Aerodynamics: Introduction

• Aerodynamics deals with the motion of objects in air. These objects

can be airplanes, missiles or road vehicles.
• The Table below summarizes the aspects of vehicle performance
directly influenced by aerodynamic design.
Fuel Economy
Emissions
Performance
Maximum Speed
Acceleration
Directional Stability
Stability Response to Flow Unsteadiness
Crosswind Sensitivity
Engine
Transmission
Cooling
Brakes
Condenser
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
Comfort
Wind Noise
Dirt Accumulation
Visibility
Splash and Spray
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 1 AE Dept., KFUPM
 Aerodynamics: Aerodynamic Forces

• When a body moves in the air, a

pressure and shear (friction)
stresses are produced at every
p
point of the body. τ

• The pressure, p, acts normal to V∞ Airfoil

the surface and the shear, τ, acts
tangential to the surface of the
body.
• The sum of the pressure and shear
forces gives the resultant force, R.
• The aerodynamic forces are mainly
due to pressure and shear stress
distribution over the body surface.

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 2 AE Dept., KFUPM

 Aerodynamics: Aerodynamic Forces
• The resultant force, R, can be resolved into two
components along the wind (freestream) axes: N
R
L

lift = L = component normal to V∞

drag = D = component along V∞ α
M chord line
V∞ D
A
or along the body axes axis:

normal force = N = component normal to the airfoil chord

axial force = A = component along the body chord

• The point at which the resultant force acts is called the

center of pressure.

• It is convenient sometimes to specify the aerodynamic

center which is defined as the point at which the
aerodynamic moment, M, is independent of the angle of
attack, α.
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 3 AE Dept., KFUPM
 Aerodynamics: Aerodynamic Forces
• In aerodynamics, we usually deal with aerodynamic forces and
moments coefficients more than forces and moments.
1
• The freestream dynamic pressure, q∞, q∞ = ρ ∞V∞2
2
ρ∞ is the freestream density and V∞ is the freestream velocity.
P − P∞
Pressure Coefficient: CP = ; P∞ = the freestream pressure
q∞
L
Lift Coefficient: CL =
q∞ S
; S = the reference area
D
Drag Coefficient: CD =
q∞ S
M
Moment Coefficient: CM = ; l = the characteristic length.
q∞ Sl
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 4 AE Dept., KFUPM
 Aerodynamics: Aerodynamic Forces
From dimensional analysis, the above coefficients depend on some parameters:

• Mach number, M = V∞ /a where a is the speed of sound.

• Reynolds number, Re = ρV∞ l /μ where ρ is the air density and μ is the dynamic
viscosity of the air.

• Angle of attack, α.

• In many practical problems, the lift, drag and moment coefficients are identical
for geometrically similar bodies at the same Mach, Reynolds number and angle of
attack.

1 2
(CL)1 = (CL)2
(CD)1 = (CD)2
(CM)1 = (CM)2
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 5 AE Dept., KFUPM
 Aerodynamics: Airfoil
• An airfoil is simply a section cut of a wing.

• It is often called infinite wing.

• The flow characteristics around an airfoil are significantly different from

those around a wing.

• The flow around the airfoil is two dimensional.

higher flow velocity

lower pressure

V∞
P∞
lower flow velocity
higher pressure

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 6 AE Dept., KFUPM

 Aerodynamics: Airfoil
• The pressure and velocity fields higher flow velocity
lower pressure
around the airfoil are related via
the Bernoulli’s equation V∞
P∞
lower flow velocity
1 1 higher pressure
P∞ + ρV∞ = P + ρV 2
2

2 2 -5
• The pressure distribution over
Joukowski airfoil at α = 10º.
-4

• The pressure coefficient is -3

negative (means lower than the
freestream pressure, P∞) over the Cp -2
top surface and positive (higher
than the freestream pressure, P∞) -1
on the bottom surface of the airfoil.
0
• The net imbalance of pressure
distribution produces the lift. 1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x/c
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 7 AE Dept., KFUPM
 Aerodynamics: Wings
• Often called finite wing

• The flow around a wing is three

dimensional; there is a flow in the
spanwise direction.

