis” points will dictate the sense of positive rotation.
Question W7–5: What keyword was added to the input file when you created
the angular velocity predefined field? Search the Abaqus
Keywords Manual and read the documentation on this
keyword.
Answer: Abaqus/CAE adds the keyword *INITIAL CONDITIONS,
TYPE=ROTATING VELOCITY, which imposes a rigid body
type initial rotation on the chosen geometry about a defined
axis.
324
W7.11
Question W7–6: Would the results of this analysis differ if both halves of the
pipe were modeled instead of using symmetry boundary
conditions?
Answer: As long as the model of the pipe whip (including loads,
boundary conditions, and mesh) is symmetric about the
symmetry plane defined, the results from the full model and
the halved model will not differ.

Answer: Near the end of the simulation, the impacting pipe is
beginning to rebound, having dissipated the majority of its
kinetic energy by inelastic deformation in the crushed zone.
325
326
Notes
327
Notes
328
Workshop 8
Quasi-Static Analysis
Interactive Version

workshop.
Goals
 Approximate a quasi-static solution using Abaqus/Explicit.
 Understand the effects of mass scaling.
Introduction
In this workshop you will examine the deep drawing of a can bottom. A one-stage
forming process is simulated in Abaqus/Explicit; the springback analysis is performed in
Abaqus/Standard. The final deformed shape of the can bottom is shown in Figure W8–1.
In a subsequent workshop the import capability is used to transfer the results between
Abaqus/Explicit and Abaqus/Standard in order to perform a springback analysis.
One of the advantages of using Abaqus/Explicit for metal forming simulations is that, in
general, Abaqus/Explicit resolves complicated contact conditions more readily than
Abaqus/Standard.
329
W8.2
Preliminaries
../abaqus_solvers/interactive/forming
2. Run the script ws_solver_can_bottom.py using the following command:
abaqus cae startup=ws_solver_can_bottom.py
The above command creates an Abaqus/CAE database named canBottom.cae in the
current directory. It includes two models. The one named frequency will be used to
determine the first eigenmode of the blank to establish the step time for the subsequent
Abaqus/Explicit analysis. The one named stamp will initially be used to perform the
metal forming analysis and will later be edited for the springback analysis. Figure W8–2
shows the components of the model—the punch, the die, and the blank—in their initial
positions. The blank is modeled using axisymmetric shell elements (SAX1). The shell
reference surface lies at the shell midsurface.
330
W8.3
(0.032, 0.03025)
(0.0, 0.00025)
Origin
(0.0, 0.0)
Figure W8–2. Model geometry
Part 1: Establishing the Abaqus/Explicit analysis time

In this section you will determine the first eigenmode of the blank and use it to establish
the step time for the subsequent Abaqus/Explicit analysis.
1. Using the Model Tree, review the model definitions of the model frequency.
Question W8–1: What analysis procedure is used in this model?

Question W8–2: In Abaqus a distinction is made between linear perturbation
analysis steps and general analysis steps. What type of
procedure is the analysis procedure in this model?
Question W8–3: In an analysis with more than one step in the same model,
what influence does the result of a linear perturbation step
have on the base state of the model for the following analysis
step?
2. Create a job named frequency for the model frequency.

3. Save your model database file, submit the job for analysis, and monitor its
progress.
4. When the analysis is complete, open the output database file frequency.odb in
the Visualization module.
331
W8.4
5. Plot the deformed model shape. The deformed shape for the first eigenmode will
be displayed in the viewport. The corresponding eigenvalue will be reported in
the state block.
The fundamental frequency, f, of the blank is 304 Hz, corresponding to a time
period of 0.0033 s ( T  1/ f ). This time period provides a lower bound on the
step time for the first forming stage. Choosing the step time to be 10 times the
time period of the fundamental natural frequency, or 0.033 s, should ensure a
quality quasi-static solution. This time period corresponds to a constant punch
velocity of 0.45 m/s, which is typical for metal forming.
Part 2: Metal Forming Analysis

You will now complete the model stamp to perform the metal forming analysis using
ABAUS/Explicit. Make the following changes to the model stamp.
Completing the assembly

In this section you will complete the assembly definition of the can bottom forming
model (Figure W8–2) by instancing the part representing the punch (PUNCH1).
1. Make current the model stamp. If necessary, set this model to be the root of the
tree.
2. In the Model Tree, expand the Assembly container and double-click Instances
to create an instance of the analytical rigid part PUNCH1. In the Create Instance
dialog box, select part PUNCH1, accept all other default settings, and click OK.
Use the Translate Instance tool in the toolbox to offset the punch from the
blank by the half thickness of the blank (0.00025 m).
The viewport displays the assembly with the geometry as shown in Figure 8–2.
Defining displacement history output

In this section you will add a history output request to write the displacement history at
the reference point of the punch to the output database file.
1. Create a geometry-based set including the punch reference point.
a. In the Model Tree, expand the branch of the part PUNCH1 underneath the
Parts container and double-click Sets.
b. Name the set PunchRP.
c. From the viewport, select the reference point RP of the part PUNCH1.
2. In the Model Tree, double-click History Output Requests to create an additional
history output request to output the displacement (translation and rotation) history
for the set PUNCH1-1.PunchRP. Note that PUNCH1-1.PunchRP is an assembly-
level set generated from the previously-created part-level set PunchRP by
Abaqus/CAE.
332
W8.5
Defining contact
In this section you will define contact of the blank with the die and the punch.
1. Define a contact property.
a. In the Model Tree, double-click Interaction Properties.
b. In the Create Interaction Property dialog box, select the type Contact
and click Continue.
c. From the menu bar of the contact property editor, select
Mechanical→Tangential Behavior.
d. Select the Penalty friction formulation and enter 0.1 for the friction
coefficient.
e. Click OK to exit the contact property editor.
2. Define a contact pair between the blank and the die.
Interaction dialog box, name the interaction blank_die, select Step-1 as
the step and the Surface-to-surface contact (Explicit) type, and click
Continue.
b. You will be prompted to select the first surface. In the viewport, select the
die.
d. You will be prompted to choose a side of the edge. Choose the side facing
the blank by selecting the corresponding color, Magenta or Yellow, in the
prompt area.
e. In the prompt area, select Surface as the second surface type. In the
viewport, select the blank.
f. Click mouse button 2 in the viewport or click Done in the prompt area to
g. Again, you will be prompted to choose a side of the edge. Choose the side
facing the die.
h. In the Edit Interaction dialog box, view and accept the default setting.
Click OK to create the interaction and exit the interaction editor.
Note that Abaqus/CAE automatically assigns the previously-created
interaction property to this interaction.
3. Using a similar procedure, define an additional surface-to-surface contact
interaction named blank_punch between the blank and punch.
Question W8–4: What effect will an increase in friction have on the solution?
333
W8.6
Defining material properties

In this section you will add the material definition of the blank. The blank material is
steel with Young’s modulus E =210E9 Pa, Poisson’s ratio v =0.3, and density  =7800
kg/m3. Figure W8–3 shows the nominal stress-strain curve for the blank as tabulated in
Table W8–1. The data are provided in a text file named w_solver_can_props.txt.
Figure W8–3. Nominal stress vs. nominal strain
Question W8–5: When entering plasticity data into the material model, what
are the stress and strain measures that Abaqus uses?
Table W8–1. Nominal stress vs. nominal strain

Nominal stress (Pa) Nominal strain
90.96  106 4.334  104
130.71  106 2.216  103
169.75  106 7.331  103
207.08  106 1.888  10-2
240.99  106 4.153  102
268.89  106 8.218  102
287.59  106 1.509  101
290.57  106 3.456 101
334
W8.7
Note that a dummy material named Steel has been created and assigned to the part
BLANK. You will need to add the material properties.
Rather than convert the stress-strain data and define the material properties manually, you
will use the material calibration capability to define the material properties.
1. In the Model Tree, double-click Calibrations.
2. Name the calibration steel and click OK.
3. Expand the Calibrations container and then expand the steel item.
4. Double-click Data Sets.
a. In the Create Data Set dialog box, name the data set nominal and click
Import Data Set.
b. In the Read Data From Text File dialog box, click and choose the file
named w_solver_can_props.txt.
c. In the Properties region of this dialog box, specify that strain values will
be read from field 2 and stress values from field 1.
d. Select Nominal as the data set form.

e. Click OK to close the Read Data From Text File dialog box.
f. Click OK to close the Create Data Set dialog box.
Since the data is provided in nominal stress-strain format, it must be converted to
true stress-strain format.
5. Click mouse button 3 on nominal and select Process from the menu that
appears.
a. In the Data Set Processing dialog box, select Convert and click
Continue.
b. In the Change Data Set Form dialog box, select True Form and name
the new data set true. Click OK.
6. Double-click Behaviors.
a. Choose Elastic Plastic Isotropic as the type, and click Continue.
b. In the Edit Behavior dialog box, choose true as the data set for Elastic-
Plastic Data.
c. Click next to Yield point. In the viewport zoom in to select the yield
point, as indicated in Figure W8–4.
335
W8.8
Alternative: Enter 0.00043, 91E+06 in the text field to define the yield
point precisely.
Figure W8–4 Yield point.

d. Drag the Plastic points slider between Min and Max to generate plastic
data points.
The plastic data points appear as shown in Figure W8–5.
Figure W8–5 Plastic data points.

e. Enter a Poisson's ratio of 0.3.
f. In the Edit Behavior dialog box, choose Steel from the Material drop-
down list, as shown in Figure W8–6.
336
W8.9
Figure W8–6 Material behavior editor.

g. Click OK to add the properties to the material named steel.
7. In the Model Tree, expand the Materials container and examine the contents of
the material model. You will note that both elastic and plastic properties have
been defined (Young’s modulus should be approximately 2.1E11 Pa). If you wish
to change the number of plastic points or need to modify the yield point, simply
return to the Edit Behavior dialog box, make the necessary changes, select the
name of the material to which the properties will be applied, and click OK. The
contents of the material model are updated automatically.
8. To complete the material properties, define the density. From the menu bar of the
material editor, select General→Density and enter a value of 7800 for Mass
Density.
337
W8.10
9. To reduce high-frequency noise in the solution (caused primarily by the

oscillations of the blank’s free end) add stiffness proportional damping to the
material definition of the blank. It is best to use the smallest amount of damping
possible to obtain the desired solution since increasing the stiffness damping
decreases the stable time increment and, thus, increases the computer time. To
avoid a dramatic drop in the stable time increment, the stiffness proportional
damping factor R should be less than, or of the same order of magnitude as, the
initial stable time increment without damping. We choose a damping factor of
R=1107.
From the material editor’s menu bar, select Mechanical→ Damping and enter a
value of 1.e-7 in the Beta field.
10. Click OK to save the data and exit the material editor.
Question W8–6: What effects would a higher damping coefficient have?
338
W8.11
Defining displacement boundary conditions

To form the can bottom, we will displace the punch by moving its rigid body reference
point 0.015 m in the negative 2-direction. The punch displacement will be applied in the
form of a displacement boundary condition. Because Abaqus/Explicit does not permit
displacement discontinuities, prescribed displacements must refer to an amplitude
definition. Figure W8–7 shows the desired displacement behavior for the punch. Note
that this curve is smooth in its first and second derivatives.
Question W8–7: What is the slope of the curve at the beginning and end, and
why is this important?
1. In the Model Tree, double-click Amplitudes to define an amplitude curve

corresponding to Figure W8–7.
a. In the Create Amplitude dialog box, name the amplitude FORM1, choose
the Smooth step type, and click Continue.
b. In the Edit Amplitude dialog box, enter the data pair 0, 0 for the first
row and 0.033, 1 for the second row.
c. Click OK to exit the amplitude editor.
2. In the Model Tree, double-click BCs to create a Displacement/Rotation
boundary condition named PunchMove in Step-1 to move the punch reference
point in the 2-direction by –0.015 m.
a. In the Edit Boundary Condition dialog box, toggle on U1, U2, and UR3.
b. Enter a value of -0.015 for U2 and 0 for U1 and UR3.
c. Choose the amplitude curve FORM1.
The amplitude values will be multiplied by the displacement you define in the
boundary condition.
Question W8–8: How would the results change if a linear amplitude definition
was used instead?
339
W8.12
Figure W8–7. Displacement curve of punch
Speeding up the analysis

In general, quasi-static processes cannot be modeled in their natural time scale in
Abaqus/Explicit since a large number of time increments would be required (recall that
time increments in Abaqus/Explicit are generally very small). Thus, it is sometimes
necessary to increase the speed of the simulation artificially to reduce the computational
cost. One method to reduce the cost of the analysis is to use mass scaling.
While various forms of mass scaling are available in Abaqus/Explicit, we will
concentrate on fixed mass scaling in this workshop and will implement it using the fixed
mass scaling option available in the step editor. The reason for choosing fixed mass
scaling is that it provides a simple means to modify the mass properties of a quasi-static
model at the beginning of the analysis. It is also computationally less expensive than
variable mass scaling, because the mass is scaled only once at the beginning of the step.
1. In the Model Tree, expand the Steps container and double-click Step-1 to edit
this step definition to include mass scaling.
2. In the Edit Step dialog box, click the Mass scaling tab.
3. In the Mass scaling tabbed page, choose Use scaling definitions below and
click Create.
4. In the Edit mass scaling dialog box that appears, accept all defaults and enter 10
in the Scale by factor field.
5. Click OK to save the data and exit the mass scaling editor.
6. Click OK to save the changes and exit the step editor.
340
W8.13
Question W8–9: How do you determine if an analysis that includes mass

scaling produces acceptable results?
Question W8–10: How does mass scaling affect the solution time?
Running job and postprocessing results

