Metals 09 00610

metals
Article
Main Issues in Quality of Friction Stir Welding Joints
of Aluminum Alloy and Steel Sheets
Mian Wasif Safeen 1, * and Pasquale Russo Spena 2
1 Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, piazza Università 5,
39100 Bolzano, Italy
2 Department of Management and Production Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24,
10129 Torino, Italy; pasquale.russospena@polito.it
* Correspondence: mianwasif.safeen@natec.unibz.it; Tel.: +39-0471-017737

Received: 15 April 2019; Accepted: 22 May 2019; Published: 25 May 2019
Abstract: Joining of aluminum alloys through friction stir welding (FSW) is effectively employed
in several industries (e.g., aeronautics and aerospace) since it guarantees proper weld strength
as compared to other joining technologies. Contrarily, dissimilar FSW of aluminum alloys and
steels often poses important issues in the selection of welding parameters due to the difficulty to
join different materials. Improper welding parameters give rise to the formation of intermetallic
compounds, and internal and external defects (e.g., tunnel formation, voids, surface grooves, and flash).
Intermetallic compounds are brittle precipitates of Al/Fe, which chiefly initiate crack nucleation,
whereas internal and external defects mainly act as stress concentration factors. All these features
significantly reduce joint strength under static and dynamic loading conditions. With reference to the
literature, the influence of main welding parameters (rotational speed, welding speed, tool geometry,
tilt angle, offset distance, and plunge depth) on the formation of intermetallic compounds and defects
in FSW of aluminum alloys and steels is discussed here. Possible countermeasures to avoid or limit
the above-mentioned issues are also summarily reported.
Keywords: friction stir welding; aluminum alloys; steels; welding parameters; joint quality; intermetallic
compounds; defects
1. Introduction
Sustainable manufacturing has compelled the aerospace and automotive industries to reduce gas
emissions and energy consumption. As a result, industries have been reducing the overall weight of
products, without compromising quality and performance, by using low density and high resistant
parts made of aluminum alloys and steels [1,2]. However, the difficulty in joining aluminum alloys and
steels has limited the widespread usage of Al/steel components. Several welding techniques have been
used to assemble such metals to obtain dissimilar joints with improved strength. Traditional fusion
welding methods are not generally suitable due to the different physical, mechanical, and chemical
properties of aluminum alloys and steels. Since fusion welding involves melting, different kinds of
chemical segregations, internal defects, and undesired intermetallic compounds (IMCs) usually occur
in Al/steel weldments. Non-conventional welding techniques, including laser and electron beam
welding, limit the above-mentioned issues due to the lower heat inputs involved. However, melting of
metals does not prevent the occurrence of detrimental IMCs. Solid-state welding techniques, such as
friction stir welding (FSW), could be a solution to successfully join aluminum alloys and steels. In fact,
FSW does not involve melting or the need of additional fillers, thereby eliminating or limiting many of
the above-mentioned issues related to fusion welding.
Metals 2019, 9, 610; doi:10.3390/met9050610 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2019, 9, 610 2 of 22
FSW, invented at The Welding Institute (TWI) London in 1991, is a solid-state joining technique
Metals 2017, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 23
Metalsuses
that 2017,a7,non-consumable
x FOR PEER REVIEWrotating tool to join two similar or dissimilar materials. A rotating 2 of 23
tool
is inserted
inserted at at thematerial
the materialinterface
interfaceandandtranslated
translatedlinearly
linearlyalong
alongthethe joining
joining line.
line. Heat
Heat isis generated
generated
inserted of
because at friction
the material
betweeninterface
the and translated
rotating tool and linearly along
workpieces, the softens
which joining and
line.joins
Heatthem
is generated
together.
because of friction between the rotating tool and workpieces, which softens and joins them together.
because
Two of friction
common weldbetween the rotating
configurations in tool and
FSW are workpieces,
butt and which
lap, as softensinand
shown joins 1.
Figure them In together.
the joint
butt
Two common weld configurations in FSW are butt and lap, as shown in Figure 1. In the butt
Two
joint common weld
configuration, configurations
two sheets in FSW
are placed are butt
together and lap, as
side-by-side, shown
Figure in Figure 1.
1a. isFriction In the butt joint
configuration, two sheets are placed together side-by-side, Figure 1a. Friction high at is
thehigh at the
retreating
configuration,
retreating side two sheets
where tool are placed
angular together
velocity and side-by-side,
forward Figure
velocity are1a.
in Friction
opposite isdirections.
high at theDifferently,
retreating
side where tool angular velocity and forward velocity are in opposite directions. Differently, tool
side angular
tool where tool angular
velocity and velocity
forward and forward
velocity are invelocity
the same aredirection
in opposite thedirections. Differently, tool
angular velocity and forward velocity are in the same direction at theatadvancing
advancing side.side.
In theInlapthejoint
lap
angular
joint velocity
configuration, and forward
one materialvelocity
is are in
overlapped the same
on direction
the other, at
Figurethe advancing
1b. Butt side.
joining In
is the
commonlap joint
for
configuration, one material is overlapped on the other, Figure 1b. Butt joining is common for similar
configuration,
similar FSW one
and material
thick parts is overlapped
(roughly on the≥other,
thickness 3 mm), Figure 1b. lap
whereas Buttjoining
joiningforis common
dissimilar for
FSWsimilar
and
FSW and thick parts (roughly thickness ≥ 3 mm), whereas lap joining for dissimilar FSW and sheets
FSW and
sheets thick parts
(roughly (roughly
thickness thickness ≥ 3 mm), whereas lap joining for dissimilar FSW and sheets
≤ 3 mm).
(roughly thickness ≤ 3 mm).
(roughly thickness ≤ 3 mm).
Figure 1. Most
Most common friction
friction stir welding
welding (FSW) material
material configurations: (a) butt welding (b)
(b) lap
Figure 1. Most common
Figure 1. common friction stir
stir welding (FSW)
(FSW) material configurations: (a) butt
configurations: (a) butt welding
welding (b) lap
lap
welding (Reproduced
welding (Reproduced from
from [3],
[3], with
with permission
permission from
fromTaylor
Taylor&&Francis,
Francis,2017).
2017).
welding (Reproduced from [3], with permission from Taylor & Francis, 2017).
the case
In the case of
of dissimilar
dissimilarbutt
buttjoining,
joining,itithas
hasbeen
beenproven
proventhatthatthe
the softer
softer material
material should
should bebe placed
placed at
In the case of dissimilar butt joining, it has been proven that the softer material should be placed
at the
the retreating
retreating sideside to properly
to properly intermix
intermix with with the harder
the harder materialmaterial in the activated
in the activated area
area (i.e., (i.e.,
area area
already
at the retreating side to properly intermix with the harder material in the activated area (i.e., area
already welded)
welded) [4]. Conversely,
[4]. Conversely, if the
if the softer softer is
material material
placed isat placed at the advancing
the advancing side, intermixing
side, intermixing occurs in
already welded) [4]. Conversely, if the softer material is placed at the advancing side, intermixing
occurs
the in the unactivated
unactivated area, thusarea, thus improper
favoring favoring improper joints.
joints. Figure Figurethe
2 shows 2 shows the placement
placement of softer
of softer material
occurs in the unactivated area, thus favoring improper joints. Figure 2 shows the placement of softer
material (AA5083)
(AA5083) at the side
at the retreating retreating
(Figureside
2a),(Figure 2a), andside
and advancing advancing
(Figure 2b).side In
(Figure 2b).
the case of In the caselap
dissimilar of
material (AA5083) at the retreating side (Figure 2a), and advancing side (Figure 2b). In the case of
dissimilar
joining, thelap joining,
softer the softer
material material on
is overlapped is overlapped on the harder
the harder material (i.e., atmaterial
the tool(i.e.,
side).at the tool side).
dissimilar lap joining, the softer material is overlapped on the harder material (i.e., at the tool side).
Figure 2. Example of dissimilar FSW with the placement of the softer material (Al 5083) at the (a)
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Example
Example of
of dissimilar
dissimilar FSW
FSW with
with the
the placement
placement ofof the
the softer
softer material
material (Al
(Al 5083)
5083) at
at the
the (a)
(a)
retreating and (b) advancing side (Reproduced from [4], with permission from Elsevier, 2016).
Regardless of weld configuration, a typical FSW joint consists of three regions: weld nugget (or
Regardless of weld configuration, a typical FSW joint consists of three regions: weld nugget (or
stir zone), thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ), and heat-affected zone (HAZ). Weld nugget
stir zone), thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ), and heat-affected zone (HAZ). Weld nugget
is a highly deformed structure, affected by pin tool action and heat. Grains in weld nugget zone are
is a highly deformed structure, affected by pin tool tool action
action and heat.
heat. Grains in weld nugget zone are
equiaxed and smaller in size due to recrystallization. Therefore, they normally have a hardness larger
equiaxed and smaller in size due to recrystallization. Therefore, they normally have a hardness larger
than that of base metals. TMAZ is less affected by heat and tool, thus temperature and strain are
that of
than that ofbase
basemetals.
metals.TMAZ
TMAZis is less
less affected
affected by heat
by heat andand
tool,tool,
thus thus temperature
temperature and strain
and strain are
are lower
lower in this zone than the weld nugget. Grains are large and deformed along the rotating direction
lower in this zone than the weld nugget. Grains are large and deformed along the rotating
in this zone than the weld nugget. Grains are large and deformed along the rotating direction of the direction
of the pin tool. The heat developed during stirring also affects materials beyond TMAZ, where there
of the
pin pinThe
tool. tool.heat
Thedeveloped
heat developed
duringduring stirring
stirring also affects
also affects materials
materials beyondbeyond
TMAZ, TMAZ,
wherewhere
there there
is no
is no direct contact with the tool, thereby forming an HAZ. The zone is generally quite narrow, with
is no direct contact with the tool, thereby forming an HAZ. The zone is generally quite narrow, with
grains that are approximately like those of the base materials; only limited grain growth can occur.
grains that are approximately like those of the base materials; only limited grain growth can occur.
Welding parameters, such as rotational speed, welding speed, offset distance, plunge depth, tilt
Welding parameters, such as rotational speed, welding speed, offset distance, plunge depth, tilt
angle, and tool geometry play a critical role during FSW of aluminum and steels [5–12]. Quality of
angle, and tool geometry play a critical role during FSW of aluminum and steels [5–12]. Quality of
joints is chiefly driven by two important features: (i) proper heat generation and (ii) intermixing of
joints is chiefly driven by two important features: (i) proper heat generation and (ii) intermixing of
Metals 2019, 9, 610 3 of 22
direct contact with the tool, thereby forming an HAZ. The zone is generally quite narrow, with grains
that are approximately like those of the base materials; only limited grain growth can occur.
Welding parameters, such as rotational speed, welding speed, offset distance, plunge depth,
tilt angle, and tool geometry play a critical role during FSW of aluminum and steels [5–12]. Quality
of joints is chiefly driven by two important features: (i) proper heat generation and (ii) intermixing
of materials. Among welding parameters, rotational and welding speed have the most significant
influence on heat generation. Too high rotational speed and too low welding speed usually generate
large heat inputs, which, although they favor metal intermixing, lead to the formation of large IMCs of
Al and Fe, with a consequent reduction of joint strength [13]. Conversely, too low rotational speed
and too high welding speed tend to provide insufficient heat inputs to soften materials. As a result,
other kinds of defects, including tunnel, voids, and microcracks in weld bead [14–19] can appear.
Similarly, other welding parameters can provide improper heat input and metal intermixing. In this
context, insertion of the tool at the butting line of Al/steel interface or tool off setting towards steel
normally give rise to excessive heat input, thus increasing the likelihood of IMCs and defects [20].
High plunge depth has the same effect on heat generation, particularly in the case of lap welding:
it allows the tool to touch the steel sheet at the opposite side, with a notable development of frictional
heat [21]. Tool geometry and tilting determine the intermixing pattern of materials during FSW and
contribute to the amount and distribution of heat developed. Studies have shown that tools with a
cylindrical pin profile tend to provide more uniform heat inputs and material intermixing from the top
to the bottom of weld seam [22,23]. Tilting with respect to weld surface facilitates the transverse tool
motion; however, it increases the downward force and, hence, could give rise to undesired excessive
heat inputs [24].
Based on this preliminary introduction, it can be concluded that FSW of aluminum alloys and steel
requires detailed research, especially knowledge of the issues and causes of improper joints. Although
several kinds of joint defects have been presented and discussed in the literature, studies normally
address only specific aspects without providing an organized and summarizing study. Therefore,
this paper reviews the main works on several outstanding aspects of FSW process of aluminum alloys
and steels, including metallurgical features, joint appearance, mechanical properties under static and
dynamic loading conditions, with focus on issues related to joint quality. The aim of this research is
twofold: (i) providing a systematic study that points out the influence of key process parameters on
several kinds of defects and consequently on mechanical strength of FSW Al-steel joints; (ii) presenting
an overview of key process parameter settings that could be adopted to eliminate or limit such defects.
Table A1 in Appendix A reports a list of the references used in this paper classified according to joint
issues, materials, and joint configurations.
2. Issues in FSW of Aluminum Alloys to Steels
2.1. Intermetallic Compounds (IMCs)

