Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism

Volume II:
Lives

Editor-in-chief
Jonathan A. Silk

Editors
Richard Bowring
Vincent Eltschinger
Michael Radich

Editorial Advisory Board

Lucia Dolce
Berthe Jansen
John Jorgensen
Christian Lammerts
Francesco Sferra

LEIDEN | BOSTON

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 Contents

Prelims
Contributors ............................................................................................................................................................. xi
Editors and Editorial Board .................................................................................................................................. xxxiii
Primary Sources Abbreviations........................................................................................................................... xxxv
Books Series and Journals Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xxxvii
General Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... xlii
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. xliv

Section One:
Śākyamuni: South Asia .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Barlaam and Josaphat ............................................................................................................................................ 39

Section Two:

South & Southeast Asia:

Ajātaśatru .................................................................................................................................................................. 51
Āryadeva.................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Āryaśūra..................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Asaṅga/Maitreya(nātha)....................................................................................................................................... 73
Bhāviveka .................................................................................................................................................................. 81
Brahmā, Śakra, and Māra ...................................................................................................................................... 85
Buddhaghoṣa............................................................................................................................................................ 92
Buddhas of the Past: South Asia ......................................................................................................................... 95
Buddhas of the Past and of the Future: Southeast Asia ............................................................................... 109
Candragomin ........................................................................................................................................................... 121
Candrakīrti................................................................................................................................................................ 125
Ḍākinī ......................................................................................................................................................................... 132
Devadatta .................................................................................................................................................................. 141
Dharmakīrti .............................................................................................................................................................. 156
Dharmapāla .............................................................................................................................................................. 168
Dharmottara............................................................................................................................................................. 173
Dignāga ...................................................................................................................................................................... 179
Early Sarvāstivāda Masters ................................................................................................................................... 186
Gavampati in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................................................... 191
Gopadatta ................................................................................................................................................................. 196
Guṇaprabha.............................................................................................................................................................. 198
Haribhadra................................................................................................................................................................ 204
Haribhaṭṭa ................................................................................................................................................................. 209
Harivarman............................................................................................................................................................... 211
Harṣa .......................................................................................................................................................................... 214
Hayagrīva................................................................................................................................................................... 218
Indian Tantric Authors: Overview ...................................................................................................................... 228
Jñānagarbha ............................................................................................................................................................. 261
Jñānapāda ................................................................................................................................................................. 264

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vi Contents

Jñānaśrīmitra ........................................................................................................................................................... 269

Kamalaśīla ................................................................................................................................................................ 272
Karuṇāmaya ............................................................................................................................................................. 279
Kṣemendra ................................................................................................................................................................ 286
Kumāralāta ............................................................................................................................................................... 293
Mahādeva.................................................................................................................................................................. 298
Maitreya..................................................................................................................................................................... 302
Mārīcī ......................................................................................................................................................................... 325
Mātṛceṭa .................................................................................................................................................................... 332
Nāgārjuna .................................................................................................................................................................. 335
Paccekabuddhas/Pratyekabuddhas in Indic Sources ................................................................................... 348
Phra Malai in Thailand and Southeast Asia..................................................................................................... 357
Prajñākaragupta ...................................................................................................................................................... 363
Ratnākaraśānti......................................................................................................................................................... 366
Ratnakīrti .................................................................................................................................................................. 371
Saṅghabhadra .......................................................................................................................................................... 374
Śaṅkaranandana ..................................................................................................................................................... 378
Śaṅkarasvāmin ........................................................................................................................................................ 382
Śāntarakṣita .............................................................................................................................................................. 383
Śāntideva ................................................................................................................................................................... 391
Sarasvatī/Benzaiten................................................................................................................................................ 398
Śāriputra .................................................................................................................................................................... 409
Scholars of Premodern Pali Buddhism ............................................................................................................. 420
Seers (ṛṣi/isi) and Brāhmaṇas in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................ 437
Siddhas....................................................................................................................................................................... 443
Śrīlāta ......................................................................................................................................................................... 452
Sthiramati ................................................................................................................................................................. 456
Śubhagupta............................................................................................................................................................... 458
Tantric Buddhist Deities in Southeast Asia ..................................................................................................... 463
Thera/Therī in Pali and Southeast Asian Buddhism ..................................................................................... 474
Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin .......................................................................................................................................... 479
Upagupta ................................................................................................................................................................... 481
Vāgīśvarakīrti ........................................................................................................................................................... 490
Vasubandhu .............................................................................................................................................................. 492
Vināyaka .................................................................................................................................................................... 507
Yama and Hell Beings in Indian Buddhism ..................................................................................................... 513

East Asia:
Ākāśagarbha in East Asia ...................................................................................................................................... 521
Arhats in East Asian Buddhism .......................................................................................................................... 529
Aśvaghoṣa (East Asian Aspects) ......................................................................................................................... 540
Avalokiteśvara in East Asia................................................................................................................................... 546
Dizang/Jizō ............................................................................................................................................................... 562
Jianzhen (Ganjin) ................................................................................................................................................... 571
Mahākāla in East Asia............................................................................................................................................ 576
Mahākāśyapa in Chan-inspired Traditions...................................................................................................... 586
Mañjuśrī in East Asia ............................................................................................................................................. 591
Maudgalyāyana (Mulian)...................................................................................................................................... 600
Musang (Wuxiang) ................................................................................................................................................. 608
Tejaprabhā ................................................................................................................................................................ 612
Yinyuan Longqi (Ingen) ........................................................................................................................................ 616