1. Create a job named draw_bot for the model Stamp.
progress.
3. When the analysis is complete, open the output database file draw_bot.odb in
the Visualization module.
4. Display the curves of internal and kinetic energy (i.e., ALLIE and ALLKE) in the
same plot by selecting them from the Results Tree (underneath the History
Output container). Use the XY Curve Options tool in the toolbox to display
the curve symbols. You should see a plot similar to Figure W8–8. Note this figure
has been customized for clarity.
Tip: Use [Ctrl]+Click for multiple selections.
Figure W8–8. Internal and kinetic energy
5. Certain elements have hourglass modes that affect their behavior. Hourglass
modes are modes of deformation that do not cause any strains at the integration
points. An indication of whether hourglassing has an effect on the solution is the
artificial energy, variable ALLAE. Plot the artificial energy and the internal
energy, variable ALLIE, on the same plot. The artificial energy should always be
much less than the internal energy (say less than 0.5%).
341
W8.14
Question W8–11: What elements are used to model the blank, and does this
element type have an hourglass deformation mode?
6. Display the deformed shape of the blank only. In the Results Tree, expand the
Instances container underneath the output database draw_bot.odb. Click
mouse button 3 on the instance BLANK-1 and select Replace from the menu that
appears.
7. Expand the displayed area to 180o by selecting View→ODB Display Options
from the main menu bar. In the Sweep/Extrude tabbed page in the ODB Display
Options dialog box, toggle on Sweep elements and accept the default settings.
You should see a shape similar to that in Figure W8–9.
Figure W8–9. 180 expanded deformed shape
8. Contour the Mises stress distribution of the 180o model using the Plot Contours
on Deformed Shape tool in the toolbox. To select other variables for
contouring, use the Field Output toolbar.
9. Plot the punch displacement history (U2 for the node set PUNCHRP) shown in
Figure W8–7 by double-clicking Spatial displacement: U2 PI: PUNCH1-1
NODE xyz in NSET PUNCHRP under the History Output container in the
Results Tree.
Note: A scripts that creates the complete stamping model are available for
your convenience. Run this script if you encounter difficulties following the
instructions or if you wish to check your work. The script named
ws_solver_can_bottom_answer.py is available using the Abaqus fetch
utility.
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W8.15
Answers
Question W8–1: What analysis procedure is used in this model?

Answer: The analysis procedure is a natural frequency extraction.

procedure is the analysis procedure in this model?
Answer: Frequency extraction is a linear perturbation procedure.
Question W8–3: In an analysis with more than one step in the same model,
step?
Answer: None. Only general analysis steps change the base state of the
model.
Answer: An increased friction coefficient will increase the critical shear
stress crit at which sliding of the blank begins. Thus, the
material will be stretched more, causing further thinning of the
material and increasing the stresses.
Question W8–5: When entering plasticity data into the material model, what
are the stress and strain measures that Abaqus uses?
Answer: Abaqus uses true (Cauchy) stress and log strain.

Answer: A higher damping coefficient would reduce the stable time
increment. In general, damping should be chosen such that
high frequency oscillations are smoothed or eliminated with
minimal effect on the stable time increment. Figure WA8–1
shows a plot of the kinetic energy with and without damping.
Note the high frequency oscillations in the analysis without
damping.
343
W8.16
Figure WA8–1. Kinetic energy with and without damping
Answer: The slope of the amplitude curve at the beginning and end of
the step is zero. This is important because it prevents
discontinuities in the punch displacement, which lead to
oscillations in an Abaqus/Explicit analysis.
were used instead?
Answer: With a linear amplitude definition the displacement of the
punch will be applied suddenly at the beginning of the step
and stopped suddenly at the end of the step, causing
oscillations in the solution.
A linear amplitude definition results in large spikes in the
kinetic energy, especially at the beginning of the step. As a
result, the kinetic energy may be large compared to the
internal energy and the early solution may not be quasi-static.
The preferred approach is to move the punch as smoothly as
possible. Figure WA8–2 compares the kinetic energy history
when a linear amplitude definition is used and when the
smooth step amplitude definition is used.
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W8.17
Figure WA8–2. Kinetic energy plot with and without SMOOTH STEP

Answer: The kinetic energy should be a small fraction of the internal
energy.
As the kinetic energy increases, inertia effects have to be
considered and the solution is no longer quasi-static.
Figure WA8–3 shows the internal and kinetic energy for mass
scaling factors of 10 (used in our simulation), 100, and 900,
which correspond to a solution speedup of 10 , 10, and 30,
respectively.
345
W8.18
Figure WA8–3. Energies with different mass scaling
Answer: The stable time increment is calculated according to
 Le 
tstable  min  ,
c 
 d 
where Le is a characteristic element length and cd is the
dilatational wave speed. An increase in density decreases cd,
which in turn increases tstable.
Answer: The analysis uses SAX1 elements. These elements have no
hourglass modes. Consequently, hourglassing is not of
concern in the analysis.
346
Notes
347
Notes
348
Workshop 9
Import Analysis
Interactive Version

workshop.
Goals
 Transfer results between Abaqus/Explicit and Abaqus/Standard.
Introduction
In this workshop you will use the import capability is used to transfer the results between
Abaqus/Explicit and Abaqus/Standard to examine the effects of springback in the
analysis of the deep drawing of a can bottom. The deformed shape of the can after the
forming stage is shown in Figure W9–1.
349
W9.2
Preliminaries
../abaqus_solvers/interactive/forming
2. Open the model database file created in the previous workshop
(canBottom.cae):
Springback analysis
In the manufacturing process the part is removed after the forming has been completed
and the material is free to springback into an unconstrained state. To understand the final
shape after this physical effect, we perform a springback analysis in Abaqus/Standard.
1. Copy the model named stamp to a model named springback. Make all
subsequent model changes to the springback model.
2. Since only the blank needs to be imported, delete the following features from the
springback model:
a. Part instances DIE1-1 and PUNCH1-1.
b. All assembly-level sets and surfaces associated with the die and punch.
c. All contact interactions and properties.
d. Boundary conditions FixDie and PunchMove.
e. History output request for PunchRP.
3. Replace the dynamic, explicit step with a general, static step. Set the time period
to 1 and the initial increment to 0.1, and include the effects of geometric
nonlinearity. Rename the step springback.
4. Define an initial state.
a. In the Model Tree, double-click Predefined Fields.
b. In the Create Predefined Field dialog box, select Initial as the step,
Other as the category, and Initial state as the type.
c. Click Continue.
d. Select the blank as the instance to assign the initial state.
e. In the Edit Predefined Field dialog box that appears, enter the job name
draw_bot, accept all other default settings, and click OK.
This definition will allow the state of the model—stresses, strains, etc.—to
be imported. By not updating the reference configuration, the springback
displacements will be referred to the original undeformed configuration.
350
W9.3
5. Note that the XSYMM boundary condition BlankSymm specified on the set
BSYM constrains rigid body motions in the U1 and UR3 directions of the blank.
Thus, you need an additional boundary condition to prevent rigid body motion
along U2. In what follows you will fix the node at its final position at the end of
the forming stage.
a. In the Model Tree, double-click BCs to apply a Displacement/Rotation
boundary condition to the set BSYM in Step-1.
b. In the Edit Boundary Condition dialog box, choose the Fixed at Current
Position method and fix U2.
6. Create a job named springback for the model springback.
progress.
Question W9–1: Why is it advantageous to use Abaqus/Standard for the

springback analysis?
Postprocessing
1. When the analysis is complete, open the output database file springback.odb
in the Visualization module.
2. Contour the Mises stress distribution of the 180o model.
3. Plot the final deformed shape for the model springback.
4. Plot the springback and formed shapes together. (First toggle off the Sweep
elements option.)
By not updating the reference configuration, the formed shape is stored in frame 0
of the output database. You must use overlay plots to superimpose the images:
a. From the main menu bar, select View→Overlay Plot.
b. Use the Frame Selector or the arrows in the context bar to select
frame 0.
c. In the Overlay Plot Layer Manager, click Create. Name the layer
formed.
d. Use the Frame Selector to select the last frame.
e. Use the Common Plot Options tool to change the fill color of the
elements to blue.
f. In the Overlay Plot Layer Manager, click Create. Name the layer
springback.
In the Overlay Plot Layer Manager, click Plot Overlay.
Zoom in to examine the shape differences more closely.
351
W9.4
If you had updated the reference configuration, the formed shape is treated as the
undeformed shape of the import analysis model (recall that when the reference
configuration is updated, the end state of the previous analysis becomes the
reference configuration of the import analysis; the reference configuration is
considered the undeformed shape):
a. In the toolbox, click the Allow Multiple Plot States tool .

b. In the toolbox, click both the Plot Undeformed Shape and Plot
Deformed Shape tools .
c. Use the Common Plot Options tool to increase the deformation

scale factor so that the differences between the formed and springback
shapes are clearly visible.
Note: A scripts that creates the complete stamping model are available for
your convenience. Run this script if you encounter difficulties following the
instructions or if you wish to check your work. The script named
ws_solver_can_bottom_answer.py is available using the Abaqus fetch
utility.
352
W9.5
Answers
Question W9–1: Why is it advantageous to choose Abaqus/Standard for the

Answer: A true static procedure is the preferred approach for modeling
springback. The imported model will not be in static
equilibrium at the beginning of the step. Thus,
Abaqus/Standard applies a set of artificial internal stresses to
the imported model state and then gradually removes these
stresses. This leads to the springback deformation. In
Abaqus/Explicit the removal of the contact between the blank
and the tools represents a sudden load removal, which leads to
low frequency vibrations of the blank. While these vibrations
will eventually dissipate, this approach leads to lengthy
computation times.
353
354
Notes
355
Notes
356
Workshop 1
Basic Input and Output
Keywords Version
Note: This workshop provides instructions in terms of the Abaqus
Keywords interface. If you wish to use the Abaqus GUI interface instead,
please see the “Interactive” version of these instructions.

workshop.
Goals
 Learn to use Abaqus utilities and documentation.
 Understand the basic structure of an input file, and be able to make simple
modifications to it.
 Learn how to perform a datacheck analysis and how to submit an analysis job
using the Abaqus driver.
 Gain familiarity with Abaqus/Viewer.
 Explore the structure and contents of the data (.dat) and log (.log) files.
Abaqus utilities and documentation

Abaqus provides various utilities for obtaining information on usage, system
configuration, example problems, and environment settings for the analysis package.
1. At the prompt, enter the command
abaqus information=system
to obtain information on the system.

Note that abaqus is a generic command that may have been renamed on your
system. For example, if more than one version is installed on the system, the
command might include the version number, as in abq6121. In the remainder of
this workshop as well as all subsequent workshops, use the appropriate command
for your system.
357
W1.2
2. Open the online documentation with the command

abaqus doc
Open the Abaqus Analysis User’s Manual, and search for the string DSLOAD to
find information on the DSLOAD option. You can find information related to
the data line syntax in the Abaqus Keywords Reference Manual (use the hyperlink
for the DSLOAD option, or open the Keywords Manual directly). The online
documentation graphical user interface is shown in Figure W1–1.
Figure W1–1. Online documentation
3. Open the online Abaqus Example Problems Manual. Search for plate
buckling to find example problems that discuss plate buckling.
criteria?
4. Go to Example Problem 1.1.14 in the online Abaqus Example Problems Manual.
In the left panel of the window, display the subtopics of the problem and click
Input files. In the right panel of the window, the list of input files associated with
this problem appears. You can select any input filename from the list; a separate
window will open containing that file.
358
W1.3
5. All example problem input files are included in the Abaqus release and can be
obtained using the abaqus fetch utility. In your terminal window, enter
abaqus fetch job=damagefailcomplate_cps4
at the command line prompt.

6. Use the online documentation to determine the input syntax for some options.
A keyword line starts with an asterisk ( followed directly by the keyword
option. Parameters and their associated values appear on the keyword line,
separated by commas. Many options require data lines, which follow directly after
their associated keyword line and contain the data specified in the Abaqus
Keywords Reference Manual for each option. Data items are separated by
commas. Refer to the discussions of keyword line and data line syntax in
Lecture 1, as necessary.
Question W1–4: In the space provided, write the input you would use to define
a node set called TOP_NODES that contains previously defined
nodes 21, 22, 23, and node set TOP_LEFT.
Hint: Use the information on the NSET option in the Abaqus

Keywords Reference Manual to determine the necessary
parameter and data line.
*NSET,
359
W1.4
a velocity boundary condition on a node set named NALL
using the direct format. The velocity is 7.0 m/s in the
2-direction. Will this option appear in the model data or the
history data portion of the input file?
Hint: Use the information on the BOUNDARY option in the
Abaqus Keywords Reference Manual, including the reference
to the ―Boundary Conditions‖ Section of the Abaqus Analysis
User’s Manual, to determine the appropriate syntax.
Question W1–6: (Optional) In the space provided, write the input you would
use to define the BEAM SECTION option for beam elements
in element set ELBEAMS referring to a material named STEEL.
The beam has a rectangular cross-section with a height of 0.5
m and a width of 0.2 m.
Hint: This option requires one data line for the beam section
geometric data. Follow the hyperlink to the beam cross-section
library and the rectangular section to determine the
appropriate data line input.
*BEAM SECTION,
360
W1.5
Analyzing a connecting lug
Figure W1–2. Sketch of the connecting lug
In this workshop you will model the connecting lug shown in Figure W1–2. The lug is
welded to a massive structure at one end, so we assume that this end is fixed. The other
end contains a hole through which a bolt is placed when the lug is in service. You have to
calculate the deflection of the lug when a load of 30kN is applied to the bolt in the 2
direction.
To model this problem, you will use three-dimensional continuum elements and perform
a linear analysis with elastic materials. You will model the load transmitted to the lug
through the bolt as a uniform pressure load applied to the bottom half of the hole, as
shown in Figure W1–2. In this workshop SI units (N, m, and s) will be used.
Creating the input file