Al/Fe IMCs are usually at the interface of aluminum and steel as FeAl3 , Fe2 Al5 , FeAl2 , FeAl,
and Fe3 Al [25–30]. Mechanical properties of FSW joints depend essentially on thickness and
chemical composition of IMCs. In general, thick IMCs have a more deleterious influence on weld
strength [21,22,24,31]. The minimum thickness under which it seems that IMCs have no significant
effects on mechanical properties of FSW Al/steel joints is not well defined. Studies in the literature
provide contrasting results. Some studies suggest ≤ 10 µm as a threshold thickness [32], whereas other
researches ≤ 15 µm [33]. Al-rich IMCs, including FeAl3 , Fe2 Al5 , and FeAl2 , are brittle and favor crack
nucleation in welded joints. Fe-rich IMCs, such as FeAl and Fe3 Al, are less brittle and, hence, have a
minor detrimental effect on weld strength.
Iron-aluminum phase diagram, Figure 3, shows that different IMCs can be formed at a range
of chemical composition and temperature under equilibrium conditions. The literature has pointed
out that the formation and growth of IMCs take place in a range of temperature from 500 ◦ C to
Metals 2019, 9, 610 4 of 22
1200 ◦ C [34–38]. At lower temperatures, the formation and growth of IMCs are limited and Al-rich
IMCs generally appear. On the other hand, the growth of IMCs is notable at elevated temperatures,
Metalsand
2017, 7, x FOR
Fe-rich PEER
IMCs REVIEW
mainly precipitate. 4 of 23
Figure
Figure 3. Iron-Aluminum
3. Iron-Aluminum phasediagram
phase diagram (Reproduced
(Reproduced from
from[39],
[39],with
withpermission fromfrom
permission Springer
Springer
Nature, 2003).
Nature, 2003).
The solid-phase reaction that leads to the formation of IMCs is slow when temperature is below
The solid-phase reaction that leads to the formation of IMCs is slow when temperature is below
the aluminum melting point (i.e., ≤ 660 ◦ C) [36]. At this stage, Al migrates towards the steel side,
the aluminum melting
where it combines point
with (i.e.,
Fe to form≤ 660
FeAl°C) [36]. At this stage, Al migrates towards the steel side,
3 . Above aluminum melting temperature, Fe diffuses into
where it combines
aluminum with FeFeAl
and converts to 3form FeAl
into Fe 3. Above aluminum melting temperature, Fe diffuses into
2 Al5 by the following reaction [37]:
aluminum and converts FeAl3 into Fe2Al5 by the following reaction [37]:
Fe + 5FeAl3 = 3Fe2 Al5 (1)
Fe + 5FeAl3 = 3Fe2Al5 (1)
This process takes place in the 700–900 ◦C range. According to thermodynamics, FeAl should3
This process takes place in the 700–900 °C range. According to thermodynamics, FeAl 3 should
form first and then transform into Fe2 Al5 . However, FeAl3 is more unstable than Fe2 Al5 ; as a result,
form first and then transform into Fe2Al5. However, FeAl3 is more unstable than Fe2Al5; as a result,
the formation of FeAl3 and its conversion into Fe2 Al5 take place simultaneously. This phenomenon
the formation of FeAl3 and its conversion into Fe2Al5 take place simultaneously. This phenomenon
could be attributable to the orthorhombic cell structure of Fe2 Al5 , which has a large number of
could be attributable
aluminum vacanciesto the c-axis
along orthorhombic cell structure
as crystallographic defects of Fe2Al5, which has a large number of
[40].
aluminum vacancies along c-axis as crystallographic
◦ defects [40].
At a higher temperature (≥ 1000 C), diffusivity of Fe atoms increases, and Fe2 Al5 transforms into
aAt a higher
more stable temperature (≥ 1000 °C),
Fe-richer intermetallic diffusivity
phase, of Fe
that is FeAl, byatoms increases,
the following and Fe
reaction 2Al5 transforms into
[37]:
a more stable Fe-richer intermetallic phase, that is FeAl, by the following reaction [37]:
3Fe + Fe2 Al5 = 5FeAl (2)
3Fe + Fe2Al5 = 5FeAl (2)
The conversion of Fe Al5 into FeAl at an increasing temperature can be clearly seen from the
The conversion of Fe2Al25 into FeAl at an increasing temperature can be clearly seen from the X-
X-ray diffraction patterns shown in Figure 4 [37]. However, part of FeAl converts into Fe3 Al at high
ray diffraction patterns shown in Figure
pressure as temperature decreases.
4 [37]. However, part of FeAl converts into Fe3Al at high
pressure as temperature decreases.
Metals2017,
Metals 2019,7,9,x 610
FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of2322
5 of
Figure
Figure 4.
4. Detection
Detection of
of intermetallic
intermetallic compounds
compounds (IMCs)
(IMCs) byby X-ray
X-ray diffraction
diffraction at
at different
different temperatures
temperatures
Figure 4. Detection of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) by X-ray diffraction at different temperatures
(Reproduced from [37],
(Reproduced from [37], with
with permission
permission from
from Elsevier,
Elsevier, 2009).
2009).
(Reproduced from [37], with permission from Elsevier, 2009).
2.2. FSW
2.2. FSW Parameters
Parameters Affecting
Affecting IMCs
IMCs
2.2. FSW Parameters Affecting IMCs
2.2.1. Rotational
2.2.1. Rotational Speed
Speed and and Welding
Welding Speed
Speed
2.2.1. Rotational Speed and Welding Speed
Chemical composition
Chemical composition and properties of
and properties IMCs are
of IMCs are greatly
greatly affected
affected by the heat
by the heat input
input and
and pressure
pressure
Chemical
involved during composition
during thethe welding and properties of
process [41–44]. IMCs are
In this greatly
this context, affected
context, rotational by the
rotational speed heat input
speed and and
and welding pressure
welding speed
speed
involved welding process [41–44]. In
involved
play a during
key role thethe
in welding process
formation and [41–44].
growth In
of this
IMCs. context,
They rotational
are the speed
main and welding
factors responsible speedfor
play a key role in the formation and growth of IMCs. They are the main factors responsible for friction
play a keybetween
friction role in the
tool formation
and and growth
workpiece, with of IMCs. They
rotational speed arehaving
the main thefactors responsible
strongest effect on for friction
heat input:
between tool and workpiece, with rotational speed having the strongest effect on heat input: high
between tool andspeed
high rotational workpiece, with morerotational speed having the high strongest effect on can
heatbeinput: highin
rotational speed causescauses more friction friction and
and consequentlyconsequently
high temperatures temperatures
can be reached inreached
a welded
rotational
a welded speed
joint. causes more friction
Differently, welding and consequently high temperatures thecan beper
reached in a welded
joint. Differently, welding speed drivesspeed drives
the time spent theby time spent
the tool perbyunit tool
area: at low unit area:
welding at low
speed,
joint. Differently,
welding speed, weldingbetween
friction speed drives
tool the time
and spent by
workpiece theatool
lasts per unit
longer time area:
in a at low welding
certain region, speed,
thereby
friction between tool and workpiece lasts a longer time in a certain region, thereby increasing
friction
increasingbetween tool andInworkpiece
temperature. this context,lasts a longer
Zhao timerecorded
et al. [41] in a certain region, thereby
the temperature increasing
of welded
temperature. In this context, Zhao et al. [41] recorded the temperature of welded joints duringjoints
FSW
temperature.
during FSW In this
of TRIP context,
AA6061 Zhao
TRIPetsteel
al. [41] recordedhow the temperature
temperature changed
of weldedover joints during FSW
of AA6061 and steeland
to monitor howtotemperature
monitor changed over time time
at varying welding at varying
speeds.
ofwelding
AA6061 and TRIP steel5 to monitorthe how temperature changed over time at varying welding speeds.
Figure 5speeds. Figure
illustrates illustrates
the temperature temperature
profiles profiles
as obtained as obtained
when when
welding welding
speed speed increased
increased from 60
Figure
from 60 5 illustrates
mm/min tothe120temperature
mm/min. profiles
effect as
of obtained when in welding speed increased from 60
mm/min to 120 mm/min. The effectThe of welding welding
speed in speed
reducing reducing
heat input heat
and, input and,
in turn, in turn,
the time
mm/min
the time to 120from
span mm/min.the The heating
initial effect ofto welding
successivespeed in cooling
joint reducing is heat input
made clear. and, in turn, the time
span from the initial heating to successive joint cooling is made clear.
span from the initial heating to successive joint cooling is made clear.
Figure
Figure5.5. Effect
Effectofof
5.Effect welding
ofwelding speed
weldingspeed on
speedon joint
onjoint temperature
temperatureinin
jointtemperature FSW
FSWofof
inFSW AA6061
ofAA6061 and
AA6061and TRIP
andTRIP steel
TRIPsteel (Reproduced
steel(Reproduced
(Reproduced
Figure
from
from [41],
[41], with
with permission
permission from
from Elsevier,
Elsevier, 2018).
2018). Arrows
Arrows in
in the
the graph
graph identify
identify the
the temperature
temperature profiles
profiles
from [41], with permission from Elsevier, 2018). Arrows in the graph identify the temperature profiles
as
as a
a function
function of
of welding
welding speed.
speed.
as a function of welding speed.
Metals 2019, 9, 610 6 of 22

