YISHUN JUNIOR COLLEGE

H2 CHEMISTRY 9729
The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Content
1. Introduction
2. Atoms and other particles
3. Relative masses of various particles
4. The Mole and other related quantities
5. Empirical and molecular formulae
6. Stoichiometry

Assessment Objectives
Topic 1: Atomic Structure
Candidates should be able to:
(a) identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of their relative
charges and relative masses
(d) deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both atoms
and ions given proton and nucleon numbers (and charge)
(e) (i) describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to atomic nuclei in terms of
proton number and nucleon number
(ii) distinguish between isotopes on basis of different numbers of neutrons
present
Topic 6: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry
Candidates should be able to:
(a) define the terms relative atomic, isotopic, molecular, and formula mass, based on
the 12C scale
[the term relative formula mass or Mr will be used for ionic compounds]
(b) define the term mole in terms of the Avogadro constant
(c) calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given the relative abundances of
its isotopes
(d) define the terms empirical and molecular formula
(e) calculate empirical and molecular formulae using combustion data or composition
by mass
(f) write and / or construct balanced equations
(g) perform calculations, including use of the mole concept, involving:
(i) reacting masses (from formulae and equations - including the determination
of limiting reagent)
(ii) volume of gases (e.g. in combustion of hydrocarbons)
[when performing calculations, candidates’ answer should reflect the number of
significant figures given or asked for in the question]
(h) deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations such as those in (g)

Reference Texts
o Chemistry in Context : Hill and Holman
o A level Chemistry : EN Ramsden
o Advanced Chemistry: Michael Clugston & Rosalind Flemming
o Calculations for A-level Chemistry: EN Ramsden
JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. STOICHIOMETRY

A chemical reaction occurs when reactants are converted to products. The name
“stoichiometry” is
One of the fundamental laws that govern chemical change can be expressed derived from Greek
stoicheion (element)
as “atoms are neither created nor destroyed during any chemical change”, and metron (measure)

which implies that the changes that occurred in a reaction merely involve
rearrangement of the atoms. Using the above law as a guiding principle, we
study the quantitative composition of chemical substances and also the
quantitative changes that take place during chemical reactions. This area of
study is known as stoichiometry.
Stoichiometry is of fundamental importance in modern chemistry. Diverse
problems such as measuring the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere
and determining the potential yield of gold from its ore are examples of
problems that involve stoichiometry.

2. ATOMS AND OTHER PARTICLES

Learning outcome
Topic 1:
(a) identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of their relative
charges and relative masses
(d) deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both atoms
and ions given proton and nucleon numbers (and charge)
(e) (i) describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to atomic nuclei in terms
of proton number and nucleon number
(ii) distinguish between isotopes on basis of different numbers of neutrons
present

2.1. THE ATOM

o An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element.

o Atoms are made up of three sub-atomic particles: protons, neutrons, and
electrons. Some basic properties of the particles are given in the table
below:
Location of Relative mass Relative Charge
Particle Symbol particle in the (relative to a (relative to a
atom proton) proton)

proton p nucleus 1 +1
The mass of an
neutron n nucleus 1 0 electron is much
smaller than that of a
− surrounding 1
electron e 0 −1 proton and neutron,
the nucleus 1840 and for most purposes
it is assumed to be
negligible

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

o The number of protons in an atom is known as the proton number or

atomic number (Z).
o The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is known as the
nucleon number or mass number (A).
o An atom can be represented by specifying the chemical symbol of the
The proton number (Z)
element, the proton number, and the nucleon number: is normally written as a
subscript, and the
General form Examples of common atoms nucleon number (A) as
a superscript
A
Z X 23
11 Na , 49 Be , 168O

o Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons (but can
have different number of neutrons).
Atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons are called isotopes.