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 Contents vii

China:
Amoghavajra ............................................................................................................................................................ 623
An Shigao .................................................................................................................................................................. 630
Chengguan ................................................................................................................................................................ 642
Daoxuan .................................................................................................................................................................... 648
Falin ............................................................................................................................................................................ 653
Faxian ......................................................................................................................................................................... 657
Fazun .......................................................................................................................................................................... 662
Hanshan Deqing ..................................................................................................................................................... 668
Hongzhi Zhengjue .................................................................................................................................................. 673
Huihong (see Juefan Huihong)
Huineng (see Shenxiu)
Huiyuan (see Lushan Huiyuan)
Jigong.......................................................................................................................................................................... 679
Juefan Huihong ....................................................................................................................................................... 684
Liang Wudi................................................................................................................................................................ 689
Lokakṣema ................................................................................................................................................................ 700
Luo Qing .................................................................................................................................................................... 707
Lushan Huiyuan ...................................................................................................................................................... 711
Mazu Daoyi............................................................................................................................................................... 722
Mingben (see Zhongfeng Mingben)
Nāgārjuna in China ................................................................................................................................................ 727
Nenghai...................................................................................................................................................................... 735
Ouyang Jingwu ........................................................................................................................................................ 741
Ouyi Zhixu ................................................................................................................................................................ 748
Paramārtha ............................................................................................................................................................... 752
Qian Qianyi............................................................................................................................................................... 759
Qisong ........................................................................................................................................................................ 764
Shenhui (see Shenxiu)
Shenxiu, Huineng, and Shenhui ......................................................................................................................... 768
Śubhākarasiṃha...................................................................................................................................................... 777
Wumen ...................................................................................................................................................................... 782
Wuxiang (see East Asia: Musang)
Wuzhu ........................................................................................................................................................................ 787
Xiao Ziliang............................................................................................................................................................... 791
Yinshun...................................................................................................................................................................... 795
Yixing ......................................................................................................................................................................... 800
Yuan Hongdao ......................................................................................................................................................... 806
Yuanwu Keqin .......................................................................................................................................................... 810
Zhanran ..................................................................................................................................................................... 814
Zhi Qian ..................................................................................................................................................................... 818
Zhili............................................................................................................................................................................. 826
Zhixu (see Ouyang Zhixu)
Zhiyi............................................................................................................................................................................ 833
Zhongfeng Mingben............................................................................................................................................... 839
Zhuhong .................................................................................................................................................................... 844

Korea:
Chinul......................................................................................................................................................................... 853
Hyujŏng ..................................................................................................................................................................... 860
Ich’adon ..................................................................................................................................................................... 864

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viii Contents

Kihwa ......................................................................................................................................................................... 869

Kim Sisŭp .................................................................................................................................................................. 873
Kyŏnghŏ..................................................................................................................................................................... 877
Kyunyŏ ....................................................................................................................................................................... 882
Muhak Chach’o ........................................................................................................................................................ 887
Musang (see East Asia)
Pou .............................................................................................................................................................................. 891
Tosŏn .......................................................................................................................................................................... 895
Ŭich’ŏn ....................................................................................................................................................................... 900
Ŭisang ........................................................................................................................................................................ 903
Wŏnch’ŭk .................................................................................................................................................................. 908
Wŏnhyo...................................................................................................................................................................... 913
Yi Nŭnghwa .............................................................................................................................................................. 918

Japan:
Amaterasu Ōmikami .............................................................................................................................................. 923
Annen......................................................................................................................................................................... 930
Benzaiten (see South and Southeast Asia: Sarasvatī)
Dōgen ......................................................................................................................................................................... 933
Dōhan......................................................................................................................................................................... 941
Eisai (see Yōsai)
Eison ........................................................................................................................................................................... 944
En no Gyōja .............................................................................................................................................................. 951
Enchin ........................................................................................................................................................................ 956
Ennin .......................................................................................................................................................................... 961
Ganjin (see East Asia: Jianzhen)
Genshin ..................................................................................................................................................................... 967
Hachiman ................................................................................................................................................................. 971
Hakuin ....................................................................................................................................................................... 976
Hōnen ........................................................................................................................................................................ 980
Ikkyū Sōjun ............................................................................................................................................................... 987
Ingen (see East Asia: Yinyuan Longqi)
Ippen Chishin .......................................................................................................................................................... 991
Jakushō ...................................................................................................................................................................... 995
Jiun Sonja .................................................................................................................................................................. 998
Jizō (see East Asia: Dizang)
Jōjin............................................................................................................................................................................. 1002
Jōkei ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1006
Kakuban .................................................................................................................................................................... 1011
Keizan Jōkin ............................................................................................................................................................. 1016
Kōmyō ........................................................................................................................................................................ 1020
Kūkai .......................................................................................................................................................................... 1026
Kūya ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1036
Menzan Zuihō ......................................................................................................................................................... 1041
Monkan ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1047
Mugai Nyodai ........................................................................................................................................................... 1057
Mujaku Dōchū ......................................................................................................................................................... 1062
Musō Soseki .............................................................................................................................................................. 1066
Myōe ........................................................................................................................................................................... 1071
Nichiren ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1076
Nōnin.......................................................................................................................................................................... 1088