Welding speed and hence duration of a temperature strongly influence the growth kinetics of IMCs.
Liu etWelding speedthat
al. [45] stated andifhence durationofofIMCs
the thickness a temperature
exhibits a strongly influence
linear inverse the growth
relationship withkinetics
welding of
IMCs. Liu et al. [45] stated that if the thickness of IMCs exhibits a linear inverse
speed, IMCs would nucleate and grow by a chemical reaction. On the other hand, if this relationship is relationship with
welding speed,
parabolic, IMCs would
IMCs would nucleate
be the result of aand grow byinterdiffusion
solid-state a chemical reaction.
mechanism. On the
Thisother hand,
different if this
kinetics
relationship
was responsible is parabolic, IMCs would
for the formation be the
of different result
kinds of of a solid-state
IMCs. As showninterdiffusion
in Table 1, Liumechanism. This
et al. [45] found
different kinetics was responsible for the formation of different kinds of IMCs.
in FSW of AA6061 and TRIP steel a linear relationship between thickness of IMCs and welding speed As shown in Table 1,
Liu et al. [45] found in FSW of AA6061 and TRIP steel a linear relationship between
at rotational speed of 1200 rpm and offset of 1.03 mm, which suggests that FeAl is formed by chemical thickness of IMCs
and welding
reaction. speed
In this at diffusion
case, rotationalcould
speednot of 1200
occurrpm and offset
because of 1.03 mm,
of insufficient heatwhich suggests that
and pressure. FeAl
In other
is formed by chemical reaction. In this case, diffusion could not occur
process conditions, Fe3 Al is formed by the interdiffusion of Fe atoms into FeAl. because of insufficient heat and
pressure. In other process conditions, Fe3Al is formed by the interdiffusion of Fe atoms into FeAl.
Table 1. Relationship between IMC thickness (t) and welding speed (ν) in friction stir welding (FSW)
Table
of 1. Relationship
AA6061 between
and TRIP steel IMC thickness
(Reproduced (t) and
from [45], withwelding speed
permission (ν) in
from friction2014).
Elsevier, stir welding (FSW)
of AA6061 and TRIP steel (Reproduced from [45], with permission from Elsevier, 2014).
Rotational Speed Offset Distance 1.03 mm Offset Distance 1.63 mm
Rotational Speed Offset Distance
1
1.03 mm Offset Distance
1 1.63 mm
1200 rpm t 1∝ v (FeAl) t1∝ √ (Fe3 Al)
v
1200 rpm t ∝ 1(FeAl) t∝ (Fe 3Al)
1800 rpm t ∝ 𝑣 √v (Fe3 Al) t ∝ √1v (Fe3 Al)
√𝑣
1 1
1800 rpm t∝ (Fe3Al) t∝ (Fe3Al)
√𝑣 √𝑣
Finding an optimum combination of rotational and welding speed is one of the main aims of
Finding an optimum combination of rotational and welding speed is one of the main aims of
researches that have been carried out on FSW of Al/steel. According to the results obtained from several
researches that have been carried out on FSW of Al/steel. According to the results obtained from
kinds of Al/steel configurations in terms of metal grade, thickness, and weld configuration, it can be
several kinds of Al/steel configurations in terms of metal grade, thickness, and weld configuration, it
summarized that small deviations in material and welding features can notably modify the optimum
can be summarized that small deviations in material and welding features can notably modify the
combination of rotational and welding speed. A common ground to these studies is that the excessive
optimum combination of rotational and welding speed. A common ground to these studies is that
heat input and temperature in welds caused by high rotational speed and low welding speed favor the
the excessive heat input and temperature in welds caused by high rotational speed and low welding
formation of thick IMC layers. This is because the tool causes high friction with the workpiece per unit
speed favor the formation of thick IMC layers. This is because the tool causes high friction with the
time, thereby increasing temperature and hence the number of IMCs [46]. Wan et al. [13] investigated
workpiece per unit time, thereby increasing temperature and hence the number of IMCs [46]. Wan et
the effect of rotational speed and welding speed on microstructure and mechanical properties of FSW
al. [13] investigated the effect of rotational speed and welding speed on microstructure and
joints between AA6082-T6 and Q235A steel. They reported that the thickness of IMCs decreased from
mechanical properties of FSW joints between AA6082-T6 and Q235A steel. They reported that the
1.1 µm to 0.6 µm at increasing welding speed from 25 mm/min to 400 mm/min, as illustrated in Figure 6.
thickness of IMCs decreased from 1.1 µ m to 0.6 µ m at increasing welding speed from 25 mm/min to
However, the thickness of IMC layers increased from 0.5 µm to 1.2 µm when rotational speed increased
400 mm/min, as illustrated in Figure 6. However, the thickness of IMC layers increased from 0.5 µ m
from 600 rpm to 1200 rpm.
to 1.2 µ m when rotational speed increased from 600 rpm to 1200 rpm.
Figure 6.6. Effect of

Figure of (a)
(a) welding
welding speed
speed and
and (b)
(b) rotational
rotational speed
speed on
on IMC
IMC thickness
thickness in
in FSW
FSW between
between
AA6082-T6and
AA6082-T6 andQ235A
Q235Asteel
steel(Reproduced
(Reproducedfrom
from[13],
[13],with
withpermission
permissionfrom
fromthe
theauthors).
authors).
Murugan
Murugan et
etal.
al.[31]
[31]stated
statedthat
thatthe
thethickness
thicknessofofIMCs
IMCssuch
suchasasFeAl
FeAl2 , 2Fe 4 Al
, Fe 4Al1313, ,FeAl
FeAl33,,and
andFe
Fe22Al
Al55,
increased
increasedfrom
from0.7 µ mto
0.7µm to4.80 µ mwhen
4.80 µm whenrotational
rotationalspeed
speedincreased
increasedfrom
from400 400rpmrpmto to1000
1000 rpm,
rpm, during
during
FSW
FSW of commercially
commercially pure
purealuminum
aluminumand andAISI304
AISI304 stainless
stainless steel.
steel. TheThe formation
formation of thick
of thick IMCsIMCs at
at 1000
rpm considerably reduced tensile strength, as shown in Figure 7. There was no evidence of IMCs at
200 rpm probably due to the low heat input involved during material stirring. In this case, since
Metals 2019, 9, 610 7 of 22
1000
Metals rpm considerably
2017, 7, reduced tensile strength, as shown in Figure 7. There was no evidence
x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of of
23
IMCs at 200 rpm probably due to the low heat input involved during material stirring. In this case,
since materials
materials were
were not not sufficiently
sufficiently intermixed,
intermixed, tensile strength
tensile strength (100
(100 MPa) MPa)
was was
lower lower
than that than that
observed
observed at 400 rpm
at 400 rpm (120 MPa). (120 MPa).
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Effect
Effect of
of rotational
rotational speed
speed on
on tensile
tensile strength
strength in
in FSW
FSW of
of commercially
commercially pure
pure aluminum
aluminum and
and
AISI304 stainless steel (Reproduced from [31], with permission from Springer Nature, 2018).
AISI304 stainless steel (Reproduced from [31], with permission from Springer Nature, 2018).
Pourali et et al.
al.[43]
[43]reported
reportedthe thepresence
presence of of
FeAl FeAlandand Fe3Al
Fe3during
Al during FSWFSW of AA1100
of AA1100 and St37
andsteel.
St37
Particularly,
steel. at rotational
Particularly, speedspeed
at rotational of 315ofrpm and welding
315 rpm and welding speed speedof 50ofmm/min,
50 mm/min, FeAlFeAlformedformed at the
at
interface of Al/steel and some steel fragments were detected
the interface of Al/steel and some steel fragments were detected at the aluminum side. At at the aluminum side. At the same
rotational speed,
rotational speed, IMCIMC thickness
thickness increased
increased fromfrom 25 µm µ m to 93 µµm m with welding speed up up to to 60
60mm/min.
mm/min.
On the steel side, the further further diffusion
diffusion of of Fe
Fe into
into FeAlFeAl transformed
transformed FeAl FeAl into
into FeFe33Al with enoughenough
temperatureand
temperature andpressure.
pressure.TheseTheseresults
results differ
differ from
from other
other studies
studies in thein the literature,
literature, which which
state state
that IMCthat
IMC thickness
thickness decreases
decreases with an with an increase
increase in welding
in welding speed. speed.
PouraliPourali
et al. [43]et al. [43] attributed
attributed the increase
the increase of IMC
of IMC thickness
thickness with welding
with welding speed tospeed to the
the fact thatfact
thethat the formation
formation temperature temperature
of Fe3 AlofisFe 3Al isthan
lower lower than
that of
that ofTherefore,
FeAl. FeAl. Therefore,
temperature temperature
decreased decreased with welding
with welding speed and speed and
part ofpart
FeAloftransformed
FeAl transformed to Fe3 Alto
Fe3Al
due to due to Fe diffusion.
Fe atomic atomic diffusion. Consequently,
Consequently, the thickness the thickness
of the IMCoflayer the IMC layer On
increased. increased.
the otherOn the
hand,
other
at hand, at
rotational rotational
speed speedno
of 400 rpm, ofconsiderable
400 rpm, no increase
considerable in IMC increase
thickness in IMC thickness was
was observed, whenobserved,
welding
when welding
speed increased speed
fromincreased
50 mm/min from to5060mm/min
mm/min. to In
60 another
mm/min.study, In another
Shen study, Shen
et al. [47] et al.
also [47] also
reported a
reported increase
peculiar a peculiar in increase
thickness inofthickness
a Fe4 Al13 of layer
a Fe4Al with13 layer with increasing
increasing welding speed welding in speed
FSW ofinAA5754FSW of
AA5754
to DP600tosteel.
DP600 Thesteel. The thickness
thickness of Fe4 Al13oflayer
Fe4Alwas13 layer
less was
thanless10 µm than at 10 µ m at speed
welding welding speed
of 16 mm/min,of 16
mm/min,
but 170 µmbut with170welding
µ m with welding
speed speed of 45
of 45 mm/min. Helal mm/min. Helal
et al. [48] et al. [48]
examined examined
the effect the effect
of welding speedof
welding speed on the formation of IMCs and mechanical strength of
on the formation of IMCs and mechanical strength of FSW lap joints between AA6061-T6 and ultra-low FSW lap joints between AA6061-
T6 and steel.
carbon ultra-low
It wascarbon
foundsteel.
thatItthewas found that
thickness the thickness
of IMCs reduced of at IMCs reduced
increasing at increasing
welding speed due welding
to the
speed heat
lower due to the lower
input. heat input.
Joint strength couldJointbestrength
increased could
withbe anincreased
increase of with an increase
welding speed of welding
from 50 mm/minspeed
from
to 20050 mm/minHowever,
mm/min. to 200 mm/min.too large However,
weldingtoo large e.g.,
speeds, welding speeds, e.g.,
400 mm/min, 400 mm/min,
provided low heat provided
inputs,
low heat
thus inputs,
reducing thus reducing
material intermixing material intermixing and
and consequently jointconsequently
strength. joint strength.
In lap joining, friction at the upper sheet is greater because tool shoulder and tool pin are both
in contact
contact with
withitit(friction
(frictionisisonly
only between
between pinpinand and thetheother sheet
other at the
sheet at bottom
the bottomside).side).
Therefore, since
Therefore,
temperature
since is higher
temperature at the upper
is higher at the sheet,
upperIMCs sheet,mainly
IMCs form mainly in the
form weld region
in the weld close to pin
region shoulder.
close to pin
In this context, Figure 8 shows how the thickness of IMCs can vary significantly
shoulder. In this context, Figure 8 shows how the thickness of IMCs can vary significantly at the top at the top and bottom
sheetbottom
and sides of AA5005/St-52
sheet steel welds [20].
sides of AA5005/St-52 steel welds [20].
Metals 2019, 9, 610 8 of 22
Figure 8.8. Thickness