Some common isotopes of some elements:

Element Common isotopes
12
carbon 6 C , 136C
35 37
chlorine 17Cl , 17 Cl
1
hydrogen 1 H , 12 H ,
3
1 H 2
1 H is also known as
Deuterium (D), and 13 H
is also known as
o Neutral atoms have equal number of protons and electrons. Tritium (T)
Hence, isotopes of the same element have the same number of
electrons, and therefore the same chemical properties.
o A particle that has unequal number of protons and electrons is called an
ion.

Exercise: Fill in the blanks with the correct numbers

Some useful formulae:
Particle Number of protons Number of neutrons Number of electrons nn = A − Z
(nn: number of
35
17 Cl 17 18 17 neutrons)

37 Charge on an ion
17 Cl = Z − ne
40 (ne = number of
19 K electrons)
39
19 K
238
92 U
16
8 O 2
23
11 Na 

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

2.2. MOLECULES AND FORMULA UNITS

o A molecule is a group of atoms covalently bonded together in an
element or a compound, which is the smallest particle of the substance
that can exist alone under ordinary conditions.
o E.g.: N2, CO2, and NH3 are covalent molecules.
o For an ionic compound, we define a formula unit as the smallest group As an ionic compound
can only exist when
of atoms from which the formula of a compound can be established made up of a large
collection of positive
o E.g.: NaCl, Ca(NO3)2, and Al2O3 are formula units. and negative ions, an
“ionic molecule” does
not exist. Hence the
need to define an
alternative term
3. RELATIVE MASSES OF VARIOUS PARTICLES “formula unit”

Learning outcome
Topic 6:
(a) define the terms relative atomic, isotopic, molecular, and formula mass, based
12
on the C scale

3.1. RELATIVE MASS

o As the masses of atoms are very small (10−23 g), chemists use a relative
atomic mass scale to compare the masses of different atoms.
Carbon was chosen as
o The reference standard adopted is the carbon-12 atom, and on this the standard as it is a
12 very common element,
carbon-12 scale, atoms of the C isotope are assigned a relative atomic and it is a solid under
room conditions, and
mass of 12.0. The relative masses of all other particles are obtained by hence easy to store
1 and transport
comparison with 12 the mass of the 12C atom.
o Hence, the relative mass of a particle can be calculated using the
following formula:
mass of one particle
Relative mass of a particle = 1
12
× mass of one 12C atom

3.2. RELATIVE ISOTOPIC MASS

o The relative isotopic mass of an isotope (of a certain element) is
1
defined as the mass of one isotope compared to 12 the mass of a 12C
atom, and is given by:

mass of one isotope

Relative isotopic mass = 1
12
× mass of one 12C atom

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

3.3. RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (Ar)

o Most elements consist of a mixture of isotopes. Hence it would be
necessary to have a relative atomic mass that is representative of the
masses and relative amount of the isotopes present in nature.
o The relative atomic mass of a certain element is defined as the average
1 12
mass of one atom compared to 12 the mass of a C atom, and is given
by:
average mass of one atom
Relative atomic mass =
1
12
× mass of one 12C atom
1
12
Learning outcome
Topic 6:
(c) calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given the relative abundances
of its isotopes

The alternative formula

o For calculations, the equivalent formula below is commonly used: is used when the
relative abundance of
all isotopes
the various isotopes of
 (relative abundance x relative isotopic mass) the particular element is
Relative atomic mass = all isotopes available
 (relative abundance)

Relative abundance can

( is a mathematical operator to “sum up” all the values contained. In this be expressed in terms
of percentages, ratios,
case, you need to sum up the required values of all the isotopes of the or fractions

particular element)

Example 1:
The abundance of the isotopes of chlorine are given below:
Relative isotopic
Isotopes % abundance
mass
35
Cl 34.97 75.53
37
Cl 36.97 24.47

Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine

Relative atomic mass of Cl =

 75.53  34.97   24.47 36.97  Relative masses have
no units, as it is a
75.53  24.47 measure of how much
heavier a particle is
= 35.5 (1 decimal place) compared to 1/12 the
mass of a 12C atom.

