The Fundamentals of electrical protection

The main objectives of any power protection system is to isolate a part of the system or an
equipment that generates fault currents from the remaining part of the electrical system, to protect
other equipments from getting damaged or from failing permanently. This allows the rest of the
electrical system to operate normaly while the faulty portion is being rectified and has been
automatically isolated.
In this lecture we will learn the following desirable attributes of protection system viz:
Dependability. Security. Sensitivity. Selectivity. Reliability. Necessity of speed in relaying. Speed vs.
accuracy conflict. A protection system is characterized by following two important parameters:
Dependability Security
Dependability
A relay is said to be dependable if it trips only when it is expected to trip.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
% 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ∗ 100%
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠

Sensitivity
For simplicity, consider the case of overcurrent protection. The protective system must have ability
to detect the smallest possible fault current. The smaller the current that it can detect, the more
sensitive it is. One way to improve sensitivity is to determine characteristic signature of a fault. It is
unique to the fault type and it does not occur in the normal operation. For example, earth faults
involve zero sequence current. This provide a very sensitive method to detect earth faults. Once, this
signature is seen, abnormality is rightly classified and hence appropriate action is initialized.
Security
On the other hand, security is a property used to characterize false tripping on the relays. A relay is
said to be secure if it does not trip when it is not expected to trip. It is the degree of certainty that
the relay will not operate incorrectly:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝
% 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ∗ 100%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
Selectivity
A relay should be able to isolate only the faulty section and leave the health part ok.
Reliability
A relaying system has to be reliable. Reliability can be achieved by redundancy i.e. duplicating the
relaying system. Obviously redundancy can be a costly proposition. Another way to improve
reliability is to ask an existing relay say, protecting an apparatus A to backup protection of apparatus
B. Both the approaches are used (simultaneously) in practice. However, it is important to realize that
back-up protection must be provided for safe operation of relaying system. Redundancy in
protection also depends upon the criticality of the power apparatus. For example, a 400 kV
transmission line will have independent (duplicated) protection using same or a different
philosophy; on the other hand, a distribution system will not have such local back-up. A quantitative
measure for reliability is defined as follows:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
% 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ∗ 100%
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
Per-unit system
In the power systems analysis field of electrical engineering, a per-unit system is the expression
of system quantities as fractions of a defined base unit quantity. Calculations are simplified
because quantities expressed as per-unit do not change when they are referred from one side of
a transformer to the other. This can be a pronounced advantage in power system analysis where
large numbers of transformers may be encountered. Moreover, similar types of apparatus will
have the impedances lying within a narrow numerical range when expressed as a per-unit
fraction of the equipment rating, even if the unit size varies widely. Conversion of per-unit
quantities to volts, ohms, or amperes requires a knowledge of the base that the per-unit
quantities were referenced to. The per-unit system is used in power flow, short
circuit evaluation, motor starting studies etc.The main idea of a per unit system is to absorb large
differences in absolute values into base relationships. Thus, representations of elements in the
system with per unit values become more uniform.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
Equations
(𝑉𝑏)2
𝑍𝑏 =
𝑆𝑏
𝑆𝑏
𝑍𝑝𝑢 = 𝑍𝑎( 2 )
𝑉𝑏
Sometimes it is necessary to transfer a per unit system that is based on a certain value to a
new base value
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑) 𝑆𝑏2 𝑉𝑏12
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑)( = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤)( )( )
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) 𝑆𝑏1 𝑉𝑏22
𝑆𝑏1 = 𝑂𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑆𝑏2 = 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑏1 = 𝑂𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑉𝑏2 = 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

Example

𝐺𝑒𝑛1: 50𝑀𝑉𝐴, 13.8𝑘𝑉, 𝑋 = 0.25𝑝𝑢

 𝐺𝑒𝑛2: 10𝑀𝑉𝐴, 18𝑘𝑉, 𝑋 = 0.20𝑝𝑢
𝐺𝑒𝑛3: 120𝑀𝑉𝐴, 22𝑘𝑉, 𝑋 = 0.23𝑝𝑢

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑇2: 𝑚𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 127
/18𝐾𝑉, 𝑋 = 10%