ThicknessofofIMCs
IMCs at the
at the top top
and and bottom
bottom of AA5005/St-52
of AA5005/St-52 steelwelded
steel FSW FSW welded joints at
joints at different
welding
differentand rotational
welding and speeds (Reproduced
rotational from [20], with
speeds (Reproduced permission
from from
[20], with Springer Nature,
permission 2018).
from Springer
Nature, 2018).
From Figure 8, it can also be noted that FeAl only formed in the upper region of the weld due to
the high
From heat involved
Figure in the
8, it can joining
also be noted processthat(high
FeAl rotational
only formed speed of 1200
in the upper rpm and low
region of thewelding
weld due speed to
of 54 mm/min).
the high heat involved FeAl or Fe
3 in the Al were
2 joining
5 formed in the other welding conditions with
process (high rotational speed of 1200 rpm and low welding lower heat inputs.
Similarly,
speed of 54 Ramachandran
mm/min). FeAlet3 or al. Fe
[44]
2Alinvestigated
5 were formed theineffect of welding
the other weldingspeed on thewith
conditions formation
lower heatand
growth of IMCs inRamachandran
inputs. Similarly, FSW of AA5052 et and HSLA
al. [44] steel. Rotational
investigated the effect speed was kept
of welding constant
speed on theatformation
500 rpm,
while
and growthwelding speedinincreased
of IMCs FSW of AA5052from 30 and mm/minHSLAtosteel.60 mm/min.
RotationalItspeedwas observed
was kept that FeAlat
constant 2 was
500
formed
rpm, while at lower
welding welding
speed speed of 35 mm/min,
increased from 30 mm/min whereas to FeAl occurredItatwas
60 3mm/min. 45 mm/min
observedand that55FeAl
mm/min.
2 was
The
formedthickness
at lower of IMCs
welding notably
speeddecreased
of 35 mm/min, as welding speedFeAl
whereas increased:
3 occurred IMCsat thickness
45 mm/min at the
andtop 55
side
mm/min.of weld Thenugget
thickness wasof0.65IMCs 1.6 µm,decreased
µm,notably and 6 µmasatweldingweldingspeedspeedincreased:
of 55 mm/min,IMCs 45 mm/min,
thickness at
and 35 mm/min,
the top side of weld respectively.
nugget was Likewise,
0.65 µ m, IMC 1.6thickness
µ m, and at 6 µthe
m bottom
at weldingsidespeed
reduced from
of 55 0.4 µm 45
mm/min, to
nearly
mm/min, zeroandwhen welding speed
35 mm/min, increased
respectively. from 35 IMC
Likewise, mm/min to 55 mm/min.
thickness at the bottom The side
maximumreduced strength
from 0.4 of
188
µ m MPa was obtained
to nearly zero when forwelding
joints welded at 45 mm/min,
speed increased from which
35 mm/minhad thinto 55(0.7 µm) andThe
mm/min. uniform
maximum IMC
layers.
strengthDehghani
of 188 MPa et al.
was[42] evaluated
obtained forthe influence
joints weldedofatwelding
45 mm/min,and rotational
which had speed, and µm)
thin (0.7 henceand of
the ensuing heat input, on the formation of Al/Fe
uniform IMC layers. Dehghani et al. [42] evaluated the influence of weldingIMCs during FSW of Al5186 and mild steel. FeAl
rotational speed,6
and Fe 2 Al5of
hence were
the formed
ensuingthroughout
heat input, the on thethickness
formationof weld nugget
of Al/Fe at low
IMCs welding
during FSW speed.
of Al5186 Theand amount
mild
of these IMCs was limited close to the tool shoulder at high welding
steel. FeAl6 and Fe2Al5 were formed throughout the thickness of weld nugget at low welding speed.6 speed: the thickness of FeAl
decreased
The amount from 1.4 mm
of these IMCs towas
0.43limited
mm, while closethat
to the oftool
Fe2 Al 5 from at
shoulder 2.1high to 0.9 µm
µm welding at welding
speed: speed
the thickness
from
of FeAl 146 mm/min
decreased tofrom
40 mm/min.
1.4 mm The to 0.43effect
mm, of while
welding thatand rotational
of Fe 2Al5 from speed
2.1 µasm heat
to 0.9input
µ m at factor (i.e.,
welding
heat input per unit length) on tensile strength of the FSW joints
speed from 14 mm/min to 40 mm/min. The effect of welding and rotational speed as heat input factor is illustrated in Figure 9. Tensile
strength
(i.e., heatincreased
input per unit at increasing
length) onheat input
tensile up to of
strength about
the FSW m2 /N:isthe
0.07 joints highest in
illustrated tensile
Figure strength
9. Tensile of
246 MPa increased
strength was observed for the joints
at increasing with the
heat input up smallest
to about IMC 0.07 m (layer highest≤tensile
thickness
2/N: the 0.5 µm), whichofwere
strength 246
obtained
MPa wasatobservedthe highest forwelding speed.
the joints with Attheincreasing
smallestheat IMC input,
(layerweld strength≤decreased
thickness 0.5 µm), continuously
which were
because
obtainedofat thetheappearance
highest of larger IMCs.
welding speed.Similar results have
At increasing beeninput,
heat obtainedweldby strength
Watanabedecreased
et al. [49],
which are also reported in Figure 9. The presence of large IMCs
continuously because of the appearance of larger IMCs. Similar results have been obtained notably reduced the strength of FSWby
welds
Watanabe in such
et al.a [49],
way which
that the tensile
are welded samples
also reported in Figurebroke
9. Theduring
presence clamping
of largewith
IMCsmechanical
notably reduced grips.
This is because
the strength the samples
of FSW welds in labelled
such aas wayS1,that
S2, and S7 show
the tensile a tensile
welded strength
samples equal
broke to 0 MPa
during in Figure
clamping with 9.
mechanical grips. This is because the samples labelled as S1, S2, and S7 show a tensile strength equal
to 0 MPa in Figure 9.
Metals 2019, 9, 610 9 of 22
[42]
[49]
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Relationship
Relationship between
between joint
joint strength
strength and
and heat
heat input
input factor
factor in
in FSW
FSW of
of AA5186
AA5186 and
and mild
mild steel
steel
2.2.2. Tool Geometry