1. Change to the ../abaqus_solvers/keywords/lug directory.
2. View the contents of w_lug.inp. The model and history data are incomplete,
and no mesh or loading is defined.
Question W1–7: What is the first option in the model data? What is the last
option in the model data?
Question W1–8: What is the first option in the history data?
361
W1.6
3. View the files w_lug_nodes.inp and w_lug_elem.inp. Boundary conditions

and loads will be defined using the node and element sets defined in these files.
Question W1–10: What type of elements are used to model the lug?
4. Edit the input file to set the INPUT parameter on the INCLUDE options to read
the appropriate node and element data files.
5. Complete the MATERIAL option block by defining an elastic material with
elastic modulus E = 200 GPa and Poisson’s ratio  = 0.3. The complete material
block should appear as follows:
*MATERIAL, NAME=STEEL
*ELASTIC
200E9, 0.3

analyses?
The boundary conditions and the loads cannot be defined without knowledge of the node
and element sets and surfaces. Figure W1–3 shows the various sets and surfaces.
Element set
Node set LHEND BUILTIN
Surface PRESS
Node set
HOLEBOT
Figure W1–3. Useful sets and surfaces
362
W1.7
6. Boundary conditions are applied using the BOUNDARY option. Use the online
documentation to obtain a description of the option. The left end of the lug is
fixed. Thus, constrain degrees of freedom 1 through 6 of all nodes in node set
LHEND by entering
*BOUNDARY
LHEND, 1, 6
condition?
7. Distributed loads are applied to surfaces using the *DSLOAD option. In this
problem, the load should be applied to the surface named PRESS (which covers
the bottom region of the hole). The option to specify the distributed (pressure)
load on this surface is
*DSLOAD
PRESS, P, 50.E6
The magnitude of the applied uniform pressure is 50 MPa. We determined the

load magnitude by dividing the total load by the projected horizontal area of the
30kN
hole, where  50MPa .
2  0.015m  0.02m
8. Add printed output requests to the step using the NODE PRINT and EL PRINT
options. Abaqus includes a large amount of printed output by default. Requesting
printed output of specific variables allows you to limit the volume of output to the
data (.dat) file. Request printed data output of nodal displacements for node set
HOLEBOT and reaction forces for node set LHEND (including the total force). In
addition, request output for stresses in element set BUILTIN.
You can do this by entering
*NODE PRINT, NSET=HOLEBOT

U2
*NODE PRINT, NSET=LHEND, TOTAL=YES, SUMMARY=NO
RF
*EL PRINT, ELSET=BUILTIN
S, MISES
Default output requests for the output database are made automatically, and they
will be sufficient for this workshop.
Submitting a datacheck analysis

1. Submit the job for a datacheck analysis by entering the command
abaqus datacheck job=w_lug interactive
363
W1.8
at the prompt. The interactive parameter will cause all log file output to print
to the screen.
2. View the data file (w_lug.dat) in a text editor.
Question W1–13: What version of Abaqus are you using?
3. Search for the strings ―WARNING‖ and ―ERROR‖ to find any warning and error
messages. These messages will indicate whether anything unusual was
encountered during the datacheck analysis (keep in mind that your editor may be
case-sensitive for searching).
Question W1–14: What warning messages did you get? Do they require changes
to the input file, or can you ignore them?
4. Search for the string ―P R O B L E M‖ to see the summary of the problem size.
Include spaces between the letters of the search string.
Running a complete analysis

1. Submit w_lug.inp as an Abaqus job in interactive mode by typing
abaqus job=w_lug interactive
at the prompt.
If the driver asks if you want to overwrite old job files, type ―y.‖ This means that
output files with the same job name that exist from a previous analysis will be
overwritten.
2. Now resubmit the job in background mode by typing
abaqus job=w_lug
at the prompt.
The log file output will be saved in w_lug.log instead of printing to the screen.
You can open w_lug.log in a text editor and view its contents.
3. You can also let the Abaqus driver prompt you for the necessary job information
by typing
abaqus
at the prompt.
Specify w_lug at the prompt for the job identifier, enter [RETURN] at the prompt
for user subroutines (since there are none for this job), and type ―y‖ to overwrite
the files from the last run with the same name. Doing so will submit the analysis
job in background mode.
4. List all files with w_lug as the root of the file name (using a ―long‖ format on
Unix systems):
364
W1.9
dir w_lug.* (NT)

ls -l w_lug.* (Unix)
Note the files that were created by Abaqus. We will take a closer look at the
printed output file (w_lug.dat) later in this workshop.
Results visualization in Abaqus/Viewer

1. To run Abaqus/Viewer and load the output database for the lug analysis, type
abaqus viewer odb=w_lug
at the prompt.
Note: The file name extension (.odb) is not needed.
If an output database is not specified on the command line, you can select
File→Open from the main menu bar in Abaqus/Viewer to access the Open
Database dialog box, as shown in Figure W1–4. Select the file w_lug.odb
from the output database list.
Figure W1–4. Open Database dialog box
365
W1.10
2. When Abaqus/Viewer opens the output database, the undeformed model shape
will be displayed. To change the plot mode, you can use either the Plot menu or
the toolbox icons displayed on the left side of the viewport (see Figure W1–5).
You can identify the function of each tool in the toolbox by positioning your
cursor above the icon for that tool. A label for the icon will pop up describing its
function.
3. To plot the deformed shape, click the Plot Deformed Shape tool in the
toolbox or select Plot→Deformed Shape from the main menu bar.
4. Open the Common Plot Options dialog box by clicking in the toolbox.
Turn on the node and element numbers, and make the nodes visible.
5. Use the display option tools to switch to hidden line, filled, or wireframe display.
View manipulation tools Display option tools
Results
Tree
Toolbox
Figure W1–5. Abaqus/Viewer main window
366
W1.11
6. Note the displacement magnification factor shown in the bottom of the title.
By default, Abaqus/Viewer automatically scales the displacement according to the
maximum model dimensions for a small-displacement analysis. Displacements
are scaled so that the deformed shape will be clear. For a large-displacement
analysis the scale factor is 1.0 by default. Set the displacement magnification
factor to 1.0 so that you can see the actual displacement, and redraw the displaced
shape plot.
Hint: You will have to use the Common Plot Options dialog box.
7. Create a contour plot of the Mises stress by clicking the Plot Contours on
Deformed Shape tool in the toolbox.
8. Frequently users want to remove all annotations that are written on the plots,
especially when they are creating hard-copy images or animations. From the main
menu bar, select Viewport→Viewport Annotation Options to suppress the
annotations used in the plots.
The annotations are divided into three categories: legend, title block, and state
block. Each category can be controlled separately. The title block contains
information about which Abaqus version was used and when the analysis was
performed. The state block contains the step title (which is the text provided on
the data line of the STEP option), the increment and step time of the data being
displayed, and information on the variable and magnification factor used to
calculate the shape of the model.
9. From the main menu bar, select File→Exit to exit from Abaqus/Viewer.
Viewing the printed output file

Open the printed output file w_lug.dat in the text editor of your choice.
1. Look at the input echo near the top of the file. Below this you will find the section
titled ―OPTIONS BEING PROCESSED.‖ This is the first place any warning or
error messages will appear.
2. A summary of model data follows. Here you can check that Abaqus has correctly
interpreted your model definition.
Question W1–16: Which elements are in element set HOLEIN?
3. Next you will find the summary of history data for each step. Search for the
strings ―B O U N D A R Y‖ and ―D I S T R I B U T E D‖ to verify that the
boundary conditions and distributed loads have been interpreted correctly. Include
spaces between the letters of the search string. To start a search through the entire
file, go to the top of the file (some editors will wrap to the top of the file upon
reaching the end).
367
W1.12
4. The next section in the data file is the results section. The tables are printed
according to the various output requests.
Search for the strings ―N O D E‖ and ―E L E M E N T‖ to find the tables that
contain the output requested. The maximum deflection and peak stress are
reported at the ends of the respective tables.
Question W1–17: What are the maximum direct stresses in the 1- and 2-
directions (i.e.,  11 and  22 )?
(Hint: The maximum direct stresses will occur in element set
BUILTIN.)
Question W1–18: What is the deflection of node 20001 in node set HOLEBOT in
the 2-direction?
5. Search for the string ―TOTAL‖ to find the sum of the reaction forces in the 2-
direction.
Question W1–19: What is the net reaction force in the 2-direction at the nodes in
node set LHEND? Is this equal to the applied load?
Question W1–20: Why is the sum of the reaction forces at the nodes in node set
LHEND in the horizontal direction (1-direction) zero?
Modifying the model and understanding changes in the results

1. Open the input file w_lug.inp in the text editor.
2. Reduce the distributed pressure load to 25 MPa.
3. Save the modified file to a new file named w_lugmod.inp.
4. Submit the new input file as an Abaqus job.
5. Look at the output database file in Abaqus/Viewer.
Question W1–21: What is the deflection of node 20001 in node set HOLEBOT?
Do the results reflect the reduction in loading?
Note: A complete input file is available for your convenience. You may
consult this file if you encounter difficulties following the instructions
outlined here or if you wish to check your work. The input file is named
w_lug_complete.inp
368
W1.13
Answers


criteria?
Answer: Problem 1.1.14, ―Damage and failure of a laminated
composite plate‖
Problem 1.2.2, ―Laminated composite shells: buckling of a
cylindrical panel with a circular hole‖
Problem 1.2.5, ―Unstable static problem: reinforced plate
under compressive loads‖
Problem 9.1.8, ―Deformation of a sandwich plate under
CONWEP blast loading‖
a node set called TOP_NODES that contains previously defined
nodes 21, 22, 23, and node set TOP_LEFT.
Answer: *NSET, NSET=TOP_NODES
21, 22, 23, TOP_LEFT
a velocity boundary condition on a node set named NALL
using the direct format. The velocity is 7.0 m/s in the
2-direction. Will this option appear in the model data or the
history data portion of the input file?
Answer: This option will appear in the history data section of the input
file because it is a nonzero boundary condition.
*BOUNDARY, TYPE=VELOCITY
NALL, 2, 2, 7.0
369
W1.14
Question W1–6: (Optional) In the space provided, write the input you would
use to define the BEAM SECTION option for beam elements
in element set ELBEAMS referring to a material named STEEL.
The beam has a rectangular cross-section with a height of 0.5
m and a width of 0.2 m.
Answer: *BEAM SECTION, SECTION=RECT, ELSET=ELBEAMS,
MATERIAL=STEEL
0.2, 0.5
Question W1–7: What is the first option in the model data? What is the last
option in the model data?
Answer: The beginning of the model data is the HEADING option.
The last option in the model data is the MATERIAL option
in the material option block that defines the material properties
of the model.
Question W1–8: What is the first option in the history data?

Answer: The history data begin with the STEP option.

Answer: There is only one step in this analysis.
Question W1–10: What type of elements is used to model the lug?

Answer: C3D20R elements—i.e., 20-node brick elements (three-
dimensional hexahedral continuum elements) with reduced
integration—are used to model the lug.

analyses?
Answer: No. The density is necessary for analysis procedures that
consider inertia effects. In a static analysis inertia effects are
not considered.
370
W1.15
condition?
Answer: ―Type‖ boundary condition labels (such as ENCASTRE) can
be also used to define fixed boundary conditions in the model
data:
*BOUNDARY
LHEND, ENCASTRE
Question W1–13: What version of Abaqus are you using?

Answer: The version number appears at the top of the printed output
(.dat) file.
Question W1–14: What warning messages did you get? Do they require changes
to the input file, or can you ignore them?
Answer: If you followed the instructions correctly to this point, there
should be warning messages in the data (.dat) file indicating
that the rotational degrees of freedom—4, 5, and 6—are not
active in this model and cannot be restrained. Abaqus ignores
boundary conditions on degrees of freedom that cannot be
restrained; therefore, you can safely ignore these warning
messages.
Answer: The model has 112 elements. The total number of variables,
including degrees of freedom plus any Lagrange multiplier
variables, is 2376.
Question W1–16: Which elements are in element set HOLEIN?