𝑇1: 50𝑀𝑉𝐴; 220/13.8𝑘𝑉, 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟 /𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎 𝑡𝑥𝑓, 𝑋 = 10%

𝑇3: 125𝑀𝑉𝐴, 𝑋 = 10%, 220/22𝑘𝑉; 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟: 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟

SOLUTION
Choose a base of 50MVA and 13.8kV in the circuit of Generator 1 to find the base voltages in
the rest of the network.
 New MVA base is 50MVA and 13.8kV in the circuit of Generator 1,18kV for generator
2 and 22kV for Generator 3
 Base voltages for all the transmission lines is 220kV
 Therefore the new pu values of X for:

Gen 1
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑) 𝑆𝑏2 𝑉𝑏12
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑)( = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤)( )( )
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) 𝑆𝑏1 𝑉𝑏22

50 13.8 2
𝑋𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 0.25 ∗ ( ) ( ) = 0.25
50 13.8
Gen 2
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑) 𝑆𝑏2 𝑉𝑏12
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑)( = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤)( )( )
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) 𝑆𝑏1 𝑉𝑏22

50 18 2
𝑋𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 0.2 ∗ ( ) ( ) = 1𝑝𝑢
10 18
Gen 3
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑) 𝑆𝑏2 𝑉𝑏12
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑)( = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤)( )( )
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) 𝑆𝑏1 𝑉𝑏22

50 22 2
𝑋𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 0.23 ∗ ( ) ( ) = 0.096𝑝𝑢
120 22
Transmission line

(𝑉𝑏)2
𝑍𝑏 =
𝑆𝑏
 2202
𝑍𝑏 = = 968𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠
50

60
𝑋𝑝𝑢 𝑜𝑓 60𝑂ℎ𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = = 0.0620𝑝𝑢
968
80
𝑋𝑝𝑢 𝑜𝑓 80𝑂ℎ𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = = 0.082𝑝𝑢
968
Transformers
T1
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑) 𝑆𝑏2 𝑉𝑏12
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑)( = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤)( )( )
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) 𝑆𝑏1 𝑉𝑏22

50 220 2
𝑋𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 0.1 ∗ ( )( ) = 0.1𝑝𝑢
50 220
T2
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑) 𝑆𝑏2 𝑉𝑏12
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑)( = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤)( )( )
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) 𝑆𝑏1 𝑉𝑏22

10 127/𝑠𝑞𝑟𝑡(3) 2
𝑋𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 0.1 ∗ ( ) ( ) = 0.002𝑝𝑢
50 220
T3
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑) 𝑆𝑏2 𝑉𝑏12
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑)( = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤)( )( )
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) 𝑆𝑏1 𝑉𝑏22

50 220 2
𝑋𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 0.1 ∗ ( )( ) = 0.04𝑝𝑢
125 220
Then the reactance diagram will be as follows below
Symetric components

Any unbalanced set of three phase voltage or current phasors can be replaced by three
balanced sets of three phase voltage or current phasors. These three balanced set of voltage or
current phasors are called symmetrical components of voltages or currents. Let
¯𝐼𝑎, ¯𝐼𝑏 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ¯𝐼𝑐 be an arbitrary set of three current phasors representing phase currents

Set of three unbalanced phasors, and the necessary symmetrical components that sum up to the resulting
plot at the bottom.
Symmetrical components are most commonly used for analysis of three-phase electrical power
systems. The voltage or current of a three-phase system at some point can be indicated by three
phasors, called the three components of the voltage or the current.
The vector for three phase voltage components can be written as

𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎, 0 𝑉𝑎, 1 𝑉𝑎, 2

(𝑉𝑏 ) = (𝑉𝑏, 0) + (𝑉𝑏, 1) + (𝑉𝑏, 2)
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐. 0 𝑉𝑐. 1 𝑉𝑐. 2