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 Contents ix
Raiyu........................................................................................................................................................................... 1094
Ryōgen........................................................................................................................................................................ 1097
Saichō ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1102
Saigyō ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1107
Shinran....................................................................................................................................................................... 1111
Shōtoku Taishi ......................................................................................................................................................... 1117
Tenjin ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1122
Tenkai ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1128
Yōsai/Eisai ................................................................................................................................................................. 1134
Zaō .............................................................................................................................................................................. 1139

Tibetan Cultural Sphere

Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters ................................................................................................................ 1145
Ge sar of Gling ......................................................................................................................................................... 1159
Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers ............................................................................................. 1165
Gtsang smyon Heruka ........................................................................................................................................... 1171
Lcang skya Rol pa’i Rdo rje ................................................................................................................................... 1175
Mi la ras pa................................................................................................................................................................ 1181
The Mongolian Jebdzundamba Khutugtu Lineage ....................................................................................... 1191
Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism ............................................................................................................ 1197
The Sa skya School’s Five Forefathers................................................................................................................ 1213
Spirits of the Soil, Land, and Locality in Tibet ................................................................................................ 1226
Ston pa Gshen rab: The Bön Buddha ................................................................................................................. 1233
Tibet's Crazy Yogins ................................................................................................................................................ 1239
Tsong kha pa and his Immediate Successors .................................................................................................. 1246
Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet ..................................................................................................................... 1254

Appendix To Volume I:
Buddhist Narrative Literature in Japan ............................................................................................................. 1269
Poetry: Japan ............................................................................................................................................................ 1286
Korean Sŏn Literature............................................................................................................................................ 1294