Answer: Elements 1 and 16.
Question W1–17: What are the maximum direct stresses in the 1- and 2-
directions (i.e., 11 and 22)?
Answer: The maximum direct stress in the 1-direction (S11) is
3.4766E+08 Pa; the maximum direct stress in the 2-direction
(S22) is 8.7629E+07 Pa.
371
W1.16
Question W1–18: What is the deflection of node 20001 in node set HOLEBOT in
the 2-direction?
Answer: The deflection is 3.1342 E04 m.
Question W1–19: What is the net reaction force in the 2-direction at the nodes in
node set LHEND? Is this equal to the applied load?
Answer: The reaction forces in the node set LHEND sum to 30 kN,
which is equal to the applied load.
Question W1–20: Why is the sum of the reaction forces at the nodes in node set
LHEND in the horizontal direction (1-direction) zero?
Answer: At the section represented by node set LHEND, the reaction
forces in the horizontal direction simply couple to resist the
moment induced by the applied vertical load. Since there is no
external load in the horizontal direction, the reaction forces
add up to zero in the horizontal direction.
Question W1–21: What is the deflection of node 20001 in node set HOLEBOT?
Do the results reflect the reduction in loading?
Answer: The deflection of the nodes in node set HOLEBOT is now
reduced to 1.5671E04 m. The deflections, reaction forces,
and stresses decrease in proportion to the reduction in loading
since this is a linear analysis; in this case by a factor of 2.
372
Notes
373
Notes
374
Workshop 2
Linear Static Analysis of a Cantilever Beam:

Multiple Load Cases
Keywords Version

workshop.
Introduction
In this workshop you will become familiar with using load cases in a linear static
analysis. You will model a cantilever beam. The left end of the beam is encastred while a
series of loads are applied to the free end. Six load cases are considered: unit forces in the
global X-, Y-, and Z-directions as well as unit moments about the global X-, Y-, and Z-
directions. The model is shown in Figure W2–1. You will solve the problem using a
single perturbation step with six load cases and (optionally) using six perturbation steps
with a single load case in each step.
Figure W2–1. Cantilever beam model
375
W2.2
As indicated in Figure W2–1, we wish to apply forces and moments to the right end of
the beam. However, the beam is modeled with solid C3D8I elements, which possess only
displacement degrees of freedom. Thus, only forces may be directly applied to the nodes
of the model. Rather than applying force couples to the model, we will apply
concentrated moments to the end of the beam. To this end, all loads will be transmitted to
the beam through a rigid body constraint. This approach is adopted to take advantage of
the fact that the rigid body reference node possesses six degrees of freedom in three-
dimensions: 3 translations and 3 rotations and thus allows direct application of
concentrated moments. Rigid bodies and constraints will be discussed further in
Lecture 5.
Defining loads and load cases in the input file

1. Change to the ../abaqus_solvers/keywords/load_cases directory.
2. Open the file w_beam_loadcase.inp in a text editor. The file includes all the
model data required for this problem: node, element, and set definitions; material
and section properties; and fixed boundary conditions. The history data (i.e., step
definition) is incomplete.
3. Complete the step definition by defining the loads and load cases. The loads will
be applied in the form of concentrated forces and moments via the *CLOAD option
to the rigid body reference node. This node is contained in node set refPt. For
example, for the force acting along the axial direction of the beam (i.e., the X-
direction), the following load case may be defined:
*Load Case, name=Force-X

*Cload
refPt, 1, 1.0
*End Load Case
376
W2.3
4. The complete step definition should resemble the following:
*Step, name=BeamLoadCases, perturbation

*Static
**
*Load Case, name=Force-X
*Cload
refPt, 1, 1.0
*End Load Case
**
*Load Case, name=Force-Y
*Cload
refPt, 2, 1.0
*End Load Case
**
*Load Case, name=Force-Z
*Cload
refPt, 3, 1.0
*End Load Case
**
*Load Case, name=Moment-X
*Cload
refPt, 4, 1.0
*End Load Case
**
*Load Case, name=Moment-Y
*Cload
refPt, 5, 1.0
*End Load Case
**
*Load Case, name=Moment-Z
*Cload
refPt, 6, 1.0
*End Load Case
**
*End Step
Note that the fixed-end boundary conditions have been defined as part of the
model data, and as such, are active in each load case.
5. Save the input file.
6. Submit the job for analysis by entering the following command at your system
prompt:
abaqus job=w_beam_loadcase
7. Monitor the status of the job by looking at the log (.log) or status (.sta) files.
377
W2.4
Viewing the analysis results

1. When the job has completed successfully, start a session of Abaqus/Viewer by
entering the following command at your system prompt:
abaqus viewer odb=w_beam_loadcase
Abaqus/Viewer opens the output database file w_beam_loadcase.odb created
by the job and displays the undeformed model shape. Examine the results of the
analysis. Note that load case output is stored in separate frames in the output
database file. Use the Frame Selector (click in the context bar) to choose
which load case is displayed (alternatively, open the Step/Frame dialog box by
selecting Result→Step/Frame). Figure W2–2, for example, shows contour plots
of the Mises stress for each of the load cases.
Figure W2–2. Mises stress contours
378
W2.5
Combining results from the load cases and envelope plots

You will now linearly combine the results of each load case to plot the stress and
deformation in the beam under a given load combination. Recall that each load case is
based on a unit load; the results of each load case will be scaled relative to those obtained
for LC-Force-Y when combining the data.
1. From the main menu bar, select Tools→Create Field Output→From Frames.
2. In the dialog box that appears, accept Sum values over all frames as the
operation.
3. In the Frames tabbed page, click . In the Add Frames dialog box that
appears, choose Step-1 as the step from which to obtain the data. Click Select All
and then click OK to close the dialog box.
4. Remove the initial frame; for the remaining frames, enter the scale factors shown
in Figure W2–3.
Figure W2–3 Scale factors for linear combination of load cases.
5. Switch to the Fields tabbed page to examine the data that will be combined.
Accept the default selection (all available field data) and click OK to close the
dialog box.
6. From the main menu bar, select Result→Step/Frame.
379
W2.6
7. In the Step/Frame dialog box, select Session Step as the active step for output
and click OK.
8. Plot the Mises stress as shown in Figure W2–4. Note that this figure has been
customized to overlay the undeformed model shape on the contour plot and a
deformation scale factor of 5e4 has been used.
Figure W2–4 Mises stress due to combined loading.
9. Now create an envelope plot of the maximum stress in the beam:

a. From the main menu bar, select Tools→Create Field Output→From
Frames.
b. In the dialog box that appears, select Find the maximum value over all
frames as the operation.
c. In the Frames tabbed page, click . In the Add Frames dialog box
that appears, choose Step-1 as the step from which to obtain the data.
Select all but the initial frame then click OK to close the dialog box.
d. Switch to the Fields tabbed page. Unselect all output and then select only
S and U.
e. Click OK to close the dialog box.
f. From the main menu bar, select Result→Step/Frame.
g. In the Step/Frame dialog box, select Session Step as the active step for
output and The maxmum value over all selected frames as the frame,
as shown in Figure W2–5.
380
W2.7
Figure W2–5 Frame selection for envelope plot.
h. In the Field Output dialog box (Result→Field Output), select S_max as

the primary variable and U_max as the deformed variable.
i. Plot the Mises stress as shown in Figure W2–6. Note that this figure has
been customized to overlay the undeformed model shape on the contour
plot and a deformation scale factor of 5e4 has been used.
Figure W2–6 Envelope plot of maximum Mises stress.
Using Multiple Perturbation Steps (Optional)

Now perform the same analysis using multiple perturbation steps rather than multiple
load cases.
1. Open the file w_beam_multstep.inp in a text editor. As before, the file
includes all the model data required for this problem: node, element, and set
definitions; material and section properties; and fixed boundary conditions. The
history data (i.e., step definition) is incomplete.
2. Complete the history data by defining the steps. As before, the loads will be
applied in the form of concentrated forces and moments via the *CLOAD option to
the rigid body reference node. This node is contained in node set refPt. For
381
W2.8
example, for the force acting along the axial direction of the beam (i.e., the X-
direction), the following step may be defined:
*Step, name=Force-X, perturbation
*Static
*Cload
refPt, 1, 1.
*End Step
3. The complete set of step definitions should resemble the following:

*Step, name=Force-X, perturbation
*Static
*Cload
refPt, 1, 1.0
*End Step
**
*Step, name=Force-Y, perturbation
*Static
*Cload
refPt, 2, 1.0
*End Step
**
*Step, name=Force-Z, perturbation
*Static
*Cload
refPt, 3, 1.0
*End Step
**
*Step, name=Moment-X, perturbation
*Static
*Cload
refPt, 4, 1.0
*End Step
**
*Step, name=Moment-Y, perturbation
*Static
*Cload
refPt, 5, 1.0
*End Step
**
*Step, name=Moment-Z, perturbation
*Static
*Cload
refPt, 6, 1.0
*End Step
382
W2.9
Note that the fixed-end boundary conditions have been defined as part of the
model data, and as such, are active in each step.
4. Save the input file.
5. Submit the job for analysis by entering the following command at your system
prompt:
abaqus job=w_beam_multstep
6. Monitor the status of the job by looking at the log (.log) or status (.sta) files.
7. When the job has completed successfully, open the output database
w_beam_multstep.odb created by the job in Abaqus/Viewer and compare the
results obtained using both modeling approaches. You will find that the results are
identical.
Comparing solution times

Next, open the message (.msg) file for each job in the job monitor. Scroll to the bottom
of the file and compare the solution times. You will notice that the multiple step analysis
required 2.5 times as much CPU time as the multiple load case analysis. For a small
model such as this one, the overall analysis time is small so speeding up the analysis by a
factor of three may not appear significant. However, it is clear that for large jobs, the
speedup offered by multiple load cases will play a significant role in reducing the time
required to obtain a solution for a given problem.
383
W2.10
Multiple load case analysis:
ANALYSIS SUMMARY:
1 ITERATIONS
:
:
JOB TIME SUMMARY

Multiple perturbation step analysis:
ANALYSIS SUMMARY:
6 ITERATIONS
:
:
JOB TIME SUMMARY

Note: Complete input files are available for your convenience. You may
consult these files if you encounter difficulties following the instructions
outlined here or if you wish to check your work. The input files are named
w_beam_loadcase_complete.inp
w_beam_multstep_complete.inp
and are available using the Abaqus fetch utility.
384
Notes
385
Notes
386
Workshop 3
Nonlinear Statics
Keywords Version

workshop.
Goals
 Define alternate nodal and material directions.
 Include nonlinear geometric effects by adding the NLGEOM parameter.
 Include nonlinear material effects by defining plastic material behavior.
 Become familiar with the output for an incremental analysis.
Introduction
In this workshop you will model the plate shown in Figure W3–1. It is skewed at 30 to
the global 1-axis, built-in at one end, and constrained to move on rails parallel to the plate
axis at the other end. You will determine the midspan deflection when the plate carries a
uniform pressure.
You will modify the input file that models this problem to include alternate nodal and
material directions as well as nonlinear effects.
You will first add the necessary data to complete the linear analysis model. You will later
perform the simulation considering both geometrically and material nonlinear effects. In
a subsequent workshop a restart analysis will be performed to study the unloading of the
plate.
387
W3.2
Alternate nodal and material directions

1. Change to the ../abaqus_solvers/keywords/skew directory, and open the
file w_skew_plate_linear.inp in an editor. You will need to specify local
nodal and material directions by following the steps given below.
2. The right end of the plate is constrained to move parallel to an axis that is skewed
relative to the global axes. Thus, the nodes at this end of the plate must be
transformed into a local coordinate system that is aligned with the plate. The
following TRANSFORM option block defines a local coordinate system, x ,
y , z  , by specifying points a and b, as shown in Figure W3–2 (see the Abaqus
Analysis User’s Manual for a detailed explanation of the data line).
*TRANSFORM, NSET=ENDB, TYPE=R
0.1, 0.0577, 0.0, -0.0577, 0.1, 0.0
x, y, z of point a x, y, z of point b

the plate.
Figure W3–1. Sketch of the skewed plate
388
W3.3
Figure W3–2. Rectangular Cartesian transformation
3. The default material directions in this model are aligned with the global axes. In
this default system the direct stress in the material 1-direction,  11 , will contain
contributions from both the axial stress (produced by the bending of the plate) and
the stress transverse to the axis of the plate. The results will be easier to interpret
if the material directions are aligned with the axis of the plate and the transverse
direction.
These local material directions can be defined with the following
ORIENTATION option. The first data line defines a local coordinate system by
specifying points a and b, as shown in Figure W3–2. The second data line defines
an additional rotation of 0.0 about the 3-axis (see the Abaqus Keywords
Reference Manual for detailed explanations of the data lines).
*ORIENTATION, NAME=SKEW, SYSTEM=RECTANGULAR
0.1, 0.0577, 0.0, -0.0577, 0.1, 0.0
3, 0.0
This option acts independently of the TRANSFORM option.

4. Run the analysis. To submit this job, you must enter
abaqus job=w_skew_plate_linear
at the prompt.
5. When the analysis is complete, open the data (.dat) file and find the value of the
vertical displacement (degree of freedom 3) at the midspan (node 357). Enter this
value in the “Linear” column of Table W3–1.
389
W3.4
Geometric Nonlinearity
1. Copy the input file to a new file called w_skew_plate_nonlin.inp, and make
the following changes to account for geometric nonlinearity:
2. Set NLGEOM = YES on the STEP option. This parameter indicates that
geometric nonlinearity will be accounted for during the step.
3. Set the initial time increment to 0.1 and the total time to 1.0 on the data line
following the STATIC option.
“Time” in a static analysis is just a convenient way to measure the progress of an
incremental solution unless rate-dependent behavior is involved. The beginning of
the step definition should look something like this:
*STEP, NLGEOM=YES
*STATIC
0.1, 1.0
Run the new analysis, and enter the vertical displacement (degree of freedom 3)
of node 357 in the “NLGEOM” column of Table W3–1.
Table W3–1. Midspan displacements

Load (kPa) Linear (m) NLGEOM (m)
20
60
4. Triple the load in both the linear and nonlinear analysis input files, rerun each of
these analyses, and enter the vertical displacement of node 357 from each analysis
in Table W3–1. The pressure loading is applied normal to the shell surface with
the DLOAD option.
390
W3.5
Plasticity
You will now include another source of nonlinearity: plasticity. The material data are
shown in Figure W3–3 (in terms of true stress vs. total log strain). Abaqus, however,
requires the plastic material data be defined in terms of true stress and plastic log
strain. Thus, you will need to determine the plastic strains corresponding to each data
point (see the hint below).
1. In the material block of the input file w_skew_plate_nonlin.inp add the
PLASTIC option and enter the data lines corresponding to points A and B on the
stress-strain curve shown in Figure W3–3. The Young’s modulus for this material
is 30E9 Pa.
Hint: The total stain tot at any point on the curve is equal to the sum of the elastic
strain el and plastic strain pl. The elastic strain at any point on the curve can be
evaluated from Young’s modulus and the true stress:el= / E. Use the following
relationship to determine the plastic strains:
 pl   tot   el   tot   E .
Add the PLASTIC option underneath *MATERIAL to complete the material

block. The complete material option block is given below:
*ELASTIC
3.0E10,0.3
*PLASTIC
2.E7, 0.0
3.E7, 0.019
Question W3–3: Why is the second entry on the first data line of the
PLASTIC option equal to 0.0?
2. Change the pressure to 10 kPa.
391
W3.6
Figure W3–3. Stress versus strain curve
3. Make the following additional changes:

a. Modify the RESTART option to write restart output every 10th
increment. Set the FREQUENCY parameter equal to 10.
b. You will use Abaqus/Viewer to postprocess the results. To create a more
readable printed output (.dat) file, set the output frequency to this file to
every 100 increments. Specifying a frequency larger than or equal to the
maximum number of increments ensures that output to the data file is
written only at the end of the last increment of the step.
c. It is useful to be able to check the progress of an analysis by monitoring
the value of one degree of freedom. To do so, add the MONITOR option
to the history section of the input file. Set the value of the NODE
parameter to 357, and set the value of the DOF parameter to 3.
4. Run the analysis. While the job is running, you can check on the progress of the
analysis by looking at the status (.sta) file. The “DOF MONITOR” column
should show the value of the midspan displacement.
392
W3.7
Postprocessing an Incremental Analysis in Abaqus/Viewer

