CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Chemical Engineering Department

ChE 501
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 2
LABORATORY MANUAL

Authors:

Faculty Members of the

Chemical Engineering Department

FOR CIT-U USE ONLY

Printed by: Cebu Institute of Technology – University
Revision Date: October 2016 (2nd revision)
Date of Printing: November 2016

1
COURSE REQUIREMENTS

A. LABORATORY GROUP
A maximum of 5 students per group is assigned by the laboratory instructor during the first week
of the semester.

B. LABORATORY MANUAL
Each student is required to have a laboratory manual. This manual should be present when
carrying out an experiment. The manual contains a post-experimental activity which the student
completes and submits as a preliminary report. Without the laboratory manual, a student cannot
perform an experiment.

C. LABORATORY JOURNAL
Each group should procure a laboratory journal. This is an 80-page lesson plan notebook covered
in white paper (bond paper) with a plastic cover. Keep the cover pristine. Do not write anything in
the cover.
On the first page, write the following:
- CHE 501 Chemical Engineering Laboratory 2
- Group Number
- Group Members (write the full name of each member in alphabetical order)
Leave the succeeding pages empty.
Write only on the right page of your laboratory journal.

Prior to an experiment, write the following in the journal:

- Date
- Title of Experiment
- Objectives
- Flowchart of activities in conducting the experiment
- Pre-lab calculations (e.g. preparation of solutions)
- Data table (to be filled with raw data from the performed experiment)
- Laboratory Instructor’s signature

D. PRELIMINARY REPORT
Upon completion of an experiment, each student is required to submit a preliminary report. The
preliminary report contains the treated raw data from the performed experiment (in terms of
graphs and tables) and answers to the guide questions regarding the experiment. This can be
accomplished by completing the post-experimental activity in the laboratory manual. Failure to
submit the preliminary report on time will merit a deduction of grade.

E. ATTENDANCE
CIT University’s rule on attendance shall be followed. The maximum allowed absences is 20% of
the contact time. Thus, for a 1-unit laboratory course, only 20% of the 18 sessions in the semester
is permitted for unexcused absences. Else, the student will automatically be dropped from the
course.

The laboratory instructor should regularly check the presence of each student during the
laboratory period. Unless permitted by the instructor, a student who is absent or is virtually absent
during the performance of an experiment will incur a zero mark for that experiment. Same penalty
will be served to students who are late especially if the other group members have started
performing the experiment.

2
FINAL REPORT RUBRIC

Criteria 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 point Score

Gives an excellent
background of the
study, including some
literature review; States
Gives a very good Gives a satisfactory
the objectives clearly
introduction. ; One of Introduction, with two Introduction needs
and the purpose of the
the criteria for of the “excellent” criteria improvement.
experiment; Shows
“excellent” is not met. is not met
Introduction relevant theory behind
the experiment and
explains the Hypothesis
(prediction) made.
Shows excellent and
Gives a very good Description of
clear description of the The experimental
experimental procedure; experimental procedure
experimental method; method is just
Methods One of the criteria for is unclear, and could not
Exhibits excellent written satisfactory
“excellent” is not met. be repeated.
English in passive form.
Result and data are
Results are clear and Results are unclear,
Results: data, clearly recorded,
labeled trends are, Labels are missing; Results are poorly
figures, organized, and well
however, not obvious or trends are not obvious presented.
graphs, represented in either
noted. at all.
tables, etc. tables or figures.
Analysis of results is
accurate; Excellent Analysis of the results is
presentation of good but lacks insight.
Analysis of the results is
discussion of results and Nevertheless discussion Inaccurate analysis of
satisfactory. Discussion
incorporates proper is clear and shows the results.
is not clear and tangible.
Analysis reference ; Trends are enough merit to
noted and enough data establish conclusion.
to establish conclusion.
Conclusion is
Summarizes the
summarized but not
essential data used to
properly presented to Satisfactory Presentation of
draw conclusions
merit ‘excellent’. presentation of conclusions needs
Conclusion excellently; Gives
established conclusions. improvement.
insightful applications of
the study.

Answer to Answer to all questions One of the questions is Two of the questions is Three of the questions is
questions correctly not answered correctly not answered correctly not answered correctly
Neat, organized with Somewhat lacking in
headings, few organization, multiple
spelling/grammar spelling /grammar
Format
errors. errors, not neat.

Total Score

% Rating
(Total Score x 100/26)