• The mechanism for generating lift is the

same as that for the airfoil, a higher
pressure on the bottom surface and a
lower pressure over the top surface. Flow from higher pressure
region (lower surface) to
lower pressure region (upper
• As consequence of the pressure surface)
imbalance between the lower and upper
surface of the wing, the flow near the
wing tips tends to curl around the tips; the
flow is forced from the higher pressure •This causes the flow underneath the
region just underneath the wing tips to wing to move along the spanwise
the lower pressure region on the top of direction from the wing root to the tip
the wing. and the flow on top of the wing to move
from the wing tip to the root.
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 8 AE Dept., KFUPM
 Aerodynamics: Wings
• This flow produced a trailing vortex
at both wing tips that trails
downstream of the wing.

• For large airplanes such as the

Boeing 747, these vortices are
powerful enough to cause light
airplanes flying closely behind to go
out of control.

• Accidents due to these vortices Top view Cross section view

have occurred and that is one of the
reasons for large spacing between
aircraft during landing and take-off at
airports.

• The vortices draw the air behind the

wind thus inducing a downwash
(downward flow) in the neighborhood
of the wing.
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 9 AE Dept., KFUPM
 Aerodynamics: Flow Characteristics for Wings
• This downwash results in an increase of
drag.

• The additional drag is called induced drag, Di

Di, and is related to the lift by L
αi

Di = L sin αi Chord line

Local relative
αeff wind
α
V∞
• The downwash also affects the angle of w
αi
attack. V∞

The angle of attack actually seen by the

wing is the angle between the chord line
and the local relative wind defined as the
effective angle of attack, αeff.

• The “geometric angle of attack” α and the

“aerodynamic angles of attack” αeff and αi is
given by
α eff = α − αi
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 10 AE Dept., KFUPM
 Aerodynamics: Lift on Airfoil
• At small angles of attack the Cambered airfoil

lift coefficient varies linearly

with the angle of attack for Cl Symmetric airfoil at high α
both symmetric and cambered
airfoils.

• The mathematical analysis ηo =

dCl
dα
shows that for a symmetric
Symmetric airfoil at small α
airfoil
αL=0 < 0

Cl = 2πα
α

αL=0 =0
•for a cambered airfoil :

Cl = 2π (α − α L=0 )
•The slopes of the lift
coefficient for symmetric and
cambered airfoils are the
same.
η = dC / dα = 2π
o M. Al-Garni
l 11 AE Dept., KFUPM
Dr. Abdullah
 Aerodynamics: Lift on Airfoil

• As the angle of attack

increases, an adverse pressure
gradient starts to develop over Cambered airfoil
the top surface of the airfoil
which will cause the boundary Cl Symmetric airfoil at high α
layer to separate.

• At a certain angle of attack, this

adverse pressure becomes ηo =
dCl
dα
strong enough to cause flow
Symmetric airfoil at small α
separation over the top surface
αL=0 < 0
of the airfoil.
α
• Once the flow separates the lift
αL=0 =0
coefficient drop drastically and as
a consequence stall occurs as
shown in Figure 9.

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 12 AE Dept., KFUPM

 Aerodynamics: Lift on Wing
• The lift curve for a wing has smaller slope than the corresponding lift curve for
an airfoil with the same airfoil cross section.

• The relationship between the two slopes is given by

dCL ηo
=η =
dα η
1 + o (1 + τ )
πℜ
where η is the slope of a wing, ηo is the slope of the airfoil, is the aspect ratio,
τ is a correction factor.

• The aspect ration is defined as ℜ = b2 / S where b is the span and S is the

area of the wing.

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 13 AE Dept., KFUPM

 Aerodynamics: Lift and Circulation
• The lift per unit span of an airfoil can be related to the intensity of the
circulatory flow or circulation, Γ, via Kutta-Joukowski Theorem

L '=ρ ∞V∞ Γ
where the L′ is the lift per unit span of the wing.

• This relation shows that the lift per unit span is directly proportional to
circulation.

• It is a pivotal relation in ideal incompressible flow theory often called

potential flow theory.

•Thus, a major propel of the potential flow theory is to calculate circulation.

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 14 AE Dept., KFUPM

 Aerodynamics: Lift and Circulation
• Example of this relation: Flow over Non-lifting circular cylinder

flow over a circular cylinder

L=0
• The flow around non-lifting
circular cylinder is symmetric

• Hence one would expect that

the pressure distribution over the
top and bottom surfaces of the
cylinder is also symmetric. Flow over lifting circular cylinder

•This results in zero lift for the

cylinder. L>0

•However, if the cylinder rotates

about its axis, then the flow field
is not symmetric any more.