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 Zhi Qian
Of all the figures known to have participated in the
1st century of Buddhist translation activity in China
(mid-2nd–mid-3rd cents. CE), one of the most pro-
lific – and by far the most versatile – was the lay
translator Zhi Qian (支謙; c. 193–252 CE). Born into
a prominent Yuezhi (月氏) family in the northern
Chinese capital of Luoyang (洛陽), over the course
of his life he produced dozens of translations of
Buddhist texts. In addition to these, he is also cred-
ited with revising several translations produced by
his predecessors (above all, those of →Lokakṣema
[支婁迦讖; fl. c. 168–186] and his group), writing at
least one commentary, and composing a number
of “Indian songs” (fanbai [梵唄]). His engagement
with Buddhist scriptures spanned a period of more
than four decades, and his surviving works display
a remarkable diversity in language and style, no
doubt reflecting the dramatic shifts that took place
in his own life circumstances. Eventually his work
came to be overshadowed by that of later transla-
tors, notably Kumārajīva (鳩摩羅什; fl. c. 344–413),
but in his own time, and for at least three centuries
afterwards, his translations continued to be avidly
used. By any standard, he was thus one of the most
influential translators in Chinese Buddhist history.
Sources
Aside from the rich data contained within Zhi
Qian’s surviving translations themselves, virtually
all of our information on his life and work comes
from a single source: the justly famous Chu sanzang
ji ji (出三藏記集, T. 2145) produced by Sengyou (僧
祐; 435–518) in c. 518 CE, which is the oldest extant
catalog of Chinese Buddhist translations, incorpo-
rating the earlier catalog by Dao’an (道安; 312/314–
385), the Zongli zhongjing mulu (綜理眾經目錄),
completed in 374. The Chu sanzang ji ji is hardly
just a single witness or list of translations, however,
for Sengyou also assembled information and docu-
mentation from a wide range of sources, including
prefaces and textual notes by writers both known
and unknown and biographies of translators, as
well as providing his own assessments of the quality
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of their translations. Thus the Chu sanzang ji ji is not
so much a single-authored work as an encyclopedia,
and it is the essential starting point for any study of
early Chinese Buddhist translations.
The most substantial materials concerning Zhi
Qian found in the Chu sanzang ji ji are the following:
• the Catalog section (新集經論録), which pro-
vides a list of the translations attributed to Zhi
Qian by Dao’an (T. 2145 [LV] 6c10–7a16), fol-
lowed by the titles of six additional translations
attributed to Zhi Qian by Sengyou himself on
the basis of other sources (7a17–22; for a detailed
discussion of these texts and their extant coun-
terparts in the Taishō edition of the canon see
Nattier, 2008, 121–148).
• Part I of the Biographies section (傳上卷), which
includes a detailed account of Zhi Qian’s life
(97b13–c18; trans. Lamotte, 1965, 77–79 = 1998,
70–72).
• the Prefaces section (集序卷, which includes not
only prefaces in the strict sense but also after-
words and other informal textual notes). Here
we find two key sources concerning Zhi Qian’s
translations:
– a lengthy scriptural note (49c20–50a28; cf.
T. 210 [IV] 566b14–c26) on a hybrid edition of
the Dharmapada, based on two manuscripts
reflecting quite different recensions of the
text, produced by Zhi Qian in initial collabo-
ration with two Indian monks (法句經序).
Though registered as anonymous by Sengyou,
the note is thought to have been composed
by Zhi Qian himself (Mizuno, 1953, 15; Maeda,
1964, 700; Tokiwa, 1938, 358, 555; trans. Wille-
men, 1973, 210–213).
– a detailed note (49a16–b9) by Zhi Mindu (支
愍度; fl. c. 326) to his own (non-extant) com-
bined edition of the Śūraṃgamasamādhi-
sūtra (合首楞嚴經記), containing substantial
information on Zhi Qian’s translation style, as
well as biographical details that largely match
(and perhaps served as one of the  sources
of) Sengyou’s account (trans. of the preface
in Lamotte, 1965, 68, 74–75 = 1998, 61, 67; for
the first part, dealing with Lokakṣema and
BEB, vol. II
 Zhi Qian
including the first few lines of the portion on
Zhi Qian, →Lokakṣema).
In addition to these, brief mentions of Zhi Qian and
his work also occur elsewhere in the Chu sanzang
ji ji: in prefaces by Zhi Mindu (58b24–c4), Dao’an
(45b21ff., 52c13–14), Sengzhao (僧肇; 384–414?)
(58b9–10), and Sengrui (僧叡, = Huirui? [慧叡;
355–439; for arguments for the identity of these
two figures see Ōchō, 1942; Wright, 1957; T. 2145 (LV)
58a4ff.]), as well as in comments by Sengyou him-
self (4c25ff. and 37c1–4).
Rather unexpectedly – since Zhi Qian remained a
layman throughout his life – he also receives a notice
in the collection of “Lives of Eminent Monks,” the
Gaoseng zhuan (高僧傳, T. 2059 [L] 325a18–b4), com-
pleted by Huijiao (慧皎; 497–554) in 530, where an
account of Zhi Qian’s life is inserted at the beginning
of the biography of Kang Senghui (康僧會; ?–280?;
trans. Yoshikawa and Funayama, 2009, 64–67; Cha-
vannes, 1909, 200–202; also Shih, 1968, 21–23). For
his information on Buddhist translators Huijiao
drew heavily on the biographies contained in Seng-
you’s Chu sanzang ji ji, though in Zhi Qian’s case the
account is abbreviated dramatically, and Huijiao (or
a subsequent copyist) appears to have introduced at
least one glaring error (see below).
Though Zhi Qian’s family had at least a distant
connection with the Han court in Luoyang, and
though he himself served as tutor to the crown
prince of the Wu (呉) kingdom after his migration
to the south, it appears that Zhi Qian’s name is not
mentioned in secular sources.
Life and Legend
Despite his status both as a layman and as a Chi-
nese of foreign descent (in modern ethnic-group
parlance, a “Yuezhi-Chinese”), Zhi Qian receives
