PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 62,NO.
7, JULY 1974
Syst., vol. 82, pp. 726-735, Oct. 1963.
,121 R. Billinton, P o w n System Reliability
Evaluation. New York:
Gordon and Breach, 1970.
[3] R. Billinton and A. V. Jain, “The effect of rapid start and hotreserve
units in spinning reserve studies,” ZEEE Trans. Power App. Syst.,
vol. PAS-91, pp. 511-516, Mar./Apr. 1972.
[4] -, “Spinning reserve allocation in a complex power system,”
presented at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, N. Y . ,
1973, Paper C 73 097-3.
[5] 7 “Reliable loading of generating units for system operation,”
In 1973 Proc. Power Industry Compute Application Cmf., pp. 221-
229.
(61 -, “Interconnected system spinning reserve requirements,”
IEEE Trans.Power A p p . Syst.. vol. PAS-91, pp. 517-525, Mar./Apr.
1972.
[7]A. D. Patton,“Shortterm reliabilitycalculation,” IEEETrans.
Power App. Syst.,vol. PAS-89, pp. 509-513, Apr. 1970.
[a] -, “A probability method for bulk power system security assess-
ment, I-Basic concepts,” ZEEETrans. Power A p p . Syst., vol.
PAS-91, pp. 54-61, Jan./Feb. 1972.
[9] J. A. Bubenko and M. Anderson, ”Probabilistic evaluation of the
operation reserve in a power aystem,” in 1973 Proc. Power Industry
Computer Application C m f . , pp. 240-249.
[lo] A. Przyluski and 2. Reszaynska, “Method of availability aesess-
ment of power generating capacity in short termplanning,” in Proc.
4th Power Systems ComputationC m f . , 1972.
1111 C. Singh and R. Billinton, ‘A frequency and duration approach to
Power System Modeline
MO-SHING CHEN, SENIORMEbfBER, IEEE, AND
Invited paper
Absfraci-A dimmion of the philosophy of modeling of three-
phase trannminnion lines, three-phase transformers, three-phase
generators, and power system loads is presented. Although the topic
is very basic, the material covered is not all conventional. Single-
phase representation of a three-phase power system is discussed in
detail. Assumptions usually employed in the powerindustryare
stated. Also discnssed is the mathematical representation of a non-
symmetrical three-phase power systeniin which the symmetrical-
component method is not applied. An important aspect is the study of
the models used in present-day problems as well as the models that
may be required in the near future.
INTRODUCTION
A THREE-PHASE power system consists mainly of the
interconnection of generators, transformers, transmis-
sion lines, and loads. The elements ina power system
are relatively simple; however, the networks which we are
facing are truly large scaled. Power system engineers have
used the widely known symmetrical component method to
simplify many of the problems inpower system analysis. I t is
the intention of the authors to discuss the fundamental con-
Manuscript received December 27,1973.
The authora are with theEnergy Systems Research Center, The
University of Texaa a t Arlington, Arlington, Tex. 76010.
901
short term reliability evaluation,” presented a t the IEEE Winter
Power Meeting, New York, N. Y., 1973, Paper T 73 094-0.
[12]B. S. BiggerstaiT and T. M. Jackson, “The Markov procesn as a
means of determining generating-unit state probabilities for use in
spinning reserve applications,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol.
PAS-88, pp. 423-430, Apr. 1969.
[13] R. Billinton and A. V. Jain, “Unit deratinglevels in spinning reserve
studies,” ZEEETrans. Power App. Syrt., vol. PAS-90, July/Aug.
1971.
[14] A. D. Patton, “A probability method for bulk power system security
assessment-111-Models for stand-by generators and field data
collection and analysis,“ ZEEE Trans. Power A p p . Syst., vol. P A S
91, pp. 2486-2493, Nov./Dec. 1972.
[15] L. T. Anstine et al., “Use of outage statistics for operating and spin-
ning reserve assessments,” Paper 71 CP 701-PWR, Sept. 1971.
[la] A. D. Patton, “A probability method for bulk power system security
assessment-11-Development of probability models f o r normally-
operating components,”ZEEE Trans.Power A p p . Syst., vol. PAS-91,
pp. 2480-2485, Nov./Dec. 1972.
[17]A. DiMarco,“Asemi-Markov model of athree-stategenerating
unit,” ZEEE Trans. Pown App. Syst., vol. PAS-91, pp. 2154-2160,
Sept./Oct. 1972.
Lee.
[la1. C. Singh. R. Billinton, and S. Y.
- “Reliability modeling using the
deviceof stages,” in 1973 Proc. Pow& Industry Computer Application
Conf., pp. 22-30.
1191A. D. Patton, discussion of [9], IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol.
PAS-93, pp. 17-18, Jan./Feb. 1974.
WILLIAM E. DILLON, MEMBER, IEEE
cepts of symmetrical components in power system modeling
in this paper. Although the topic is very basic, the material
covered is not all conventional. I t is hoped that this paper
will bring a clear picture of the single-phase representation of
a power system.
The models we discuss in this paper are intended for sys-
tem studies. Fundamental concepts are emphasized.We have
tried to explain the concepts of power system modeling today
in such a way t h a t i tprovides room for possible modifications
for future works by the user.
THREE-PHASE
TRANSMISSION
LINES
The most common element of a three-phase network is the
transmission line. The interconnectionof these elements forms
the major partof the power system network. An understand-
ing of the representation of a three-phaselineisnotonly
necessary in the modeling itself, but also important for the
analysis of the whole power system. In steady-stateproblems,
three-phase transmission lines are represented by lumped-*
networks; series resistances and inductances between buses
are lumped inthemiddle,andshuntcapacitances of the
transmission lines are divided into two halves and lumpedat
buses connecting the lines.
902 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JVLY 1974

Series Impedance of a Transmission Line -'

--
w W'
Fig. 1 shows a three-phasetransmissionlinewithtwo V L
J
- V'
ground wires w and v in which only series impedancesare con- a I.