1. Start Abaqus/Viewer by entering the following command at the prompt:
abaqus viewer
Open the appropriate output database by selecting File→Open from the main
menu bar. Select the file w_skew_plate_nonlin.odb, and click OK.
2. By default, the last increment of the last step is selected. Use the Frame Selector
in the context bar to select other steps or increments; alternatively, use the
Step/Frame dialog box (Result→Step/Frame).
3. Use the view manipulation tools to position the model as you wish. Turn
perspective on or off by clicking the Turn Perspective On tool or the Turn
Perspective Off tool in the toolbar.
4. Plot the deformed shape by clicking the Plot Deformed Shape tool .
A sample deformed shape plot is shown in Figure W3–4. Your plot may look
different if you have positioned your model differently
5. Create a contour plot of variable S11 by following this procedure:
a. Click the Plot Contours tool in the toolbox.

b. Select Result→Field Output.
c. In the Field Output dialog box, select S11 as the stress component.
d. Click Section Points to select a section point.
e. In the Section Points dialog box that appears, select Top and bottom as
the active locations and click OK.
Your contour plot should look similar to Figure W3–5. Abaqus plots the
contours of the Mises stress on both the top and bottom faces of each shell
element. To see this more clearly, rotate the model in the viewport.
393
W3.8
Figure W3–5. Contour plot of S11: SPOS, top image; SNEG, bottom image
model?
6. Click the Animate: Time History tool to animate the results.

You can stop the animation and move between frames and steps by using the
arrow buttons in the context bar.
7. Render the shell thickness (View→ODB Display Options; toggle on Render
shell thickness).
The plot appears as shown in Figure W3–6. Note that for the purpose of
visualization, a linear interpolation is used between the contours on the top and
bottom surfaces of the shell.
394
W3.9
Figure W3–6 Contour plot with shell thickness visible.
8. Use the following procedure to create a history plot of displacement U3 for node
357:
a. In the Results Tree, expand the History Output container underneath the
output database named w_skew_plate_nonlin.odb.
b. Click History Output and press F2; filter the container according to *U3*.
c. Double-click the data object for node 357. Your plot should look similar
to Figure W3–7. Note this figure has been customized.
Figure W3–7. History of displacement at the midspan
395
W3.10
w_skew_plate_linear_complete.inp
w_skew_plate_nonlin_complete.inp
396
W3.11
Answers
Answer: The midspan displacement is tripled in the linear analysis.
Answer: The midspan displacement is not tripled in the nonlinear
analysis when the load is tripled; at the higher load, the value
of the displacement predicted by the nonlinear analysis is less
than the value predicted by the linear analysis.
Question W3–3: Why is the second entry on the first data line of the
PLASTIC option equal to 0.0?
Answer: The first data line of the PLASTIC option defines the initial
yield point. The plastic strain at this point is zero.
model?
Answer: The peak value of U3 occurs at the midspan. The supports of
the plate are likely to be heavily stressed; this is confirmed by
contour plots of S11.
397
398
Notes
399
Notes
400
Workshop 4
Unloading Analysis of a Skew Plate
Keywords Version

workshop.
Introduction
You will now continue the analysis of the plate shown in Figure W4–1. Recall our
analysis includes geometric and material nonlinearity. We previously determined the
plate exceeded the material yield strength and therefore has some plastic deformation.
Since we requested restart output, we can resume the analysis to determine the residual
stress state. In this workshop we will remove the load in order to recover the elastic
deformation; the plastic deformation will remain.

the plate.
Figure W4–1 Sketch of the skew plate.
401
W4.2
Creating a restart analysis model

Change to the ../abaqus_solvers/keywords/skew directory.
Create a new input file named w_skew_plate_restart.inp. In this new input file, do
the following:
1. Add the HEADING option at the top of the file.

2. Add the RESTART option immediately after the HEADING option:
*RESTART, READ, STEP=1
This option specifies that the analysis will be continued from the end of the first
step of the previous job. The name of the previous job will be specified at the time
of job submission.
3. Define a step named UNLOAD within which to deactivate the applied pressure
load:
*STEP, NAME=UNLOAD, NLGEOM=YES
*STATIC
0.1, 1.
*DLOAD, OP=NEW
*END STEP
The OP=NEW parameter on the *DLOAD option removes the applied load in the
current step. The load will be ramped off according to the automatic time
incrementation in effect.
4. Use the following command to submit this job:
abaqus job=w_skew_plate_restart oldjob=w_skew_plate_nonlin
5. Monitor the solution progress.
6. Correct any modeling errors, and investigate the source of any warning messages.
402
W4.3
Postprocessing
In the Visualization module, contour the U3 displacement component in the plate:
1. Click the Plot Contours tool in the toolbox.

2. From the list of variable types on the left side of the Field Output toolbar, select
Primary (if it is not already selected).
3. From the list of available output variables in the center of the toolbar, select
output variable U (spatial displacement at nodes).
4. From the list of available components and invariants on the right side of the Field
Output toolbar, select U3.
5. Compare to the results at the end of the Apply Pressure step.
Note that in this output database file, the results for frame 0 correspond to the
results at the end of the Apply Pressure step (use the Frame Selector to
switch to a different frame).
The difference between the final state of the model and its initial state is due to
the elastic springback that has occurred. The deformation that remains is
permanent and unrecoverable.
w_skew_plate_restart_complete.inp
403
404
Notes
405
Notes
406
Workshop 5
CLD Analysis of a Seal using Abaqus/Standard
Keywords Version

workshop.
Goals
 Evaluate a hyperelastic material.
 Define contact interactions using contact pairs and general contact.
 Perform a large displacement analysis with Abaqus/Standard.
 Use Abaqus/Viewer to create a compression load-deflection curve.
Introduction
In this workshop, a compression analysis of a rubber seal is performed to determine the
seal’s performance. The goal is to determine the seal’s compression load-deflection
(CLD) curve, deformation and stresses. The analysis will be performed using
Abaqus/Standard. Two analyses are performed: one using contact pairs and the other
using general contact.
As shown in Figure W5–1, the top outer surface of the seal is covered with a polymer
layer, and the seal is compressed between two rigid surfaces (the upper one is displaced
along the negative 2-direction; the lower one is fixed). During compression, the cover
contacts the top rigid surface; the outer surface of the seal is in contact with the cover and
the bottom rigid surface; in addition the inner surface of the seal may come into contact
with itself.
407
W5.2
Cover U2
Rigid
Surfaces
Seal
fixed
Figure W5–1. Seal model
Seal analysis
1. Change to the ../abaqus_solvers/keywords/seal directory.
2. Open the input file w_seal.inp, which already contains the nodes, elements,
and material model data for the analysis. You will first use Abaqus/CAE
functionality to evaluate the stability of the hyperelastic material model and then
edit the input file to include the contact, step and boundary condition definitions.
Material Evaluation
It is important to determine whether the material model of the seal will be stable during
the analysis. Before completing the input file, evaluate the material definition that is used
for the seal.
1. Use your text editor to review the supplied workshop model contained in the file
w_seal.inp.
2. The material named SANTOPRENE is used for the seal. Locate the *MATERIAL,
NAME=SANTOPRENE option. It is a hyperelastic material with a first order
polynomial strain energy potential. The coefficients are already specified for the
analysis.
3. Evaluate the material definition. Abaqus/CAE provides a convenient Evaluate
option that allows you to view the behavior predicted by a hyperelastic material
by performing standard tests to choose a suitable material formulation. You will
use this option to view the behavior predicted by the material SANTOPRENE.
a. Start a session of AQUS/CAE using the following command at the
command prompt:
abaqus cae
In the Start Session dialog box, underneath Create Model Database,
click With Standard/Explicit Model.
408
W5.3
b. In the Model Tree, double-click the Materials container to create a

material definition as specified in the input file. In the Edit Material dialog
box, name the material Santoprene; from the menu bar, select
Mechanical→Elasticity→Hyperelastic; in the Hyperelastic field, select
the Polynomial strain energy potential and the Coefficients input source,
accept a strain energy potential order of 1, and enter the values of the
coefficients (defined in the input file) as shown in Figure W5–2. Click OK
to save the material definition and exit the material editor.
Figure W5–2. Material editor
c. From the main menu bar in the Property module, select

Material→Evaluate→Santoprene.
d. The Evaluate Material dialog box appears. Notice that you can choose
either the Coefficients or Test data source for evaluating the material.
Typically the test data are used to define a material model; you can use the
Evaluate option to view the predicted behavior and adjust the material
definition as necessary. In this workshop you will only evaluate the
stability of the material model for the given coefficients.
409
W5.4
e. In the Evaluate Material dialog box, accept all defaults and click OK.
Abaqus/CAE creates and submits a job to perform the standard tests using
the material Santoprene; at the same time, Abaqus/CAE switches to the
Visualization module and displays the evaluation results when the job is
complete. Figure W5–3 shows the Material Parameters and Stability
Limit Information dialog box; Figure W5–4 shows three stress vs. strain
plots from uniaxial, biaxial, and planar tests.
Based on these results, you can have confidence that your material will remain
stable.
Figure W5–3. Material parameters and stability limit information
410
W5.5
Figure W5–4. Material evaluation results for uniaxial, biaxial, and planar tests
After evaluating the material, you can exit Abaqus/CAE and will now complete the
model definition.
411
W5.6
Part 1: Analysis using contact pairs
Contact interactions
1. Open the input file w_seal.inp in a text editor.
2. Define contact pairs as listed in Table W5–1. The surfaces which will be used in
the contact pair definitions are shown in Figure W5–5. The required option is:
*CONTACT PAIR, INTERACTION=frictionless, TYPE=SURFACE TO SURFACE
sealOuter, bottom
sealOuter, cover
cover, top
Note that the interaction property named frictionless has already been
defined in the input file. Locate the *SURFACE INTERACTION,
NAME=frictionless option to review its definition.
Table W5–1. Contact pairs

Slave Surface Master Surface
sealOuter bottom
sealOuter cover
cover top
cover
top
sealInner
bottom
sealOuter
Figure W5–5. Contact surfaces
3. Define a self-contact definition for the inner surface of the seal:

*CONTACT PAIR, INTERACTION=frictionless, TYPE=SURFACE TO SURFACE
sealInner,
Question W5–2: In the interaction between the seal and the cover, why do we
choose SealOuter as the slave surface?
412
W5.7
Step definition
1. Define a general static step considering geometric nonlinearity. Set the initial time
increment size to 0.5% of the total time period. Invoke the unsymmetric solver
(the unsymmetric solver is generally recommended for the surface-to-surface
contact discretization method). The following option defines the procedure:
*STEP, NLGEOM=YES, UNSYMM=YES
*STATIC
0.005, 1.
2. Use the following solution control parameter to improve the efficiency of the
analysis:
*CONTROLS, ANALYSIS=DISCONTINUOUS
Boundary conditions and history output requests

1. Asymmetric lateral sliding of the model is prevented by constraining the seal and
the cover along their vertical symmetry axes in the X-direction. The bottom rigid
surface is fixed, and a displacement of –6 units is applied to the top rigid surface
along the Y-direction to compress the seal between the two surfaces. The node
sets on which the boundary conditions will be defined are shown in Figure W5–6.
The following option completes these boundary conditions:
*BOUNDARY
fix1, 1, 1
botRP, ENCASTRE
topRP, 1, 1
topRP, 2, 2, -6.
topRP, 6, 6
topRP
fix1
botRP
Figure W5–6. Node sets
413
W5.8
2. The preselected default field output does not include the nominal strain NE; to
visualize the nominal strain in Abaqus/Viewer, you will write additional field
output to the output database file. Locate the
*OUTPUT, FIELD, VARIABLE=PRESELECT option and add
the following sub-option:
*ELEMENT OUTPUT
NE,
3. Add a history output request to write the history of RF2 and U2 for the set topRP
to the output database file. The required option is:
*OUTPUT, HISTORY
*NODE OUTPUT, NSET=topRP
RF2, U2
4. Save all the changes and close the input file.
414
W5.9
Running the job and visualizing the results:

Run the analysis using the following command:
abaqus job=w_seal
When the job is complete, use the following procedure to visualize the results using
Abaqus/Viewer:
1. Start Abaqus/Viewer and open the file w_seal.odb:
abaqus viewer odb=w_seal.odb
2. Plot the undeformed and the deformed model shapes. To distinguish between the
different parts, color code the model based on section assignments.
Tip: From the toolbar, select Sections from the color-coding pull down menu, as
shown in Figure W5–7 (or use the Color Code Dialog tool to customize the
color for each section).
Figure W5–7. Color-coding pull down menu
4. Display only the seal. In the Results Tree, expand the Instances container
underneath the output database file named seal.odb. Click mouse button 3 on
the instance SEAL-1 and select Replace from the menu that appears.
Abaqus/CAE now displays only the elements associated with the seal.
5. Contour the Mises stress of the seal on the deformed shape. If necessary, use the
frame selector in the context bar to select the last increment.
The contour plot is shown in Figure W5–8.
415
W5.10
Figure W5–8. Mises contour plot
6. Contour the minimum and maximum principal nominal strains. Elastic strains can
be very high for hyperelastic materials. Because of this, the linear elastic material
model is not used because it is not appropriate for elastic strains greater than
approximately 5%.
7. Display the reaction force history at the reference node of the top rigid surface: In
the Results Tree, expand the History Output container underneath the output
database file named w_seal.odb and double-click Reaction force: RF2 PI:
TOP-1 Node 3 in NSET TOPRP to display the reaction force history at the
reference node of the top rigid surface.
8. You will now create the CLD curve.
a. In the History Output container, click mouse button 3 on Reaction force:
RF2 PI: TOP-1 Node 3 in NSET TOPRP and select Save As from the
menu that appears. Save the data as Force.
b. Click mouse button 3 on Spatial displacement: U2 PI: TOP-1 Node 3 in
NSET TOPRP and select Save As from the menu that appears. Save the
data as Disp.
c. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData. In the Create XY Data dialog
box, select Operate on XY data as the source and click Continue.
The Operate on XY Data dialog box appears.
d. From the Operators listed in the Operate on XY Data dialog box, select
combine(X, X) and then abs(A). Note that the abs(A) operator is used to
obtain the absolute values. In the XY Data field, double-click the curve
Disp. The current expression reads combine(abs("Disp")). Move the
cursor before the far-right bracket, enter a comma, and then select the
operator abs(A). In the XY Data field, double-click the curve Force. The
final expression reads combine(abs("Disp"), abs("Force") ).
Click Plot Expression to plot this expression. Save this plot as CLD.
416
W5.11
9. Customize the plot as follows:

a. From the main menu bar, select Options→XY Options→Plot.
 In the Plot Options dialog box, fill the plot background in white.
b. Double-click anywhere on the chart to open the Chart Options dialog
box.
 In the Grid Display tabbed page, toggle on the major X- and Y-
grid lines. Set the line color to blue and the line style to dashed.
 Change the fill color using the following RGB values: red: 175;
green: 250; blue: 185.
In the Grid Area tabbed page, select Square as the size and drag
the slider to 80. From the list of auto-alignments, choose the one
that places the chart in the center of the viewport
c. Double-click the legend to open the Chart Legend Options dialog box.
 In the Contents tabbed page, click to increase the legend text
font size to 10.
 Toggle on Fill to flood the legend with a white background.
 In the viewport, drag the legend over the chart.
d. Double-click either axis to open the Axis Options dialog box.
 In the X Axis region of the dialog box, select the displacement
axis.
 In the Scale tabbed page, place 4 major tick marks on the X-axis at
(use the By count method).
 In the Title tabbed page, change the X-axis title to Displacement
(inch).
 In the Y Axis region of the dialog box, select the force axis.
 In the Scale tabbed page, specify that the Y-axis should extend
from 0 (the Y-axis minimum) to 250 (the Y-axis maximum).
 Increase the number of Y-axis minor tick marks per increment to 4.
 In the Title tabbed page, change the Y-axis title to Force (lbf).
 In the Axes tabbed page, change the font size for both axes to 10.
e. Expand the list of plot option icons in the toolbox:
417
W5.12
f. Examine the remaining options. Add the following plot title: CLD
Diagram. Double-click the plot title to open the Plot Title Options dialog
box.
 In the Title tabbed page, click to change the legend text style to
bold.
 In the viewport, drag the plot title above the chart.
g. Click in the toolbox to open the Curve Options dialog box. Change
the legend text to Top Surface Ref Point and toggle on Show
symbol. Set the color for both the line and symbols to red. Use large filled
circles for the symbols. Reposition the legend as necessary.
The final plot appears as shown in Figure W5–9.
Figure W5–9. Compression load deflection diagram
represent?
418
W5.13
Part 2: Analysis using general contact

1. Copy the input file named w_seal.inp to one named w_seal_gc.inp.
Edit this input file as described below.
2. Locate the contact pairs defined earlier and delete them.
3. Create a general contact interaction using the default all-inclusive element-based
surface and apply the frictionless contact property globally. The following options
define the interaction:
*CONTACT
, , FRICTIONLESS
4. Save all the changes and close the input file.

5. Run the analysis using the following command:
abaqus job=w_seal_gc
6. When the job is complete, use the following procedure to visualize the results
using Abaqus/Viewer.
7. Compare the results with those obtained using contact pairs. A comparison of the
stress state in the seal is shown in Figure W5–10 while a comparison of the force-
displacement curve is shown in Figure W5–11.
The agreement between the two approaches is excellent. The general contact
approach, however, provides a much simpler user interface since the entire
contact domain is defined automatically and properties are assigned globally.
419
W5.14
Figure W5–10. Comparison of the stress state in the seal

(general contact, top; contact pairs, bottom)
Figure W5–11. Comparison of force-displacement curves
420
W5.15
w_seal_cp_complete.inp
w_seal_gc_complete.inp
421
W5.16
Answers
Answer: The plots never have a negative slope, indicating that the
material is stable throughout the entire strain range.
Question W5–2: In the interaction between the seal and the cover, why do we
choose SealOuter as the slave surface?
Answer: SealOuter has a more refined mesh and should therefore be
specified as the slave surface.
represent?
Answer: This peak represents the inward bucking that occurs at the
bottom corners of the seal during compression. If you look at
the deformed shape at the time corresponding to
approximately 3.7 inches of displacement, you will observe
this phenomenon.
422
Notes
423
Notes
424
Workshop 6
Dynamics
Keywords Version

workshop.
Goals
 Become familiar with the Abaqus/CAE procedures for frequency extraction and
implicit dynamic analyses.
 Become more familiar with the status (.sta) and message (.msg) files.
 Learn how to plot eigenmodes and create history plots using Abaqus/Viewer.
Introduction
In this workshop the dynamic response of the cantilever beam shown in Figure W6–1 is
investigated. A frequency extraction is performed to determine the 10 lowest vibration
modes of the beam. The effects of mesh refinement, element interpolation order, and
element dimension will be considered.
The problem is also solved by performing a direct integration dynamic analysis to
simulate the vibration of the beam upon removal of the tip load. The frequency of the
vibration predicted by the transient analysis will be compared with the natural frequency
results.
Figure W6–1. Problem description
425
W6.2
Part 1: Frequency extraction analysis

Change to the ../abaqus_solvers/keywords/dynamics directory, and copy
w_beam.inp to a new file named w_beam_freq.inp.
Currently 5 B21 elements are used to discretize the beam. You will edit this model
further as described below.
Input specification
1. Make the following changes to w_beam_freq.inp. Refer to the online
documentation as necessary.
a. Include a density of 2.3E6 in the material definition. Add the following
option block below the MATERIAL option:
*DENSITY
2.3E-6,
b. Comment out the STATIC step currently in the model, including the
loading:
***STEP
**SMALL DISPLACEMENT ANALYSIS
***STATIC
***CLOAD
**TIP, 2, -1200.
***END STEP
c. Add a new step using the FREQUENCY procedure, and select the
Lanczos eigensolver. Request 10 modes. The finished option block should
look like the following:
*STEP
FREQUENCY EXTRACTION
*FREQUENCY, EIGENSOLVER=LANCZOS
10,
*END STEP
d. Retain the built-in boundary condition at the left end of the beam.
2. Submit the frequency extraction analysis as an Abaqus job.
3. After the analysis has completed, check the printed output file and make any
necessary corrections to the input.
426
W6.3
Examining the eigenmodes and eigenvalues

1. Open the printed output file in the text editor of your choice.
2. Search for the second occurrence of “E I G E N” to find the beginning of the
analysis results. The first table gives the eigenvalue output. Find the frequency
(cycles/time) for the lowest mode.
3. Visualize results:
a. Start Abaqus/Viewer, and open the output database associated with this
analysis.
b. Plot the first eigenmode (plot the deformed model shape and use the
Frame Selector or the Step/Frame dialog box to choose the frame
corresponding to Mode 1).
c. Using the arrow keys in the context bar, select different mode shapes.
d. The results for modes 1 and 4 are shown in Figure W6–2. These
correspond to the first and fourth transverse modes of the structure.

(coarse mesh; 2D linear beam elements)
mesh is somewhat coarse.)
427
W6.4
Effect of mesh on extracted modes

From Figure W6–2 it is apparent that such a coarse mesh of linear-interpolation elements
is unable to adequately represent the mode shapes associated with the higher modes. In
fact the current mesh is unable to represent anything beyond the fifth mode.
To obtain accurate results for all extracted modes, a sufficiently refined mesh is required.
Thus, you will increase the mesh refinement. Also, you will switch to quadratic
interpolation elements since these provide superior accuracy for frequency extraction
analysis.
1. Open the file w_beam_freq.inp.
Note the presence of the *PARAMETER option block near the top of the file. The
parameters defined in this block are used to control the mesh density. In
particular, the parameter nel defines the number of elements along the length of
the beam.
2. In the *PARAMETER option block, set nel to 40. The relevant portion of this
option block is shown below.
*PARAMETER
nel = 40
…
The model explicitly defines the first beam element and then uses the *ELGEN
option to define the rest.
3. Locate the *ELEMENT option block. Change the element type to B22 and
modify the connectivity list of the first element so that nodes 1, 2, 3 are used to
define the element:

1, 1, 2, 3
4. Run the job, and compare the results with those obtained previously.
The results for modes 1 and 4 are shown in Figure W6–3.
428
W6.5

(fine mesh; 2D quadratic beam elements)
The results indicate that the refined mesh is able to represent all extracted modes.
The natural frequency of the first mode predicted by the fine-mesh model is
within 2% of that predicted by the coarse mesh model. The difference in results
for the fourth mode is more significant: there is an 8% difference in the predicted
natural frequency for this mode.
Note that all modes with the exception of modes 6 and 10 are transverse modes.
Modes 6 and 10 are longitudinal modes. To see the longitudinal modes more
clearly, superimpose the undeformed model shape on the deformed model shape.
429
W6.6
Torsional and out-of-plane modes

The current model, given that it uses two-dimensional beam elements, is unable to
capture any torsional or out-of-plane modes. For this a three-dimensional model is
required (using either beam, solid, or shell elements). With three-dimensional beam
elements, however, it is not possible to visualize the modes. Thus, in what follows, shell
elements are used to capture the out-of-plane modes.
A predefined model is available in w_beam_freq_s8r_complete.inp. This model
uses three-dimensional quadratic shell elements to represent the beam structure. The shell
part is 200 units long by 50 units wide. The part mesh consists of 40 S8R elements along
the length of the structure and 10 along its width. Homogeneous shell section properties
with the same material properties used earlier and a thickness of 5 units are assigned to
the part.
1. Run the job, and compare the results with those obtained previously.
2. The results for the first and fourth transverse modes are shown in Figure W6–4.
The agreement in terms of both mode shape and natural frequency between the
(refined) beam and shell models is excellent (compare with Figure W6–3).
Figure W6–4. First and fourth transverse modes (3D shell model)
430
W6.7
3. The three-dimensional model captures the torsional and out-of-plane modes that
are suppressed by the two-dimensional model. The first three of these modes are
Figure W6–5. Torsional and out-of-plane modes (3D shell model)
431
W6.8
Part 2: Transient dynamic analysis

We now investigate the free vibration of the beam upon removal of the tip load.
Input specification
1. Copy w_beam_freq.inp to a new file named w_beam_dynam.inp.
Use the following steps to modify the file so that the tip of the model is loaded
and then released and allowed to vibrate freely:
a. Uncomment the static step.
b. Delete the frequency extraction step.
c. Add another step to the analysis history using the DYNAMIC procedure.
Set the maximum number of time increments to 200 and specify an initial
time increment of 0.01 and a time period of 1.0.
d. Remove the tip load in the dynamic step by specifying CLOAD,
OP=NEW. This option removes all existing concentrated loads.
e. Request predefined field output and that the tip displacement be written
every increment to the output database (.odb) file as history data. Use the
predefined node set named TIP for this purpose. This set contains the
node at the loaded end of the beam. Add the following output requests to
the input file:
*OUTPUT, FIELD, VARIABLE=PRESELECT
*NODE OUTPUT, NSET=TIP
U,
f. It is useful to be able to monitor the progress of an analysis by noting the
value of one degree of freedom. To do so, add the following option to the
first analysis step:
*MONITOR, NODE=TIP, DOF=2
2. Save the input file and run the Abaqus job.
While the job is running, you can check on the progress of the analysis by looking
at the status file.
432
W6.9
Visualizing results
1. Open the file w_beam_dynam.odb in the Visualization module.
2. Plot the history of the displacement component U2 at the tip node. In the Results
Tree, expand the History Output container underneath the output database named
dynamic.odb and double-click Spatial displacement: U2 at Node … in NSET
TIP.
The tip response is shown in Figure W6–7. From this plot, you can estimate the
frequency of the first vibration mode. Note that there are nearly 6 cycles in a 1
second time period. This is in agreement with the results obtained earlier using the
natural frequency extraction procedure (5.95 Hz).
Figure W6–7. Tip node displacement history
w_beam_freq_b21_complete.inp
w_beam_freq_b22_complete.inp
w_beam_dynam_b22_complete.inp
433
W6.10
Answers
mesh is somewhat coarse).
Answer: Because the model is two-dimensional, it cannot capture the
modes that occur out of the plane of the model, including
torsional modes.
The mesh is too coarse to capture modes other than the first
five. Use more elements to look at all 10 requested modes.
Answer: No.
Answer: The frequency calculated from the history plot of the tip
displacement is approximately 5.9, which agrees very closely
with the frequency calculated in the eigenvalue analysis.
434
Notes
435
Notes
436
Workshop 7
Contact with Abaqus/Explicit
Keywords Version

workshop.
Goals
 Define a rigid body constraint.
 Define a general contact interaction.
 Apply boundary and initial conditions.
 Perform an impact analysis.
 Use Abaqus/Viewer to view results.
Introduction
This workshop involves the simulation of a pipe-on-pipe impact resulting from the
rupture of a high-pressure line in a power plant. It is assumed that a sudden release of
fluid could cause one segment of the pipe to rotate about its support and strike a
neighboring pipe. The goal of the analysis is to determine strain and stress conditions in
both pipes and their deformed shapes. The simulation will be performed using
Abaqus/Explicit.
This workshop is based on “Pipe whip simulation,” Section 1.3.9 of the Abaqus
Benchmarks Manual.
437
W7.2
Impacting pipe
Fixed pipe
Figure W7–1. Pipe whip model: finite element mesh
Both pipes have a mean diameter of 6.5 inches with a 0.432 inch wall thickness and a
span of 50 inches between supports. The fixed pipe is assumed to be fully restrained at
both ends, while the impacting pipe is allowed to rotate about a fixed pivot located at one
of its ends, with the other end free. We exploit the symmetry of the structure and the
loading and, thus, model only the geometry on one side of the central symmetry plane, as
Pivot point
edge refPt fixed
zsymm
Figure W7–2. Node sets
438
W7.3
Impact analysis
The model geometry, material properties, and loading history for the impact analysis are
already defined and can be found in
../abaqus_solvers/keywords/pipe_whip/w_pipe_whip.inp. You will have to
edit the input file to include the material properties, rigid body constraint, contact
interaction, initial conditions, boundary conditions, step definition, and output requests.
Predefined sets are included to ease your work. These are shown in Figure W7–2.
Material and section properties

