PODAR INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

CHINCHWAD

CHEMISTRY PROJECT FILE

SUBJECT CODE: 043
2019 - 2020

Name: Master Avik Vipin Joshi

Class: Std XII (Science) B (PCM)

CBSE Roll No: 15615854

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 PODAR INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, CHINCHWAD

Certificate
Year: 2019-2020

This is to certify that Avik Vipin Joshi, a

student of Podar International School, of class
XII Science, Roll No. 15615854, has completed
his full semester project in the fulfilment of
curriculum All India Senior Secondary
Examination.
The project work A brief study on Liquid metals
is the original work done by him during his above
full semester project.

__________ __________ __________

Principal’s signature External examiner Internal examiner

Date: __________

School Stamp:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to

the Principal, Ms Shehanaz Cottar for her encouragement
and all the support that she provided for this project. I
sincerely appreciate this magnanimity by taking me into her
fold for which I shall remain indebted to her.
I also extend my heartily thanks to Mr Sanjay Kumar,
Chemistry teacher who guided me to the successful
completion of this project. I take this opportunity to express
my deep sense of gratitude for his invaluable guidance,
constant encouragement and immense motivation which has
sustained my efforts at all stages of this project work.

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 INDEX
Sr. Topics Page
No. Number

1. Introduction 5

2. Liquid metals in reactor engineering 6

3. Gallium and its Alloys 7

4. All about: Caesium 8

5. Francium 10

6. Facts about the element Mercury 11

7. Applications of Liquid Metals 13

8. References 14

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INTRODUCTION:

Most of the metals are in the

solid state at room
temperature. Exceptions
include Francium (Fr),
Caesium (Cs), Rubidium
(Rb), Mercury (Hg) and
Gallium (Ga), which can be
defined as liquid metals.
Their melting points are
either lower than or close to
room temperature, which
enable them to remain in the liquid state at room temperature. This brings
them additional advantages in comparison with the other metals; for
example, they are fluid, stretchable at room temperature. Unfortunately, the
intrinsic radioactivity of Cs, extreme instability of Fr and Rb and toxicity of
Hg limit their applications to certain specific areas. Ga, on the other hand,
is a metalloid element, but it still shows metallic properties when it is in
solid phase and becomes a superconductor at extremely low temperature.
Its high boiling point allows it to remain in the liquid phase from near room
temperature to approximately 2403 °C. It demonstrates great potential for
common uses as a liquid metal to realise flexible, stretchable and self-
healing electrical devices. Liquid metals have many fluid properties in
common with non-metallic liquids, and many metallic properties in common
with solid metals. In recent years experimental techniques familiar in solid-
state physics have been helping to increase our empirical knowledge of
fluid metals. At the same time attempts have been made to form
conceptual links between liquid-state physics and metal physics Contrary to
its name, Liquid metal is not liquid, but a manufactured material made from
metals such as Titanium, Copper, Aluminium, and Nickel. It is synthesised
by a company of the same name, ’Liquid metal Technologies’. Liquid metal
belongs to a group of metallic alloys known as the bulk metallic glasses.
This is because it shares properties with glasses such as impact brittleness
and lack of a fixed melting point. Liquid metal is flexible, malleable, easy to
mould into intricate shapes, non-corrosive, scratch resistant, and is harder
than Titanium as it is not crystalline in structure.

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LIQUID METALS IN REACTOR ENGINEERING:
In today’s world, liquid metal consists of alloy with very low melting points
which form a eutectic that is liquid at room temperature. In reactor
engineering, liquid metals are alloys with low melting point allowing for
reactor coolant to be liquid in operating range of temperatures (usually
above the room temperature).

The spectrum of neutron energies

produced by fission vary
significantly with certain reactor
design. thermal vs. fast reactor
neutron spectrum.

Liquid metals can be used as a

reactor coolant because they have
excellent heat transfer properties
and can be employed in low-
pressure systems as is the case
of sodium-cooled fast
reactors (SFRs). The unique
feature of metals as far as their
structure is concerned is the
presence of charge carriers, specifically free electrons, giving them high
electrical conductivity, high thermal conductivity. The use of liquid metal
coolants made it possible to provide high rate of heat transfer in power
plants as well as the temperatures of working surfaces of their
constructions close to coolant temperature.
Moreover, liquid metals used in reactor engineering are very weak
absorbers of neutrons allowing for liquid metal reactors to operate with fast
neutron spectrum. A liquid metal fast reactor is a high power density
reactor, which does not need neutron moderator.
The main differences between thermal and fast reactors are, of course,
in neutron cross-sections, that exhibit significant energy dependency. It can
be characterized by capture-to-fission ratio, which is lower in fast reactors.
There is also a difference in the number of neutrons produced per one
fission, which is higher in fast reactors than in thermal reactors. These very
important differences are caused primarily by differences in neutron fluxes.
Therefore, it is very important to know detailed neutron energy distribution
in a reactor core.
The disadvantage of many liquid metals is also their high chemical activity
at interaction with oxygen, water and structural materials, which may cause
heat transfer deterioration in the plant under certain conditions.