-
I'
sidered. Let us write the network equation for the phasea : b 1,
b'
IC
C

-
C'

vc VC'
////
/,.
,//
//,,
/,
, /
//.
,,
,,,
, I

I,= :1 I$ I.+ I,' I"

Fig. 1. Three-phaaz trammission circuit with

two ground conducted.

equivalent three-conductor circuit by the impedance reduc-

Similar equations maybe written for b, G, w , and v lines, o r in tion of (7). This technique is applicable,to any number of
matrix form: circuits with any number of ground wires or bundled con-
ductors. The procedure for calculating the equivalent three-
conductor line is outlined in detail in[2] and [3]. When more
I 1 than one circuit is on the same right of way, the size of the
impedance matrix should equal the number of circuits multi-
plied by 3. Table I shows the impedance matrix of a typical
345-kV double-circuit ( u n t r a n s p d ) 2-795 steel-reinforced
aluminum cable (ACSR) bundle, #-in ground wire. T h e tower
and conductor configuration is shown in Fig. 2.

Symmetrical Components Transfmmatwn

The subscript g indicates the ground return. The physical
meanings and the methodof calculation of all the elements of I t has been shown that the impedance matrix of a three-
the impedance matrix are given in [l]. A power system in- phase line can be found as
volves a connection of.many transmission lines. Since the de-
signs of the lines are different (for instance, three-phase lines
may have a different number of ground conductors, trans-
missionlines mayusebundledconductors,etc.), i t is very I 2
ca-g I 2
04 I *-J
important for the power system engineer to replace the actual
line by an equivalent three-conductor line for system analysis. Equation (8) gives the impedance of a typical transmission
This procedure is acceptable because we are interested only line. If the line is completery transposed or canbe assumed t o
in the performance of phase conductors. T h e calculation of be completely transposed, the impedance matrix will be re-
the system problems is greatly simplified when all the lines duced t o
can be represented by an equivalent three-conductor system.
Expressing (1) in partitioned notation,

B-RB (2)
Although few transmission lines currently in use are actually
Expanding (2) and acknowledging that the ground-wire volt- transposed, power system engineers customarily use the sym-
ages are zero,: metrical-line impedance matrix of ( 9 ) for every line. This is a
reasonable assumption for allbut the longestlines, and allows
+
Avh = ZAIO~C Z B I ~ . (3) thereduction of thethree-phasenetworktothree single-
phase networks. We shall begin the analysis of the symmetri-
cal problem by finding the eigenvalues of the matrix in(9) :

r=Z+2M
7=Z--M
y=Z-M.

a
T h e first eigenvalue gives the following eigenvector:
where

x - i or

T h e five-conductor configuration has been reduced to an where K is any arbitrary number.

 CHEN A N D DILLON: POWER SYSTEM MODELING 903

TABLE I
SERIES IMPEDANCE MATRIXFOR THREE-PHASE DOUBLE-CIRCUIT
TRANsMISION LINE
A B C a b C

0.1295 + ' 0.1260 0.1294 + +

A
0.1904 t
j1.0961 jO.5184
0.1246 t
j0.5261
t
j0.5423
j0.4599
jO.4505
0.1245
I
0.1295 + 0.1975 + 0.1280 + 0.1294 + 0.1333 + 0.1278 +
jO.5189 j1.0903 j0.4152 jO.4510 j0.4599 j0.5147

=a&
AEC
=

B.ml[
mation (similarity transformation) can be used to diagonalize
the completely transposed line by

,'A
2 dV

and

B - F i[
IC 1 . . r2

- 1/-
[i], [;I7 [;I
where a= 1/120°,
- u*= 1/240°= -120°, and

Fig. 2. Double-arcuit
transmiasion line. and

T h e second and third eigenvalues require any choice of

XI, XI, and 3 such that x1+xz+xs=oissatisfied.
x For are theeigenvectors of the impedance matrix.
writing example, (13), (12), and (14),

I t is interesting to note that forallcompletelytransposed

systems, the common eigenvectors are the same although the
eigenvalues are different in each system. If the original phase
impedancematrix Z h isnotperfectlysymmetrical, i.e.,
Z-ZZ,,, etc., the eigenvalues and eigenvectors are differ-
ent in each case.
The series voltage-drop equation of a transposed line is

Avc
1
E
(12)

in which Z+ 2M, 2 - M , and Z - M are theeigenvalues ofthe

Equations (10) and (11) suggest that the following transfor- system, The system described by (18) represents an uncoupled
(19)
904 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JULY 1974

ZERO -
---
UEl.

zoo
~0s.-
N E G . - U E TN
. ET.

271

211
Zl I

00

Fig. 4. Uncoupled circuit equivalent for double-circuittransmissionline.

where

Fig. 3. (a) Original three-phase magnetically coupled line. (b) Equiva-

lent network consisting of three uncoupled single-phaee arcuits.

TABLE I1
IMPEDANCE MATRIXFOP
SY~~~~ETRICAL-COMPONENT
DOUBL~-CXRCUIT
THPBE-PHAS~ TRANSUSSION'L~E
v

P
- [ [
.
v*
I.

=A

0 + - 0 + -
0.4468 + -0.0103 + 0.0081 + 1 0.3819 + 0.0150 + -0.0170 +
jl.3445
j9.0102
jO.0015
jZ.1456 j0.0417 j0.0543
A B C
+
0.0081 + 0.0647 + 0.0109 + -0.0170 + 0.0002 + O.O(n6 +
j0.0102
j0.5697
j-0.0101 j0.0503 jO.0lse jo.0059 a

- -0.0103
j0.00S
+ -0.01U +
j-0.0099
j0.5697
0.06W + 0.0150
] jO.0417
+ - 0 . 0 0 ~+
jo.0062
o.oO02 +
j0.Olee
b

6
I I II
0.3819 + 0.OW -0.0170 + 0.4468 + -0.0103 + 0.0081 + x -
1.3445 j2.1456
j0.0503
j0.0417 j0.00lS j0.0102 A
0.0647 + 0.0109 + B
j0.5697 j-0.0101
C
-0.OU3 + 0.0647 +
j-0.0099 j0.5697