1. Both pipes are made of steel. A von Mises elastic, perfectly plastic material model
is used. Create a material named Steel with the following properties:
Modulus of elasticity: 30E6 psi
Poisson's ratio: 0.3

Yield Stress: 45.0E3 psi
2 4
Density: 7.324E-4 lb-sec /in
2. Assign shell section properties to each pipe. Each pipe is 0.432 inches thick. Use
Gauss integration with 3 points through the thickness for each section property.
The elements of the impacting pipe are contained in element set pipe-
impacting, while the elements of the fixed pipe are in element set pipe-
fixed.
thickness?
Rigid body constraint

Define a rigid body constraint between the nodes at the pivot end of the impacting pipe
(node set edge) and the rigid body reference point (node set refPt). Both the
translations and rotations of the pipe nodes are controlled by the rigid body constraint.
body constraint?
Contact interaction
Define general contact between the two pipes. Assume frictional contact with a
coefficient of friction equal to 0.2.
Question W7–4: Are the contact constraints part of the model or history data?
439
W7.4
Initial conditions
The impacting pipe has an initial angular velocity of 75 radians/sec about its supported
(pinned) end. Assign a rotating velocity initial condition to all the nodes in the impacting
pipe (node set pipe-impacting).
The rotation is about the positive Z-direction passing though the rigid body reference
point. The coordinates of the reference point are 25.0, 6.932, 25.0.
Boundary conditions
The edges located on the symmetry plane (node set zsymm) must be given appropriate
symmetry boundary conditions. One end of the fixed pipe is fully restrained (node set
fixed). The rigid body reference point (node set refPt) is free to rotate about its
position.
Question W7–6: Are the boundary conditions part of the model or history data
in an Abaqus/Explicit analysis?
Step definition and output requests

Because of the high-speed nature of the event, the simulation is performed using a single
explicit dynamics step.
1. Create an explicit dynamics step with a time period of 0.015 seconds.
2. Write preselected field output to the output database at 12 equally spaced
intervals.
3. Request reaction force history output at the constrained end of the impacting pipe.
Write the data to the output database at 100 evenly spaced time intervals during
the analysis.
4. Request preselected history output at the default number of intervals.
Save the input file, and run the impact analysis by entering the following command at the
prompt:
abaqus job=w_pipe_whip
Visualization
1. Once the analysis completes successfully, open the output database file in
Abaqus/Viewer.
2. Plot the undeformed and the deformed model shapes. From the main menu bar,
select Tools→Color Code (or click in the toolbar) and assign different
440
W7.5
colors to the two pipes (you can distinguish between them using section
assignments), as shown in Figure W7–3.
Figure W7–3. Deformed model shape
4. Contour the Mises stress and equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ) on the deformed
shape, as shown in Figure W7–4.
MISES PEEQ
Figure W7–4. Contour plots
5. Create X–Y plots of the model’s kinetic energy (ALLKE), internal energy
(ALLIE), and dissipated energy (ALLPD). The energy plot is shown in Figure
W7–5. Note this figure has been customized for clarity.
Tip: Expand the History Output container in the Results Tree and select the three
curves noted above. Click mouse button 3 and select Plot from the menu that
appears.
441
W7.6
Figure W7–5. Energy histories
442
W7.7
6. Select and plot the pinned node reaction force components RF1, RF2, and RF3.
The curves appear in Figure W7–6. Note this figure has been customized for
clarity.
Figure W7–6. Reaction force histories
w_pipe_whip_complete.inp
443
W7.8
Answers
Answer: All Abaqus/Explicit analyses require a density value because
Abaqus/Explicit solves for dynamic equilibrium (i.e., inertia
effects are considered). The units for all material parameters
must be consistent; in this problem the English system is used
with pounds and inches as the units for force and length,
respectively. Thus, the consistent unit for density is lb-sec2/in4.
The options required to complete the material model definition
are:
*material, name=steel
*density
7.324e-4,
*elastic
3e+07, 0.3
*plastic
45000.,0.
thickness?
Answer: Three section points are used to reduce the run time of the job.
The options required to complete the section definitions are:
*shell section, elset=pipe-impacting,
material=steel, section integration=gauss
0.432, 3
*shell section, elset=pipe-fixed,
material=steel, section integration =gauss
0.432, 3
body constraint?
Answer: A tie node set needs to be used.
The option required to define the rigid body constraint is:
*rigid body, ref node=refPt, tie nset=edge
444
W7.9
Question W7–4: Should you add the contact definition to the model data or the
history data?
Answer: General contact definitions can be part of either the model
data or the history data. The surface interaction properties are
model data when used with general contact.
The (model data) options required to complete the contact
definition are:
*contact
*contact inclusions, all exterior
*contact property assignment
, , fric
*surface interaction, name=fric
*friction
0.2,
Answer: The axis passes through the reference point and is parallel to
the Z-direction. Thus, define the axis using two points. Each of
the “axis” points must have the same X- and Y-coordinates as
the reference point; the values of the Z-coordinates of the
“axis” points will dictate the sense of positive rotation.
For example:
*initial conditions, type=rotating velocity
pipe-impacting, 75., 0., 0., 0.,
25., 6.932, 0., 25., 6.932, 1.,
The second data line defines the axis of rotation.
445
W7.10
Question W7–6: Are the boundary conditions part of the model data or the
history data in an Abaqus/Explicit analysis?
Answer: As with Abaqus/Standard, fixed boundary conditions can be
defined as either model or history data. Named boundary
conditions improve the readability of your input file and
provide a shortcut to defining commonly encountered support
conditions.
The options required to define the boundary conditions, step,
and output are:
*dynamic, explicit
, 0.015
**
*boundary
zsymm, zsymm
fixed, encastre
refPt, pinned
*output, field, variable=preselect,
number intervals=12
*output, history, time interval=0.00015
*node output, nset=refpt
rf1, rf2, rf3
*output, history, variable=preselect

Answer: Near the end of the simulation, the impacting pipe is
beginning to rebound, having dissipated the majority of its
kinetic energy by inelastic deformation in the crushed zone.
446
Notes
447
Notes
448
Workshop 8
Quasi-Static Analysis
Keywords Version

workshop.
Goals
 Approximate a quasi-static solution using Abaqus/Explicit.
 Understand the effects of mass scaling.
Introduction
In this workshop you will examine the deep drawing of a can bottom. A one-stage
forming process is simulated in Abaqus/Explicit; the springback analysis is performed in
Abaqus/Standard. The final deformed shape of the can bottom is shown in
Figure W8–1. In a subsequent workshop the import capability is used to transfer the
results between Abaqus/Explicit and Abaqus/Standard in order to perform a springback
analysis.
One of the advantages of using Abaqus/Explicit for metal forming simulations is that, in
general, Abaqus/Explicit resolves complicated contact conditions more readily than
Abaqus/Standard.
449
W8.2
Change to the ../abaqus_solvers/keywords/forming directory.
Establishing the Abaqus/Explicit analysis time

In this section you will determine the first eigenmode of the blank and use it to establish
the step time for the subsequent Abaqus/Explicit analysis.
1. Open the file w_draw_freq.inp, and examine its contents to help you answer
the following questions:
Question W8–1: What analysis procedure is used in this input file?

procedure is the analysis procedure in this input file?
Question W8–3: In an analysis with more than one step in the same input file,
step?
2. Run the job by entering the following command:

abaqus job=w_draw_freq
Plot the first eigenmode in Abaqus/Viewer. The fundamental frequency, f, of the blank is
304 Hz, corresponding to a time period of 0.0033 s ( T  1/ f ). This time period provides
a lower bound on the step time for the first forming stage. Choosing the step time to be
10 times the time period of the fundamental natural frequency, or 0.033 s, should ensure a
quality quasi-static solution. This time period corresponds to a constant punch velocity of
0.45 m/s, which is typical for metal forming.
450
W8.3
Geometry definition
In this section you will complete the geometry definition of the can forming model by
defining the punch as an analytical rigid surface.
Figure W8–2 shows the components of the model—the punch, the die, and the blank—in
their initial positions. The blank is modeled using axisymmetric shell elements (SAX1).
The shell reference surface lies at the shell midsurface.
(0.032, 0.03025)
(0.0, 0.00025)
Origin
(0.0, 0.0)
Figure W8–2. Model geometry
1. Open the file w_draw_bot.inp in an editor, and define punch 1 as an analytical

rigid surface (see Figure W8–2 for the relevant dimensions).
Use the definition of die 1 in the input file as an example of the input for an
analytical rigid surface. The end point for punch 1 lies on the symmetry axis, a
distance of half the blank thickness above the shell midsurface. Give the rigid
surface the name PUNCH1, and use node 1001 as the rigid body reference node.
The RIGID BODY option has been defined already.
Question W8–4: How does the order of the line segments affect the ability of
Abaqus to resolve the contact condition?
451
W8.4
2. Define the surfaces, the contact pairs, and the surface interaction for the complete
model using the SURFACE, CONTACT PAIR, and SURFACE
INTERACTION options. The blank is defined such that the element normal
direction points toward the punch. The friction coefficient between the rigid tools
and the blank is 0.1.
Question W8–6: In Abaqus the input data are classified as either model or
history data. What type of data is the contact pair definition in
Abaqus/Explicit? What type of data is the contact pair
definition in Abaqus/Standard?
Material definition
In this section you will add the entire material definition to the input file.
The material is steel with Young’s modulus E =210E9 Pa, Poisson’s ratio v =0.3, and
density  =7800 kg/m3. Figure W8–3 shows the nominal plasticity material data for the
blank as tabulated in Table W8–1.
Figure W8–3. Nominal stress vs. nominal strain
Question W8–7: When entering plasticity data with the PLASTIC option,
what are the stress and strain measures that Abaqus uses?
452
W8.5
Table W8–1
Nominal stress (Pa) Nominal strain
90.96  106 4.334  104
130.71  106 2.216  103
169.75  106 7.331  103
207.08  106 1.888  10-2
240.99  106 4.153  102
268.89  106 8.218  102
287.59  106 1.509  101
290.57  106 3.456 101
Table W8–2
True stress (Pa) Log plastic strain
91  106 0.0
131  106 0.159  102
171  106 0.649  102
211  106 0.177  101
251  106 0.395  101
291  106 0.776  101
331  106 0.139
391  106 0.295
Table W8–2 lists the corresponding true stress and logarithmic strain values. These
values were obtained using the following relationships:
   nom (1   nom )
  1n(1   nom )
 pl  tot   el   tot   / E
These equations are valid for isotropic materials and establish the relationships between
the true stress and strain measures (used in Abaqus) and the nominal stress and strain
measures.
1. Complete the material definition, and name the material STEEL. Use the
ELASTIC option to enter Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio and the
PLASTIC option to enter the material data in Table W8–2.
Tip: Both of these options must be grouped under the *MATERIAL option.
2. To reduce high-frequency noise in the solution (caused primarily by the
oscillations of the blank’s free end), add stiffness proportional damping to the
material definition of the blank. It is best to use the smallest amount of damping
possible to obtain the desired solution since increasing the stiffness damping
decreases the stable time increment and, thus, increases the computer time. To
avoid a dramatic drop in the stable time increment, the stiffness proportional
453
W8.6
damping factor R should be less than, or of the same order of magnitude as, the
initial stable time increment without damping. We choose a damping factor of
R = 1107, which is included by using the DAMPING, BETA=1.E7 material
option.
Amplitude definition
To form the can bottom, we will displace the punch by moving its rigid body reference
node 0.015 m in the negative 2-direction. The punch displacement will be applied in the
form of a displacement boundary condition. Because Abaqus/Explicit does not permit
displacement discontinuities, prescribed displacements must refer to an amplitude
definition. In this section you will add the amplitude definition to the input file. Figure
W8–4 shows the desired displacement behavior for the punch.
1. Define the amplitude curve corresponding to Figure W8–4. The curve shown in
Figure W8–4 is smooth in its first and second derivatives and is defined by using
the DEFINITION=SMOOTH STEP parameter with the AMPLITUDE option.
Define the punch displacement amplitude, and name the amplitude FORM1.
was used instead?
2. Note that in the input file there is a boundary condition that refers to the
amplitude definition (FORM1) just completed.
Speeding up the analysis

In general, quasi-static processes cannot be modeled in their natural time scale in
Abaqus/Explicit since a large number of time increments would be required. (Recall that
time increments in Abaqus/Explicit are generally very small). Thus, it is sometimes
necessary to increase the speed of the simulation artificially to reduce the computational
cost. One method to reduce the cost of the analysis is to use mass scaling.
454
W8.7
Figure W8–4. Displacement curve of punch
While various forms of mass scaling are available in Abaqus/Explicit, we will

concentrate on fixed mass scaling in this workshop and will implement it using the
FIXED MASS SCALING option. The reason for choosing fixed mass scaling is that it
provides a simple means to modify the mass properties of a quasi-static model at the
beginning of the analysis. It is also computationally less expensive than variable mass
scaling, because the mass is scaled only once at the beginning of the step.
1. Specify a mass scaling factor of 10 by setting the FACTOR parameter on the
FIXED MASS SCALING option, and complete the mass scaling definition in
the input file.