3
SAFETY AND LABORATORY RULES FOR CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

I. SAFETY RULES
A. General
1) The performance of unauthorized experiments is strictly prohibited.
2) Any injuries occurring in the laboratory must be reported immediately to the instructor of
the laboratory class.
3) Any accidents, such as spilling of dangerous or corrosive chemicals, explosions, fires or the
like, must be reported immediately to the instructor of the class.
4) Each student is required to know the location and proper use of fire extinguishers and first-
aid kit in the laboratory.
5) All water, gas, steam, electrical, and other service connections must be made in a safe and
secure manner.
6) Any solid material, notably paper, matches, towels, broken glass, etc. should be kept out of
sinks at all times and disposed properly to minimize the danger of clogging drains.
7) Practical jokes, boisterous conduct, excessive noise (as from radios) etc., are forbidden.
8) No student is permitted to work in the ChE laboratory without the presence of any of the
following: the instructor, laboratory in-charge, or laboratory assistant.
9) Eating and/or drinking inside the ChE laboratory is not allowed most especially when
performing an experiment.
B. Personal Protection
1) When performing an experiment, ALWAYS wear a laboratory gown and safety goggles.
When handling chemicals, wear additional gas/dust masks and disposable latex gloves.
2) No chemical should ever be tasted unless directed to do so by the instructor. When
instructed to smell a chemical solution, do so by gently FANNING the vapors toward the
nose.
3) When heating or carrying out a reaction in a test tube, never point the test tube towards
other person in the laboratory.
4) When diluting acids, always pour the acid into the water with stirring; never vice versa.
5) Heavy pieces of glass apparatus should be supported with clamps suitably protected with
rubber and also with a bottom support such as a ring tripod or iron ring.
6) When inserting rods, tubing, or thermometers into stoppers (or corks), the glass should be
lubricated with soapy water or glycerol. Insert the lubricated glass in a twisting manner
.
II. GENERAL RULES FOR LABORATORY WORK
1) Read the manual thoroughly before performing the experiment. Further related literature
readings are encouraged to better understand the experiment to be performed.
2) Be sure to wear a laboratory gown and other necessary personal protective equipment (PPE)
when conducting an experiment.
3) Fill out the borrower’s slip and claim the apparatus and materials in the slip at the counter.
Check each apparatus for defects first before leaving the counter.
4) Clean the working area before and after conducting an experiment.
5) Dispose the used chemicals in the container intended for the waste. DO NOT DRAIN waste
chemicals into the sink.
6) Exercise care in measurements to ensure high degree of accuracy of results.
7) Preliminary reports should be written and submitted for approval to the instructor within the
laboratory period.
8) Formats for preliminary and final reports given by the instructor should be followed.
9) Any damaged apparatus/equipment should be reported right away.

4
Emergency Response

In case of emergency, always remember the following:

1. Do not panic. Stay calm.
2. It is your responsibility to read safety and fire alarm posters and follow instructions.
3. Know the location of the fire extinguishers, eye wash and safety shower in the laboratory and
know how to use them.
4. In the event of an injury, fire, explosion, or spill, notify your instructor immediately.
5. Be familiar with the building exits and evacuation routes.
6. Do not return to the building until authorized to do so.

In case of an earthquake:
1. Don’t panic. Stay calm.
2. Move away from windows. DUCK, COVER and HOLD under sturdy tables or desks.
3. Do not rush out of the building if intense shaking is in progress.
4. Follow the evacuation route details described in the posters found in the laboratory.
5. Prepare for aftershocks.
6. Do not return to the building until advise to do so.

5
 CHE 501
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 2

Table of Contents

Experiment # Experiment Title Page

1 Distillation ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 8

2 Drying ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 11

3 Rotary Dryer ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙16

4 Liquid-Liquid Extraction ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙20

5 Evaporation ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 24

6 Heat Transfer ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 28

7 Level Sensor ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 33

8 On-Off Control of the Level ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 36

6
 CHE 501
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 2

Summary of Scores

Name: ______________________________________ Section: __________________

Instructor:___________________________________ Group Number : __________

Session Appraisal
Attendance
(Punctuality) Lab Lab Final Date
Experiment Mask Goggles Data Performance
Gown Manual Report Performed
20pts 5pts 5pts 2.5pts 2.5pts 10 pts 15 pts

1
Distillation

2
Drying

3
Rotary Dryer

4
Liquid-Liquid
Extraction

5
Evaporation

6
Heat Transfer

7
Level Sensor

8
On-Off Control
of the Level

7
 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY
ChE501
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 2
Experiment No.1

Name: _____________________________________ Date Performed: _________________

Group Number : __________________________ Instructor’s Sign: _________________

I. TITLE: DISTILLATION

II. OBJECTIVE
To determine the reflux ratio required to recover ethanol of desired specification from
ethanol-water mixture.

III. THEORY
One of the main variables encountered in a large scale fractional distillation is the reflux
ratio. This can be defined as the weight of liquid retained as reflux divided by the weight
removed as overhead product. At total reflux, i.e. reflux ratio equal to infinity, the
separation desired is achieved with the smallest packed height. In this experiment the
packed height is fixed and must be operated at a reflux ratio below total reflux. An
increase in the reflux ratio will improve the separation achieved and consequently
increases the proportion of ethanol in the overhead product.

IV. EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

Glass distillation apparatus complete with condenser and reflux flow control
Steam generation thermometer
Westphal balance or refractometer
Ethanol, water

V. PROCEDURE:
1. Check that all the vent lines provided are open.
2. Turn on the overhead condenser cooling water supply.
3. Charge the spherical vessel up to the equator (15L) with 30% by weight ethanol – water
solution.
4. Open the by – pass around the steam trap and then carefully but positively turn on
the main steam supply, when the initial surge of condensate has cleared, close the
steam trap by – pass valve and then set the steam pressure to a suitable figure between
20 and 50 psig.
5. Set the reflux divider for total reflux by closing the product off – take valve. When the
liquid boils in the still the vapors pass up the column to the condenser. All the
condensate will pass back into the column.
6. Adjust the reboiler steam pressure to a value which gives adequate loading on the
packed column. This must not be less than 20 psig. Give the unit time to settle down

8
 after each change in reboiler steam pressure. Maintain this steam pressure for the
duration of the experiment.
7. Once the column has settled down to uniform operation under total reflux, close the
drain valve on the lower product receiver and close the valve between the product
receivers.
8. Re – check that the vent valves on the product receivers and on the overflow line to
the still are open.
9. Fully open the product line valve by the reflux adapter and allow the liquid in the
adapter to drain to the still. Close the recycle valve to the still and then accurately
measure the time to half fill the upper product receiver. Close the product line valve
and mark the level of the liquid collected on the side of the receiver.
10. Return the liquid in the cylinder to the still by introducing it into the product recycle
line to the still.
11. With the valve between the product receivers closed and the product recycle valve
open three – quarters, open the product line valve so as to give a positive reflux ratio.
Adjust the valve setting if the unit has no reflux to the column.
12. Allow the column to settle down or at least 15 minutes.
13. Close the product recycle valve and measure the time required to half fill the upper
product receiver.
14. Sample the product through the lower receiver. Measure the temperature and the
specific gravity accurately.
15. Re – open the product recycle valve.
16. Repeat steps 11 to 15 with a higher reflux ratio achieved by slightly closing the product
line valve. Allow 15 – 20 minutes for the column to settle down.