surprisingly detailed treatment in Buddhist bio-
graphical sources. The most extensive account is
that provided by Sengyou, which begins as follows:
Zhi Qian (支謙) – whose byname was Gongming
(字恭明) and who was also known as Yue (越) –
was a Great Yuezhi person (大月支人). His
grandfather, Fadu (法度), in the time of the Han
emperor Ling (漢靈帝; r. 168–190), leading several
hundreds of his countrymen, had submitted [to
Han rule]; as a result he was honored [by the Han
court with the title] shuai shan zhonglang jiang
(率善中郎將) (T. 2145 [LV] 97b14–16).
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819
The biography of Zhi Qian found in Huijiao’s
Gaoseng zhuan largely follows Sengyou’s account,
but with an interesting twist:
Formerly there was the upāsaka Zhi Qian, whose
byname was Gongming (恭明), also called Yue
(越). He was originally a Yuezhi person (本月支
人), who had come to stay in the Han territory
(來遊漢境) (T. 2059 [L] 325a18–19).
But this is surely mistaken, for all other sources
agree that Zhi Qian was born in China, rather than
being an immigrant from the country of the Yuezhi.
It seems likely that Huijiao’s account is the result of
a copying error, in which 大月支人 was miscopied
as 本月支人 perhaps under the influence of the pre-
ceding biography of Lokakṣema, who was described
in precisely this wording (T. 2059 [L] 324b13). The
additional phrase 來遊漢境, which has no counter-
part in Sengyou’s account, might then be construed
as a gloss added to attempt to make sense of this
initial error.
As befits a layman with no ecclesiastical rank,
Zhi Qian is not the subject of miracle tales or
other stories of superhuman prowess. His biog-
raphy does, however, contain two homely anec-
dotes, which might best be described as “character
witnesses.” The first chronicles an event, which
took place when Zhi Qian (here referred to by his
alternate given name of Yue [越]) was still a young
boy:
When Yue was seven years old, riding a hobby-
horse and playing at a neighboring house, he was
bitten by a dog, and his shin-bone was broken.
The neighbors wanted to kill the dog and take
out its liver to put it on the wound. But Yue said,
“Heaven produced this creature to be a guard dog
for people. If I hadn’t come to your residence, I
would not have been bitten. The fault is mine, it
has nothing to do with the dog. It would be wrong
to kill him even to help me recover; how much
more so if it did me no good, but brought great
demerit in vain! Moreover, animals are lacking
in knowledge, so how can one justify punishing
him?” Because of this, villagers from dozens of
households were moved by his words, and none
of them ever again killed living beings (T. 2145
[LV] 97b16–22).
Shortly afterwards he embarked on the studies that
would ultimately lead to his work as a translator,
beginning with Chinese texts and then moving on
to study foreign languages:
820 Zhi Qian
At the age of ten he began to study, and his fellow
students were all impressed by his intelligence.
At thirteen, he embarked on the study of foreign
(hu [胡]) writings, mastering the languages of six
countries (T. 2145 [LV] 97b22–23).
Sengyou’s account then turns to a description of Zhi
Qian’s lineage as a student of Buddhism, giving the
same kind of precise details that we have already
seen in the case of his family ancestry:
First of all, in the time of [the Han emperors]
Huan (桓; r. 146–168) and Ling, Zhi Chen (支讖,
i.e., Lokakṣema) had translated Dharma-texts.
And there was [a certain] Zhi Liang (支亮; d.u.),
[whose byname was] Jiming (紀明), who had
studied with [Zhi] Chen. [Zhi] Qian, in turn,
received training under [Zhi] Liang. He read ex-
haustively in the scriptural texts, carefully study-
ing them all, and he also practiced many worldly
arts....He originally received the Great Dharma
(大法 = the Mahāyāna?) and he became well
trained in the purport of the scriptures (T. 2145
[LV] 97b23–28).
As this passage makes clear, Zhi Qian began his
study of Buddhism as a member of Lokakṣema’s
community, which is known from other sources to
have been a multi-ethnic, and Mahāyāna-oriented,
group.
That Zhi Qian was widely esteemed among the
locals is made clear in the following anecdote,
playing on the description of his physique given
in his biography (tall but thin, dark-skinned, with
eyes whose light-colored irises appeared yellow to
his Chinese compatriots) to report a popular say-
ing, which includes a pattern of rhyme (Hurvitz in
Tsukamoto, 1985, 521, additional n. a under n. 5 on
T. 2145 [LV] 97b27). In colloquial English, the effect
may have been something like the following: “Mas-
ter Zhi has yellow eyes; he may be skinny, but he
sure is wise!”
Zhi Qian’s privileged life in the Chinese capi-
tal was not to last, however, for just as he entered
adulthood the Han Dynasty was entering its death
throes. His biography goes on to report that at
the end of the Han he and many others of Yuezhi
descent fled  to the Wu (T. 2145 [LV] 97b28–29).
At this point  we meet with the second anecdote
providing a “character witness,” which at the same
time emphasizes the often-overlooked hardships of
the journey undertaken by these refugees from the
Han:
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On the day they first set out, [Yue] had only a
single blanket. There was a stranger who followed
him; it was extremely cold, and he had no blan-
ket. Yue called out to the stranger to come and
sleep together [i.e., to share the blanket]. [But] in
the middle of the night the stranger grabbed the
blanket and left. The next morning his compan-
ions asked him where the blanket was, and Yue
replied, “Last night it was taken by the stranger.”
His companions all said, “Why didn’t you tell us?”
And he replied, “If I had told you, you certainly
would have accused him of theft. But how could
it be right to kill a man over a blanket?” (T. 2145