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

Example 2:
The relative atomic
Calculate the relative atomic mass of rhenium given that rhenium consist of masses of various
elements can be found
two isotopes: 185Re and 187Re in the ratio of 2 : 3. in the Periodic Table
(together with the
atomic number of the
element).
Do not misinterpret the
Ar of the element to be
the mass number of
the atom of that
element!

3.4. RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS (Mr)

Relative molecular
mass is only defined
o The relative molecular mass of a molecule is defined as the average for a molecule; hence it
1 12 would be ridiculous to
mass of one molecule compared to 12 the mass of a C atom, and is talk about relative
molecular mass of an
given by: ionic compound like
NaCl
average mass of one molecule
Relative molecular mass = 1
× mass of one 12C atom
12

1
o For calculations, the relative molecular mass of a molecule is equal to the
12
sum of the relative atomic mass of all the atoms that make up the
molecule.
all atoms

i.e. Mr = (Ar)

Example:
Calculate the Mr of H2O and SO2 using the relative atomic masses given in
the Periodic Table.
Mr of H2O = 1.0 + 1.0 + 16.0 = 18.0
Mr of SO2 = 32.1 + 16.0 + 16.0 = 64.1

3.5. RELATIVE FORMULA MASS (Mr)

o The relative formula mass of an ionic compound is defined as the
1
12
average mass of one formula unit compared to 12 the mass of a C
atom, and is given by:

average mass of one formula unit

Relative formula mass = 1
12
× mass of one 12C atom
1
o For calculations, the relative formula
12 mass of an ionic compound is equal
to the sum of the relative atomic mass of all the atoms shown in the
Notice that in all the
formula of the ionic compound. calculations of relative
all atoms masses, the mass of
i.e. Mr = (Ar) the electrons are
ignored.

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

Example:
Calculate the Mr of NaCl and (NH4)2CO3 using the relative atomic masses
given in the Periodic Table.
Mr of NaCl = 23.0 + 35.5 = 58.5
Mr of (NH4)2CO3 = 2(14.0 + 4.0) + 12.0 + 3(16.0) = 96.0

4. THE MOLE & OTHER RELATED QUANTITIES

4.1. THE MOLE (n), & THE AVOGADRO CONSTANT (L)

Learning outcome
Topic 6:
(a) define the term mole in terms of the Avogadro constant

o Due to the large number of particles (typically in the order of 1023)

involved in chemical reactions, a very large unit is required to count them.
A convenient unit selected is the mole.
The particles referred to
o Definition: in the definitions can be
atoms, ions, molecules,
A mole is the amount of substance that contains Avogadro’s number or formula units

(L = 6.02 × 1023) of particles.

o Example:
1 mole of H2O would contain:
 6.02 x 1023 molecules; The symbol for number
of moles is usually a
 1 mole of oxygen atoms and hence 6.02 × 1023 oxygen atoms; small n in cursive. (n)

 2 moles of hydrogen atoms and hence 2 × 6.02 × 1023 hydrogen

atoms;
 3 moles of atoms (in total) and hence 3 × 6.02 × 1023 atoms.

4.2. MOLAR MASS (M)

o Chemical reactions are often carried out using known masses (instead of It is impossible to
physically “count” the
known number of particles), and it is necessary to relate the mass to the particles, due to the
large number involved,
and the small size of
number of moles of a substance. the particles

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

o Definition:
The counting unit of
The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole of that one mole was
deliberately defined in
substance such a way that the
molar mass of a
o The molar mass of a substance has the same numerical value as the Ar substance have the
same numerical value
or Mr of that substance; except that molar mass has units of g mol−1, as its Ar or Mr.

while Ar and Mr have no units.