The same applies to current

Using the operator a, we can rotate by 120° degrees

1 √3
𝑎 = 1 < 120° = − ( ) + 𝑗( )
2 2

1 √3
𝑎2 = 1 < 240° = − ( ) − 𝑗( )
2 2

Substitute 𝐼𝑎0 = 𝐼0; 𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼1; 𝐼𝑎2 = 𝐼2

The equations translate to
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼0 + 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼0 + 𝑎2 𝐼1 + 𝑎𝐼2

𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼0 + 𝑎𝐼1 + 𝑎2 𝐼2
In matrix form
𝐼𝑎 1 1 1 𝐼0
(𝐼𝑏 ) = (1 𝑎2 𝑎 ) (𝐼1)
𝐼𝑐 1 𝑎 𝑎2 𝐼2

𝐼0 1 1 1 1 𝐼𝑎
(𝐼1) = (1 𝑎 𝑎2 ) (𝐼𝑏 )
3
𝐼2 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝐼𝑐
This implies the same with voltage
1
𝐼0 = ∗ (𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐)
3
1
𝐼1 = ∗ (𝐼𝑎 + 𝑎𝐼𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝑐)
3
1
𝐼2 = ∗ (𝐼𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝑏 + 𝑎𝐼𝑐)
3
Same with voltage
1
𝑉0 = ∗ (𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐)
3
1
𝑉1 = ∗ (𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎𝑉𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑐)
3
1
𝑉2 = ∗ (𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑎𝑉𝑐)
3
Example
Find the symmetrical components

𝐼𝑎 = 40 < −90
𝐼𝑏 = 20 < −120
𝐼𝑐 = 80 < 70
Solution
𝐼0 1 1 1 1 𝐼𝑎
(𝐼1) = (1 𝑎 2) ( )
𝑎 𝐼𝑏
3
𝐼2 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝐼𝑐
 1
𝐼0 = ∗ (40 < −90 + 20 < −120 + 80 < 70) = 8.3 < 45.80°
3
1
𝐼1 = ∗ (40 < −90 + (1 < 120°)(20 < −120) + (1 < 240°)(80 < 70) = 41.31 < −54.81°
3
1
𝐼2 = ∗ (40 < −90 + (1 < 240°)(20 < −120) + (1 < 120°)(80 < 70) = 32 < −157.61°
3

Example
The following was determined for a 3 phase cable. Investigate the faulty on the cable , i.e
find the line current and type of faulty.
Given
𝐼𝑎0 = 0 < 0° ; 𝐼𝑎1 = −𝑗500 ; 𝐼𝑎2 = 𝑗500
Solution
𝐼𝑎 = (0 − 𝑗500 = 𝑗500) = 0
𝐼𝑏 = [0 + (1 < −120°)(−𝑗500) + (1 < 120°)(𝑗500) = 866𝐴 < −180°
𝐼𝑐 = 0 + (1 < 120°)(−𝑗500) + (1 < −120°)(𝑗500) = 866 < 0

Sequence Impedances

Because of a transmission line’s passive and bilateral properties, the phase sequence of the applied
voltage makes no difference, as a-b-c (positive-sequence) voltages produce the same voltage drops
as a-c-b (negative-sequence) voltages. This means that the positive- and negative-sequence
impedances of a transmission line are identical, provided that the line is transposed.

Zero sequence

Zero sequence currents returns to the source through the ground or neutral wire.

Positive Sequence

This is a normal impedance of three phase circuits to the flow of balanced three phase current and
provided in the equipment specification.

Negative sequence

This is the impedance of three phase circuit to the flow of currents whose phasors rotate in the
opposite direction and is the same as positive sequence impedances

Sequence Networks

Positive sequence network

With a balanced 3 phase system, only positive sequence quantities exist. It is also the only sequence
network that generate e.m.f

Negative sequence network

The negative sequence network has no generated voltage. The voltage that appear at this network is
the voltage generated by the unbalance at the point of faulty.

Zero sequence network

The zero sequence network also has no generated voltage. The voltage that appears is the voltage
generated by the unbalance at the point of the fault. It is difficult to determine zero sequence
network.