Let
Vp = TV
system. Physically, the original three-phase circuit has been
replaced by three uncoupled single-phase circuits as shown I p = TI
in Fig. 3.
where
The equations describing these relationships constitute the
symmetrical-component transformation:

and

where VO,VI,and Vz are called the zero-sequence, positive-

sequence, and negative-sequence voltages; IO,11,and IS are
called the zero-sequence,positive-sequence, andnegative-
sequence currents; and ZO, Z1, and ZS are called the zero-
sequence, positive-sequence, and negative-sequence imped-
ances. By using the method of symmetrical components, the
variables are separated from one another, and all quantities
are expressed in terms of quantities of components only. As
pointed out earlier, the symmetrical components will decouple
all transposedthree-conductor lines. The choice of the T.
matrix is such that itwill, at the same time, benefit the gen-
erator and the transformer modeling.
For a system with more than one three-phase circuit in
parallel, the voltage-drop equations can be written as
Substituting (21) and (22) into (20),
v = ZI
where 'Z= T I Z p T .
Thesymmetrical-componentimpedancematrix of the
double circuit of Table I and Fig. 2 is shown in Table 11. As
you can see, all the off-diagonal values are small except the
terms which represent the mutual coupling between the zero-
sequence line on one circuit and thezero-sequence line on the
other circuit. This double-circuit transmission line is repre-
sented in most of the analyses today as shown in Fig. 4. The
small mutuals between the symmetrical-component sequence
networks are neglected. I t should be noted that the mutual
CHEN AND DILLON : POWER SYSTEM MODELING 905

coupling between the two zero-sequence networks will exist

even if complete transposition of the lines is achieved.

Shunt Capacitance of Three-phase Transmission Lines

A Capacitancematrix,related t o phasevoltages and
charges as shown in (23),is calculated by inverting a potential
coefficient matrix.

For a system with two ground wires, an equation may be

written for the potential of the systemof conductors.
(b)
Fig. 5. (a) Physical equivalents of the elements of the C k matrix. (b)
Positive-,negative-, and zero-sequence networka for the diagonalized
system of COB.

diagonalize the capacitance matrix. Rewriting (25) for a per-

fectly symmetrical system,
Expressing (23) in partitioned notation corresponding to the Qoac = C&Voac
partitioning lines shown,
QOIZ = Ta-'CetwTaVOlt
= colzvolz
where
Expanding (24) and acknowledging t h a t ground-wire poten-
tials are zero, then

V& = ( K - LN-'M)Q,,ac = P L Q h (25)

where inwhich C-2C', C+ C', and C+C' are called the zero-
sequence,positive-sequence, and negative-sequencecapaci-
tances of the system. The system described by this equation
represents an uncoupled system. Physically, the original three-
phase circuit has beenreplaced by three uncoupled single-
phase circuits as shown in Fig. 5(b).
Here P& is a 3 x 3 matrix which includes the effects of the If the original phase matrix is not perfectly symmetrical,
ground wires. T h e capacitance matrix of the system is found the use of symmetrical-component transformation will result
by with mutual terms in the transformed matrix. The magnitudes
of the mutual terms depend upon the symmetry of the origi-
nal matrix. In this case,

Physically, we havereplacedthetransmissionlineswith
ground wires by the equivalent lines, without ground wires.
This technique is similar to the series-line constant calcula-
tion. A more detailed discussion on bundled conductors and The abc and symmetrical-component shunt capacitance ma-
multiple circuits is given in [2] and 131. T h e elements in the trices of the double circuit of Table I and Fig. 2 are shown in
capacitancematrixhavea physicalmeaning inthethree- Tables I11 and IV.
phase model as shown in Fig. 5(a). SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
If the line is perfectly symmetrical, all off-diagonal terms
of C& are the same and all diagonal terms of C& are the Cylindrical-Rotor Machine
same, i.e., I t is the purpose of this paper t o develop basic models as

H
well as fundamental concepts of a three-phase synchronous
generator. Synchronous machines have been a topic of much
c&c - -c' -c' c
study in the past. Our discussion will be limited to the sym-
metrical-component representation of the machine in the sys-
tem simulation. We shall begin with a machine of cylindrical
rotor under a steady-state condition. Salient pole machines
The eigenvalues of this matrix are C- 2C', C+ C', and C+ C'. and the effects of rotor circuits will be discussed later. With
The symmetrical-component transformation may be used t o constant field current, the voltage equation of the four cou-
906 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JULY 1974

TABLE I11 TABLE IV

MATRIXFOR DOUBLE-CIRCUIT
SHUNT ADMITTANCE MATRIXFOR
SWETRICAL-CObWONENT SHUNT ADMITTANCE
TRANWISSION LINESHOWNIN FIG.2 TRANSMISSION
DOUBLE-CIRCUIT LINESHOWN IN FIG.2
(Admittance values may be found by multiplying the corresponding 0 + 0 +
elements of the capacitance matrix byjo.) 0.0 +
A B C A B C
O
-1.0140
jo.1036
I
jo.1036
j4.5399
0.0 + -0.1695
j-0.2430
+
I 0.1695
j-0.2430
+
I
+
0.0263 + 0.0 + -0.1451 + 0.1695 -0.0000 + -0.0288 +
j0.1036 j-0,2430 j0.1216 j7.4891 j-0.1016 j-0.2237

- -0.0263 + 0.1451 + '0.0 + -0.1695 + 0.0288 + 0.0000 +

j0.1036 j0.1216 j7.4Bl j-0.2430 j-0.1016 j-0.2237

0.0 + 0.0 + 0.0 + 0.0 + 0.0 + 0.0 + - -0.1695 + 0.0288 + -0.0000 + -0.0263 + 0.1451 + -0.oooo
I-0.3918 j-0.5036 j-0.9204 j-0.1692 j-0.9711 j6.2823 j-0.2430 j-0.1016 ' j-0.2237, j0.1036 jO.1216 j7.4891
- 0.0 + 0.0 + 0.0 + 0.0 + 0.0 + 0.0 +
j-0.2294 I j-0.1692 1 j-0.0789 11 j-1.0576 I j-0.9711 I j6.5106

0
pling coil system of Fig. 6 can be written as

V,=--
dXa
at
Lr, + Vn
E

Fig. 6. Equivalent arcuit for the cylindrical-rotor machine.