2.2.2. Tool Geometry
Tool
Tool geometry
geometry greatly
greatly affects
affects thethe intermixing
intermixing patternpattern of of aluminum
aluminum alloys alloys andand steels
steels and
and
temperature distribution in weld bead. Basically, tool shoulder influences
temperature distribution in weld bead. Basically, tool shoulder influences weldment width, while weldment width, while tool
pin
toolimpacts
pin impactsintermixing pattern.
intermixing Temperature
pattern. Temperature distribution in FSW
distribution injoints
FSW is chiefly
joints drivendriven
is chiefly by the by
extent
the
of the contact area between tool and materials. Large contact area causes
extent of the contact area between tool and materials. Large contact area causes high friction andhigh friction and consequently
results in high results
consequently temperature
in high during joining. during
temperature In this regard,
joining.Syafiq
In thisetregard,
al. [50]Syafiq
investigated the investigated
et al. [50] effect of tool
geometry
the effect onof temperature
tool geometry distribution
on temperatureduringdistribution
FSW of AA6061-T6 during and FSWmild steel. They observed
of AA6061-T6 and mild that a
steel.
threaded cylindrical pin profile caused a rise in temperature up to 218.2 ◦ C in the joint, whereas a lower
They observed that a threaded cylindrical pin profile caused a rise in temperature up to 218.2 °C in
temperature of 198.5 ◦ C was achieved with a pin having the same tool shoulder and pin dimensions,
the joint, whereas a lower temperature of 198.5 °C was achieved with a pin having the same tool
but with aandcylindrical profile. However, ◦ C to 247.1 ◦ C when using
shoulder pin dimensions, but with temperature
a cylindricalincreased from 198.5
profile. However, temperature increased from
simple cylindrical tools with a shoulder diameter from 18 mm to 20
198.5 °C to 247.1 °C when using simple cylindrical tools with a shoulder diameter from 18 mm mm. It must be pointed outtothat
20
amm.
larger tool shoulder
It must be pointed or out
pin that
diameter
a largercause
toolhigh heat inputs
shoulder or pin and, hence,
diameter increase
cause high the
heatlikelihood
inputs and,of
having
hence, increase the likelihood of having thick IMCs. Kimapong et al. [24] found that in FSW of
thick IMCs. Kimapong et al. [24] found that in FSW of AA5083 and SS400 steel, thickness of
IMCs
AA5083 increased
and SS400 fromsteel,
0.91 to 6.77 µmofwhen
thickness IMCs tool pin diameter
increased from increased
0.91 to 6.77 fromµ m4when
mm totool 7 mm.
pin Similarly,
diameter
Zhao et al.from
increased [41] observed
4 mm to 7that mm.tool pins with
Similarly, Zhao large shoulder
et al. (15.88 mm)
[41] observed andpins
that tool pin diameter
with large(4.03 mm)
shoulder
were responsible for thick IMCs (0.6 µm) in FSW of AA6061 to TRIP steel.
(15.88 mm) and pin diameter (4.03 mm) were responsible for thick IMCs (0.6 µ m) in FSW of AA6061 Smaller shoulders (9.53 mm)
and pin diameters
to TRIP steel. Smaller(2.42shoulders
mm) promoted (9.53 mm) the formation of smaller
and pin diameters IMCs
(2.42 mm)(thickness
promoted of 0.2
theµm).
formation of
Ramachandran
smaller IMCs (thickness et al.of[22]
0.2 µinvestigated
m). the effect of tool geometry on formation and growth of
IMCs, including FeAl,
Ramachandran et Fe Al5 , investigated
al.2[22] and FeAl3 , during the effectFSW of of AA5052
tool geometry andon HSLA steel. and
formation Three tapered
growth of
cylindrical tools with
IMCs, including FeAl,different
Fe2Al5, tapered
and FeAl angles and one
3, during FSW simple cylindrical
of AA5052 and tool
HSLA were used
steel. in this
Three study,
tapered
with the bottom
cylindrical tools diameter (4 mm)
with different beingangles
tapered the same and(Figure
one simple10). cylindrical tool were used in this study,
with the bottom diameter (4 mm) being the same (Figure 10).bottom side of the AA5052/HSLA welds.
Figure 11 shows the thickness of IMCs at the upper and
Regardless of tool pin shape, the thickness of IMCs is quite low on the bottom, always being lower
than 3 µm. Differently, a notable difference can be seen at the upper side of weld: the thickness of IMCs
reduces constantly from 26 µm to nearly 0 µm with tool geometry from T1 to T4 (refer to Figure 11).
This is because the larger shoulder (i.e., larger taper angle being the tool tip diameter always 4 mm for
all the pins) of tool T1 increases friction between tool and sheets, thus generating high temperatures in
weld and the consequent formation of thick IMCs.
Metals 2019, 9, 610 10 of 22
Figure 10. Dimensions of tapered and cylindrical pin profiles used in FSW of AA5052 and HSLA steel
Figure 11 shows the thickness of IMCs at the upper and bottom side of the AA5052/HSLA welds.
than 3 µm. Differently, a notable difference can be seen at the upper side of weld: the thickness of
IMCs reduces constantly from 26 µ m to nearly 0 µ m with tool geometry from T1 to T4 (refer to Figure
11). This is because the larger shoulder (i.e., larger taper angle being the tool tip diameter always 4
mm Figure
for all10.
Figure 10.
theDimensions
pins) of of tapered
tapered
tool and
and cylindrical
cylindrical
T1 increases pin profiles
profiles used
pinbetween
friction toolin
used FSW
inand of
of AA5052
FSWsheets,
AA5052 and HSLA
HSLA steel
andgenerating
thus steel high
(Reproduced
(Reproduced
temperatures from
from[22],
in weld andwith
[22], withpermission
permissionfrom
the consequent from Elsevier,
of2015).
Elsevier,
formation 2015).
thick IMCs.
Figure 11 shows the thickness of IMCs at the upper and bottom side of the AA5052/HSLA welds.
30
than 3 µm. Differently,25a notable difference can be seen at the upper side of weld: the thickness of
IMC thickness (µm)
IMCs reduces constantly from 26 µ m to nearly 0 µ m with tool geometry from T1 to T4 (refer to Figure
upper
20
11). This is because the larger shoulder (i.e., larger taper angle being the tool tip diameter always 4
bottom
mm for all the pins) of tool T1 increases friction between tool and sheets, thus generating high
15
temperatures in weld and the consequent formation of thick IMCs.
10
30
5
25
IMC thickness (µm)
0 upper
20 T1 T2 T3 T4
Tool geometry bottom
15
Figure 11. IMCs found in FSW of AA5052 and HSLA steel in the upper and bottom region of joints
(Image 10results of [22]).
Figure adapted
11. IMCsfrom
found in FSW of AA5052 and HSLA steel in the upper and bottom region of joints
(Image adapted from results of [22]).
Khalilabad et al. [51] 5 investigated the effects of tool geometry on FSW joint quality. They found
that conical and threaded
Khalilabad 0 cylindrical
et al. [51] investigated pins
thehad theof
effects tendency to result
tool geometry oninFSW
defective joints with
joint quality. Theykissing
found
bond, tunnel,and
that conical and flash, ascylindrical
threaded compared
T1 to
pinscubical,
had T2the cylindrical,
tendency T3 toand tapered
result in cylindrical
defective
T4 jointspins.
with This is
kissing
because the diameter of conical pins
bond, tunnel, and flash, as compared to cubical,decreased from the shoulder to the tip, thereby reducing the
Tool cylindrical,
geometry and tapered cylindrical pins. This is
capability
because the of generating
diameter ofheat inputpins
conical during joining.from
decreased Differently, threadstoofthe
the shoulder cylindrical pinsreducing
tip, thereby caused high the
friction andofsevere
capability stresses
generating in welds,
heat which,joining.
input during in turn,Differently,
could wear threads
out pinsofrapidly. In both
cylindrical pinscases, limited
caused high
capability
Figure
friction of11.
and metal
IMCsintermixing
severe found
stresses in led
in FSW oftoAA5052
welds, the occurrence
which, andinHSLA ofsteel
turn, welding
couldin the defects.
upper
wear outand bottom
pins region
rapidly. Inofboth
jointscases,
(Image
limited adaptedoffrom
capability results
metal of [22]). led to the occurrence of welding defects.
intermixing
2.2.3. Pin Depth, Plunge Depth, and Offset Distance
Khalilabad
Pin depth andet al.offset
[51] investigated
distance have theaeffects of toolon
clear effect geometry on FSW
weld joint jointinquality.
quality lap andTheybuttfound
joint
that conical and threaded cylindrical pins had the tendency to result in defective joints
configurations, respectively. Plunge depth, instead, plays an important role in both joint configurations.with kissing
bond, tunnel,
Kimapong and
et al. [21]flash,
statedasthat,
compared to cubical,
in dissimilar cylindrical,
welding of AA5083 andand
tapered
SS400 cylindrical pins. This is
steel, joint temperature
could be increased with an increase of pin and plunge depth onto the steel sheet side, as shownthe
because the diameter of conical pins decreased from the shoulder to the tip, thereby reducing in
capability
Figure 12. of generating
This helped to heat input during
develop joining.and
high friction Differently, threads
heat between theoftool
cylindrical
shoulder pins
and caused high
materials.
friction and severe stresses in welds, which, in turn, could wear out pins rapidly. In both cases,
limited capability of metal intermixing led to the occurrence of welding defects.
2.2.3. Pin Depth, Plunge Depth, and Offset Distance
Pin depth and offset distance have a clear effect on weld joint quality in lap and butt joint
Pin depth and
configurations, offset distance
respectively. havedepth,
Plunge a clearinstead,
effect onplays
weld anjointimportant
quality in role
lap and butt joint
in both joint
configurations, respectively. Plunge depth, instead, plays an important role
configurations. Kimapong et al. [21] stated that, in dissimilar welding of AA5083 and SS400 steel, in both joint
configurations.
joint temperature Kimapong
could beetincreased
al. [21] stated that,
with an in dissimilar
increase welding
of pin and of depth
plunge AA5083 andthe
onto SS400 steel,
steel11sheet
Metals 2019, 9, 610 of 22
joint temperature could be increased with an increase of pin and plunge depth onto
side, as shown in Figure 12. This helped to develop high friction and heat between the tool shoulder the steel sheet
side,
and as shown in
materials. Figure
The rise in12. This helpedfavored
temperature to develop high friction
the formation andand heat of
growth between the tool
FeAl3, with shoulder
a detrimental
and
The materials.
rise
effect oninshear The
temperaturerise in temperature
favored
load strength, asthe favored
formation
displayed the formation
and growth
in Figure and growth of FeAl 3, with a detrimental
13. of FeAl3 , with a detrimental effect on shear
effect on shear as
load strength, load strength,inasFigure
displayed displayed
13. in Figure 13.
510
510
500
500
(°C)
490
(°C)
Temperature 490
480
Temperature
480
470
470
460
460
450
450
440
440 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0.1 0.2
Plunge depth 0.3
(mm) 0.4
Plunge depth (mm)
Figure 12. Effect

Figure 12. Effect of
of plunge
plunge depth
depth on
on temperature
temperature in
in FSW
FSW of
of AA5083
AA5083 and
and SS400
SS400 steel
steel (Image
(Image adapted
adapted
Figure
from 12.
resultsEffect
of of plunge
[21]).
from results of [21]). depth on temperature in FSW of AA5083 and SS400 steel (Image adapted
from results of [21]).
Figure 13.
Figure 13. Effect
Effect of
of pin
pin depth
depth on
on shear
shear load
load and
and IMC
IMC thickness
thickness inin FSW
FSW of
of AA5083
AA5083 and
and SS400
SS400 steel
steel
Figure 13. Effect
(Reproduced of [21],
from pin depth on shear load
withpermission
permission and
from TheIMC thickness
Japan InstituteinofFSW of AA5083
Metals and SS400
andMaterials,
Materials, steel
2019).
(Reproduced from [21], with from The Japan Institute of Metals and 2019).
(Reproduced from [21], with permission from The Japan Institute of Metals and Materials, 2019).
Similarly,Dehghani
Similarly, Dehghanietetal.al.[42]
[42]found
foundthatthatin
inFSW
FSWof of AA5186
AA5186and and mild
mild steel,
steel, an
an increase
increase of
of plunge
plunge
depthSimilarly,
depthfrom
from0.4 Dehghani
0.4mmmmtoto et
0.80.8
mm al.
mm [42] found
promoted
promoted that
high in
high FSW
heatheat of AA5186
inputs
inputs and
and,and, mild steel,
therefore,
therefore, an increase
the formation
the formation of plunge
of thicker
of thicker IMCs
depth
IMCs6from
(FeAl (FeAl
), from 0.4 mm
6),0.5 µmto
from to0.8
0.5 µ mmm
1.6 µm. promoted
to 1.6
IMCsµ m.were
IMCshigh heat
were
only inputs
only
found theand,
atfound attherefore,
upperthe upper
part the formation
part
of welds of weldsofatdepth
at plunge thicker
plungeof
IMCs
depth
0.4 mm.(FeAl 6), from 0.5 µ m to 1.6 µ m. IMCs were only found at the upper part of welds at plunge
ofLarger
0.4 mm. Larger
plunge plunge
depths up depths
to 0.8 mm up promoted
to 0.8 mmthe promoted the of
occurrence occurrence
IMCs alsoofatIMCs also atside.
the bottom the
depth Inofthe
bottom 0.4case
side.mm.ofLarger
similar plunge depths
FSW (i.e., twoup to 0.8 mm
materials promoted
of the the occurrence
same nature of IMCs
and thickness) also
butt at the
welding,
bottom side.
tool can be exactly placed along the joining line. In dissimilar FSW of aluminum alloy and steel, the tool
needs to have an offset towards aluminum (i.e., the softer material) to avoid excessive heat generation
and the formation of thick IMCs. In this context, Derazkola et al. [20] found that in FSW of AA5005
and St-52 steel, (i) offset of 1.5 mm towards steel sheet resulted in 10 µm thick IMCs; (ii) plunge depth
from 0.1 mm to 0.6 mm caused the formation of IMCs with thickness ≥ 20 µm.
In the case of similar FSW (i.e., two materials of the same nature and thickness) butt welding,
tool can be exactly placed along the joining line. In dissimilar FSW of aluminum alloy and steel, the
tool needs to have an offset towards aluminum (i.e., the softer material) to avoid excessive heat
generation and the formation of thick IMCs. In this context, Derazkola et al. [20] found that in FSW
of AA5005
Metals 2019, 9,and
610 St-52 steel, (i) offset of 1.5 mm towards steel sheet resulted in 10 µ m thick IMCs;
12 of(ii)
22
plunge depth from 0.1 mm to 0.6 mm caused the formation of IMCs with thickness ≥ 20 µm.
2.2.4. Tool Tilt Angle