Although the numerical
o Example: value is the same, the
physical meaning of
Molar mass of Fe = 55.8 g mol−1 molar mass and
relative molecular mass
Molar mass of H2O = 18.0 g mol−1 is vastly different.
(Review if necessary)
Molar mass of MgCl2 = 95.3 g mol−1

4.3. MOLAR VOLUME (Vm)

o For gases, it is usually more convenient to measure volume than mass.
Hence, a quantity relating the number of moles to the volume of a gas
An important law
would be useful. governing gases is the
Avogadro’s law: “equal
o Definition: volumes of gases,
measured under the
The molar volume of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole of gas. same conditions of
pressure and
temperature, contain
o As the volume of gases is dependent on pressure and temperature, it is equal number of moles
of gas molecules”.
always necessary to state the conditions that the volume of a gas is Hence, the molar
volume of any gas
measured. under the same
conditions would be
The two conditions commonly encountered are: the same.

Standard Temperature and Pressure (s.t.p.) – temperature: 273 K (0 C),

You do not need to
pressure: 1 bar (or 1.00 x 105 Pa) memorise the
conditions and values
Room Temperature and Pressure (r.t.p.) – temperature: 293 K (or 20 C), (although it is a good
practice), as they are
pressure: 1 atm (or 101325 Pa) given on Pg 41 of the
Data Booklet.
o The molar volume of any gas at s.t.p. = 22.7 dm3 mol−1.
The molar volume of any gas at r.t.p. = 24.0 dm3 mol−1. Molar volume of a gas
at r.t.p. is covered in the
o Example: ‘O’ level syllabus –
though the term “r.t.p.”
Volume of 1 mole of CO2(g) at s.t.p. = 22.7 dm3 may not be introduced.

Volume of 1 mole of CO2(g) at r.t.p. = 24.0 dm3

Volume of 1 mole of N2(g) at s.t.p. = 22.7 dm3
Volume of 1 mole of N2(g) at r.t.p. = 24.0 dm3

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

4.4. CONVERSION BETWEEN VARIOUS QUANTITIES

Learning outcome
Topic 6:
(g) perform calculations using the mole concept, involving:
i) reacting masses (from formulae and equations – including the determination
of limiting reagent)
ii) volume of gases (e.g. in combustion of hydrocarbons)

o In chemical calculations, it might be necessary to convert one physical

quantity of a substance to another quantity. The quantity is usually first
converted into number of moles, before converted to the other quantity.
E.g.: volume  number of moles  mass
o This can be done using the equations given in the flow chart in figure 1.
The formulae given are
m mass (m) based on the
n definitions given in the
M previous parts. Check
whether you
number of n
N number of understand the
particles (N) L moles (n) formulation of the
Vgas equations.
n volume of gas (Hint: the equations
Vm
(Vgas) are results of direct
proportion)

Figure 1: Flowchart showing the relationship between number of particles, mass,

and volume (of a gas) with the number of moles of a substance

n = number of moles M = molar mass (in g mol‒1)

N = number of particles V = volume (in dm3)
L = Avogadro constant (6.02 x 1023 mol‒1) Vm = molar volume = 22.7 dm3 mol‒1 (s.t.p.)
m = mass (in g) = 24.0 dm3 mol‒1 (r.t.p.)

Example 1
In 4.0 g of oxygen gas, how many oxygen atoms are there?
In this problem, you
m 4.0 4.0 are trying to convert
Number of moles of O2 molecules =    0.125 mol mass into number of
M 16.0  16.0 32.0 particles, hence using
the flow chart, you
Since number of moles of O atoms = nO2  2  0.125  2  0.250 mol would expect to use
the 2 equations:
m and N .
NO n n
Since nO  ,  number of O atoms = nO  L  0.250  6.02  1023 M L
L

 1.511023 (3 s.f.)
Note that you are
expected to give the
There are 1.51 x 1023 oxygen atoms final answers to 3 s.f.,
and intermediate
answers also to 3 s.f. if
they are exact, i.e.
0.250 mol rather than
0.25 mol.

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

Example 2
What is the mass of 300 cm3 of sulfur dioxide measured at s.t.p.? In this problem, you
are trying to convert
volume into mass,
V 300  103
Number of moles of SO2 molecules =   0.013216 mol hence using the flow
chart, you would
Vm 22.7 expect to use the 2
equations:
mSO2 V and m
Since nSO2   mass of SO2 = nSO2  M  0.013216  (32.1 16.0 16.0) n n
M Vm M

 0.013216  64.1  0.847 g (3 s.f.)