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PROPERTIES OF GALIUM AND ITS ALLOYS:

The properties of Ga and its oxide

layer make it a compelling
material for a number of new
applications:
 Gallium has a low bulk viscosity
(approximately twice that of water).
 Gallium has essentially no vapor
pressure. It can consequently be
handled as a liquid in ultralow
vacuum chambers. There is also no
danger of inhalation in a laboratory
environment or in an application
space.
 It has metallic conductivity that is
an order of magnitude lower than copper, but orders of magnitude
larger than other liquids such as salt water. Its conductivity in the
liquid state is larger than the solid state.
 Unlike Hg, it has low toxicity and gallium salts have been utilized as
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents and in
pharmaceuticals, although certain complexes of gallium have notable
toxicity.
 It can supercool far below its melting point (MP 30 °C).
 It alloys with many metals and can make electrical contacts to
organic materials.
 The surface oxide has mechanical properties that impart the metal
with non-Newtonian rheological properties. These properties allow it
to be moulded into nonequilibrium shapes, which is the basis for
many of the applications described in this spotlight.
 Like aluminium, gallium rapidly forms a thin oxide layer on its surface
when exposed to ambient oxygen. This oxide layer is thin and does
not grow significantly thicker over time in dry air. It forms on alloys of
gallium as long as the concentration of oxygen is greater than
ppm levels and forms almost instantly in air at ambient conditions.
 Importantly, the oxide skin mechanically stabilizes gallium in stable,
nonequilibrium shapes. Normally, a low viscosity liquid with large
interfacial tension will bead up to minimize interfacial tension. In
contrast, Ga can be moulded into no spherical shapes that are
stabilized by the oxide skin,

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All about: Caesium (Cs)

Caesium is a chemical element with

the symbol Cs and atomic number 55. It
is a soft, silvery-golden alkali metal with
a melting point of 28.5 °C (83.3 °F),
which makes it one of only five
elemental metals that are liquid at or
near temperature. Caesium has
physical and chemical properties similar
to those of rubidium and potassium.
The most reactive of all metals, it
is pyrophoric and reacts with water
even at −116 °C (−177 °F). It is the least electronegative element, with a
value of 0.79 on the Pauling scale. It has only one stable isotope, caesium-
133. Caesium is mined mostly from pollucite, while the radioisotopes,
especially caesium-137, a fission product, are extracted from waste
produced by reactors. The metal is characterised by a spectrum containing
two bright lines in the blue (accounting for its name). It is silvery gold, soft,
and ductile. It is the most electropositive and most alkaline element.
Caesium, gallium, and mercury are the only three metals that are liquid at
or around room temperature. Caesium reacts explosively with cold water,
and reacts with ice at temperatures above -116°C. Caesium hydroxide is a
strong base and attacks glass. Caesium reacts with the halogens to form a
fluoride, chloride, bromide, and iodide. Caesium metal oxidized rapidly
when exposed to the air and can form the dangerous superoxide on its
surface.
Compounds
Most caesium compounds contain the element as the cation Cs+
, which binds ionically to a wide variety of anions. One noteworthy
exception is the caeside anion and others are the several suboxides.
Salts of Cs+ are usually colourless unless the anion itself is coloured. Many
of the simple salts are hygroscopic, but less so than the corresponding
salts of lighter alkali metals.
The phosphate, acetate, carbonate, halides, oxide, nitrate,
and sulphate salts are water-soluble. Double salts are often less soluble,
and the low solubility of caesium aluminium sulphate is exploited in refining
Cs from ores. The double salt with antimony
( CsSbCl), bismuth, cadmium, copper, iron, and lead are also
poorly soluble. Caesium (CsOH) is hygroscopic and strongly basic. It
rapidly etches the surface of semiconductors such as silicon. CsOH has
been previously regarded by chemists as the "strongest base", reflecting
the relatively weak attraction between the large Cs+ ion and OH−;[17] it is
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indeed the strongest Arrhenius base, but a number of compounds that do
not dissolve in water, such as n-butyllithium and sodium amide,[23] are more
basic.
A stoichiometric mixture of caesium and gold will react to form
yellow caesium auride (Cs+Au−) upon heating. The auride anion here
behaves as a pseudo halogen. The compound reacts violently with water,
yielding caesium hydroxide, metallic gold, and hydrogen gas; in liquid
ammonia it can be reacted with a caesium-specific ion exchange resin to
produce tetramethylammonium auride. The analogous platinum compound,
red caesium platinise (Cs2Pt), contains the platinise ion that behaves as a
pseudo chalcogen.[29]
Applications
Caesium is used in industry as a catalyst promoter, boosting the
performance of other metal oxides in the capacity and for the
hydrogenation of organic compounds. Caesium nitrate is used to make
optical glasses. Caesium is sometimes used to remove traces of oxygen
from the vacuum tubes and from light bulbs. Caesium salts are used to
strength various types of glass. The chloride is used in photoelectric cells,
in optical instruments, and in increasing the sensitivity of electron tubes.
Caesium is used in atomic clocks and more recently in ion propulsion
systems.
Caesium in the environment