2.2.4. Tool Tilt Angle
Tool tilt angle significantly influences vertical forces during FSW. Particularly, tool tilt angle
Tool tilt angle significantly influences vertical forces during FSW. Particularly, tool tilt angle
increases vertical force and, as a result, weld temperature. Elyasi et al. [52] reported an increase in
increases vertical force and, as a result, weld◦ temperature. Elyasi et al. [52] reported an increase in
temperature as tool tilt angle increased from 1 to 3◦ during FSW of AA1100 aluminum alloy and A441
temperature as tool tilt angle increased from 1° to 3° during FSW of AA1100 aluminum alloy and
AISI steel, as illustrated in Figure 14.
A441 AISI steel, as illustrated in Figure 14.
Figure
Figure 14.
14. Weld
Weld temperature
temperature for
for different
different tool
tool tilt
tilt angles
angles during
during FSW
FSW of
of AA1100
AA1100 aluminum
aluminum alloy
alloy and
and
A441 AISI steel (Reproduced from [52], with permission from SAGE UK,
A441 AISI steel (Reproduced from [52], with permission from SAGE UK, 2019). 2019).
The nature of IMCs depended on tilt angle angle andand ensuing

ensuing temperature:
temperature: FeAlFeAl33 formed at 1° 1◦ and 2°
2◦
tilt angle, whereas FeAl22 at ◦
at 3°.
3 . The
Thethickness
thicknessof ofIMCs
IMCsincreased
increasedfrom
from 1.5
1.5 µµm
m toto 33 µµm
m coherently
coherently with
an increase of tilt angle from 1°1◦ to 3°.
3◦ . Similarly,
Similarly, Kimapong
Kimapong et al.al. [24]
[24] noted
noted that
that the
the thickness
thickness of IMCs
IMCs
increased continuously
continuously with
with the
the tilt
tilt angle
angle inin FSW
FSW of of AA5083
AA5083 andand SS400
SS400steel,
steel,as
asshown
shownin inFigure
Figure15.
15.
It was also observed that Al-rich IMC (Fe22Al Al55))was
was formed
formed at
at increasing
increasing tilt
tilt angle,
angle, with
with aa consequent
consequent
reduction of joint shear strength.
Figure 15. Effect of tool tilt angle on shear strength and IMC thickness during FSW of AA5083 and
Figure 15. Effect of tool tilt angle on shear strength and IMC thickness during FSW of AA5083 and SS400
SS400 steel (Reproduced from [24], with permission from The Japan Institute of Metals and Materials,
steel (Reproduced from [24], with permission from The Japan Institute of Metals and Materials, 2019).
2019).
3. Defects in FSW of Al/Steel Sheet Joints

As stated in the introduction, FSW of aluminum alloy and steel sheets poses some issues due to
the very different physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of such metals. Weldability windows
are very narrow, and small deviations from optimal parameter settings lead to several defects,
including tunnel, voids, large grooves, and microcracks. Therefore, a proper selection of process
Metals 2019, 9, 610 13 of 22
3. Defects in FSW of Al/Steel Sheet Joints

As stated in the introduction, FSW of aluminum alloy and steel sheets poses some issues due to the
very different physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of such metals. Weldability windows are
very narrow, and small deviations from optimal parameter settings lead to several defects, including
tunnel, voids, large grooves, and microcracks. Therefore, a proper selection of process parameters in
dissimilar FSW is more crucial than in similar FSW to ensure adequate heat input and metal intermixing.
Rotational speed and welding speed are the process parameters with the most important influence
on heat generation and Al/steel intermixing. Summarily, low rotational speed and high welding
speed do not allow to obtain an enough heat input to plasticize metals and, hence, proper intermixing.
Differently, high rotational speed and low welding speed have an opposite effect: high heat inputs
lead to over-plasticization and incipient melting of aluminum with the formation of notable amounts
of Al/Fe IMCs. In both the cases, defects generally occur in welds with a harmful effect on joint
quality (i.e., strength and appearance). Other minor process parameters, including tool tilt angle, offset
distance, and plunge depth, also influence the quality of welded joints. Basically, high tool tilt angle
and plunge depth increase the vertical force required to join metals and consequently heat input. As a
result, they are responsible for flash along weldment borders due to an excessive pressure in metals
in semi-solid phase. In case of butt joint configuration, offset distance (i.e., the distance between the
joining line and the longitudinal axis of tool pin) is crucial for joint quality. Inserting the tool pin in
steel causes excessive heat due to the strong friction between steel and the tool. On the other hand,
the positioning of the tool pin too far from the steel leads to inadequate heat generation, which is not
enough to properly plasticize and intermix metals.
3.1. Tunnel Defect

Excessive heat inputs often cause tunnel (or tunneling) defects inside FSW Al/Fe welds with a
deleterious effect on strength. Dehghani et al. [14] found tunnel defects during FSW of AA 3003-H18
and mild steel (st-52). High rotational speed of 700 rpm and low welding speed of 12 mm/min were
responsible for tunnel defect, as shown in Figure 16. Tensile strength notably reduced from 112 MPa to
28 MPa due
Metals to7,the
2017, presence
x FOR of this defect.
PEER REVIEW 14 of 23
Figure
Figure 16. 16. Tunnel
16. Tunnel
Tunnel defect
defect
defect due due
due to excessive
totoexcessive
excessive heat
heat
heat input
input
input (700
(700
(700 rpm,
121212
rpm,
rpm, mm/min)
mm/min)
mm/min) during FSW
during
during FSW of
ofAA
FSW of3003-
AA AA 3003-
3003-H18
H18 H18
and and
mild mild steel
steel (st-52)
(st-52) (Reproduced
(Reproduced from
from [14],
[14], with
with permission
permission from Elsevier,
from
and mild steel (st-52) (Reproduced from [14], with permission from Elsevier, 2013). 2013).
Elsevier, 2013).
Tunnel defect
Tunnel could also occur duetotoinsufficient
insufficient plasticization ofofaluminum andand steel. This This
is
Tunnel defect
defect could
could also
also occur
occur due
due to insufficient plasticization
plasticization of aluminum
aluminum and steel.
steel. This is
is
oftenoften
causedcaused
by by
low low rotational
rotational speed
speed andand high
high welding
welding speed,
speed, which
which limit
limit the heat
thethe
heat input
inputand hence
andandhence the
oftenthe
caused by low rotational speed and high welding speed, which limit heat
capability of metals to intermix. Dehghani et al. [42] found this sort of defect during FSW of
input hence
capability of metals
the capability ofmild to intermix.
metals Dehghani et al. [42]
et al.found this sort of defect
sort ofduring
defect FSW of AA5186
AA5186 and steelto intermix.
st-52, Dehghani
Figure 17. [42] found this during FSW of
and mild steel st-52, Figure 17.
AA5186 and mild steel st-52, Figure 17.
Figure 17. Tunnel defect due to insufficient heat input (355 rpm, 40 mm/min) in FSW of AA5186 and
mild steel st-52 (Reproduced from [42], with permission from Elsevier, 2013).
17. Tunnel defect due to insufficient heat input (355 rpm, 40 mm/min) in FSW of AA5186 and
Figure 17.
mild Dehghani
steel st-52
steel et al. [42] alsofrom
st-52 (Reproduced
(Reproduced stated
from that
[42],
[42], tunnel
with
with defect could
permission
permission be eliminated
fromElsevier,
from Elsevier, 2013). by decreasing welding
2013).
speed, even though this could promote the formation of IMCs. A similar effect could be obtained by
increasing tilt
Dehghani et angle and
al. [42] plunge
also stateddepth
that[42]. Rafiei
tunnel et al. [53]
defect couldobserved tunnel defect
be eliminated during FSWwelding
by decreasing of
AA5083 and A316L stainless steel. In this study, joints were obtained at varying
speed, even though this could promote the formation of IMCs. A similar effect could be obtained bywelding speeds from
16 mm/min
increasing to 25and
tilt angle mm/min
plunge at depth
a fixed[42].
rotational
Rafiei speed of 250
et al. [53] rpm. Fortunnel
observed high welding speed (25
defect during FSW of
mm/min), the tool did not adequately intermix aluminum and steel, leaving a tunnel defect inside
AA5083 and A316L stainless steel. In this study, joints were obtained at varying welding speeds from
Metals 2019, 9, 610 14 of 22
Dehghani et al. [42] also stated that tunnel defect could be eliminated by decreasing welding
speed, even though this could promote the formation of IMCs. A similar effect could be obtained by
increasing tilt angle and plunge depth [42]. Rafiei et al. [53] observed tunnel defect during FSW of
AA5083 and A316L stainless steel. In this study, joints were obtained at varying welding speeds from
16 mm/min to 25 mm/min at a fixed rotational speed of 250 rpm. For high welding speed (25 mm/min),
the tool did not adequately intermix aluminum and steel, leaving a tunnel defect inside the joint.
During the tensile test, it was demonstrated that stresses were concentrated around the tunnel defect,
thereby promoting a premature fail of welds. Sound joints exhibited a tensile strength of about 300 MPa,
which was reduced at 35 MPa with the presence of a tunnel defect.
3.2. Voids
Voids can form in weld nugget because of excessive or insufficient heat input. Kimapong et al. [21]
studied the effect of tool rotational speed and offset distance on mechanical strength and microstructure
of FSW butt joints of AA5083 and SS400 mild steel. They found that the highest tensile strength
(240 MPa) was obtained at rotational speed of 250 rpm and offset distance of 0.2 mm at the aluminum
side. However, further increases in rotational speed and offset distance decreased tensile strength due
to the formation of voids in welded joints. In addition, small amounts of Al/Fe IMCs were observed at
the upper surface of FSW joints. Movahedi et al. [15] studied the effect of welding speed and rotational
speed on void formation in FSW of AA5083 and st-12 steel. In this study, welding speed and rotational
speed were varied between 70–230 mm/min and 750–1125 rpm, respectively. From results, it was
revealed that void formation was mainly influenced by welding speed rather than rotational speed.
Regardless of rotational speed, defect-free joints (obtained with welding speed of 70 and 110 mm/min)
fractured at steel side with 8 kN fracture load. Differently, welding speed over 150 mm/min caused the
occurrence of a significant number of voids inside in the weld nugget, as shown in Figure 18. This is
because high welding speed did not leave enough time for material intermixing in filling cavities that
were left behind the tool. During the tensile test, fracture location was moved from the steel parent
metal2017,
Metals to the
7, xinterface
FOR PEERwith weld bead, with fracture load reduced to 6.3 kN.
REVIEW 15 of 23
Voids
Figure
Figure 18.
18. Voids
Voids in
in FSW
FSW weld
weld joint
joint of
of AA5083
AA5083 and
and st-12
st-12 steel
steel (Reproduced
(Reproduced from
from [15],
[15], with
with permission
permission
from Taylor & Francis, 2012).
from Taylor & Francis, 2012).
Sameer etet al.