Note that you are
expected to give
intermediate answers to
The mass of sulfur dioxide is 0.847 g. 5 s.f. if they are not
exact, i.e. 0.013216 mol
rather than
0.013215859 mol or
0.0132 mol.

Example 3
i) Calculate the volume of 7.00 g of nitrogen gas at r.t.p.
mN 2
Number of moles of N2 = 
M
VN2
Since n N 2   volume of N2(g) = nN2  Vm 
Vm

ii) Calculate the number of nitrogen molecules in this sample.

N N2
Since n N 2   number of N2 molecules = nN2  L 
L

iii) Calculate the number of nitrogen atoms in this sample.

Number of N atoms = 2  N N2 

iv) Calculate the average mass of an atom of nitrogen

mass of nitrogen gas

Average mass of an atom =
number of nitrogen atoms

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

5. EMPIRICAL FORMULA AND MOLECULAR FORMULA

5.1. DEFINITIONS

Learning outcome
Topic 6:
(d) define the terms empirical and molecular formula

o Empirical formula of a chemical compound shows the simplest whole It should be obvious
from the definition that
number ratio for the atoms of different elements present in the the molecular formula is
simply an integer
compound. multiple of the empirical
formula
o Molecular formula of a chemical compound shows the actual number of
atoms of the different elements in one molecule of the compound. A compound can have
the same formula for its
o Example: empirical and molecular
formula.
(e.g. CH4 in no. 4)
Molecular Empirical
No Compound
formula formula
1 Ethene C2H4 CH2
2 Propene C3H6 CH2 The molecular formula
does not give any
3 Cyclohexane C6H12 CH2 information about the
structure (how the
4 Methane CH4 CH4 various atoms are
arranged) of the
compound

5.2. DETERMINATION OF EMPIRICAL & MOLECULAR FORMULA

FROM COMPOSITION BY MASS

Learning outcome
Topic 6:
(e) calculate empirical and molecular formulae using combustion data or
composition by mass

Determining Empirical Formula

o Three general steps are normally required:
1) Write down the mass ratio of the elements involved
2) Convert the mass ratio into mole ratio by dividing each mass by the
molar mass of the respective element
3) Determine the smallest whole number values for the mole ratio
obtained

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

Example 1
Given that a compound contains 65.31% oxygen, 32.65% sulfur and 2.04%
hydrogen, what is its empirical formula?

O S H

Mass ratio 65.31 32.65 2.04

65.31 32.65 2.04

Mole ratio  4.0819  1.0171  2.04
16.0 32.1 1.0
Simplest whole 4.0819 1.0171 2.04
4 1 2
number ratio 1.0171 1.0171 1.0171

Empirical formula: H2SO4

Example 2
A sugar was found to contain 40.0% by mass of carbon, 6.7% by mass of
hydrogen, and 53.3% by mass of oxygen. What is its empirical formula?

C H O

Mass ratio

Mole ratio

Simplest whole
number ratio

Determining Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula (Given Mr)

A common mistake by
o Two general steps are normally required: students is to use
relative molecular mass
1) Given that M(molecular formula) = M(empirical formula)n, determine n. (Mr) rather than molar
mass during the
2) Write down the molecular formula (empirical formula)n calculation

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

Example 1:
Point to ponder:
Given that an organic compound having an empirical formula of CH2 has a
What is the difference
molar mass of 56.0 g mol−1, determine the molecular formula. between (CH2O)n and
n(CH2O)?

Since M(molecular formula) = M(empirical formula)n,

= n × M(CH2)
56.0 = n × (12.0 + 1.0 + 1.0) = 14.0 n
n=4
Hence molecular formula is (CH2)4 = C4H8.

Example 2:
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) contains 40.92% carbon, 4.58% hydrogen, and
54.50% oxygen by mass. The experimentally determined molar mass is
176 g mol−1. What is the empirical formula and molecular formula for ascorbic
acid?