Caesium occurs naturally in the environment mainly from erosion

and weathering of rocks and minerals. It is also released into the air,
water and soil through mining and milling of ores.
Radioactive isotopes of caesium may be released into the air by nuclear
power plants and during nuclear accidents and nuclear weapons testing.
The radioactive isotopes can only be decreased in concentration through
radioactive decay. Non-radioactive caesium can either be destroyed
when it enters the environment or react with other compounds into very
specific molecules. Both radioactive and stable caesium act the same
way within the bodies of humans and animals chemically.
Caesium in air can travel long distances before settling on earth. In water
and soils most caesium compounds are very water-soluble. In soils,
however, caesium does not rinse out into the groundwater. It remains
within the top layers of soils as it strongly bonds to soil particles and as a
result it is not readily available for uptake through plant roots. Radioactive
caesium does have a chance of entering plants by falling on leaves.
Animals that are exposed to very high doses of caesium show changes in
behaviour, such as increased or decreased activity.

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FRANCIUM:
Francium is a chemical element with the symbol Fr and atomic number 87.
Prior to its discovery, it was referred to as eka-caesium. The melting point
of francium is 27 °C, its boiling point is 677 °C.It is extremely radioactive; its
most stable isotope, francium-223, has a half-life of only 22 minutes. It
is the second-most electropositive element, behind only caesium, and is
the second rarest naturally occurring element . The isotopes of francium
decay quickly into astatine, radium, and radon. The electronic
structure of a francium atom is [Rn] 7s1, and so the element is classed
as an alkali metal.
Bulk francium has never been viewed. Because of the general
appearance of the other elements in its periodic table column, it is assumed
that francium would appear as a highly reactive metal, if enough could be
collected together to be viewed as a bulk solid or liquid. Obtaining such a
sample is highly improbable, since the extreme heat of decay caused by its
short half-life would immediately vaporize any viewable quantity of the
element. Due to its instability and rarity, there are no commercial
applications for francium. It has been used for research purposes in the
fields of chemistry and of atomic structure. Its use as a potential diagnostic
aid for various cancers has also been explored, but this application has
been deemed impractical.
Francium's ability to be synthesized, trapped, and cooled, along with its
relatively simple atomic structure, has made it the subject of
specialized spectroscopy experiments. These experiments have led to
more specific information regarding energy levels and the coupling
constants between subatomic particles. Studies on the light emitted by
laser-trapped francium-210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions
between atomic energy levels which are fairly similar to those predicted
by theory. There are 34 known isotopes of francium ranging in atomic
mass from 199 to 232. Francium has seven metastable nuclear
isomers. Francium-223 and francium-221 are the only isotopes that
occur in nature, though the former is far more common. Francium-223 is
the most stable isotope, with a half-life of 21.8 minutes, and it is highly
unlikely that an isotope of francium with a longer half-life will ever be
discovered or synthesized. Francium-223 is the fifth product of
the actinium decay series as the daughter isotope of actinium-
227. Francium-223 then decays into radium-223 by beta
decay (1.149 MeV decay energy), with a minor (0.006%) alpha decay path
to astatine-219 (5.4 MeV decay energy).The least stable ground
state isotope is francium-215, with a half-life of 0.12 μs: it undergoes a
9.54 MeV alpha decay to astatine-211.

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Facts about The element Mercury:
Mercury is a shiny, silvery, liquid
metal, sometimes called
quicksilver. It is a transition
metal with atomic number 80 on
the periodic table and an atomic
weight of 200.59, and its element
symbol is Hg. While it's an
extremely rare element, there's a
world of interesting information
about mercury.