[LV] 97b29–c4).
Despite many challenges, Zhi Qian successfully
arrived in the Wu Kingdom, and at this point his
biography turns to an account of the Wu ruler Sun
Quan’s (孫權; 182–252, r. 222–252) delight at learn-
ing of the presence of such a distinguished Bud-
dhist scholar in his realm. After questioning Zhi
Qian on a variety of doctrinal points, he enthusiasti-
cally brought him into his circle, conferring on him
the title of boshi (博士, “Scholar of Wide Learning”)
and appointing him tutor to the crown prince (東
宮, lit. “Eastern Palace,” a metonym for the crown
prince himself).
The biography goes on to provide information
on Zhi Qian’s translation work in the Wu kingdom,
discussed below. His life in the royal circle was to be
interrupted, however, by the death of Crown Prince
Deng (登; 209–241)
Afterwards Crown Prince Deng passed away, and
consequently [Zhi Qian] retired to Qionglong
Shan (穹隆山), having nothing more to do with
worldly affairs. Under the monk (道人) Zhu Falan
(竺法蘭; d.u.) he undertook training in the five
[lay] precepts, interacting only with monks (沙門).
Later he died on the mountain, at the age of sixty
(T. 2145 [LV] 97c13–16; see Tang, 2001 [1938], 160).
The biography closes with an account of a letter
said to have been sent by Sun Quan’s successor, Sun
Liang (孫亮; 243–260, r. 252–258), to the monastic
community, praising Zhi Qian and bemoaning his
death.
Authentic Translations
Translators working prior to Zhi Qian’s time special-
ized in a fairly narrow range of literature: in the case
of An Shigao (安世高; fl. c. 148–170), non-Mahāyāna
 Zhi Qian
sūtras and śāstras (generally identified as being
of Sarvāstivādin provenance), and in the case
of Lokakṣema, long Mahāyāna sūtras. But with
Zhi Qian we see a veritable explosion of inclusiv-
ity: his corpus includes both Mahāyāna and non-
Mahāyāna sūtras, didactic verses (corresponding
to the Dharmapada and the Aṭṭhakavagga), a jātaka
tale, and a biography of the Buddha.
In order to evaluate Zhi Qian’s work, our first task
is to eliminate false attributions from the list, for –
as was the case with so many early translators – the
record of his authentic translations became com-
pletely muddled at the hand of Fei Changfang (費長
房; d.u., fl. 562–598), whose Lidai sanbao ji (歷代三
寶紀; T. 2034, completed in 598) introduced dozens
of spurious attributions to the roster of his work.
Whereas Sengyou had assigned a total of 36 texts
to Zhi Qian, for example, Fei credits him with no
fewer than 129 works (on problems with Fei’s cata-
log see Radich, forthcoming). Many (though not all)
of these new attributions were accepted by subse-
quent generations of catalogers, and a substantial
number still remain in the Taishō and other widely
used editions of the Chinese Buddhist canon. Care-
ful analysis (Nattier, 2008, 3–27) yields a much
shorter but still substantial list of authentic works.
Arranged according to genre, the extant texts now
considered to be genuine translations by Zhi Qian
are the following (see Nattier, 2008, 126–148):
Āgama texts (non-Mahāyāna sūtras):
T. 6: Bannihuan jing 般泥洹經 (“The Sūtra on the
Final Nirvāṇa [of the Buddha]”)
T. 54: Shi Monan jing 釋摩男經 (“The Sūtra on
Mahānāma the Śākyan”)
T. 68: Laizhaheluo jing 賴吒和羅經 (“The Sūtra
on Rāṣṭrapāla”)
T. 76: Fanmoyu jing 梵摩渝經 (“The Sūtra on
Brahmāyus”)
T. 87: Zhai jing 齋經 (“The Abstinence Day Sūtra”)
T. 493: Anan si shi jing 阿難四事經 (“The Sūtra on
the Four Matters [preached to] Ānanda”)
T. 581: Ba shi jing 八師經 (“The Sūtra on the Eight
Teachers”)
T. 735A: Si yuan jing 四願經 (“The Sūtra on the
Four Wishes”)
Jātaka tale:
T. 790: Bo jing chao 孛經抄 (“The Condensed
*Puṣya Scripture”)
Avadānas (with Mahāyāna elements):
T. 556: Qi nü jing 七女經 (“Scripture on the Seven
Women”)
For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV
821
T. 561: Laomu jing 老母經 (“Scripture on the Old
Woman”)
Didactic verses:
T. 198: Yizu jing 義足經 (*Arthapada; of the Pāli
Aṭṭhakavagga)
T. 210: Faju jing 法句經 (Dharmapada)
A Biography of the Buddha:
T. 185: Taizi ruiying benqi jing 太子瑞應本起經
(“Scripture on the Prince’s Former Deeds and
their Auspicious Response”)
Mahāyāna sūtras:
T. 169: Yueming pusa jing 月明菩薩經 (“The
*Candraprabhabodhisattva Sūtra”)
T. 225B: Da mingdu jing 大明度經 (“The Shorter
Prajñāpāramitā”)
T. 281: Pusa benye jing 菩薩本業經 (“The
Proto-Buddhāvataṁsaka”)
T. 361: Wuliang qingjing pingdengjue jing 無量清
淨平等覺經 (“The Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha”)
T. 474: Weimojie jing 維摩詰經 (“The Vimalakīrti-
nirdeśa”)
T. 532: Sihemo jing 私呵末[<–昧] 經, var. Pusa
daoshu jing 菩薩道樹經 (“The Siṁhamati Sūtra”)
T. 533: Chamojie jing 差摩竭經, var. Pusa shengdi
jing 菩薩生地經 (“The Kṣemaṅkara Sūtra”)
T. 557: Longshinü jing 龍施女經 (“The Nāgadattā
Sūtra”)
T. 632: Huiyin sanmei jing 慧印三昧經 (“The
Tathāgatajñānamudrāsamādhi”)
T. 1011: Wuliangmen weimi chi jing 無量門微密
持經 (var. 成道降魔得一切智經) (“The Ananta-
mukhanirhāradhāraṇī-sūtra”)
This list shows the extraordinarily broad range
of Zhi Qian’s output. Indeed, it might be easier to
describe what he did not translate than what he did:
there are no Vinaya texts here (which is hardly sur-
prising, given his lay status), no Abhidharma works,
and no scholastic treatises. Thus, despite the broad
array of different genres, there is a certain unity to
his corpus, for with the exception of the two texts
listed under “Didactic Verses” Zhi Qian appears to
have focused exclusively on narrative literature.
Original Compositions
In addition to his translation work, Sengyou credits
Zhi Qian with having composed “linked verses in
praise of the bodhisattva comprising three ‘Indian
songs (fanbai)’” (讃菩薩連句梵唄三契; for a list
of other fanbai known to Sengyou see T. 2145 [LV]
822 Zhi Qian
92a–b). He likewise credits him with a commentary
to the Liaoben shengsi jing (了本生死經), presum-
ably based on a text corresponding to T. 708, the