The reflux ratio can be calculated by the expression:

1 1
−
t1 t 2
R=
1
t2
where: R= reflex ratio
t1 = time to half fill product receiver on total make
t2 = time to half fill product receiver on position reflux ratio

A gravity correction further could be used for accuracy.

SHUTDOWN
1. Set the reflux ratio control to total reflux
2. Turn off the steam supply to the reboiler (carefully vent the residual steam in the
reboiler through the condensate drain valve)
3. Turn off the condenser cooling water when boiling has stopped.
4. Drain the boiler to a suitable receiver.
5. Have you left the unit safe?

9
 VI. SKETCH/PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

VII. TABULATED DATA AND RESULTS:

Steam Pressure Trial t1 t2 R

VIII. SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS

10
 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY
ChE501
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 2
Experiment No.2

Name: _____________________________________ Date Performed: _________________

Group Number : __________________________ Instructor’s Sign: _________________

I. TITLE: DRYING

II. OBJECTIVES:
• To determine the rate of drying curve of a given material at constant drying conditions

III. THEORY:
Drying is the removal of relatively small amounts of water from solid materials. During the
constant rate drying period, where radiation effects and heat losses can be neglected, the
surface temperature of the solids approaches closely the wet – bulb temperature of the
drying air.

Rate of Drying A

Free Moisture Content

The diagram indicates the critical point A at which the free moisture present in the solid starts
to recede from the surface. The portion of the curve AB is known as the falling rate period.
Here, the surface temperature rises as the front of moisture moves into the solid.

In the constant rate period heat transfer by convection is reported as

hc = 0.0360.8

Falling rate data for coarse granular material is calculated by:

 d ( Wc − We ) Wc − We
f = s ln
ht ( t − t ' s ) W − We

where: θ = time of drying, hr

hc = convective, heat transfer coefficient, BTU/hr – ft2 – F
ht = total heat transfer coefficient
= latent heat of vaporization, BTU/lb
ρS = Bulk density, dry solid, lb/cuft.
t = air temperature °F
t’s= evaporating surface temperature, °F

11
 d = Bed thickness, ft
W = average moisture content at 
Wc = average moisture content at the start of falling rate period
We = average moisture content at at equilibrium, lb/lb

IV. EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS:

Tray drier, Tray, sand, thermometer
Balance, anemometer or pilot tube for measuring air velocity, stopwatch, wet and dry –
bulb thermometer

V. PROCEDURE:
1. Measure
a. The free – cross – sectional area of each compartment with the trays in place.
b. The surface area of the tray
c. The cross – sectional area of the duct at the anemometer station
2. Adjust the temperature and velocity of the air to the desired values by regulating the
steam pressure and setting the dampers to proper openings.
3. After conditions have become constant, place a weighed pan or tray of wet sand.
4. Make the following measurements at frequent intervals.
a. velocity of the air
b. wet and dry – bulb temperature of the air entering and leaving the drier and before
and after it passes over each pan.
c. Weight of each tray of material (note: it is essential that removal of trays and
weighing be performed rapidly to minimize disturbance of the drying conditions).
5. Continue drying until there is no further loss in weight.
6. Repeat the experiment under different conditions of air velocity and steam pressure.
7. For each run, calculate the drying rates for the material and plot the rate as a function
of the free moisture content.
8. Calculate the drying coefficient

VI. SKETCH/PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

12
VII. TABULATED DATA AND RESULTS:
Table 1
Experimental Data for the Drying of Wet Sand in a Tray Dryer

(1) Weight of pan plus wet sand, grams = _________

(2) Weight of empty pan, grams = _________
(3) Weight of wet sand, grams = _________
(4) Cross-sectional area of compartment with pan in place, ft2 = _________

Pressure : ______________
Air Temperature (F) Compartment Temp (F)
Elapsed Exit Air Weight of
Inlet Exit Left side Right side
Time Time Velocity Sample
(min.) Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet (ft/min) (grams)
Bulb Bulb Bulb Bulb Bulb Bulb Bulb Bulb

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)

13
 Table 2
Summary of Calculations of the Drying Rates and Free Water Contents
Weight ∆w dw
Elapsed Time,   w Drying Rate Free Water Free Water
Sample ∆θ dθ
(min) (min) (grams) 2
(lb/hr-ft ) (grams) (lb/lb dry stock)
(grams) (grams/min) (grams/min)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

weight of sample, grams

time, minutes

Figure1. Weight of Sand as a Function of Drying TIme

14
 rate of drying, grams/min

time, minutes
Figure2. Drying Rate of Sand as a Function of TIme
weight of sample, grams

time, minutes
Figure3. Drying Rate of Sand as a Function of Free Water Content

VIII. SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS

15
 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY
ChE501
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 2
Experiment No.3

Name: _____________________________________ Date Performed: _________________

Group Number : __________________________ Instructor’s Sign: _________________

I. TITLE: ROTARY DRIER

II. OBJECTIVE:
To determine the operating characteristics and efficiency of a direct-fired rotary drier

III. EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS:

rotary drier, anemometer, platform balance, 2 5-gallon pails, thermocouple, wet-bulb and
dry-bulb thermometer