Equation (26) may be written in phasor form

d
= - [Lafcos (e - 120')1~ - L i . - b i b - ~bci,] where
at
- ibrb + Vn WLQfIf
Ea = -&, where + = 6 +9
0
'
d 42
= - oLMIfsin (e - 1200) + - [-L , i , - b i b - ~ i , ]

- Gn+ Vn
at a =0L.fIf
-
4 '+ - 1200
dxC
V , = -- i,r,
at
+V,
d Applying symmetrical-component transformation,
= - [LQfcos (e - 240'11~ - L,i. - Lsib - ~ , i , ]

=
at
- icy, + Vn
- wLifIf sin (e - 2400) +- d
[ -L,i, - &b - L&]
Ts [[
Y E
-jl Fj 1
L' -I' L
Ts -
I
Ts

I2

at
- icrc+ Vn (26)

where B=wt+Bo is the angle between the axis of the field

winding and the axis of the phase a armature winding, and o
is synchronous speed of the machine.
For a cylindrical-rotor machine,

La = = LC, = L , ?Q = rb = =
La=L,=&= -L'
Vn = - Inzn = - (Ia + Ib + IC)&*
CHEN A N D DILLON: POWER SYSTEM MODELING
where
Eo = 0
E2 = 0
Zo = r + jwL0 = r + j w ( L - 2L')
21 = r + j0Ll = r + j w ( L + L')
Equation (28) may be written as
where 20,Z1, and 20are the zero-, positive-, and negative-
sequence impedancesof the machine. They are the impedances
which can be realized when only zero-, positive-, or negative-
sequence current flows in the machine. Equation (30) leads to
the equivalent circuits shown in Fig. 7.
I t is interesting to note that this coupled circuit device,
in this case a synchronous machine, may also be reduced to
three uncoupled circuits by using the symmetric-component
transformation. T h e selection of
L---l U
as two eigenvectors of the symmetrical-component transfor-
mation matrix was arbitrary in the case of transmission lines
b u t i tis necessary inthe synchronous machinemodeling. This
choice made i t possible for only positive-sequence voltage t o
be generated. In steady-state normal balanced operation, both
negative-sequence and zero-sequencecircuitsremainunex-
cited; the positive-sequence circuit is therefore the only one
we are concerned with.
Fig. 8 gives the phasor diagrams of the positive-sequence
network sf a generator operating at normal, overexcited, and
underexcited conditions. T h e real power outputs of the three
cases are the same. At normal excitation, the reactive output
of the generator is zero. At overexcitation (the field current is
greater than the normal excitation), the generator delivers
lagging reactive power to the system. At underexcitation (the
field current is less than normal excitation), the generator de-
livers leading reactivepower to the systemor receives lagging
reactive power fromthesystem. I t is clear that the field
excitation controls the reactive power output of a generator.
T h e phase angle of El represents the rotor position of a gen-
eratorwithrespectto an arbitrarysynchronousreference
frame. I t is well known t h a t the real power output of a syn-
chronous machine is controlled mainly by the change of rela-
tive position of the rotors of the machines in the system.
Actually, the machine is more complicated than we have
discussed, mainly because of the effect of the rotor circuits. I t
is well known that positive-sequence armature currents in a
three-phase stator winding produce a constant rotating mag-
netic field in the air gap similar to the field produced by the
dc field winding. Since the field structure is driven mechani-
907
Fig. 7. Zero-, positive-, and negative-aequenceequivalent
circuits far the cylindrical-rotor machine.
Fig. 8. Phasor diagramsrepresenting three possible modes of machine
operation. Real power delivered by the machine is the same in each
case; reactive power is different.
cally at synchronous speed, the rotating magneticfield of the
armature winding is stationary with respect to thefield wind-
ing and any other rotor circuits of the machine. In steady-
state operation, the positive-sequence impedance of the ma-
chine is not affected by the existence of the rotor windings.
The effect of the rotor slots causes the steady-state positive-
sequence impedance to vary from direct-axis reactanceXd t o
quadrature-axis reactance-Xq; X,is slightlyless than X,+T h e
axis of the field winding is the direct axisof the machine. The
quadrature axis of the machineis 90' out of phase of the
direct axis. Both the direct and the quadrature axes are ro-
tating with the rotor.
However, when a sudden disturbance in the armature cir-
cuits occurs, the changesof the positive-sequence current will
induce current in the field circuit such that the field flux is
initially
maintainedconstant.Therefore,
the
positive-se-
quence impedance of the machinein the transient state is
greatly affected by the field winding of the machine. Actually,
the solidsteel rotor itself also induces eddy currents. Fre-
quently, the effect of the solid steel rotor may be considered
as three additional short-circuited windings in the rotor. T h e
d-axis winding and one of the q-axis windings have veryshort
time constants, while the time constant of the second q-axis
winding, like that of the field, is larger. When the effect of
those windings is also to be considered, the positive-sequence
impedance is said to be in the subtransient state. There are
twotransientreactancesassociatedwiththesynchronous
machine:thedirect-axistransientreactance X*' andthe
quadrature-axis transient reactance Xi.When the armature
rotating M M F wave is in line with the field winding of the
908 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JULY 1974

-
I-

1.
i
-
4=E,

'1
Fig. 9. Illustratinga'method of conceptuallyfindingthesteady-state Fig. 10. Findingthetransientreactance of themachine.Switchis
positive-sequenceimpedance of acylindrical-rotormachine.Field c l o d after the machineis running andthe initial transient
is over.
coil is not energized and, since the source is balanced, may be either
closed or left open.

machine, the positive-sequence reactance will be &I. When

the armature rotating MMF wave is in line with the quadra-
ture axis of the machine, the positive-sequence reactance will
be X i - X p ) is mainly due to theslow decay component of the
eddy current of the solid steel rotor. The subtransient re-
actance of the synchronous machine likewise has direct-axis
subtransient reactance Xd" and quadrature-axis subtransient
reactance X,". Armature resistance is small and is neglected
in this paper. Let us reduce the dc voltage source E of the
field winding in Fig. 6 tozero. The rotor is continued at con-
stant speed w . A positive-sequence source is applied to the
terminal. From this discussion we can visualize the different
positive-sequence impedances as shown in Figs. 9, 10, and 11.
I
I n many power system analysis problems we try to use
thesimplecircuits of Fig. 7 torepresentthesynchronous
generator. If thephenomena we are concerned withoccur Fig. 11. Finding the subtransient (fast transient) reactance of
the machine. Switch is c l o d after the machine is running.
immediatelyafter a disturbance, we may use subtransient
reactance in the positive-sequence representation. If the phe-
nomenon we are concerned with is transient in nature and the
effect (the fast decay component)of the solid steel rotor (or its
equivalent) can be neglected due to thefast decay character-
istics, we may use the transient reactance in the positive-
sequence representation. If the phenomena are of a steady-
state nature, we may use the steady-state reactance in the
positive-sequence representation. Actually, the armature cur-
rent shouldbe resolved into two components: one in dthe axis
Q
and the other in the p axis, so that the proper d and p reac-
tances can be used. However, for the cylindrical-rotor ma-
chine, the valueof the direct-axis reactanceis very close to the
quadrature-axis reactance. Usually, we assume that they are
equal in order that the simple representationof Fig. 7 can be
used.
I t is not our intention to
discuss the detailed mathematical
expression of the various positive-sequence impedances of a
'2
1
.. E,= z