Śālistambha-sūtra (T. 2145 [LV] 97c12–13). None
of these original works have survived, though the
Chinese canon contains one poem, the Hou chu
Amituofo jie (後出阿彌陀佛偈, T. 373), devoted to
the praise of Amitābha and his world, which con-
tains vocabulary otherwise found only in Zhi Qian’s
version of the larger Sukhāvatīvyūha (T. 361), and
which may in fact be a revision of Zhi Qian’s origi-
nal work (Nattier, 2008, 118, and nn20–21).
Chronology and Method of Work
Sengyou’s catalog does not assign individual dates
to Zhi Qian’s works, but in one precious instance
we have precise information on when and where a
translation was produced. In a notice to the hybrid
translation of a Dharmapada (T. 210) – thought to
have been authored by Zhi Qian himself – we are
told that an Indian monk, *Vijayananda (維祇難;
d.u.), arrived in the city of Wuchang (武昌) in the
third year of the Huangwu (黄武) era, that is, in 224,
bringing the manuscript of a Dharmapada, and that
Zhi Qian asked another Indian monk, Zhu Jiang-
yan (竺將炎; d.u.), to translate it. Afterwards, the
author of the notice (presumably Zhi Qian) tells us,
he managed to locate a considerably longer manu-
script containing an additional 13 chapters not
found in *Vijayananda’s version, and that he added
this material to the earlier translation, at the same
time rearranging and editing the text.
This remarkable account is the sole case in
which we have any information on the way Zhi
Qian worked, and given the complex circumstances
under which this Dharmapada translation was pro-
duced, this procedure is unlikely to have been typi-
cal. Indeed, it may have been precisely this unusual
situation that led to the composition of this notice.
We have no external evidence for any other trans-
lations that would tell us where Zhi Qian got his
source-texts, whether he translated alone or in con-
sultation with others, and when the texts in question
were produced. We are thus dependent on internal
evidence, and what is generally known about his life
circumstances, to infer the chronology of his works.
A noteworthy feature of Zhi Qian’s corpus is that
it contains several texts that are clearly revisions of
earlier works, notably several long Mahāyāna sūtras
produced by Lokakṣema and his school. Of these,
For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV
Zhi Qian’s shorter Prajñāpāramitā (T. 225B, exclud-
ing Chapter 1, which is by a different hand) shadows
Lokakṣema’s Dao xing banre jing (道行般若經, T.
224) very closely, even while producing a dramati-
cally shorter text by eliminating repetitions, reduc-
ing long lists of synonyms to a single word, and
replacing transcriptions with translations, which
in itself eliminated considerable bulk (on T. 225A
and T. 225B and their relationships to Lokakṣema’s
work see Nattier, 2008 [2010]). Based on the account
given by Zhi Mindu in the preface to his own synop-
tic edition of the Śūraṁgamasamādhi-sūtra (T. 2145
[LV] 49a16–b7), Zhi Qian’s revision of Lokakṣema’s
translation of this sūtra was produced in the same
way, yielding a revised version of an existing trans-
lation rather than a new translation from an Indian
text. Other “retranslations” by Zhi Qian, however,
do not follow this pattern; his version of the larger
Sukhāvatīvyūha (T. 361), for example, contains con-
siderable material not found in Lokakṣema’s Ami-
tuo sanyesanfo saloufotan guodu ren dao jing (阿彌
陀三耶三佛薩樓佛檀過度人道經; T. 362), making it
clear that he was working from a different Indian
source-text even while drawing some of his word-
ings from Lokakṣema’s earlier version (Nattier,
2008, 139; on the switch of attributions of T. 361 and
T. 362, Harrison, 1998, 556–557 and nn16–18; Harri-
son, 1999; Harrison et al., 2002). Other revisions by
Zhi Qian exhibit even more complicated relation-
ships to pre-existing versions, sometimes drawing
on more than one Chinese text while working from
a different Indian source (e.g., T. 6 and T. 185; see
Nattier, 2008, 127–129 and 135). It has also been sug-
gested (Karashima, 2013, 276 and n6) that Zhi Qian’s
version of the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa (T. 474) was a
revision of an earlier translation by Yan Fotiao (嚴
佛調). But there is no credible evidence that such
a translation – first mentioned in the Lidai sanbao
ji (歷代三寶紀, T. 2034) by Fei Changfang (費長房),
a notoriously unreliable source (see Radich, forth-
coming) – ever existed.
Though nothing is known of the provenance
of these re-translations, it seems likely that they
were produced early in Zhi Qian’s career. In the
case of another translation by Lokakṣema, the
Banzhou sanmei jing (般舟三昧經, T. 418), a sur-
viving colophon tells us that the text was revised
(by unknown participants) in the city of Xu (許,
modern Xuchang [許昌]) in 208 (Harrison, 1990,
259–260). The types of changes found in the revised
portions of T. 418 – including the replacement of
transcriptions with translations and the use of
 Zhi Qian
metrically regular verse (Harrison, 1990, 221–249) –
are congruent with what we see in the revisions known
to have been produced by Zhi Qian, who may even
have been involved in revising the Banzhou sanmei
jing himself (Harrison, 1990, 249). Thus Zhi Qian’s
efforts in this regard may have been part of a larger
trend to update Lokakṣema’s translations that took
place in northern China toward the end of the Han.
It is also clear, however, that Zhi Qian was active
in producing entirely new translations, at least after
his move to the South, for his biography explicitly
describes his efforts to gather and translate Indian
texts that were circulating in the Wu region:
Although the Great Teaching [i.e., Buddhism]
was circulating [in the region], most of the scrip-
tures were in the Hu language and had not been
interpreted [in Chinese], so – since Yue was good
at the languages of both Hua and Rong [i.e., of