IV. PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the dry gas meter in the line leading to the burner of the drier.
2. Start the drier rotating, turn on the exhausting blower, and light the burner.
3. Check the operation of the Orsat analyser and attach it to the sample thief.
4. Thoroughly mix a predetermined quantity of pebbles and water. Reserve samples for
analytical moisture determinations.
5. Attach the portable potentiometer to the thermocouple lead wires, and examine all
switches and lines to insure proper operation. Use the temperature of the room as the
cold-junction temperature.
6. Place the weighed, wet sand into the hopper, and feed it through the drier.
7. Record the following data for each run:
a) Direct or observed data:
1) Wet- and dry- bulb temperature of the entering flue gas.
2) Wet- and dry- bulb temperature of the exit flue gas.
3) Wet- and dry- bulb temperature of the intake flue gas.
4) Temperature of the feed and the product.
5) Cubic feet of flue gas per hour.
6) Cubic feet of natural gas burned per hour.
7) Percent moisture in feed and product
8) Analyses of flue gas.
b) Chart and other data:
1) Humidity and dew points of the dry and wet flue gas.
2) Humid volume of the wet flue gas.
3) Average specific heat of the flue gas.
4) Specific heat of dry sand.
5) Cost of natural gas per 1000 cubic feet
6) Cost of electricity per kW-hr.
8. Calculate and tabulate the following:
a) Heat supplied by the burning gas.

16
 b) Heat absorbed by the dry sand.
c) Heat in the exit flue gas.
d) Heat absorbed by the evaporated moisture.
e) Thermal efficiency.
f) Drying efficiency.
g) Pounds of water evaporated per pound of fuel.
h) Pounds of water evaporated per hour.
i) Capacity of the drier in pounds of sand dried per hour.

V. SKETCH/PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

17
VI. TABULATED DATA AND RESULTS:
Table 1
Experimental Data for the Drying of Pebbles in a Rotary Drier
Trial No.

1 2 3

Wet-bulb temperature of entering drier gas, °F

Dry-bulb temperature of entering drier gas, °F

Wet-bulb temperature of exit drier gas, °F

Dry-bulb temperature of exit drier gas, °F

Wet-bulb temperature of entering air, °F

Dry-bulb temperature of entering air, °F

Temperature of wet sand, °F

Temperature of dry sand, °F

Quantity of wet sand, lb/hr

Quantity of dry sand, lb/hr

Quantity of drier gas, ft3/hr

Quantity of natural gas burned, ft3/hr

Heating value of natural gas, Btu/ft3

Moisture content of wet sand, percent

Moisture content of dry sand, percent

Carbon dioxide in flue gas, percent

Oxygen in flue gas, percent

Table 2
Summary of Results of the Drying of Sand in a Rotary Drier
Trial No.

1 2 3

Heat supplied by the burning gas, BTU/hr

Heat absorbed by the dry pebbles, BTU/hr

Heat absorbed by the drier gas, BTU/hr

Water evaporated, lb/hr

Heat absorbed by the evaporated moisture, BTU/hr

Heat accounted for, BTU/hr

Thermal efficiency, %

Drying efficiency, %

18
 CALCULATIONS:

• Heat supplied by the Burning Gas (Btu/hr)

= Quantity of natural gas burned (ft3/hr) x Heating value of the gas (Btu / ft3)

• Heat Absorbed by the Dry Sand (Btu/hr)

= Quantity of dry sand (lb/hr) x Heat capacity (Btu/lb-°F) x Change in temperature (°F)

• Heat Absorbed by the Drier gas (Btu/hr)

= Volume of the drier gas (ft3/hr) x Humid volume (ft3/lb) x Heat capacity x Heat capacity (Btu/lb-°F)
x Change in temperature (°F)

• Heat Absorbed by the Evaporated Moisture (Btu/hr)

= Water evaporated (lb/hr) x [Enthalpy of water - Enthalpy of water vapour] (Btu/lb)

• Heat Accounted for (Btu/hr)

= Heat absorbed by sand + drier gas + evaporated moisture

• Thermal Efficiency
Btu accounted for
=
Btu supplied by gas
×100

• Drying Efficiency
Btu absorbed by evaporated moisture
=
Btu accounted for
× 100

• Pounds of Water Evaporated per Pound of Fuel

lb
Water evaporated (hr)
=
ft3 lb
Natural gas burned ( hr )×Density of natural gas( 3 )
ft

VII. SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS

19
 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY
ChE501
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 2
Experiment No.4

Name: _____________________________________ Date Performed: _________________

Group Number : __________________________ Instructor’s Sign: _________________

I. TITLE: LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION

II. OBJECTIVES:
• To demonstrate the basic principles involved in liquid-liquid extraction
• To calculate the percentage recovery of solute for a given set of operating conditions

III. THEORY:
Liquid-liquid extraction is used primarily as a means of extracting a solute from one
solvent to another in order to recover the pure solute from the second solvent. This type
of operation is usually employed when the material to be recovered has a high boiling
point or is heat sensitive. In the case under consideration iodine sublimes at high
temperatures and is therefore unsuitable for extraction by other means. When two
immiscible solvents are brought into contact a solute will distribute itself between the two
phases until an equilibrium is formed such that:

 A C
=K
 A B
where:
 A C = concentration of solute A in solvent C
 A B = concentration of solute A in Solvent B
K = is the distribution of partition coefficient

For the system iodine – water – carbon tetrachloride

I2 1
= 27
I2 

Thus, it is seen that when equilibrium is achieved the majority of the iodine will be
contained in the carbon tetrachloride layer.

When carbon tetrachloride is passed through a static aqueous iodine solution, iodine will
be extracted continuously into the carbon tetrachloride layer until the aqueous layer has
been virtually stripped clean of iodine.