synchronousmachine in thispaper. References [SI and [ 6 ]

give the expression of those impedance terms of some funda- Fig. 12. Finding the negative-sequence reactance of themachine.
mental parameters of a machine.
The negative sequence reactance of the machine can be tating backwards at twice synchronous speed with respect to
visualized as in Fig. 12. The system shown inFig. 12 is similar the rotor, andso currents of twice rated frequency are induced
to Fig. 9 except that the rotor is drivenin the opposite direc- in all rotor circuits. Therefore, the reactance for the stator
tion. In this case, the armature rotating MMF wave is ro- current is similar to that of the subtransient case. This reac-
CHEN AND DILLON: POWER SYSTEM MODELING 909

DIRECT A X I S

\
AXIS BF PHASE c

AXIS OF

U IlllADRATURf A X I S
Qo= E Fig. 14. Salient-pole rotating machine.

b
Fig. 13. Finding the zero-eequence reactance of the machine.

tance varies from Xd" to x," and usually takes the mean
0-
value

tf IU
The zero-sequence reactance of the maphine can be visual- Fig. 15. Representation of damper windings.
ized as in Fig. 13. Since the zero-sequence currents are in
flux is almost canceled.
phase in all three phases, the resultant
T h e reactance is small [equal t o L-2L' in (29)] and is af- presently used in steady-state analysisof balanced power sys-
fected very little'by the motionof the rotor. This reactance is tems and to demonstrate the extensionof these methods into
due to leakageflux in the slot and end winding. analysis of unbalanced three-phase systems.

Salient-Pole Machine Conventional Modeling of Three-Phase Transfolm~~s

In a salient-pole machine there are more obvious direct Normally the three-phase transformer is modeled in terms
and quadrature axes on the rotor as shown in Fig. 14. Most of its symmetrical components under the assumption that the
salient-pole machines have amortisseur or damper windings powersystem is sufficiently balanced to warrant this. TableV
on the rotor. Theeffect of the amortisseur winding is similar shows thetypical 'symmetrical-component models of the
to the eddy currents.of a solid steel round rotor. Usually, we transformers for the six mostcommonthree-phaseconnec-
use one circuit in the direct axis and another circuit in the tions. Later, thesemodels will be derived from basic considera-
quadrature axis t o representtheamortisseurwindings as tions a n d certain significant exceptions t o these component
shown in Fig. 15. models will be explained in order that improvements may be
This discussion concerning the reactances of the round- madeincertain\specialapplications. The impedances of
rotor machine applies to the salient-pole machine ([SI and [6] Table V are assumed t o be the per-unit leakage impedances
give the typical values of different machines). obtainedbythestandardshort-circuit tests onthetrans-
Since the direct-axis reactance is quite different from the formers. Magnetizing impedances are large shunt-connected
quadrature-axis reactance for a'salient-pole machine, machine impedances which are justifiably neglected in most steady-
representation is more complicated than for the cylindrical- state calculations. Hence they are not shown in Table V.
rotor machine. Generally speaking, we must use additional Several things should be pointed out concerning the sym-
assumptions for this particular problem. Sometimes i t is more metrical-component sequence models shown inTable V.
advantageous to represent the machine ina different kind of First, the assumption that the zero-sequence short-circuit im-
transformation other than symmetric components, such as pedance equals the positive- and negative-sequence short-
d-q-0 components or alpha-beta-zero components.Refer- circuit impedances is true only for a bank of three single-
ences [l], [SI, and [6] include a detailed discussion of those phase transformers. In either the shell-type or the core-type
topics. three-phase transformer, the zero-sequence impedance is less
than the positive- or negative-sequence impedances: the rea-
TRANSFORMERS sons for this will be developed later in this section of the
Although transformers are one of the most common and paper. Second, there is an inherent phase shift in the positive-
mechanicallysimplecomponents of modernelectricpower and negative-sequencetransferimpedances in the Wye G-
systems, transformer modeling is often not highly developed DeltaandWye-Deltaconnections.Positive-andnegative-
in system studies. Indeed the nonlinear effects of core satura- sequence voltages are shifted in opposite directions, and the
tion and the transformer's responsepower to system transients degree of phase shift is dependenton the nomenclature of the
do present a formidable modeling problem. T h e scope of this phases, i.e., the designation of phases on primary and second-
paper, however, is to show the basis of the transformer models ary sides of the transformer determines whether the phase
910 PROCEEDINGSOF THE IEEE, JULY 1974

TABLE V
TYPICAL
SY"ElaICAL.-COMPoNENT MODELSFOR THE SIX MOST COMMON CONNEcTIONS OF THREE-PHASE
TRANWORMERS

BUS P BUS a POS S E a ZERO SEO

WYe G WYe G P

I/I///

WYe G Delta

WVe

WYe Delt

Delta Delt

///;..' 1,

shift is 30" or 90' and so on. However, this inherent phase

shift is usually ignored as superfluous in most system studies
since the voltage magnitudes and balanced power flows are
not affected by the shift; one simply needs to mentally con- "I