Hence, the empirical formula is

Hence molecular formula of ascorbic acid is

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

6. STOICHIOMETRY

Learning outcome
Topic 6:
(f) write and/or construct balanced equations
(g) perform calculations using the mole concept
(h) deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations such as those in (g)

6.1. BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS & MOLE RATIO The actual amount of
substances undergoing
reaction as given by the
o A balanced chemical equation provides the relationship between the balanced equation is
called stoichiometric
amount of reactants and products (measured in moles) in a chemical amounts.
reaction.
o Example:
For the balanced equation: 2H2 + O2  2H2O
2 mol of H2 reacts with 1 mol of O2 to produce 2 mol of H2O.
o Question: If 2.40 mol of H2O was produced by the reaction above, how
much H2 and O2 were burnt?
nH 2 2 nO2 1
From the balanced equation,  and 
n H 2O 2 n H 2O 2

Hence, number of moles of H2(g) burnt = nH2O  2.40 mol

1 1
and the number of moles of O2(g) = nH 2O   2.40  1.20 mol
2 2

Hence, 2.40 mol of H2 react with 1.20 mol of O2 to produce 2.40 mol of
H2O

Example 1:
For the reaction, C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
i) If 1.20 × 10−2 moles of CO2 have to be produced, how much O2 is
required for the reaction?
nO2 5
From the balanced equation,  ,
nCO2 3

5 5
Hence, number of moles of O2(g) required =  nCO2   1.20  102
3 3
 2.00 102 mol
Answer: 2.00 x 10−2 mol of O2 is required.

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

ii) If one wishes to produce 1.20 × 10−2 mol of CO2, would 6.00 × 10−3 mol of
C3H8 be sufficient for the reaction?
n C3 H 8 1
From the balanced equation,  ,
nCO2 3

1 1
Hence, number of moles of C3H8 required =  nCO2   1.20  102
3 3
 4.00 103 mol
Answer: 6.00 x 10−3 mol of C3H8 is sufficient.

o Most questions would not only require you to determine the stoichiometric
amount. You may also be required to determine the mass or volume
(covered in the previous section) of the required species.

Example 2:
Calculate the mass of AgCl produced when stoichiometric amount of NaCl is
added to a solution containing 0.10 mol of Ag+.

Balanced Equation: Ag+(aq) + Cl−(aq)  AgCl(s)

n AgCl 1
From the balanced equation,  ,
n Ag  1

Hence, number of moles of AgCl produced = nAg  

m AgCl
Since n AgCl   mass of AgCl produced = nAgCl  M AgCl
M AgCl

Answer: 14.3 g of AgCl would be produced.

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

Example 3:
Ammonia burns in air to produce nitrogen dioxide, NO2, and water, H2O.
What volume of nitrogen dioxide will be produced if 1.70 g of ammonia burns
in sufficient oxygen at s.t.p.?
The balanced equation is
mNH 3
Number of moles of NH3 = 
M NH 3

nNO2
From the balanced equation, 
nNH 3

Hence, number of moles of NO2 produced =

V NO2
Since n NO2   volume of NO2(g) =
Vm

6.2. LIMITING REAGENT

o In carrying out chemical reactions, reactants are not always added in
stoichiometric amounts. When that is the case, only one reactant is
completely consumed at the end of the reaction. This reactant is the
limiting reagent, and the maximum amount of the product formed will be
determined by it.
o Example:
Consider the following reaction: Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2.
What would be the amount of H2 produced when 3 mol of Mg are added
to 4 mol of HCl?
It does not mean the
o Based on the reaction equation: reactant in smaller
amount is surely the
limiting reagent.
1 mol of Mg would require 2 mol of HCl for complete reaction.
Hence, 3 mol of Mg (actual amount added) would require 6 mol of HCl for
complete reaction.
However, there are only 4 mol of HCl present.
Hence, HCl is the limiting reagent, and Mg is in excess.