Analysis and results evaluation

1. Run the analysis with the input file w_draw_bot.inp.
2. Monitor the progress of the solution in the status file.
3. Open the output database w_draw_bot.odb in Abaqus/Viewer.
4. Display the curves for internal and kinetic energy (variables ALLIE and ALLKE,
respectively) in the same plot by selecting them from the Results Tree
(underneath the History Output container). To display the curve symbols, use the
455
W8.8
XY Curve Options tool in the toolbox. You should see a plot similar to
Figure W8–5. Note this figure has been customized for clarity.
Figure W8–5. Internal and kinetic energy
5. Certain elements have hourglass modes that affect their behavior. Hourglass
modes are modes of deformation that do not cause any strains at the integration
points. An indication of whether hourglassing has an effect on the solution is the
artificial energy, variable ALLAE. Plot the artificial energy and the internal
energy, variable ALLIE, on the same plot. The artificial energy should always be
much less than the internal energy (say less than 0.5%).
6. Display only the deformed shape of the blank:

a. Expand the Materials container in the Results Tree and click mouse
button 3 on STEEL.
b. From the menu that appears, select Replace.
7. Expand the displayed area to 180o:
a. Select ViewODB Display Options from the main menu.
b. In the Sweep/Extrude tabbed page of the ODB Display Options dialog
box, toggle on Sweep elements.
You should see a shape similar to that in Figure W8–6.
456
W8.9
Figure W8–6. 180 expanded deformed shape
c. Contour the Mises stress distribution of the 180o model using the Plot
Contours tool in the toolbox; to select other variables for contouring,
use the Field Output toolbar.
d. Plot the punch displacement shown in Figure W8–4 by double-clicking the
U2 curve for node 1001 in the Results Tree (underneath the History
Output container).
w_draw_bot_complete.inp
457
W8.10
Answers
Question W8–1: What analysis procedure is used in this input file?

Answer: The analysis procedure is a natural frequency extraction
(FREQUENCY). The procedure option must immediately
follow the STEP option.

procedure is the analysis procedure in this input file?
Answer: The FREQUENCY option is a linear perturbation procedure.
Question W8–3: In an analysis with more than one step in the same input file,
step?
Answer: None. Only general analysis steps change the base state of the
model.
Question W8–4: How does the order of the line segments affect the ability of
Abaqus to resolve the contact condition?
Answer: The order of the line segments determines the direction of the
outward normal vector of the rigid surface. If the outward
normal points in the wrong direction, Abaqus cannot establish
the contact between the surfaces and, therefore, cannot find a
solution.
Answer: An increased friction coefficient will increase the critical shear
stress crit at which sliding of the blank begins. Thus, the
material will be stretched more, causing further thinning of the
material and increasing the stresses.
458
W8.11
Question W8–6: In Abaqus the input data are classified as either model or
history data. What type of data is the contact pair definition in
Abaqus/Explicit? What type of data is the contact pair
definition in Abaqus/Standard?
Answer: The contact pair definition is history data in Abaqus/Explicit
and model data in Abaqus/Standard.
Question W8–7: When entering plasticity data with the PLASTIC option,
what are the stress and strain measures that Abaqus uses?
Answer: Abaqus uses true (Cauchy) stress and log strain.

Answer: A higher damping coefficient would reduce the stable time
increment. In general, damping should be chosen such that
high frequency oscillations are smoothed or eliminated with
minimal effect on the stable time increment. Figure WA8–1
shows a plot of the kinetic energy with and without damping.
Note the high frequency oscillations in the analysis without
damping.
Figure WA8–1. Kinetic energy with and without damping
459
W8.12
Answer: The slope of the amplitude curve at the beginning and end of
the step is zero. This is important because it prevents
discontinuities in the punch displacement that lead to
oscillations in an Abaqus/Explicit analysis.
were used instead?
Answer: With a linear amplitude definition the displacement of the
punch will be applied suddenly at the beginning of the step
and stopped suddenly at the end of the step, causing
oscillations in the solution.
A linear amplitude definition results in large spikes in the
kinetic energy, especially at the beginning of the step. As a
result, the kinetic energy may be large compared to the
internal energy and the early solution may not be quasi-static.
The preferred approach is to move the punch as smoothly as
possible. Figure WA8–2 compares the kinetic energy history
when a linear amplitude definition is used and when the
smooth step amplitude definition is used.
Figure WA8–2. Kinetic energy plot with and without SMOOTH STEP
460
W8.13

Answer: The kinetic energy should be a small fraction of the internal
energy.
As the kinetic energy increases, inertia effects have to be
considered and the solution is no longer quasi-static.
Figure WA8–1 shows the internal and kinetic energy for mass
scaling factors of 10 (used in our simulation), 100, and 900,
which correspond to a solution speedup of 10 , 10, and 30,
respectively.
Figure WA8–3. Energies with different mass scaling
Answer: The stable time increment is calculated according to
 Le 
tstable  min  ,
c 
 d 
where Le is a characteristic element length and cd is the
dilatational wave speed. An increase in density decreases cd,
which in turn increases tstable.
461
W8.14
Answer: The analysis uses SAX1 elements. These elements have no
hourglass modes. Consequently, hourglassing is not of
concern in the analysis.
462
Notes
463
Notes
464
Workshop 9
Import Analysis
Keywords Version

workshop.
Goals
 Transfer results between Abaqus/Explicit and Abaqus/Standard.
Introduction
In this workshop you will use the import capability is used to transfer the results between
Abaqus/Explicit and Abaqus/Standard to examine the effects of springback in the
analysis of the deep drawing of a can bottom. The deformed shape of the can after the
forming stage is shown in Figure W9–1.
Before proceeding, change to the ../abaqus_solvers/keywords/forming

directory.
465
W9.2
Springback analysis
In the manufacturing process the part is removed after the forming has been completed
and the material is free to springback into an unconstrained state. To understand the final
shape after this physical effect, we perform a springback analysis in Abaqus/Standard.
1. Open the file w_draw_bot_spring.inp in an editor, and import the blank from
the end of the w_draw_bot analysis. Use the STATE=YES parameter on the
IMPORT option to import the material state of the elements.
Question W9–1: To what value should the UPDATE parameter on the

IMPORT option be set if the total Mises stresses are to be
plotted at the end of the springback analysis?
Question W9–2: Where do you find the information to define the STEP and
INTERVAL parameters on the IMPORT option?
2. The boundary conditions are not imported and must be respecified. In addition, it
is necessary to fix a single point, such as node set BSYM, in the 2-direction to
prevent rigid body motion. It is important to use the FIXED parameter on the
*BOUNDARY option so that BSYM is fixed at its final position at the end of the
forming stage.

Analysis and postprocessing

1. Run the analysis by entering the following command:
abaqus job=w_draw_bot_spring oldjob=w_draw_bot
2. Open the output database w_draw_bot_spring.odb in Abaqus/Viewer.
3. Contour the Mises stress distribution of the 180o model.
4. Plot the final deformed model shape, as shown in Figure W9–1.
5. Plot the springback and formed shapes together. (First toggle off the Sweep
elements option.)
If you used UPDATE=NO, the formed shape is stored in frame 0 of the output
database. You must use overlay plots to superimpose the images in this case:
a. Select View→Overlay Plot from the main menu bar.
b. Use the Frame Selector or the arrows in the context bar to select
frame 0.
c. In the Overlay Plot Layer Manager, click Create. Name the layer
formed.
466
W9.3
d. Use the Frame Selector or the arrows in the context bar to select
frame 1.
e. Use the Common Plot Options tool to change the fill color of the
elements to blue.
f. In the Overlay Plot Layer Manager, click Create. Name the layer
springback.
g. In the Overlay Plot Layer Manager, click Plot Overlay.
h. Zoom in to examine the shape differences more closely.
If you used UPDATE=YES, the formed shape is treated as the undeformed shape
of the import analysis model (recall that when UPDATE=YES, the end state of
the previous analysis becomes the reference configuration of the import analysis;
the reference configuration is considered the undeformed shape):
a. In the toolbox, click the Allow Multiple Plot States tool .

b. In the toolbox, click both the Plot Undeformed Shape and Plot
Deformed Shape tools .
c. Use the Common Plot Options tool to increase the deformation

scale factor so that the differences between the formed and springback
shapes are clearly visible.
w_draw_bot_spring_complete.inp
467
W9.4
Answers
Question W9–1: To what value should the UPDATE parameter on the

IMPORT option be set if the total Mises stresses are to be
plotted at the end of the springback analysis?
Answer: The UPDATE parameter should be set to NO. When the
UPDATE parameter is set to YES, the deformed configuration
of the previous analysis is used as the reference configuration
for the import analysis. All stresses, strains, displacements,
etc. are reported relative to the updated reference
configuration and not as total values.
Question W9–2: Where do you find the information to define the STEP and
INTERVAL parameters on the IMPORT option?
Answer: The status (.sta) file gives an overview of the progression on
the analysis. Information about the number of steps and the
number of increments completed in each step can be obtained
from this file.
In this analysis we wish to model the springback of the can
after the forming of the can bottom is complete: this is
STEP=1, INTERVAL=1.

Answer: A true static procedure is the preferred approach for modeling
springback. The imported model will not be in static
equilibrium at the beginning of the step. Thus,
Abaqus/Standard applies a set of artificial internal stresses to
the imported model state and then gradually removes these
stresses. This leads to the springback deformation. In
Abaqus/Explicit the removal of the contact between the blank
and the tools represents a sudden load removal, which leads to
low frequency vibrations of the blank. While these vibrations
will eventually dissipate, this approach leads to lengthy
computation times.
468
Notes
469
Notes
470

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Introduction to Abaqus/Standard

About this Course

Lesson 1 Defining an Abaqus Model

Workshop 1 Basic Input and Output

Lesson 2 Linear Static Analysis

Workshop 2 Linear Static Analysis of a Cantilever Beam:

Lesson 3 Nonlinear Analysis in Abaqus/Standard

Workshop 3 Nonlinear Statics

Lesson 4 Multistep Analysis in Abaqus

Workshop 4 Unloading Analysis

Lesson 5 Constraints and Contact

Workshop 5 Seal Contact

Lesson 6 Introduction to Dynamics

Lesson 7 Using Abaqus/Explicit

Workshop 7 Contact with Abaqus/Explicit

Lesson 8 Quasi-Static Analysis in Abaqus/Explicit

Workshop 8 Quasi-Static Analysis (Optional)

Lesson 9 Combining Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit

Workshop 9 Import Analysis (Optional)

Appendix 1 Element Selection Criteria

permission of Dassault Systèmes or its subsidiary.

Both interactive (IA) and keywords (KW) versions

The Abaqus product suite for Unified FEA

Multiphysics solutions for insight into challenging engineering problems

Headquartered in Providence, RI, USA

R&D centers in Providence and in Velizy, France

SIMULIA Home Page (available via the Internet at

Abaqus documentation—all usage details are covered in the user’s manuals.

Extensive library of courses developed by SIMULIA on particular topics (course descriptions

Abaqus FEA is a suite of finite element analysis modules

Complete Abaqus Environment

Intuitive and consistent user interface

Based on the concepts of parts

Parts can be created within Abaqus/CAE or

Built-in feature-based parametric modeling

Abaqus/CFD is a computational fluid dynamics

Linear piezoelectric analysis

Thermal-electrical (Joule heating)

Thermal stresses in an exhaust manifold

Fully or partially saturated

Static stress/displacement analysis:

II. Eigenvalue buckling

Dynamic stress/displacement analysis:

I. Determination of natural modes and frequencies

II. Transient response via modal superposition

III. Steady-state response resulting from harmonic loading

» Includes alternative ―subspace projection‖ method for efficient analysis of large

IV. Response spectrum analysis

V. Dynamic response resulting from random loading

Coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian (CEL)

Adaptive meshing using ALE

I. Fully coupled: Explicit algorithms

II. Can include adiabatic heating

Comparing Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit

A general-purpose finite element A general-purpose finite element

Provides a large number of capabilities Coupled-field analyses include:

Abaqus/Viewer is the postprocessing module

Available with Abaqus/CAE or as a

Can be used to visualize Abaqus results

Provides efficient visualization of large

Contour plot of an aluminum

What is covered in this course

Workshop 2: Linear Static Analysis of a

Specify an alternative system using SYSTEM or NODE, SYSTEM=[RECTANGULAR |