sider the phase shift when contemplating the results of the

study. Finally, TableV does notconsider the effects of neutral - I I -
impedances in Wye-connected windings. This affects only the
Fig. 16. Primitivenetwork of a pair of magnetically coupled arcuits.
zero-sequence models in the Wye G;Wye G andWye G-
Delta connections, however, and one simply adds three times
the neutral impedance in series with 2, in these cases. .Thus First, consider the single pairof magnetically coupled coils
Table V, with judicious application of these conditions, sum- in Fig. 16. This is a four-terminal network which can theo-
marizes the manner inwhich three-phasetransformersare retically be described in terms of the open-circuit impedance
usually modeled in conventional steady-state balanced system frame as per (31), or in terms of the short-circuit admittance
analyses. frame as per (32).
Transformer Modeling Parameters
Before one can apply transformer modeling to power sys-
tem analysis, there must be some basic understanding of how
the modeling parameters are obtained. Much has been written
about modeling the basic two-winding single-phase trans-
former. Even so, a brief review will be given here so that these
concepts may be expanded by means of elementary circuit
theory into themore complicated systems in which there may In practice, however, the coefficients of coupling areso high in
be unbalanced three-phase voltages and currents, unbalanced a practical power transformer that the inversion process re-
three-phasetransformer
banks, or combinations thereof. lating (31) and (32) is numerically unstable, i.e., in the per-
Furthermore, an elementary extentionof these principles will unit system z1 and z2 are only slightly larger than %. There-
lead to the theoretical development of the conceptsof Table V fore, neither the simple open-circuit parameter tests nor the
and illustrate a viable method of performing unbalanced sys- simple short-circuit parameter tests will adequately model the
tem studies. power transformer. Therefore, a hybrid set of measurements
CHEN A N D DILLON: POWER SYSTEM MODELING 911

il Ysc - t Yoc il

- I I -
Fig. 17. s-equivalenttransformermodel. Fig. 18. A 12-terminalcoupledprimitivenetwork.

is made in which standard open-circuit and short-circuit teststhree-phase devices. Thus they become 12- or even 18-termi-
are made. As modeled in Table V, i t is this short-circuit im- nal coupled circuits in the primitive sense. Here the param-
pedance in per-unit form that is most important in trans- eters become far more difficult to obtain. As an illustration,
former modeling sincethe open-circuit impedance is primarily consider the three-leggedcore-typetransformer of Fig. 18.
used to determine the exciting current for the transformer. For simplicity, no tertiary winding will be considered so that
Furthermore, the exciting current is rich in harmonics and a t theprimitivenetwork is onlya12-terminalfullycoupled
best only approximates an equivalent fundamental compo- circuit.
nent rms impedance. This approximation will be adhered to The short-circuit primitive admittance matrix for this net-
in the paper, however, since only steady-state conditions are work is as follows:
being considered in the electrical model.

Use of the Three-Terminal A fipoximatwn

In further development of the transformer model, i t is I
necessary t o have a good approximation of the short-circuit
admittance parameters as per (32). These can be obtained by
inserting the open-circuit impedance2, and the short-circuit
impedance 2 , into an approximate three-terminal representa-
tion of the coupled circuit pair in Fig.16. Since the admittance In a rigorous sense, one would have to make21 separate short-
frame is sought, a r-equivalent circuit as per Fig. 17 is em- circuit measurements to fill in the the valuesof the symmetri-
ployed. In this figure Yo,is the reciprocal of 2, and U, is the cal admittance matrix in (35). Furthermore, allowances for
reciprocal of 2,. Also, the splitting of the open-circuit admit- flux leakage paths through the steel tank containing the core
tance into two equal parts is purely arbitrary. Both open- and itself complicate matters. However, the purpose of this dis-
short-circuit tests would have to be made on each terminal cussion is to understand the subtle differences between three-
pair of the transformer to justifya deviation from this policy. phase banks ,of single-phase transformers and common-core
In the per-unit system, this equal distribution should intro- transformer characteristics.
Therefore,
somealgebraically
duce negligible, if any, error. simplifyingassumptionssuchasperfectlysymmetricalflux
T h u s a good approximation for thesteady-statetrans- distribution willbe made. The previously mentioned short-
former short-circuit parameters as per (2) is circuit measurements could be carried out for any justified
y1 = y2 E Y , (33) special case, however. Assuming flux symmetry, (35) would
appear as (36). Also, the proper signs of the short-circuit ad-
and mittance values are written in(36), where coils 1, 3, and 5 are
considered primary windings and coils 2, 4, and 6 are con-
(34) sidered the secondary windings.
Itmust be emphasizedhere thatthe foregoing three-
terminal model of the single-phase transformer is inadequate
for use as a building block for modeling three-phase banks.
This will become evident when one attempts tomode1 a Wye-
Delta bank from three components as per Fig. 17. From here
on, the primitive admittance mathematical modelbasedon
t h e four-terminalnetworkmust beemployed. The three-
terminal model is intended only for single-phase representa-
tion and to help approximate transformer parameters from Note t h a t Fig. 18 does not yet commit the three-phase trans-
familiar terminology. former i t represents to any particular connection. The termi-
nalpairscan still be connected in any of the six standard
Parameters of Three-Phuse Transformers three-phase connections as per Table V. This will be covered
The preceding sections on obtaining the primitive admit- later in thediscussion of connection matrices. For comparison,
tance parameters for four-terminal magnetically coupled cir- considertheprimitiveadmittancematrixforthreeinde-
cuits are essential but incomplete inasmuch as many three- pendentsingle-phasetransformers(assumedidenticalfor
phase transformers are common-core or shell-type integrated algebraiccoherency). The absence of the primedmutual
91 2 PXOCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JULY 1974

Now the objective is to apply the theory of Kron's con-

nection matrix N to the primitive admittance matrixin order
to obtain the needed node admittance matrix for the coupled
circuit. This is obtained by (39) where [ y p r h ]is the primitive
admittance matrix of (36) and N Lis the transpose of N .
YNODE= N'yprhN. (39)
Whenthisstraightforwardmatrixmultiplication is carried
out, the resulting node admittance matrix for the grounded
Wye-Deltatransformation of Fig. 19 is obtainedinphase
quantities. This is shown in (40).

Fig. 19. A grounded Wye-Delta transformer.

primitive admittances in the three-phase bank will be shown

to play a significant role in the final three-phase transformer
connection models.