It is then a simple matter to evaporate the carbon tetrachloride and isolate the iodine.

20
 An outline of the experimental technique is as follows:
Approximately 30 liters of a saturated solution of iodine and water are charged to the
extraction chamber. A known weight per hour of carbon tetrachloride is passe down
through the aqueous iodine solution to extract the iodine. Samples of carbon
tetrachloride are taken at regular intervals from the base of the extraction chamber and
rate of iodine extraction.
The following graphs can be constructed:
1.) Rate of extraction of iodine vs. time. By evaluating the area under the graph the
amount of iodine extracted at any time can be found.
2.) Mass of iodine extracted vs. time. Obtained from graph (1) by evaluating the area
under the curve at specific time intervals.
3.) Variation of rate of extraction vs. time. Found by evaluating tangents of graph I at
various times.
From this graph, a minimum extraction rate can be found. This is comparable with an
optimum time for operation, thus, enabling an estimate of optimum mass extraction of
the iodine from the aqueous phase.

IV. EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS:

Liquid-liquid extraction unit
Balance
burette
Flask
Graduated cylinder
Sampling bottle

V. PROCEDURE:
1. Ensure all drain valves are closed.
2. Connect the base of the extraction chamber to the reboiler system by manipulating
the 3-way valve connecting the two items.
3. Remove the cover to the side opening at the top of the extraction chamber.
4. Introduce carbon tetrachloride through this opening and fill the extraction chamber
to the point where the carbon tetrachloride overflows into the reboiler system.
Continue until the reboiler flask is filled to its equator with carbon tetrachloride.
5. Prepare approximately 30 liters of a saturated solution of iodine in water. Pour this
slowly into the extraction chamber. The aqueous solution will settle on top of the
carbon tetrachloride and expel some into the reboiler vessel. Continue charging the
aqueous solution until the distributor at the base of the extraction chamber or until
the aqueous layer just covers the top distributor in the extraction chamber, whichever
occurs sooner.
6. Drain excess carbon tetrachloride from the reboiler vessel until the level reaches the
equator of the vessel.
7. Replace the cover on the side neck to the extraction chamber.
8. Turn on cooling water to condenser.
9. Turn on the heater.
10. Allow carbon tetrachloride to run from the condenser to the top of the extraction
chamber by manipulating the 3-way valve connecting the two items.
11. Take 100ml samples of carbon tetrachloride every 15 minutes from the base of the
extraction chamber and titrate against standard sodium thiosulfate solution using
starch as an indicator.
12. After sufficient samples have been taken, turn off the heater of the reboiler.

21
 13. When boiling has ceased, drain off the carbon tetrachloride from the base of the
extraction chamber using both drain valves. Drain off and collect the aqueous layer
from the extraction chamber. Sample this layer and titrate against standard
thiosulphate solution.
14. Close drain valve on the extraction chamber
15. Turn on the heater of the reboiler
16. Make two marks 50 mm. apart near the base of the extraction chamber
17. Note the time taken to collect carbon tetrachloride over the distance covered by thee
two marks (hence boil up rate of carbon tetrachloride).
18. Carry on collecting the carbon tetrachloride in the extraction chamber until the liquid
level above the level of the coils in the boiler.
Note: The liquid must NEVER fall such that the coils of the boiler become exposed.
19. Switch off the heater.
20. When boiling has ceased, turn off water to the condenser and allow the unit to cool
down.
21. Drain the residual carbon tetrachloride/ iodine solution. Iodine can now be completely
isolated and crystallized in small-scale apparatus if desired.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
Although carbon tetrachloride is not in itself inflammable, it produces dangerous fumes
in contact with fire or with water at high temperatures.

VI. SKETCH/PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

22
VII. TABULATED DATA AND RESULTS:

Temperature Specific Gravity

Trial
Reboiler Condenser Extract Raffinate
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

VIII. SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS

23
 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY
ChE501
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 2
Experiment No.5

Name: _____________________________________ Date Performed: _________________

Group Number : __________________________ Instructor’s Sign: _________________

I. TITLE: EVAPORATION

II. OBJECTIVES:
• To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient in an evaporator
• To study the effects of temperature drop and liquor level on the capacity and the overall
heat transfer coefficient of the evaporator

III. THEORY:
Evaporation is a process of concentrating a solution by vaporizing part or all of the solvent –
usually water. Essentially, evaporation may be considered to be a special case of heat transfer
in which heat is transferred through metal wall from condensing steam to a boiling liquid.
The rate of heat transfer is expressed by the general equation:
Q t
=
 1
+
L
+
1
h1A1 kA m h2 A 2
Q
= U1A1t = Um A m t = U2 A 2 t

where :
Q
= rate of heat transfer, BTU/hr

∆t = temperature drop across the heating surface, °F
A1 = area of the inner heating surface, ft2
Am = area of the mean heating surface, ft2
A2 = area of the outer heating surface, ft2
h1 = inner film coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2-°F
h2 = outer film coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2-°F
U1 = overall heat-transfer coefficient based on the inner heating area, Btu/hrft2°F
Um = overall heat-trasfer coefficient based on the mean heating area,Btu/hrft2°F
U2 = overall heat-transfer coefficient based on the outer heating area, Btu/hrft2°F

IV. EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS:

Evaporator, condenser, steam trap
Steam condensate tank, vapor condensate tank
Westphal balance, refractometer, water, steam

24
V. PROCEDURE:
1. Introduce feed, measured by water meter, into the evaporator through valve B to a
predetermined level on water gage C.
2. Introduce steam into the steam chest.
3. Set the pressure – reducing valve for the desired pressure.
4. Collect the steam condensate from the steam trap.
5. As evaporation proceeds, introduce feed continuously at a rate sufficient to maintain the
desired level in the evaporator.
6. Run the evaporator for approximately 30 minutes to attain equilibrium conditions.
7. Take data over a 10 to 15-minute interval, during which time the following measurements
are recorded:
a. quantity and temperature of water introduced
b. temperature and pressures of the steam and vapor
c. weight of condensate from condenser
d. weight of steam condensate from trap
8. Repeat the experiment at various steam pressure and liquid levels.