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 15 AE Dept., KFUPM

 Aerodynamics: Lift and Circulation
• Why do we have a lift when the cylinder
rotates?. Flow over lifting circular cylinder

• When the cylinder rotates, this will L>0

increase the flow velocity over the top
surface and decrease it on the bottom
of the cylinder.

• As a result, the pressure on the top

surface decreases and the pressure on
the bottom surface increases
(Bernoulli’s equation).

1 1 High speed flow

P∞ + ρV∞2 = P + ρV 2 Low pressure

2 2 L′
ω
•This net imbalance of pressure will V∞

produce a finite lift as sketched in

Figure. This is often called Magnus
effect. Low speed flow
High Pressure
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 16 AE Dept., KFUPM
 Aerodynamics: Lift and Circulation
• Another Example of this relation: Leading-edge cylinder is off [α = 0]
a) Uc/U = 0
flow over a airfoil with a
leading-edge rotating cylinder L=0

1.8
Uc/U=0
Uc/U=1
1.6
Uc/U=2
Uc/U=3
1.4
Uc/U=4

1.2

Leading-edge cylinder rotates

1
b) Uc/U = 1
CL

0.8
L>0
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
o
α
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 17 AE Dept., KFUPM
 Aerodynamics: Lift and Circulation
a) Uc/U = 0

e) Uc/U = 4

α = 20

b) Uc/U = 1

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 18 AE Dept., KFUPM

 Aerodynamics: High Lift Devices
• The lifting properties of a given
airfoil can be enhanced by using high
lift devices as shown in the Figure 13. Wing with a trailing-edge flap

δ Wing with a leading-edge slat

• The most common of these devices
is the simple flap at the trailing edge CL
of the wing.

• When the flap is deflected

downward, the camber of the airfoil is

d in
cre
as e
increased. Wing without flap and slat

s
• This increase is associated with a
dramatic increase in the maximum lift
α
coefficient, CL,max and a shift of the
zero-lift angle of attack to a more
negative value for the wing.

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 19 AE Dept., KFUPM

 Aerodynamics: High Lift Devices
• In some airplanes, the flap is designed
not only to deflect downward but also to
translate rearward which increases the
Wing with a trailing-edge flap
wing area and hence increase the lift.
δ Wing with a leading-edge slat

• The flap can increase the maximum lift CL

coefficient by about 200%.

• High lift devices can also be applied to

the leading edge of the wing with the most

d in
cre
common is the leading-edge slat.

as e
Wing without flap and slat

s
• The leading edge slat can alter the
pressure distribution over the wing, reduce
the pressure on the top and increase the α

pressure on the bottom surface. As a

result, a more lift is generated on the wing.
•Another advantage of the leading-edge
slat is the delay of flow separation over
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni
the top surface of the wing to higher
angles of attack and consequently delays
stall of the wing. In modern aircraft a
combination of leading-edge slat and
trailing-flaps is common.
20 AE Dept., KFUPM
 Aerodynamics: Drag

• The drag is an important subject in aerodynamics.

•A reduction in drag can lead to a reduction in fuel consumption and better

performance for a vehicle.

•The drag coefficient varies from one object to another depending on the
particular geometry of that object.

•For streamlined body such as wing and airfoil, the drag coefficient is low
compared to bluff body such as circular cylinder, sphere or road vehicle.

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 21 AE Dept., KFUPM

 Aerodynamics: Drag
Normal V∞
Plate
d CD = 2.0

CD = 1.2 at Re =
Circular V∞ 105
Cylinder d CD = 0.6 at Re =
107

Streamlined V∞ d CD = 0.12
body

Half V∞
d CD = 1.2
Cylinder

Half V∞
d CD = 1.7
Cylinder

Equilateral V∞
triangle d CD = 1.6

Pickup Z

CD = 0.4-0.5
truck X

Piper PA-16
CD = 0.037
Clipper

Boeing 747 CD = 0.017

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 22 AE Dept., KFUPM

 Aerodynamics: Drag for Airfoil vs. Wing
• It is important to note that there is a difference between the drag of an airfoil and
that of a wing.

• The drag acting on an airfoil section is the sum of the skin friction drag, Df, and
the pressure drag, Dp, which is due to flow separation. That is,
D f + Dp
Cd =
q∞ S
The sum of the skin friction drag and the pressure drag is called profile drag.