al. [54]
[54]investigated
investigatedthe theeffect
effectofofrotational
rotational speed,
speed, welding
welding speed,
speed, andand
tooltool offset
offset on
on the
the microstructure and mechanical properties of FSW joints of AA 6082-T6 and DP-600
microstructure and mechanical properties of FSW joints of AA 6082-T6 and DP-600 steel. This study steel. This
study confirmed
confirmed that lowthat low
heat heat (i.e.,
inputs inputs low(i.e., low rotational
rotational and welding
and welding speed) promote
speed) promote the formation
the formation of voids.
of voids.
Tensile Tensilereduced
strength strengthfromreduced fromto240
240 MPa 153MPa
MPatowhen153 MPa
voidswhen
werevoids
foundwere found
in weld in weld
nuggets nuggets
(Figure 19).
(Figure 19).
Sameer et al. [54] investigated the effect of rotational speed, welding speed, and tool offset on
the microstructure and mechanical properties of FSW joints of AA 6082-T6 and DP-600 steel. This
study confirmed that low heat inputs (i.e., low rotational and welding speed) promote the formation
ofMetals
voids. Tensile
2019, 9, 610 strength reduced from 240 MPa to 153 MPa when voids were found in weld nuggets
15 of 22
(Figure 19).
Figure19.
Figure Tensilestrength
19. Tensile strengthofofdefective
defectiveand
andsound
soundFSW
FSWjoints
jointsofofAA
AA6082-T6
6082-T6and
andDP-600
DP-600steel
steel
(Reproduced from [54], with permission from Springer Nature, 2018).
(Reproduced from [54], with permission from Springer Nature, 2018).
3.3. Surface Grooves and Flash Generation
3.3. Surface Grooves and Flash Generation
During FSW of aluminum alloys and steel, high heat inputs lead to over-plasticization of Al sheet.
Upon During
applyingFSWpressure
of aluminum
by tool alloys andplasticized
shoulder, steel, highmaterials
heat inputs
tendlead to over-plasticization
to come out of the weld seam of like
Al
sheet.
flash, Upon
leaving applying
behind apressure
groove on by top
toolofshoulder,
the weldplasticized materials et
surface. Zandsalimi tend to come
al. [46] found out of the
that, weldof
in FSW
seam like flash, leaving behind a groove on top of the weld surface. Zandsalimi et al.
AA6061 and 430 stainless steel, tool shoulder was not able to contain the plasticized material inside [46] found that,
the
inweld
FSWseam,
of AA6061 and 430 stainless steel, tool shoulder was not able to contain
as too high heat input was involved (rotational speed of 900 rpm and welding speed of the plasticized
material insideAs
40 mm/min). thea weld
result,seam, as too high
macroscopic heat
flash andinput was appeared
grooves involved (rotational
on the weldspeed of 900
surface, rpm and
as displayed
welding
in Figure speed of 40 mm/min). As a result, macroscopic flash and grooves appeared on the weld
Metals 2017, 20.
7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23
surface, as displayed in Figure 20.
Large groove
Flash
Figure 20. Flash

Figure 20. Flash and
and large
largesurface
surfaceand
andininFSW
FSWofof AA6061
AA6061 andand
430430 stainless
stainless steelsteel (Reproduced
(Reproduced fromfrom
[46],
[46], with
with permission
permission from from
SAGESAGE UK, 2019).
UK, 2019).
revealed that grooves

Habibnia et al. [55] revealed grooves could appear with insufficient
insufficient shoulder penetration in
FSW of AA5050 and 304 stainless steel. In In this
this case,
case, tool shoulder
shoulder was
was not able to contain materials
inside
inside the weld line and, therefore, surface grooves were formed. These defects
were formed. These defects could
could be
be easily
However, even though surface
eliminated by adopting deeper shoulder penetrations, up to 0.4 mm. However,
could be eliminated,
grooves could eliminated, flashes
flashes might
might appear
appear due
due to the larger pressure in plasticized metals
caused by shoulder plunge.
3.4. Microcracks
3.4. Microcracks
As already
As already stated,
stated, IMCs
IMCs are
are brittle
brittle precipitates
precipitates that
that normally
normally form
form at
at the
the interface
interface of
of aluminum
aluminum
and steel. Their main drawback is that they cause microcracks or nucleation when joints are
and steel. Their main drawback is that they cause microcracks or nucleation when joints are subjected subjected
to external
to external loads.
loads. In
In this
this context,
context, Yazdipour
Yazdipour etet al.
al. [16]
[16] investigated
investigated the
the effect
effect of
of rotational
rotational speed
speed on
on
weld strength, IMCs, and microcrack formation in FSW of Al 5083-H321 and 316L stainless steel. The
study showed that excessive heat input, due to high rotational speeds (350, 450, 550 rpm), caused the
formation of FeAl3 and microcracks at the aluminum/steel interface, as shown in Figure 21. Lower
rotational speeds (100 and 180 rpm) were instead responsible for tunnel and voids because of
insufficient heat input. From Figure 22, it can be noted that microcracks had a minor effect in reducing
grooves could be eliminated, flashes might appear due to the larger pressure in plasticized metals
caused by shoulder plunge.
3.4. Microcracks
MetalsAs already
2019, 9, 610stated, IMCs are brittle precipitates that normally form at the interface of aluminum 16 of 22
and steel. Their main drawback is that they cause microcracks or nucleation when joints are subjected
to external loads. In this context, Yazdipour et al. [16] investigated the effect of rotational speed on
weld strength, IMCs,
weld strength, IMCs,andandmicrocrack
microcrackformation
formation inin FSW
FSW of Al
of Al 5083-H321
5083-H321 andand
316L316L stainless
stainless steel.steel.
The
The study showed that excessive heat input, due to high rotational speeds (350, 450,
study showed that excessive heat input, due to high rotational speeds (350, 450, 550 rpm), caused550 rpm), caused
the
the formation of FeAl and microcracks at the aluminum/steel interface, as shown
formation of FeAl3 and microcracks at the aluminum/steel interface, as shown in Figure 21. Lower
3 in Figure 21.
Lower
insufficient
insufficient heat
heat input.
input. From
From Figure
Figure 22,
22, it
it can be noted
can be noted that
that microcracks
microcracks had
had aa minor
minor effect
effect in reducing
in reducing
weld
weld strength
strengththan
thanthat
thatofof
voids and
voids tunnel
and tunneldefects. Moreover,
defects. intermediate
Moreover, rotational
intermediate speedspeed
rotational (280 rpm)
(280
mitigated the above-mentioned issues, ensuring sound welded
rpm) mitigated the above-mentioned issues, ensuring sound welded joints. joints.
Figure 21.
Figure 21. Microcracks at the
Microcracks at the Al/steel interface in
Al/steel interface in FSW
FSW joints
joints of
of AA5083-H321 and 316L
AA5083-H321 and 316L stainless
stainless steel
steel
(Reproduced
Metals(Reproduced from [16]
2017, 7, x FOR from
PEER [16] withpermission
REVIEW
with permissionfrom
fromSpringer
SpringerNature,
Nature,2016).
2016). 17 of 23
Figure 22.
Figure 22. Effect of rotational
Effect of rotational speed
speed on
on tensile
tensile strength
strength in
in FSW
FSW of
of AA5083-H321
AA5083-H321 and
and 316L
316L stainless
stainless
steel (Reproduced from [16], with permission from Springer Nature, 2016).
steel (Reproduced from [16], with permission from Springer Nature, 2016).
3.5. Recommendations and Challenges in FSW of Aluminum Alloys and Steels

As previously
previouslydiscussed,
discussed,defects in Al/steel
defects FSW joints
in Al/steel FSW are influenced
joints by severalby
are influenced process parameters,
several process
with rotational
parameters, withand welding and
rotational speed being the
welding most
speed important
being the most factors. This factors.
important is because they
This significantly
is because they
influence the heat
significantly input involved
influence the heat ininput
the joining process.
involved in theTherefore,
joining rotational and welding
process. Therefore, speed should
rotational and
be optimized
welding speed at should
first, identifying a preliminary
be optimized weldabilityawindow,
at first, identifying before
preliminary making considerations
weldability window, before for
the other, and secondary, welding parameters. In fact, Al/steel FSW can often be
making considerations for the other, and secondary, welding parameters. In fact, Al/steel FSW canoptimized only by
actingbe
often onoptimized
rotationalonly
and by
welding
actingspeed withoutand
on rotational anywelding
careful handling of other
speed without anywelding
careful parameters,
handling of
other welding parameters, which can be set based on experience and good sense. An example of how
a preliminary study could be initially conducted can be well summarized by a study by Fraser et al.
[56]. They evaluate the combined effects of rotational and welding speed on the formation and kind
of defects in terms of weld pitch (i.e., ratio of welding speed to rotational speed), Figure 23. In this
figure, the region bounded by the black line and dotted line shows intermediate values of rotational
Metals 2019, 9, 610 17 of 22
which can be set based on experience and good sense. An example of how a preliminary study could
be initially conducted can be well summarized by a study by Fraser et al. [56]. They evaluate the
combined effects of rotational and welding speed on the formation and kind of defects in terms of weld
pitch (i.e., ratio of welding speed to rotational speed), Figure 23. In this figure, the region bounded
by the black line and dotted line shows intermediate values of rotational speed and welding speed
that fabricate sound FSW welds. Although they work were carried out on FSW of aluminum alloys,
it provides general recommendations also for dissimilar FSW with steel. As pointed out in Figure 23,
sound joints can be normally obtained by using a proper weld pitch range (it was in the range of
0.5 to 0.80 in the study by Fraser et al. [56]), whereas different defects can appear outside this range.
A low weld pitch (i.e., too high rotational speed or too low welding speed) gives rise to excessive heat
inputs associated with an undesired metal plasticity, with ensuing defects such as flash, tunnel, voids,
sticking of metals to pin tool surfaces, as well as excessive pin tool wear. In this case, the formation of
thick IMCs is inevitable. On the other hand, a high weld pitch (i.e., too high welding speed or too low
rotational speed) could result in insufficient heat input to soften metals. As a result, the tool is not
able to properly intermix metals, with the possible occurrence of tunnels and large cavities inside the
Metals
FSW 2017, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 23
Metals joint.
2017, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 23
Figure
Figure 23. Process
Process window
window for
for FSW
FSW (Reproduced
(Reproduced from
from [56], with permission from the authors).
Figure 23.
23. Process window for FSW (Reproduced from [56],
[56], with
with permission
permission from
from the
the authors).
authors).
The occurrence of Al/Fe IMCs is aa typical