25
VI. SKETCH/ PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

VII. TABULATED DATA AND RESULTS:

Run Number
Symbol Item
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time,
m
minute
Steam used,
W1
lb
Steam temp,
t1
°F
Latent heat of steam,
1
Btu/lb
Water evaporated,
W2
lb
Temp. of vapor,
t2
°F
Latent heat of vapor,
2
Btu/lb
Temp. of feed ,
t3
°F
Heat supplied by steam,
q1
Btu
Radiation loss from steam chest,
q2
Btu
Heat through heating surface,
Q
Btu
Apparent temp. drop,
∆t
°F
Apparent over-all coefficient,
U
Btu/hr-ft-°F
Heat in vapor above feed temperature,
q3
Btu
Total heat loss by radiation,
q4
Btu
Heat loss,
H1
%

E lb H2O evaporated per lb of steam used

26
 Apparent Overall Coefficient,
(BTU/hrft2F)

Apparent Temperature Drop, F

Figure 1
Effect of Temperature Drop on Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient of a Long-Tube Evaporator

VIII. SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS

27
 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY
ChE501
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 2
Experiment No.6

Name: _____________________________________ Date Performed: _________________

Group Number : __________________________ Instructor’s Sign: _________________

I. TITLE: HEAT TRANSFER IN A DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER

II. OBJECTIVE:
To determine the overall coefficient of heat transfer using steam to water in forced convection

III. THEORY:
Heat may be transferred by conduction, by radiation, and by convection, but in most cases
of practical importance flow takes place as the result of two or more of these basic
mechanisms operating simultaneously.

HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION

The equation for the heat transfer of heat by conduction may be written as
Q t
= (2.1)
 R
where: Q = heat transferred in time θ
∆t = temperature difference
R = thermal resistance

If the heat is being transferred through a homogeneous medium, the resistance is defined
by Fourier’s Law as
L
R= (2.2)
kA
where: L = distance across which ∆t is measured.
A = area at right angles to the flow of heat.
k = thermal conductivity of the medium

If the heat is flowing through more than one medium in series, the total resistance is the
sum of all the resistances, and Equation 2.1 becomes:
Q t t
= = (2.3)
 R1 + R2 + R3 + ... L1 L2 L3
+ + + ...
k1A1 k 2 A 2 k 3 A 3
where: ∆t is the overall temperature drop.

In the usual heat exchanger, heat is transferred from one fluid to another through a metal
wall, and only the temperatures of the two fluids, but not the temperatures of the wall
surfaces are known. In this case, three resistances are involved: the resistance of the wall,
and the resistances of the two fluid films on the surfaces wall. However, as the thicknesses

28
of the films are seldom known, the quantities L and k are combined and a new term is
defined by the equation
k
h= (2.4)
L
where: h is the film coefficient of heat transfer.

Equation (2.3) then becomes:

Q t
= (2.5)
 1
+
1
+
1
h1A1 kAm h2 A 2
where, in the usual units:
Q
= heat transferred, Btu/hr

∆t = difference in temperature between one fluid and the other, °F
k = thermal conductivity of the metal wall, BTU·ft/hr·ft2·°F
h1 = inner film coefficient, BTU/hr·ft2·°F
h2 = outer-film coefficient, BTU/hr·ft2·°F
A1 = inner area of the metal wall, ft2
Am = mean area of the metal wall, ft2
A2 = outer area of the metal wall, ft2

A 2 − A1 D2 − D1
Am = = (2.6)
A D
2.303log 2 2.303log 2
A1 D1
where: D1 = inner diameter of the pipe, ft
D2 = outer diameter of the pipe, ft

Overall Coefficients. If both the numerator and denominator of the right hand side of
Equation (2.5) are multiplied by either A1, Am or A2, the equation becomes:
Q A1t Am t A 2t
= = =
 1 A L A A L A A 2 + A 2L + 1
+ 1 + 1 m + + m
h1 kAm h2 A 2 h1 k h2 A 2 h1 Amk h2
(2.7)

Q
= U1A1t = Um A m t = U2 A 2 t (2.8)


Mean Temperature Difference. In most cases of heat transfer, the temperature

difference between the warmer and cooler fluids is not constant but varies throughout
the length of the apparatus; therefore, a mean value of temperature difference ∆tm must
be used in the heat transfer equations.
t 2 − t1
tm = (2.9)
t 2
2.303log
t1

Film Coefficients. The experimental determination of overall coefficients is one of the

simplest of laboratory experiments; it requires only the measurement of the heating area,
the flow rates, and the temperatures of the fluid streams at the terminal conditions.

29
 The determination of film coefficients involves the measurement of surface temperatures,
usually by means of thermocouples installed in the tube wall. Such installations must be
made with great care if accurate results are obtained.

HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

The net transfer of heat by radiation between bodies is expressed by the Stefan-
Boltzmann law, which is ordinarily written as
 T  4  T  4 
qr = 0.173pA  1  −  2   (2.10)
 100   100  
where
qr = net heat transferred, Btu/hr
p = emissivity (1.0 for a perfect black body)
A = area of the radiating or receiving surface, ft2
T1 = temperature of the hotter body, °R
T2 = temperature of the colder body, °R

Heat Loss from Bare and Lagged Surfaces. Heat is lost from a pipe, or other surface, to
the room in two ways: (1) by conduction through an air film, and then by convection in
the bulk air; and (2) by direct radiation to the cooler walls of the room.