Types of faults

The different types of faults are shown in the image

Types of Unbalanced faults

 1. Single Line to Ground fault (SLG)

The single line of ground fault occurs when one conductor falls to the
ground or contact the neutral conductor. The 70 – 80 percent of the
fault in the power system is the single line-to-ground fault.
Ia

Ib

Ic

We use the components to calculate the effect of SLG fault

𝐼0 1 1 1 1 𝐼𝑎
(𝐼1) = (1 𝑎 2) ( )
𝑎 𝐼𝑏
3
𝐼2 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝐼𝑐
But 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑐 = 0

So
𝐼𝑎
𝐼0 =
3
𝐼𝑎
𝐼1 =
3
𝐼𝑎
𝐼2 =
3
Note that

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑎 = 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑍𝑓

But

𝐼𝑎 = 3𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑓 = 3𝐼𝑓𝑍𝑓 = 𝐼1(3𝑍𝑓)

Therefore we represent the fault impedance as 3𝑍𝑓

Sequence representation of a SLG fault

Fro Kirchioff’s voltage law

𝐸𝑎 = 𝐼1(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍0) + 𝑉𝑓
𝐸𝑎 = 𝐼1(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍0) + 3𝐼1𝑍𝑓
3𝐸𝑎
𝐼1 =
[𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍0 + 3𝑍𝑓]

If the generator is grounded through a neutral impedance Zn, and has Zero sequence impedance
Zgo, then we have
3𝐸𝑎
𝐼𝑎 =
[(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍𝑔0) + 3(𝑍𝑓 + 𝑍𝑛)]

For a solid ground fault. 𝑍𝑓 = 0, then

3𝐸𝑎
𝐼𝑎 =
[𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍0]

Line – to – Line Fault

A line-to-line fault occurs when two conductors are short circuited. The major cause of this type
of fault is the heavy wind. The heavy wind swinging the line conductors which may touch
together and hence cause short-circuit. The percentage of such type of faults is approximately
15 – 20%.

𝐼𝑎 = 0; 𝐼𝑏 = −𝐼𝑐

𝐼0 1 1 1 1 𝐼𝑎
(𝐼1) = (1 𝑎 2) ( )
𝑎 𝐼𝑏
3
𝐼2 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝐼𝑐

1
𝐼0 = ( ) (𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐) = 0
3
1 1 𝐼𝑏
𝐼1 = ( ) (𝐼𝑎 + 𝑎𝐼𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝑐) = ( ) (0 + 1 < 120°)𝐼𝑏 + (1 < −120°)(−𝐼𝑏) = 𝑗 ( )
3 3 √3
 1 𝐼𝑏
𝐼2 = ( )(0 + (1 < −120°)𝐼𝑏 + (1 < 120)(𝐼𝑏) = −𝑗( )
3 √3
For which 𝐼1 = −𝐼2
𝐼𝑎 1 1 1 𝐼0
(𝐼𝑏 ) = (1 𝑎2 𝑎 ) (𝐼1)
𝐼𝑐 1 𝑎 𝑎2 𝐼2
𝐼𝑎 = 0 + 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 0
𝑗𝐼1
𝐼𝑏 = [0 + (1 < −120°)(𝐼1) + (1 < 120°)(−𝐼1)] = −
√3
𝑗𝐼1
𝐼𝑐 = [0 + 1 < 120°)𝐼1 + (1 < −120°)(−𝐼1) =
√3
Where
𝐸𝑎
𝐼1 =
𝑍1 + 𝑍2
𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑍𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝐸𝑎
𝐼1 = = −𝐼2
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍𝑓
𝑗𝐼1
𝐼𝑏 = − = −𝐼𝑐
√3
Double Line – to – line Ground Fault

In double line-to-ground fault, the two lines come in contact with each other along with the
ground. The probability of such types of faults is nearly 10 %.