A By comparing the primitive admittance matrices of (36)

and (37) i t is readily seen that the primed ym's vanish when
the primitive admittance matrixof a three-phase bank is sub-
stituted into (39). Although the primed values of the ym's are
numerically smaller than the unprimed values, their existence
has a profound effect on the symmetrical-component circuit
models of the transformer as well as on the response of the
Use of the Connection Matrix three-phase transformer in the power system. Considerations
of these symmetrical-component effects will be deferred to a
Inthe previousthreesections,theparameters of the later section.
primitive (unconnected) admittance matrices have been dis-
cussed. Now the connection and its application to three-phase Power System Three-phase Node Admittance Matrix
transformermodelingcan bedeveloped.Forthesake of T h e node admittance matrix of (40) is not yet ready for
brevity, only one example will be shown in this paper. This use in a three-phase system model. Since the primitive ad-
willbe the Wye G-Delta connection because i t is the most mittances wereconsidered to beon a per-unit basiswhere
interesting of the six ,most common three-phase connections. both primary and secondary voltages were nominally 1.0 per
However, thereadercanreadilyapplytheseprinciples t o unit,anyWye-Deltatransformer model so obtainedmust
obtainany of theotherconfigurationsevenincludingun- consider an effective "turns ratio" of di in order that both
balanced banks such as the V connection sometimes found on Wye and Delta node voltages are still a t 1.0 per unit. There-
distribution circuits. fore, both the upper right and the lower left quadrants must
Consider now the Wye G D e l t a connection shown in Fig. be divided by 4 3 while the lower right quadrant is divided
19 and assume it represents the common-core device shown by 3. Then the submatrices canbe used in forming the system
unconnectedinFig. 18. In Fig. 19 the nodevoltages are three-phase node admittance matrix for study of unbalanced
designated by capital V ' s where the Wye side has lower-case power systems. In this example, the upper left quadrant repre-
phase subscripts and the Delta side has upper-case phase sub-sents the
three-phaseself-admittance
submatrix of the
scripts. All node voltages are with respect t o ground as refer- grounded Wye side of the transformer while the lower right
ence. All the primitive branch voltages are denoted by the quadrant is the three-phase self-admittance submatrix of the
lower-case u's with numerical subscripts. Delta winding. If there is no transmission-line coupling, these
According to the connections of Fig. 19, the simple rela- submatrices are used directly as building blocks in a manner
tionship between the primitive branch voltages and the node analogous to the formation of the positive-sequence node ad-
voltages is denoted in (38a) in which the matrix of ones and mittance matrix used for power flow models. If parallel three-
zeroscompletelydetermines the physicalconnectionin a phasetransmissionlinesdopresentconsiderablecoupling,
mathematical sense. This matrix is the connection matrix. however, then more sophisticatedmeans of deploying the
transformersubmatricesintothesystemnodeadmittance
matrix must be considered. The former method has proved
to besuccessful in modeling all types of three-phase trans-
former connections in unbalanced load flow studies. Table VI
(38a) illustratesthe basic submatrices used inthree-phasenode
admittance formation for the six common three-phase con-
nections for three-phase banks. Thus the primal values of y,,,
do not appearin the submatrices of Table VI. If they did, the
Equation (38a) is abbreviated as elements of these submatrices would be algebraically cumber-
some but would, of course,presentnoproblem in forming
ubrsnch = [ N ][ V N O D E ] . (38b)
numerical
examples.Normally
these
primed
values of y,,, are
CHEN AND DILLON: P O W E R SYST13.Y MODELING 913

TABLE VI Consider
first the
self-admittance
submatrix of the
BASICSusaularc~sUSEDIN NODEADMITTANCE FORMULATION grounded Wye sideof the transformerof Fig. 19. This is_trans-
FOR TEE SIXMOST COMMON CONNECTTONSOF
THREE-PHASETUNWORMERS formed into symmetrical components according to the rela-
tion :
Transforner Connection Self Adsittance ?lutuaf Admittance
SUtmatciCes Submatrix

which results in

Note that the zero-sequence self-admittance is not equal to

considerably smaller in magnitude than the unprimed values,
so thecharacteristics of common-corethree-phasetrans-
formers are not radically different from those of three-phase
banks. In fact, the numerical values of y,, yp, and y,,, (un-
primed) are approximately equal. Therefore, we shall refer t o
them asy t , the per-unit leakage admittance of the transformer
that would be obtained by the short-circuit test.
For purposes of forming Table VI, the three basic types of
submatrices for the various connections of three-phase trans-
former banks will be defined as follows:
the positive- and negative-sequenceself-admittancesin the
three-phase transformer. If a three-phase bank had been used,
ym' would have been zero and a l l three component self-admit-
tances would have been equal.
Now apply the transformation to the self-admittance sub-
matrix for the Delta side of the transformer of Fig. 19 re-
membering that the effective turnsratio of dj has been
applied.

Y
I1
- I-
3
K]
-Yt

-Yt
2Yt

-Yt
-Yt
yU
012
. '
0
0

0
IY,
I
0

-
0
Yi"
.

(Y;
I1
0

- Y;')
0

I
I1
(47)

Here i t is verified that there is no zero-sequence self-admit-

tance in the Delta winding of a balanced transformer and that
(43) the self-admittances of the positive-andnegative-sequence
networks are reduced by the amount of y,"'.
Finally, the mutual admittance submatrix of (40), modi-
Here, of course, i t is assumed thatall three transformers of fied foreffective turns ratio, is transformed t o find the se-
thebankareidentical. Now TableVIisformedforthese quence transfer admittances linking the Wye G and Delta
conditions. sides of the transformer models in the sequence networks.
If no better information is known than the short-circuit Thus
admittances of thetransformer,thenTableVIisthebest
approachtomodelingthebank in a n unbalancedsystem.
With more complete information such as was assumed in the
model in (40), the subtle differences in magnitude between
yp, y8,and y,,, can be exploited to the benefit of accuracy. In
0 I I1
(40) the existence of the primed values of y,,, leads to the im-
0 I 0 lo
proved model of a common-core three-phase transformer.