That portion of the heat which is lost by conduction and convection may be calculated by
the equation
( )
qc = hc A t s − t g (2.11)
and that portion which is lost by radiation may be expressed by the simplified equation
qr = hr A ( ts − t w ) (2.12)
where:
qc = heat transferred from surface to room by conduction and convection,
Btu/hr
qr = heat transferred from surface to room by radiation, BTU/hr
hc = coefficient of heat transfer by conduction and convection, Btu/hr·ft2·°F
hr = coefficient of heat transfer by radiation, BTU/hr·ft2·°F
A = surface area, ft2
ts = temperature of the surface, °F
tg = temperature of the air, °F
tw = temperature of the walls of the room, °F

IV. EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS:

Concentric – pipe heat exchanger
Thermometers
Platform balance
Weighing pails
Stopwatch
Water, steam

V. PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the length of the heating section and calculate the area of the heating
surface.
2. Study the assembly to become familiar with the method of operation, and then set the
valves for parallel flow.

30
 a. In Parallel Flow. With valves V2, V4, V5, and V8 closed, steam is passed through
valves V1 and V3; it enters the annular space at E and leaves as condensate at F; the
condensate then passes to the weighing tank through valves V6, V7, and V9 and
steam trap K. Valve V11 is opened slightly to permit the escape of air from the steam
space. Water is introduced through valve V12 and water meter Q, passes through
the inner tube, and discharges to the drain.
b. In Countercurrent Flow. Valves V3 and V6 are closed and valves V4 and V5 are
opened. The hot water, therefore, enters the annular space at F and leaves at E.
3. After conditions of flow and temperature have become constant, record the following
readings at 2-minute intervals:
a. Time
b. Inlet and exit temperatures of the steam and cold-water streams
c. Water meter readings
d. Weight of discharge
4. Repeat the experiment using different rates of flow. Each run should last for
approximately 20 minutes.
5. Repeat the experiment using parallel flow.

V2

V1

V3
V11

V10 V4
V2

V5 V6
V12 V7

V9

V8

VI. SKETCH/PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

31
VII. TABULATED DATA AND RESULTS:
Length of heating section: 11.5 ft

Outside diameter of heating tube: 0.875 in.

Inside diameter of heating tube: 0.745 in.

Cold Water Hot Water

Type of Time, Meter Temp, °F Gage Temp, °F Weight of
Flow min reading, reading, Condensate
Inlet Exit Inlet Exit
L psi
0
2
COUNTERCURRENT

4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
AVERAGE
0
2
4
6
PARALLEL

8
10
12
14
16
18
20
AVERAGE

VIII. SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS

32
 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY
ChE501
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 2
Experiment No.7

Name: _____________________________________ Date Performed: _________________

Group Number : __________________________ Instructor’s Sign: _________________

I. TITLE: LEVEL SENSOR

II. OBJECTIVE:
To determine the characteristic of the differential transformer as position transducer.

III. APPARATUS/EQUIPMENT:
DL 2314
Digital Multi-meter
Set of leads

IV. PROCEDURE:
After checking the knowledge of the prerequisites, the instructor gives to the students the
sheet 1.1 which shows the connections of the level with the relevant interface (Fig. 1.1and
Fig. 1.2) and sets the process simulation panel as follows:
➢ DELIVERY VALVE fully open (turn the knob counter-clockwise)
➢ MOTOR VALVE fully open (angular rotation = 0)
➢ SOL VALVE open (ON) using the interface ON-OFF DRIVER
➢ MAIN VALVE fully open (turn the knob counter-clockwise)
➢ DRAIN VALVE fully close (turn the knob clockwise)
➢ NEEDLE VALVE fully close (turn the knob clockwise)
➢ AIR VALVE fully open (turn the knob counter-clockwise)
➢ PROCESS TANK with 4 cm level of water

The students shall do the following:

1. Connect, through leads, bush N01 of the Level Sensor to bush N01 of the
correspondent interface and bush N02 to bush N02 (Sheet 1.1 Fig. 1.1).
2. Insert a terminal of the digital voltmeter, set in DC, in bush N0 13 of the Level Interface
and the other one on the earth bush (Sheet 1.1 Fig. 1.1).
3. Connect bush N0 18 of the LINEAR DRIVER to the bush of SET POINT 1, bush N0 19 to
bush N0 19 and bush N0 20 to bush N0 20 (Sheet 1.1 Fig. 1.2).
4. Press the main switch (ON).
5. Start the pump regulating the voltage on SET POINT 1 and bring the level of the water
in the PROCESS TANK to 6 cm.
6. Once the level is reached, stop the pump, setting to 0 V the voltage value of SET POINT
1.
7. Gradually decrease the level of the water in the tank by turning counter-clockwise the
knob NEEDLE VALVE and/or the knob DRAIN VALVE, back to 4 cm.