𝐸𝑎
𝐼1 =
𝑍1 + (𝑍2𝐼𝐼𝑍0)
 𝑍0
𝐼2 = −𝐼1 ( )
𝑍0 + 𝑍2
𝑍2
𝐼0 = −𝐼1 ( )
(𝑍0 + 𝑍2)
The current in the return path is 3𝐼𝑜

𝐼1 = 𝐸𝑎/[𝑍1 + [𝑍2𝐼𝐼(𝑍0 + 3𝑍𝑓)]

Three phase symmetrical fault

This type of fault is known as bolted three phase fault. Since the fault is symmetrical, 𝐼2 = 𝐼0 = 0
and therefore 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼1 = 𝐸𝑎/𝑍1. This is applicable to an a-b-c-g- fault.

Example

𝑉𝑙𝑙 = 13.8𝑘𝑉
𝑍0 = 𝑗0.02
𝑍1 = 𝑗0.03
𝑍2 = 𝑗0.03
𝑍𝑓 = 𝑗0.01
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠, 𝐼𝑎
Solution
13.8
𝑉𝑝ℎ = ( ) = 7.967𝑘𝑉
√3
3𝐸𝑎
𝐼𝑎 = = 279.87𝑘𝐴 < −69.44°
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍𝑜 + 3𝑍𝑓

DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
It is based on the fact that any fault within electrical equipment would cause the current entering it
to be different from the current leaving it. By comparing the two currents either in magnitude or in
phase or in both, fault can be determined.

Differential protection applications

 Transformer protection

 Generator protection

 Reactor protection

 Line protection

 Large motor protection

 Capacitor bank protection

  Compound equipment protection

Principle of operation
The operating principle employed by transformer differential protection is the Merz-Price circulating
current system as shown below. Under normal conditions 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 are equal and opposite such
that the resultant current through the relay is zero. An internal fault produces an unbalance or 'spill'
current that is detected by the relay, leading to operation.

Balanced differential scheme

Consider a star/delta transformer YdN1.CT ratio is unity (1:1)

Considering phase A the differential current in the relay is

(𝑖 < 0° − 1 < 120°) − (𝑖 < 0° − 1 < 120°) = 0

Differential protection under a fault condition

Consider a fault in phase A as shown in the diagram below
Differential current seen by the relay is
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 𝑖 < 𝑥 0

Restricted earth fault

Restricted Earth Fault Protection of Transformer

An external fault in the star side will result in current flowing in the line current transformer of the
affected phase and at the same time a balancing current flows in the neutral current transformer,
hence the resultant current in the relay is therefore zero. So this REF relay will not be actuated for
external earth fault. But during internal fault the neutral current transformer only carries the
unbalance fault current and operation of Restricted Earth Fault Relay takes place. This scheme of
restricted earth fault protection is very sensitive for internal earth fault of electrical power
transformer. The protection scheme is comparatively cheaper than differential protection scheme.
Restricted earth fault protection is provided in electrical power transformer for sensing internal
earth fault of the transformer. In this scheme the CT secondary of each phase of electrical power
transformer are connected together as shown in the figure. Then common terminals are connected
to the secondary of a Neutral Current Transformer or NCT.

External faults

Inzone faults

Examples
Motor Protection

motor differential protection

Single Line to Ground fault
For a single line to ground fault the residual current 𝐼𝑟 = 20𝐴 + 0𝐴 + 0𝐴 = 20𝐴.A current of 20A
will flow through the relay and will cause the circuit breaker to open. This protection scheme is
suitable for a SLG fault

Two phase fault

𝐼𝑎 = −𝐼𝑏
𝐼𝑎 = 20𝐴 < 0°
𝐼𝑏 = 20 < 180°
𝐼𝑐 = 0
𝐼𝑟 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 = 0
For a two phase fault no current will flow through the relay thus the protection is not suitable for a
phase to phase fault.

Three phase bolted fault

𝐼𝑎 = 20 < 0°
𝐼𝑎 = 20 < −120°
𝐼𝑎 = 20 < 120°
𝐼𝑟 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 = 0
No current will flow through the relay thus the scheme is not suitable for a three phase bolted fault

Distance Protection