• On the other hand, the total drag of a subsonic finite wing in a real case is the
sum of the induced drag, Di, and the profile drag,

Di
C D = Cd +
q∞ S
where the subscript D represents the drag of the wing and the subscript d
represent the drag of the airfoil.

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 23 AE Dept., KFUPM

 Aerodynamics: Drag for Airfoil vs. Wing
• Using the lifting line theory it can be shown that for a
general wing C2
CD ,i = L
π eℜ
where is the induced drag coefficient and e is the
span efficiency factor. For elliptical wing, e = 1 and for Elliptic wing
other platforms, e < 1.

• Therefore, the induced drag is minimum for an

elliptical platform. Rectangular wing

• In the past, several aircraft have been designed with

elliptical wings. Tapered wing

• However, elliptical wings are more expensive to

manufacture than other simple platform such as
rectangular wings. The rectangular wing is
considered far from optimum. A compromise between
the elliptical wing (manufacturing difficulty) and
rectangular wing (poor efficiency) is the tapered wing.
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 24 AE Dept., KFUPM
 Aerodynamics: Laminar and Turbulent Flows
• The drag coefficient of a body depends on the
flow around the body whether it is laminar or
turbulent.
• When the streamlines are smooth and regular and
a fluid element moves smoothly along a streamline
the flow is called laminar.
• On the other hand, when the streamlines break up Laminar flow
and a fluid element moves in a random, irregular,
and tortuous fashion the flow is called turbulent.
• Most of real flows are turbulent flows.
•In turbulent flow, the higher energy fluid elements
from the outer regions of the flow are pumped close
to the surface. Hence, the average flow velocity
near a solid surface is larger for a turbulent flow in Turbulent flow
comparison with laminar flow. Figure 15 shows the
velocity profile for laminar and turbulent boundary
layers.

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 25 AE Dept., KFUPM

 Aerodynamics: Laminar and Turbulent Flows

• In turbulent flow, the higher energy fluid elements

from the outer regions of the flow are pumped close
to the surface.
y
• Hence, the average flow velocity near a solid
surface is larger for a turbulent flow in comparison
with laminar flow.
• Since the shear stress is proportional to the r
Turbulent
velocity gradient along the y-direction τ ∝∂ u / ∂y
a
in
m
La
then the shear stress (friction) as well as u
aerodynamic heating at the wall surface is higher for
turbulent flow than laminar flow.

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 26 AE Dept., KFUPM

 Aerodynamics: Streamlined vs. Bluff body

• Airfoils, flat plate and wings are considered to be

streamlined bodies. On the other hand, cylinder,
sphere, trucks are bluff bodies.

• The flow around streamlined and bluff bodies is

significantly different.
Streamlined body- small wake

• The flow over streamlined body is usually

smooth and the wake behind the body is small.

• The flow over bluff body, however, exhibits a

large wake downstream the body. This wake is Bluff body- large wake
caused by separating flow from the body surface
with a low-energy recirculating flow inside the
wake as shown in the figure below.

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 27 AE Dept., KFUPM

 Aerodynamics: Streamlined vs. Bluff body

• The skin friction drag is due to the shear forces

acting on the body and the pressure drag is due
to flow separation from the body surface.
• Therefore, if the body is streamlined, the flow
separation is minimal and one would expect that
the friction drag is much greater than the pressure
drag. D f D p
• Since skin friction drag is smaller for laminar Laminar flow is desirable
than for turbulent flow, laminar flow is desirable
for streamlined bodies.
•On the other hand, the pressure drag which is
due to flow separation is much greater for bluff
body than skin friction drag.
•In this case, the turbulent flow is desirable
because the pressure drag for turbulent flow is
smaller than for laminar flow. D p D f
Turbulent flow is desirable
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 28 AE Dept., KFUPM
 Bluff body:
Square Back (SB) Model

Wind Tunnel View

Model Top View

Y
X

Model Side View

Z Z
X Y

Cab Back

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 29 AE Dept., KFUPM

 PIV Results

U = 30 m/s
Mean velocity and vorticity Fields Streamlines of the mean velocity field

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20
y (mm)

y (mm)
0 0
-20 -20
-40 -40
-60 -60
-80 -80
-100 -100
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
x ( mm) x ( mm)

Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni 30 AE Dept., KFUPM