33
8. Verify that the voltage value, read on the voltmeter, corresponds to 0V, otherwise
regulate the OFFSET trimmer until the desired value is obtained. This way the minimum
working point of the Level Sensor is fixed.
9. Start the pump and increase the level of the water to 14cm.
10. Stop the pump and verify that the voltage value corresponds to 10V, otherwise
regulate the GAIN trimmer until the desired value is obtained.
11. Verify that the voltage and the level values are correct by repeating the steps from
step N0 7.
12. Slowly drain the tank until level values shown in Table 1.1 are reached and write down,
for each level value, the corresponding voltage value.
13. Turn OFF the main switch.
14. Remove all the connections.
15. Represent the characteristic of the level sensor in Fig. 1.3

34
V. TABULATED DATA AND RESULTS:

Level
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4
(cm)
Voltage

Level (cm)

Voltage
(V)
Fig. 1.3
Level vs Voltage Characteristic Curve

VI. ANALYSIS

35
 CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY
ChE501
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 2
Experiment No.8

Name: _____________________________________ Date Performed: _________________

Group Number : __________________________ Instructor’s Sign: _________________

I. TITLE: ON - OFF CONTROL OF LEVEL

II. OBJECTIVES:
• To understand the operation of a closed loop ON-OFF control system
• To understand the effects of hysteresis on the control

III. APPARATUS/EQUIPMENT:
DL 2314
Digital Multi-meter
Set of leads

IV. PROCEDURE:
After checking the knowledge of the prerequisites, the instructor gives to the students the
diagram in Fig 5.4 which shows the connections of the ON-OFF control and sets the
process simulation panel as follows:
➢ DELIVERY VALVE fully open (turn the knob counter-clockwise)
➢ MOTOR VALVE fully open (angular rotation = 0)
➢ SOL VALVE open (ON) using the interface ON-OFF DRIVER
➢ MAIN VALVE fully open (turn the knob counter-clockwise)
➢ DRAIN VALVE fully close (turn the knob clockwise)
➢ NEEDLE VALVE fully close (turn the knob clockwise)
➢ AIR VALVE fully open (turn the knob counter-clockwise)
➢ PROCESS TANK with 8 cm level of water
➢ SET POINT 1 knob 0V
➢ HYSTERESIS knob 0%

The student shall do the following:

1. Connect, through leads, bush N01 of the Level Sensor to bush N01 of the relevant
interface and bush N02 (Fig.5.4).
2. Connect bush N019 of the LINEAR DRIVER to bush N019 and bush N020 to bush N020
(Fig 5.4).
3. Connect the bush of SET POINT 1 to bush N014 of the ON-OFF controller and bush
N013 of the level interface to bush N013 of the ON-OFF controller (Fig.5.4).
4. Insert one terminal of the digital voltmeter, set in DC, in the bush of SET POINT 1 and
the other one in the earth bush (Fig.5.4).
5. Press the main switch (ON).
6. Regulate the voltage on SET POINT at 5 V.

36
7. Move the terminal of the digital voltmeter from the bush of SET POINT 1 to bush N013
of the ON-OFF controller. The voltage value must be equal to 2V. If the voltage is
different, control that the level of the water in the tank be 8 cm, otherwise calibrate
the sensor according to the procedure shown in Experiment No. 1
8. Move the terminal of the digital voltmeter to bush X4 of the ON-OFF controller. The
voltage value must be equal to the difference between the voltage applied to bush
N014 and the voltage applied to bush N013 that is 3V.
9. Connect bush N018 of the ON-OFF controller to bush N018 of the LINEAR DRIVER. The
pump will start immediately and the level will start to increase while the voltage value
read on the voltmeter will decrease.
10. As soon as the voltage difference between bush N014 and bush N013 will be null, the
output of the ON-OFF controller (bush N018), going to a voltage of approximately -
10v, will stop the pump. The level must then be equal to 11cm, corresponding to the
starting level (8cm) plus the starting voltage difference between bush N 014 and bush
N013 (3V=3cm).
11. Slowly turn counter-clockwise the knob NEEDLE VALVE and/or the knob DRAIN VALVE
in order to decrease a little the level: the voltage difference between bush N 014 and
bush N013, caused by the level variation, brings the output of the ON-OFF controller
(bush N018) to a voltage of approx.10V and the pump will start again.
12. The pump will operate for a short time until the previous level is reached (11cm).
13. Regulate the knob NEEDLE VALVE and/or the knob DRAIN VALVE until you determine,
approximately, an equal time for level increase and decrease between start and stop
of the pump. The up down cycle of the level will repeat itself.
14. Turn the knob MAIN VALVE clockwise until you will read on the flow meter a flow
approximately 20 liters/hour. This operation must be performed with the pump
running, that is while the water level increases.
15. Repeat step N012.
16. Measure the up and down times of the level between start and stop of the pump with
hysteresis of 0%. Write down the results in Table 5.1.
17. Repeat the procedure from step N015 for all the hysteresis values listed in Table 5.1
and write down the results.
18. For each value of hysteresis repeat the measurement of the up and down time several
times.
19. Close the NEEDLE VALVE and the DRAIN VALVE.
20. Turn OFF the main switch.
21. Remove all the connections.
22. Represent the characteristics diagram of the hysteresis in Fig.5.1 to Fig.5.7.

37
V. SKETCH
Level
(cm)

11

Time
(sec)

Hysteresis 0 %

Level
(cm)

11

Time
(sec)
Hysteresis 5 %
Fig. 5.2

Level
(cm)

11

Time
(sec)
Hysteresis 10 %
Fig. 5.3

38
Level
(cm)

11

Time
(sec)
Hysteresis 15 %
Fig. 5.4

Level
(cm)

11

Time
(sec)
Hysteresis 20 %
Fig. 5.5

Level
(cm)

11

Time
(sec)
Hysteresis 25 %
Fig. 5.6

39
 Level
(cm)

11

Time
(sec)
Hysteresis 30 %
Fig. 5.7

VI. TABULATED DATA AND RESULTS:

Hysteresis, % 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Set Point (cm) 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

Lower limit Set Point
(cm)
Up-raising time
of the level (sec)
Upper limit
Set Point (cm)
Lowering time
of the level (sec)

VII. ANALYSIS:

40