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

o Or:
Based on the reaction equation: 2 mol of HCl would react with 1 mol of
After determining the
Mg, number of moles of
each reactant, you can
Hence, 4 mol of HCl (actual amount added) would react with 2 mol of Mg. use any of the
reactants to reason out
Since there are 3 mol of Mg present, which compound is the
limiting reagent.
Mg is in excess, and hence HCl is the limiting reagent.
Hence, the amount of H2 would be dependent only on the amount of HCl
present.
nH 2 1
From the balanced equation,  ,
n HCl 2

1 1
Hence, number of moles of H2(g) produced =  nHCl   4  2 mol
2 2

Example 1:
What is the maximum amount of AlCl3 that can be produced from 27.0 g of Al
and 100.0 g of Cl2 by the following reaction: 2Al + 3Cl2  2AlCl3 ?

number of moles of Al =

and number of moles of Cl2 =

From the balanced equation,

Hence, is the limiting reagent. The maximum amount

of the AlCl3 formed is
n AlCl3 determined by the
2
From balanced equation,  , amount of Cl2 added as
nCl2 3 it is the limiting reagent.

 number of moles of AlCl3 produced =

The maximum amount of AlCl3 produced is 0.939 mol.

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

Example 2:
Nitrogen monoxide, NO, reacts with oxygen to give nitrogen dioxide, NO2. If
142 g of nitrogen monoxide is reacted with 80.0 g of oxygen, calculate:
(i) which reactant is in excess,

(ii) the mass of NO2 formed, The amount of the NO2

formed is determined by
the amount of NO
added as it is the
limiting reagent.

(iii) the mass of excess reactant left over.

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

6.3. PERCENTAGE YIELD

o The mass of the product formed in a chemical reaction is called the yield.
The yield calculated based on the chemical equation and the amount of
reactants present, is the theoretical yield.
o The amount of products actually obtained in a reaction is called the
actual yield. The actual yield is usually less than the theoretical yield due
to experimental losses.
o The percentage yield relates the actual yield to the theoretical yield and is
given by the equation:
Actual Yield
Percentage Yield = × 100%
Theoretical yield

Example:
15.0 g of barium chloride was added to 10.0 g of iron(III) sulfate and 15.6 g
of barium sulfate was precipitated. Calculate the percentage yield of barium
sulfate.
Balanced equation: 3BaCl2 + Fe2(SO4)3  3BaSO4 + 2FeCl3
mBaCl2 15.0 15.0
number of moles of BaCl2 =    0.072012 mol
M BaCl2 137.3  2(35.5) 208.3

mFe2 ( SO4 )3 10.0

number of moles of Fe2(SO4)3 = 
M Fe2 ( SO4 )3 2(55.8)  3 32.1  4 16.0 

10.0
  0.025006 mol
399.9

From the balanced equation, 3 mol of BaCl2 would require 1 mol of Fe2(SO4)3.
0.072012
Hence, 0.072012 mol of BaCl2 would require  0.024004 mol of Fe2(SO4)3.
3
Since 0.025006 mol of Fe2(SO4)3 is present, it is in excess, and BaCl2 is limiting.
nBaSO4 3
From the balanced equation, 
nBaCl3 3

 number of moles of BaSO4 = nBaCl3  0.072012 mol

mBaSO4
Since nBaSO4   mass of BaSO4 = nBaSO4  M BaSO4
M BaSO4

 0.072046 {137.3  32.1  4(16.0)}

 0.072046  233.4  16.808 g
 Theoretical yield of BaSO4 is 16.808 g.

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

Actual Yield
Percentage Yield = × 100%
Theoretical yield

15.6
  100%
16.808
 92.8 %

6.4. COMBUSTION ANALYSIS

Learning outcome
Topic 6:
(f) calculate empirical and molecular formulae, using combustion data or
composition by mass

Combustion analysis is a powerful

experimental technique usually used to
determine the empirical formula of
organic compounds. In the analysis, an
organic compound of known mass is
burnt in excess oxygen, and the masses
or volumes of the carbon dioxide and
water produced is measured. The
amount of carbon and hydrogen in the Figure 2: The apparatus of a typical combustion
analysis experiment
compound can thus be calculated.