typical issue
issue ofof dissimilar
dissimilar FSW FSW of of aluminum
aluminum alloys
alloys and
andsteels,
steels,
The occurrence of Al/Fe IMCs is a typical issue of dissimilar FSW of aluminum alloys and steels,
whose nature and size depend on welding welding parameters.
parameters. As As stated before, the most common and
stated before, the most common
whose nature and size depend on welding parameters. As stated before, the most common and
effective way
way toto significantly
significantlylimit
limitthe
theformation
formationofofIMCs
IMCs is is reduction
reduction of of
thethe heat
heat input
input involved
involved in
in the
effective way to significantly limit the formation of IMCs is reduction of the heat input involved in
the joining
joining process.
process. Therefore,
Therefore, heat input
heat input shouldshould be reduced
be reduced as much asasmuch as possible
possible to limit
to limit IMCs, IMCs,
ensuring
the joining process. Therefore, heat input should be reduced as much as possible to limit IMCs,
ensuring
adequateadequate metal intermixing
metal intermixing at the sameat the same
time. In time. In this context,
this context, some have
some studies studies have proposed
proposed the use
ensuring adequate metal intermixing at the same time. In this context, some studies have proposed
the use intermediate
intermediate Zn layersZnbetween
layers between
aluminum aluminum andsheets
and steel steel sheets
[57–59][57–59] to reduce
to reduce IMCs IMCs in Al/steel
in Al/steel joints
the use intermediate Zn layers between aluminum and steel sheets [57–59] to reduce IMCs in Al/steel
joints
(Figure(Figure 24). These
24). These layerslayers
could could
be usedbe as
used
Zn as Znorfoils
foils Zn or Zn coating
coating of galvanized
of galvanized steels.steels.
joints (Figure 24). These layers could be used as Zn foils or Zn coating of galvanized steels.
Figure 24. Zinc foil sandwiched between aluminum and steel (Reproduced from [57], with permission
Figure 24.
Figure 24. Zinc
Zinc foil
foil sandwiched
sandwiched between
between aluminum
aluminum and
and steel
steel (Reproduced
(Reproduced from [57], with
from [57], with permission
permission
from Elsevier, 2016).
from Elsevier,
from Elsevier, 2016).
2016).
Plasticity of aluminum increases when it combines with Zn because the melting temperature of
Zn-alloyed aluminum is lowered. Therefore, sound joints can be obtained at lower heat input [60].
Zheng et al. [57] stated that the insertion of Zn foils between AA6061 and 316 stainless steel help
Zheng et al. [57] stated that the insertion of Zn foils between AA6061 and 316 stainless steel help
avoid the formation of Al/Fe IMCs, thereby increasing joint strength (from 3.1 kN to 5.6 kN).
avoid the formation of Al/Fe IMCs, thereby increasing joint strength (from 3.1 kN to 5.6 kN).
Ratanathavorn et al. [58] investigated the influence of Zn coating of DP1000 ultra high strength steel
Ratanathavorn et al. [58] investigated the influence of Zn coating of DP1000 ultra high strength steel
Metals 2019, 9, 610 18 of 22
Zheng et al. [57] stated that the insertion of Zn foils between AA6061 and 316 stainless steel help avoid
the formation of Al/Fe IMCs, thereby increasing joint strength (from 3.1 kN to 5.6 kN). Ratanathavorn
et al. [58] investigated the influence of Zn coating of DP1000 ultra high strength steel during FSW with
AA5754. Particularly, uncoated steel and two hot-dipped galvanized steels with Zn-coating of 8 and
14 µm were employed. As shown in Figure 25, the joint strength of galvanized steels was higher than
that
Metalsof2017,
uncoated
7, x FORsteel.
PEER REVIEW 19 of 23
Figure 25.
Figure 25. Comparison
Comparisonofofmechanical strength
mechanical strength of of
FSW joints
FSW obtained
joints during
obtained welding
during of AA5754
welding with
of AA5754
uncoated
with and and
uncoated zinc-coated DP1000
zinc-coated steelsteel
DP1000 (Reproduced
(Reproduced from
from[58], with
[58], withpermission
permissionfrom
fromTaylor &
Taylor &
Francis, 2017).
Francis, 2017).
Fei et al.
al. [59]
[59] claimed
claimed thatthat nickel
nickel could
could bebe aa better
better solution
solution than
than zinc
zinc in
in reducing
reducing the
the formation
formation
Al/Fe IMCs.
of Al/Fe IMCs. In their study,
study, they
they compared
compared the the mechanical
mechanical strength
strength of of AA6061-T6
AA6061-T6 and and Q235
Q235 steel
steel
joints obtained
joints obtainedby byusing
usingeither
eitherNiNior
orZn
Znas asananintermediate
intermediatelayer.layer.FSWFSWjoints
jointswelded
weldedwith
withNiNi foil
foil hadhada
a greater strength (198 MPa) than those welded with Zn foil (145 MPa). This
greater strength (198 MPa) than those welded with Zn foil (145 MPa). This difference is attributed to difference is attributed
to the
the factfact
thatthat Zn tends
Zn foil foil tends to vaporize
to vaporize moremore than
than Ni Ni during
during FSW. As FSW. As a Zn
a result, result,
was Zn
notwas
ablenot able to
to hamper
hamper atomic diffusion between Al and Fe; thus, brittle Al-rich IMC layers
atomic diffusion between Al and Fe; thus, brittle Al-rich IMC layers (thickness 4.8 µm) were formed. (thickness 4.8 µ m) were
formed. Inversely,
Inversely, FSW joints FSW jointswith
welded welded with
Ni foil hadNinarrower
foil had narrower
Fe-rich IMC Fe-rich IMC
layers layers
with with thickness
thickness of 1.1 µm. of
1.1 µ m.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In the manufacturing industry, the usage of multi-material components made of aluminum
alloysInand
the steels has been reducing
manufacturing industry, the
theoverall
usage of weight of products
multi-material with the main
components madeaimof of limiting
aluminum
energy consumption and improving performance. However, joining of
alloys and steels has been reducing the overall weight of products with the main aim of limitingaluminum alloys and steels
through conventionaland
energy consumption welding technologies
improving are notHowever,
performance. suitable since theyofinvolve
joining aluminummelting of and
alloys materials.
steels
Alternatively, FSW could
through conventional be successfully
welding technologies employed
are not for joining
suitable aluminum
since alloysmelting
they involve and steels to obtain
of materials.
joints with improved
Alternatively, FSW couldstrength.
be successfully employed for joining aluminum alloys and steels to obtain
jointsSimilar and dissimilar
with improved strength. FSW of such metals need accurate welding procedures and setting of
process parameters
Similar due to a narrow
and dissimilar FSW of weldability
such metalswindow. Improper
need accurate process
welding parametersand
procedures are setting
normally of
responsible for largedue
process parameters IMCs to aand defects,
narrow includingwindow.
weldability tunnel, voids,
Improperlargeprocess
grooves, and microcracks.
parameters are normally
The main
responsible forfindings
large IMCs of this
andresearch
defects,are:
including tunnel, voids, large grooves, and microcracks.
The main findings of this research are:
1. Rotational speed and welding speed are the main factors responsible for heat generation during
1. Rotational speed and welding speed are the main factors responsible for heat generation during
FSW of Al and steel. Improper process parameters can generate excessive or insufficient heat
FSW of Al and steel. Improper process parameters can generate excessive or insufficient heat
inputs, with the ensuing formation of defective or low-quality welded joints.
inputs, with the ensuing formation of defective or low-quality welded joints.
2. IMCs of Al and Fe are defects usually found at the Al/steel interface as FeAl3, Fe2Al5, FeAl2, FeAl,
and Fe3Al. IMCs initiate crack nucleation under external loading conditions, thus having a
detrimental influence on weld strength.
3. High rotational speed, low welding speed, and insertion of a tool pin into a steel sheet are often
responsible for excessive heat generation in weld bead. The main consequence is the formation
Metals 2019, 9, 610 19 of 22
2. IMCs of Al and Fe are defects usually found at the Al/steel interface as FeAl3 , Fe2 Al5 , FeAl2 ,
FeAl, and Fe3 Al. IMCs initiate crack nucleation under external loading conditions, thus having a
detrimental influence on weld strength.
3. High rotational speed, low welding speed, and insertion of a tool pin into a steel sheet are often
responsible for excessive heat generation in weld bead. The main consequence is the formation of
thick and Al-rich IMCs, which significantly deteriorate the strength of welded joints.
4. The use of Zn or Ni layers between aluminum and steel sheets could help prevent the formation
of Al/Fe IMCs.
5. Improper process parameters, especially rotational speed and welding speed, could lead to the
formation of tunnel, voids, large surface grooves, and microcracks.
6. Welding parameters should develop enough heat inputs with the aim to properly plasticize
metals and ensure deep intermixing.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.W.S.; Investigation, M.W.S.; Supervision, P.R.S.; Writing—original

draft, M.W.S., P.R.S.; Writing—review & editing, P.R.S.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the Department of Innovation, Research and University of the Autonomous
Province of Bozen/Bolzano for covering the Open Access publication costs.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A
Table A1. List of references used in the manuscript.
Issues Materials Joint Configuration Reference

Tunnel, groove AA5754-H114/mild steel Butt [5]
Fe4 Al13 AA6082-T6/QSTE340TM steel Lap [9]
Cracks, voids, FeAl3 AA6082-T6/Q235A steel Lap [13]
Tunnel, voids, Al5 Fe2 AA3003/mild steel Butt [14]
Voids, IMC AA5083/St-12 steel Lap [15]
Tunnel, voids, microcracks, FeAl3 AA5083-H321/316L stainless steel Butt [16]
Tunnel, FeAl, FeAl3 , Fe2 Al5 AA5005/St-52 steel Butt [20]
Voids, FeAl, FeAl3 AA5083/SS400 Steel Lap [21]
Voids, groove, Fe2 Al5 , FeAl3 AA5083/SS400 Steel Lap [24]
FeAl, Fe2 Al5 , FeAl3 AA5052/HSLA steel Butt [22]
Voids, groove, IMC AA6061-T6/AISI304 steel Lap [26]
Voids, Al3.2 Fe, Al5 Fe2 , Al6 Fe AA6082-T6/DP800 steel (Zn coated) Lap [28]
IMC AA6061-T6/AISI304 steel Lap [29]
Al13 Fe4 , Al5 Fe2 , FeAl3 , FeAl2 Commercially pure aluminum/304 stainless steel Butt [30]
Cracks, FeAl2 , Al13 Fe4 , Al5 Fe2 , FeAl3 Commercially pure aluminum/304 stainless steel Butt [31]
Al13 Fe4 , Al5 Fe AA6061-T6/AISI 1018 steel Butt [32]
Cracks, FeAl3 , Fe2 Al5 AA5083/316L stainless steel Butt [33]
Cracks, IMC AA6061/TRIP steel Butt [41]
Tunnel, voids, Al6 Fe, Al5 Fe2 AA5186/mild steel Butt [42]
Voids, FeAl, Fe3 Al AA1100/St-37 steel Lap [43]
Groove, microcracks, FeAl2 and FeAl3 AA5052/HSLA steel Butt [44]
FeAl, Fe3 Al AA6061/TRIP 780/800 steel Butt [45]
Voids, groove, microcracks, FeAl, FeAl3 AA6061/430 stainless steel Butt [46]
Voids, cracks, Fe4 Al13 AA5054/DP600 steel Lap [47]
IMC AA6061-T6/ultra low carbon steel Lap [48]
Tunnel, voids, FeAl3 , FeAl2 AA1100/A441AISI steel Butt [52]
Voids, Al5 Fe2 , Al13 Fe4 AA5754/galvanized ultra-high strength Lap [58]
Cracks, IMC AA6061-T6/Q235 steel Butt [59]
Al13 Fe4 , Al5 Fe2 AA1100-H24/low carbon steel (Zn-coated) Lap [60]
Tunnel, IMC AA5083/A316L Butt [53]
Voids, Fe5 Al8 , FeAl AA6082-T6/DP600 steel Butt [54]
Tunnel, voids, cracks, Al13 Fe4 , Al5 Fe2 AA-5050/304 stainless steel Butt [55]
Metals 2019, 9, 610 20 of 22
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© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
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Metals 2019, 9, 610; doi:10.3390/met9050610 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

2. Issues in FSW of Aluminum Alloys to Steels

2.1. Intermetallic Compounds (IMCs)

Metals 2017, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 23

Figure 6.6. Effect of

Figure 8.8. Thickness

2.2.2. Tool Geometry

Figure 12. Effect

2.2.4. Tool Tilt Angle

The nature of IMCs depended on tilt angle angle andand ensuing

3. Defects in FSW of Al/Steel Sheet Joints

3. Defects in FSW of Al/Steel Sheet Joints

3.1. Tunnel Defect

Sameer etet al.

Figure 20. Flash

revealed that grooves

3.5. Recommendations and Challenges in FSW of Aluminum Alloys and Steels

The occurrence of Al/Fe IMCs is aa typical

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.W.S.; Investigation, M.W.S.; Supervision, P.R.S.; Writing—original

Table A1. List of references used in the manuscript.

Issues Materials Joint Configuration Reference

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