FAST FACTS: THE ELEMENT

MERCURY

 Element Name: Mercury

 Element Symbol: Hg
 Atomic Number: 80
 Atomic Weight: 200.592
 Classification: Transition Metal or Post-Transition Metal
 State of Matter: Liquid
 Name Origin: The symbol Hg comes from the
name HYDRARGYRUM, which means "water-silver." The name
mercury comes from the Roman god Mercury, known for his
swiftness.
 Discovered By: Known before 2000 BCE in China and India

1. Mercury is the only metal that is a liquid at standard temperature and

pressure. The only other liquid element under standard conditions
is bromine (a halogen), although the metals rubidium, cesium, and
gallium melt at a temperature just above room temperature. Mercury
has a very high surface tension, so it forms rounded beads of liquid.
2. Although mercury and all of its compounds are known to be highly
toxic, it was considered therapeutic throughout much of history.
3. The modern element symbol for mercury is Hg, which is the symbol
for another name for mercury:
hydrargyrum. HYDRARGYRUM comes from Greek words for "water-
silver" (hydr- means water, argyros means silver).

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4. Mercury is a very rare element in the Earth's crust. It accounts for
only about only 0.08 parts per million (ppm) and is mainly found in
the mineral cinnabar, which is mercuric sulphide. Mercuric sulphide is
the source of the red pigment called vermilion.
5. Mercury generally is not allowed on aircraft because it combines so
readily with aluminium, a metal that is common on aircraft. When
mercury forms an amalgam with aluminium, the oxide layer that
protects aluminium from oxidizing is disrupted. This causes
aluminium to corrode in much the same way as iron rusts.
6. Mercury does not react with most acids.
7. Mercury is a relatively poor conductor of heat. Most metals are
excellent thermal conductors. It is a mild electrical conductor. The
freezing point (-38.8 degrees Celsius) and boiling point (356 degrees
Celsius) of mercury are closer together than any other metals.
8. Although mercury usually exhibits a +1 or +2 oxidation state,
sometimes it has a +4 oxidation state. The electron configuration
causes mercury to behave somewhat like a noble gas. Like noble
gases, mercury forms relatively weak chemical bonds with other
elements. It forms amalgams with all of the other metals except iron.
This makes iron a good choice to build containers for holding and
transporting mercury.
9. The element Mercury is named for the Roman god Mercury. Mercury
is the only element to retain its alchemical name as its modern
common name. The element was known to ancient civilizations,
dating back to at least 2000 BCE Vials of pure mercury have been
found in Egyptian tombs from the 1500s BCE.
10. Mercury is used in fluorescent lamps, thermometers, float
valves, dental amalgams, in medicine, for the production of other
chemicals, and to make liquid mirrors. Mercury (II) fulminate is an
explosive used as a primer in firearms. The disinfectant mercury
compound thimerosal is an organomercury compound found in
vaccines, tattoo inks, contact lens solutions, and cosmetics.
11. Mercury is a very toxic element. It can enter the body through
an open wound or by inhaling or ingesting it. It can then cause
damage to nerves, the liver and the kidney, as well as a number of
other symptoms.
12. Despite its toxic qualities, mercury can still be useful to us. The
element conducts electricity and is used in electrical switches of
thermostats and certain types of doze alarm-type alarm clocks
13. Mercury (II) or mercuric compounds predominate. Mercury
does not combine with oxygen to produce mercury(II) oxide, HgO, at
a useful rate until heated to the range of 300 to 350 °C (572 to 662
°F). At temperatures of about 400 °C (752 °F) and above, the
reaction reverses with the compound decomposing into its elements.

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APPLICATIONS OF LIQUID METALS:
 Mercury is used in thermometers because it has a large thermal
expansion which is constant over a large temperature range although it
is being phased out in favour of safer liquids.

 Mercury is also used in barometers a manometer due to its high density.

From this it has also become a way of measuring pressure in millimetres
of mercury.

 Mercury has also been used as liquid electrolyte for the production of
chlorine and sodium hydroxide from the electrolysis of brine but is again
being phased out in favour of safer alternatives.

 The most common use for caesium compounds is as a drilling fluid.

They are also used to make special optical glass, as a catalyst
promoter, in vacuum tubes and in radiation monitoring equipment.
 Gallium arsenide has a similar structure to silicon and is a useful silicon
substitute for the electronics industry. It is an important component of
many semiconductors. It is also used in red LEDs (light emitting diodes)
because of its ability to convert electricity to light. Solar panels on the
Mars Exploration Rover contained gallium arsenide.

 Gallium nitride is also a semiconductor. It has particular properties that

make it very versatile. It has important uses in Blu-ray technology,
mobile phones, blue and green LEDs and pressure sensors for touch
switches.

 It has a high boiling point, which makes it ideal for recording

temperatures that would vaporise a thermometer.

 Rubidium is little used outside research. It has been used as a

component of photocells, to remove traces of oxygen from vacuum
tubes and to make special types of glass.

 It is easily ionised so was considered for use in ion engines, but was
found to be less effective than caesium. It has also been proposed for
use as a working fluid for vapour turbines and in thermoelectric
generators.

 Rubidium nitrate is sometimes used in fireworks to give them a purple

colour.

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Indium, and Thallium, Pergamon Texts in Inorganic
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