Symmetrical Components of Three-phase Transformers

In the vast majorityof cases i t is justifiable to assume that
thethree-phase power systemisbalanced.Therefore,such
detail as was developed in the preceding section is usually not
employed in power system analysis. The task at hand now is
to reducethesethree-phasetransformernode admittance
models to their more simplified symmetrical-component mod-
els. T h e W y e G D e l t a common-core transformer as modeled
in (40) willbe examined in detail. Then application of the
procedure to the remaining three-phase connections is merely
a simple exercise in matrix algebra.
Notice the forward 30' phase shift in the positive-sequence
network transfer admittance while there is a backward 30'
phaseshiftinthenegative-sequencetransferadmittance.
These are,of course, expected results forthe Wye-Delta trans-
former. Also, i t is apparent thatsince the zero-sequence trans-
fer admittance iszero,nozero-sequencecurrentscanpass
between the Wye and Delta sides of a balanced transformer.
Again, this is obvious from simple observation of the three-
phase connection. What was not obvious, however, is that the
914 PROCEEDINGSOF THE IEEE, JULY 1974

rp+1V'. MI;
0

Fig. 20. Zero-sequence node admittance model for a

Common-core grounded Wye-Delta transformer.
Fig. 24. Three-phase load shown aa a balanced
Wye-connectedimpedance.

--
11
-
VO
I ")

Fig. 21. Pcdtive-seguence node admittance model for a

common-core grounded Wpe-Delta traasformer. Fig. 25. & r e , pceitie, andnegative-sequenceequivalent
circuits for the balanced load.

transformer of Table V except for the effects of the common-

Fig. 22. Negativesequence nodeadmittancemodel for a
common-core grounded Wye-Delta transformer.
01111
1 and three-phase banks. Also, i t provided a quasi-justificatior
core: 1) Zero-sequence impedance is lower on the Wye G side
of a common-coreWye G D e l t a transformerthan for an
equivalentthree-phasebank. 2) Positive- and negative-se-
quence transfer impedances are lower for the common-core
transformer than for the equivalent three-phase bank.3) T h e
three sequence impedances are not equal on a common-core
transformer.
Considerable effort has been taken here to detail the de-
velopment of the Wye G D e l t a transformer whose windings
are all wound on a common piece of iron. This illustrates the
subtle differences between this ubiquitous transformer type

P
for the simplisticmodels of Table V which most engineers use
V, - r. in system analysis while outlining a method-that of Kron's
connection matrices-for developing as detailed a model of
any three-phase transformer connection that may be needed
Fig. 23. Positivesequence model for thetransformer for some special application.
with phase shift ignored. Certainly, i t is not the intention of the authors torecom-
mend detailed models for all applications. Whenever one can
get by with themodels of Table V, he should doso. However,
existence of",y (the effects of the%ominon-core coupling) in-
recent interest in unbalanced three-phase phenomena has in-
creases the transformer transfer admittance in the positive-
spired the authors to provide a tool, previously unavailable,
and negative-sequence networks.
for including the effects of three-phase transformers in the
Now the results of ( 4 9 , (47), and (49) will be used to form
system. The only drawback to thistool is obtaining the data
the three symmetrical-component circuitmodels of the three-
for the primitive admittance matrixfor a multiwinding three-
phase common-core transformer (Figs. 20-22).
phase transformer. Even so, the theoretical manipulation of
The awkwardness of the positive- and negative-sequence
these data as presented in this paper contributes to the under-
equivalent Wye G D e l t a transformer models can be avoided
standing of three-phase transformer modeling.
if the 30" phase shifts inherent in Wye-Delta transformers are
ignored. As previously stated, engineersusuallyignore the
phase shifts in the model and mentally consider them in the
POWERSYSTEM LOAD
results. If this is to be done, and we may further assume that In a power system, itis impossible to represent every load
,y P =y,"~y,"'
N (which are zero in the three-phase bank), individually.Forthisreason,loadsconsideredinasystem
then figure G becomes Fig. 23. study are representationsof composite system loads.
Then Fig. 22 would, of course, be the same since the direc- At each substation, the substation demand (P and Q) can
tion of phase shift was the only difference between the posi- be obtained from the recorded readingsof the demand meters
tive-andthenegative-sequencenetworks.Furthermore, y p located at the substation sites. However, individual customer
-ymis a very small admittance sincey p is only slightly larger demands at random times are not usually known. The meters
than ym. Thus it may be justifiable to consider yp-ym and at the customers' locations are watthour meters that record
y,-ym as open circuits. With all of these gross assumptions, the total energy consumption. These readings are usedfor
we have duplicated the sequence model for the Wye G D e l t a customer billing. They must be converted into demands be-
CHEN AND POWER SYSTEM MODELING 915

fore being used in system analysis. Nevertheless, information CONCLUSION

about load characteristics in apower system is limitedin most The authors have attempted to present a discussion of the
cases. Inadynamicstudy, we use constantimpedance or conceptsunderlyingthedevelopment of symmetrical com-
constant current tomodel the realor reactive power consumed ponentsandtheirapplicationtothe modeling of a three-
by a composite load in the positive sequence network. There phase power system. Although symmetrical components have
is more uncertainty involved in modeling loads in the nega- been widely discussed in the literature, the authors believe
tive- and zero- sequence networks. that this paper will add to the understanding of the founda-
Fig. 24 shows a three-phase load which is represented by a tions of power system modeling, particularly for the non-
balanced Wye-connected impedance. specialist.
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(11 E. Clarke, Circuit AnaZysis of A-C Pmue7 Systnrrc, vol. 1. New
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[Z] M. H.H e ,“Electromagnetic and electrostatic transmiasion-line
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vol. PAS82, pp. 282-291, June 1963.
Application of thesymmetrical-componenttransformation [3] M. S,. Chen, “The philosophy of three-phase network transforma-
gives

F] 1
tion, presented at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York,
N. Y., Jan. 1969.
[4]A. E. Fitzgerald and C. Kingsley, Electric Machinery. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1961.
I7;’ Ts + [SI C. Concordia, S y n c h r o ~ u s Machines,Theory and Performance.
V 12 31*a;i New York: Wiley, 1951.
[a]E. W. Kimbark, P o w n System Stability, vol. 111. New York: Wiley,
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(71 G. Kron, T m o r Analysisof Networks. London, England: Mc-
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[8] Electrical Transmission and DisfributMn Reference Book, Westing-
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z
(91 W. E. Dillon and M. S. Chen, “Transformer modeling in unbalanced
three-phase networks,” presented at the IEEE Summer Power
Vancouver, B. C., Canada, July 1972, Paper C 72 460-4.
The symmetrical-component equivalent circuits are shown in [lo]Meeting,
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