Example 1:
Complete combustion of an unknown organic compound of mass 1.000 g
containing only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen gave 1.500 g of carbon
dioxide and 0.405 g of water. What is the empirical formula of the organic
compound?

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

C H O

Mass ratio

Mole ratio

The empirical formula of the organic compound is C3H4O3.

o When the unknown organic compound is a gaseous hydrocarbon, the A hydrocarbon is any
compound that contains
combustion analysis data is commonly expressed in terms of volume only carbon and
hydrogen
under specified conditions.
o In such a case, the first step to determine the empirical formula of the
hydrocarbon (CxHy) is to write a fully balanced combustion equation:
 y y
C x H y   x  O2 
 xCO2  H 2 O
 4 2
The mole ratio is given
o Making use of Avogadro’s law, we can equate the mole ratio to the by the balanced
equation, and the
volume ratio (measured under a specific temperature and pressure) of the volume ratio is a
consequence of the
reactants and products. Avogadro’s law.

i.e.:
The volume of H2O is
CxHy : O2 : CO2 : H2O only applicable when
the conditions of
mole  y  y
x
measurement allow
1 mol  mol x mol   mol
ratio  4 2 H2O to exist as steam.
Liquid H2O is
 y  y considered to have
x
3 3
1 cm3  cm x cm3   cm negligible volume
Volume  4 2 (compared to the
volume of a gas)
ratio  y  y
10 cm3 10  x   cm3 10x cm3 10   cm3
 4 2

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

o Hence, the value of x can be determined by comparing the mole ratio with
the volume ratio of CxHy and CO2; and the value of y can be determined
by comparing the mole ratio with the volume ratio of CxHy and H2O.

Example 1:
When 10 cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon was completely burnt in excess
oxygen, 20 cm3 of carbon dioxide and 30 cm3 of steam was produced (all gas
volume measured under the same conditions).
Calculate the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon.
 y y
The balanced reaction equation: C x H y   x  O2 
 xCO2  H 2 O
 4 2

Points to note:
1. The volume of CO2 might not be given in the question directly. It might be
given as a decrease in volume when the residual gas is passed through
any alkaline solution (e.g. NaOH, KOH)
2. The volume of H2O (in the gaseous state) might be given:
Either:
as a decrease in volume when the residual gas is passed through a
drying agent such as anhydrous CaCl2 or concentrated H2SO4.
Or:
as a decrease in volume when the residual gas is cool down to room
temperature and atmospheric pressure.
3. For most combustion analysis experiments, oxygen is usually added in
excess. Do not take the volume of oxygen added initially to be the volume
of oxygen used up – the residual gas would also contain excess oxygen.

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

4. When information is provided in terms of the increase or decrease of the

total volume of the gas mixture after combustion, the following formulae
are applicable.

increase in total
volume or = volume of products _ volume of reactants
(CO2 and H2O) (CxHy and O2)
expansion volume

decrease in total volume of reactants _ volume of products

volume or = (CxHy and O2) (CO2 and H2O)
contraction volume

Example 2:
In an experiment, 10.0 cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon was exploded with
100.0 cm3 of oxygen. The volume of the resulting gas mixture was 80.0 cm 3,
which decreased to 40.0 cm3 when passed through aqueous sodium
hydroxide. All volumes were measured at room temperature and pressure.
What is the formula of the hydrocarbon?
Note that the volume of
H2O is zero under the
given conditions.

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JC1 H2 Chemistry: The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Notes

Example 3:
In an experiment, 10.0 cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon was exploded with an
excess of oxygen, and a contraction of 35.0 cm3 occurred. The resultant
volume was passed through aqueous sodium hydroxide, and the volume was
reduced by another 40.0 cm3. Assuming that all volumes were measured at
room temperature and pressure, determine the formula of the hydrocarbon.

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