Chinese and foreigners] – he set out to collect the
various texts and to translate them into the Han
language (T. 2145 [LV] 97c8–9).
Translation Style
Just as Zhi Qian translated texts of a wide range
of types, so he translated them in a wide range of
styles, and several distinct sub-groups can be iden-
tified within his corpus (Nattier, 2008, 146–148).
Some closely resemble the vocabulary and style
of Lokakṣema (T. 169, T. 632, and to a lesser but
still noticeable extent T. 361) while another group
draws heavily on the vocabulary of An Xuan (安玄)
and Yan Fotiao’s (嚴佛調) Fa jing jing (法鏡經, T.
322; see Zhi Qian’s T. 76, T. 225B, T. 474, and T. 532).
Numerous texts contain five-character verses, some
of which rhyme (T. 185, T. 474, T. 581; Saitō, 2000),
while others feature six-character verse (T. 6, T. 169,
T. 198, T. 210, T. 361, T. 532, T. 533, and T. 632), which
never does. Several texts draw freely on indigenous
Chinese religious vocabulary (T. 76, T. 281, T. 556,
T. 581, and T. 735A), while the majority do not. In
short, it is impossible to describe any particular
translation style as being “typical” of Zhi Qian’s cor-
pus as a whole. While significant variations can be
found in the work of some other translators, nota-
bly Dharmarakṣa (竺法護; fl. 265–309), the stylistic
range found in Zhi Qian’s corpus is unparalleled.
It seems certain that these dramatic differences
reflect the shifting circumstances of his own long
and varied career, beginning as a “grand-disciple”
of Lokakṣema in the polyglot Buddhist community
For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV
823
of Luoyang, and ultimately being drawn into royal
circles in the Wu kingdom after his migration to the
South.
Legacy and Impact
It would be difficult to overstate the importance of
Zhi Qian’s translations, for their impact on the sub-
sequent history of Buddhism (and even Daoism) in
China was enormous. His translations were quoted
both in early commentaries (e.g., the Yin chi ru jing
[陰持入經] T. 1694, and the interlinear commen-
tary to T. 225A, both of which are thought to have
been produced in the 3rd cent.; Zacchetti, 2010) and
in Xi Chao’s (郄超; 336–377) Feng fa yao (奉法要,
preserved in the Hongming ji [弘明集], T. 2102 [LII]
86a–89b) composed in 377 (Zürcher, 1959, Appen-
dix B to Chapter Two and notes); they are also cited
at length in two great anthologies compiled in the
6th and 7th centuries, the Jinglü yixiang (經律異相,
T. 2121) and the Fayuan zhulin (法苑珠林, T. 2122).
Terms coined or popularized by Zhi Qian appear in
great profusion in the works of Dharmarakṣa, who
drew heavily on Zhi Qian’s lexicon, and at the begin-
ning of the 5th century Kumārajīva and his team
avidly consulted pre-existing translations by Zhi
Qian when they were available, sometimes carrying
over Zhi Qian’s wording even when it was errone-
ous (Nattier, 2000). And if imitation is the sincerest
form of flattery, the fact that Zhi Qian’s translations
were quoted without attribution – i.e., plagiarized –
in indigenous Chinese Buddhist apocrypha (Nattier,
2007b) and even in Daoist texts (Bokenkamp, 1983,
1990) make it quite clear that they were considered
eminently worthy of appropriation.
Zhi Qian was not without his critics, but they are
far fewer in number than has often been supposed.
Foremost among them may have been Dao’an,
whose focus on the Prajñāpāramitā scriptures
apparently led him to view Zhi Qian’s entire trans-
lation enterprise through the lens of the Da mingdu
jing, which is by far the most extreme example of
abbreviation and condensation in Zhi Qian’s cor-
pus. Zhi Mindu, who is sometimes classified as
holding a critical view of Zhi Qian (e.g., Zürcher,
1959, 336, n. 138), is actually quite positive in his
assessment of Zhi Qian’s work (as in his preface to
the combined edition of the Śūraṁgamasamādhi-
sūtra), and it is probably significant that he took
Zhi Qian’s translations, rather than one of the other
available versions, as the base texts for his combined
824 Zhi Qian
editions of both the Śūraṁgamasamādhi-sūtra
and the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa (T. 2145 [LV] 58b21ff.).
It is certainly the case, as Zürcher contends (loc.
cit.), that Sengzhao was highly critical of Zhi Qian
(T. 2145 [LV] 58b9–10), and the same seems, at first
glance, to be true of Huirui (= Sengrui? cf. above; T.
2145 [LV] 58a4ff.). But there is no evidence that Zhi
Qian ever produced a version of the text to which
Huirui’s preface is addressed, Kumārajīva’s Siyi jing
(思益經, Viśeṣacintibrahma-paripṛcchā, T. 586).
On the contrary, the only translation of this sūtra
known to have been produced prior to Kumārajīva’s
time was that of Dharmarakṣa (Chixin fantian
suowen jing [持心梵天所問經], T. 585), which sug-
gests that there was some confusion on Huirui’s
part.
Sengyou himself was emphatically not among the
critical voices, for Zhi Qian is one of just a handful of
figures from the first century of Buddhist translation
activity in China singled out for special and highly
laudatory attention in the introduction to the Chu
sanzang ji ji (T. 2145 [LV] 4c25–29). And in his intro-
duction to the chao jing (抄經, “gist scriptures”) sec-
tion of his catalog, Sengyou specifically exempts Zhi
Qian – together with An Shigao – from the charge
of having subverted the meaning of Buddhist scrip-
tures by producing condensed versions (T. 2145 [LV]
37c1–4). Sengyou’s positive assessment of the qual-
ity of Zhi Qian’s work is more noteworthy given his
strong admiration for his predecessor Dao’an, from
whose view he diverged in this regard.
In sum, though Zhi Qian’s work was eventually
overshadowed by that of his successors (above
all Kumārajīva), his translations continued to be
actively used by Chinese Buddhist writers and
translators for several centuries after his time.
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