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ASSIGNMENT# 4

GEOMORPHOLOGY

NAME : NOOR UL HUDA

CLASS:BS GEOLOGY 2ND SEMESTER
SUBMITTED TO:HAFIZ TARIQ AHMAD

TOPIC: STREAM WATER AND PROCESSES

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What are streams?

A stream is a body of water with surface water flowing within the bed and banks of a
channel. The stream encompasses surface and groundwater fluxes that respond
to geological, geomorphological, hydrological and biotic controls. Long
large streams are usually called rivers.

Importance of streams in geomorphic processes:

Throughout most of the world , runoff waters are the dominant geomorphic agency.
Even desert landform are the work of running water. Steams and sheet wash have
made an impression on the landscape and rapidly changing it.

RUNNING WATER

Hydrological cycle:
Water is constantly moving among earth different spheres _ The hydrosphere, the
atmosphere , the geosphere and the biosphere. This unending circulation of water,
called the hydrological cycle, describes what happens as water evaporates from the
ocean, plants and the soil, moves through the atmosphere, and eventually falls as
precipitation. precipitation that falls onto the ocean has completed its cycle and is
ready to begin another.
when precipitation falls on land, it either soaks into the ground, a process called
infiltration, flows over the surface as runoff, or immediately evaporates. much of the
water that infiltrates or runs off eventually finds its way back to the atmosphere via
evaporation from soil, lakes, and streams. In addition , some of the water that soaks
into the ground is absorbed by plants, which later release it into the atmosphere. This
process is called transpiration. because both evaporation and transpiration involve the
transfer of water from the surface directly to the atmosphere, they are often
considered together as the combined process of evapotranspiration.
More water falls on land as precipitation than is lost by evapotranspiration. The
excess is carried back to the ocean mainly by streams Less than one percent returns as
groundwater . However, much of the water that flows in rivers is not transmitted
directly into River channels after falling as precipitation. Instead a large percentage
first soak into the soil and then gradually flows as groundwater to River channels. In
this manner, groundwater provides a form of storage that sustains the flow of streams
between storms and during periods of drought.
When precipitation falls in very cold areas at high elevations or high latitudes the
water may not immediately soak in ,runoff, or evaporate. Instead, it may become part
of a snowfield or a glacier. In this way, glaciers store large quantities of water. If
present day glaciers were to melt and release their stored water, sea level would rise

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by several tens of meters worldwide and submerged many heavily populated coastal
areas.
To summarize, the hydrological cycle represents the continuous movement of water
from the oceans to the atmosphere, from the atmosphere to the land, and from the land
back to the sea.
(figure 1 given on page # 8 )
Surface runoff:
Most of the precipitation that falls on land either enters the soil (infiltration)or
remains at the surface, moving down slope as runoff. When the surface material is
highly impermeable , or when it becomes saturated ,runoff is the dominant process.
Runoff is also high in urban areas because large areas are covered by impermeable
buildings , roads , and parking lots.
Infiltration theory of surface runoff:
The distance that runoff flows before it becomes concentrated into definite channels
was called by Horton (1945) the length of overland flow. The distance of this type of
flow was explained by him in terms of what he called the infiltration theory of surface
runoff. This theory is based upon two concepts that are:
1. there is a limiting rate at which rainfall can be absorbed by the soil, Known as
the infiltration capacity,
2. when runoff does take place from a soil surface there is a definite relationship
between the quantity of water which accumulates upon a soil surface and the
rate of surface runoff or channel inflow.
Factors determining the Infiltration capacity of soil:
1. soil texture
2. soil structure
3. vegetal cover
4. biologic structure in the soil including such features as order perforations and
amount of humus and vegetal debris
5. amount of moisture in the soil
6. condition of the soil surface as determined by whether it has been cultivated
recently or is baked or sun cracked possibly
7. the temperature of the soil
How streams form?
Runoff initially flows in broad ,thin sheets across hill slopes by a process called Sheet
flow .This thin unconfined flow eventually develops threads of current that form tiny
channels called rills .Rills meet to form gullies ,which join to form brooks, creeks,
or streams—then, when they reach an undefined size, they are called rivers.
Although the terms river and stream are often used interchangeably, geologists define
stream as water that flows in a channel, regardless of size. River, on the other
hand ,is a general term for streams that carry substantial amounts of water and
have numerous tributaries.

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Drainage basin:
Every stream drains an area of land called a drainage basin. Each drainage basin is
bounded by an imaginary line called a divide .
Drainage pattern:
Drainage pattern refers to the particular plan or design which the individuals stream
courses collectively form. It refers to more to the spatial relationship of individual
stream then to the overall pattern made by the individual drainage line.
It is basically the pattern that reflects the type and arrangement of bedrock material
within the basin.
Types of drainage pattern:
1. Dendritic pattern
2. Trellis pattern
3. Barbed drainage pattern
4. Rectangular drainage pattern
5. Angular drainage pattern
6. Deranged pattern
7. Centripetal drainage pattern
8. Radial patterns
9. Parallel drainage patterns
10. Annular drainage patterns

(figure2 given on page # 8 )

Longitudinal profile of river:

It is the graphic portrayal of stream's gradient from source to mouth. In describing the
general profile of a river/stream from source to mouth, the upstream portion usually
has a steep gradient, small flows and transports big particles (coarse bed load). In the
downstream portion, there are large water volume which has the ability to pick up and
carry material. At this end of the river, the water moves smaller sized particles.
(figure 3 given on page # 9)
An idealized fluvial cycle:
These are the stages in the development and life of a river and its surrounding
landscape. we note that as a stream erodes closer and closer to base level, its velocity
begins to slow down and erosion gives way to deposition. there are specific features
associated with different cycles of stream erosion.
It should be recognized that variations in altitude, geologic structure, diastrophic
History, and climatic conditions may result in notable departures from the sequence of
landforms described below:

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Youth :
1. There Will be a few consequent drunk streams but few large tributaries,
numerous short tributaries and gullies will be extending themselves by
headward erosion and developing Valley systems.
2. Valleys will have V shaped cross profiles and will be shallow or deep
depending from the height of the region above sea level.
3. there will be a general map of floodplain development except along trunk
streams, and Valley sides will rise from near the stream edges .
4. interstream tracks maybe extensive and poorly drained . lakes and swamps
may exist in the interstream areas If these areas are not well above the local
base level .
5. waterfalls or Rapids may exist their stream courses cross beds of particularly
resistant rock. They are most typical of early youth and will have disappeared
before maturity is attained.
6. stream divides will broad and poorly defined.
7. stream meandering may exist in youth, but the meanders are those on a flat
and undissected initial surface or are closely confined meanders in valleys
incised below the upland surface
Maturity:
1. Valleys have extended themselves so that the region now has a well-integrated
drainage system.
2. adjustment of streams to such lithologic variation as exist may be evident in
the existence of Some longitudinal tributaries along belts of particularly weak
rock.
3. stream divides will be sharp and ridge like is everything in a minimum of
interstream uplands.
4. any lakes or waterfalls that existed in youth have been eliminated.
5. Floodplain track constitute a considerable portion of the valley floors.
6. Meanders maybe conspicuous but, in contrast to those of youth, they are free
to shift their positions over the flood Plains.
7. The width of the Valley floors did not greatly exceed the width of the meander
belts .
8. the maximum possible relief exists .
9. the Topography consists not so much of Valley bottom and upland drag as it
does of slopes of hillsides and valleys sides.
Old age:
1. tributaries to trunk streams Are you really fewer in number than in maturity
but more numerous than in youth.
2. Valleys are extremely broad and gently sloping laterally and longitudinally.
3. There is marked development of floodplains over which streams flow in
broadly meandering courses.
4. Valleys width are considerably greater than the width of the meander belts.
5. Interstream areas have been reduced in height, and stream divides are not so
sharp as in maturity.

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6. Lakes, swamps, and marshes may be present but they are on the floodplains
and not in the interstream tracts as in youth.
7. Mass wasting and chemical denudation are dominant over fluvial processes.
8. Extensive areas are at or near the base level of erosion.
(figure 4 on page # 9 )
Stream processes:
Running water performs three basic functions that results in the formation of
landforms. These are :
1. Erosion : the wearing away of land by running water
2. Deposition : the placement of material carried by running water
3. Transportation :the transporting of material from one place to another.
River erosion:
River erosion is the wearing down of the bank sand bed of a river and removal of the
eroded materials by the action of gravity and flowing water. They are of two types:
1. Lateral erosion
2. Vertical erosion
A river can erode material s in four main ways. These are :
1. Hydraulic action
2. Abrasion (corrasion)
3. Attrition (corrosion)
4. Solution

Hydraulic action:

Hydraulic action refers to the action of the flowing water that hits against the
riverbanks
And rivers bed .The water surges into cracks and joints and break and loosens pieces
of rock and soil. The material is then carried downstream by the swift flowing water.
It is believed that this process can excavate a large amount of material in a short time,
Particularly gravel, sand, silt and clay.
(figure 5 on page # 9)

Abrasion:
It is an erosional process whereby the river uses its load ,e.g. , rock fragments, to
constantly scrap and grind against the channel’s walls and bed. This wears down the
channel’s walls and bed in a process that can also be called corrasion.

(figure 6 on page # 10 )
Attrition:

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This is the process whereby rock fragments carried by the water knock against each
other .This may lead to the breaking down of the rock fragments into smaller pieces.
The constant grinding of these rock fragments against each other also causes them to
Become rounded and smoother in the process.

(figure 7 on page # 10 )
Solution:
This process occurs when water in the river reacts chemically with the minerals in the
rocks and dissolve them to for a solution. This process is also known as corrosion. It
is most common in limestone areas.

River transportation:

the river load can be transported by:

• Traction
• Saltation
• Suspension
• Solution
Traction:
occur when there are large boulders that are too heavy to be lifted by the water in the
river, so they roll and slide along the river bed.
Saltation:
occur when large particles such as gravel are part of the river load. These particles are
too heavy to be suspended in water all the time. Hence, they bounce or hop along the
river bed.
Suspension :
When small rock particles, such as clay silt and fine sand, are kept from sinking by
the turbulence of the stream. This gives the water a muddy look.
Solution:
This is material that is dissolved from the bedrock. Most commonly found in
solution are compounds of calcium and magnesium.

(figure 8 on page # 10s)

River deposition:

Deposition occurs when a stream either decreases in speed or discharge. Generally the
speed decreases when its slope decreases or its bed widens. The greatest loss of speed
occurs when a river empties into a quiet body of water. A decrease in discharge would
occur if a river traveled through an area with low precipitation. Deposition is usually
most prominent at the lower course of a river where the gradient is very gentle. In this
part of the river course, the speed of flow is slow and the amount of load carried by a
river is at its maximum. Most of the depositional landforms are found in the lower
course of most rivers.

Dominant processes at different part of the river course:

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Upper course: vertical erosion is dominated

Middle course: Erosive ability increase… river discharge increase…fewer big
boulders present to obstruct and slow down the speed of flow.
Lower course: Lateral erosion prominent… river discharge greatest… deposition
occur where river energy drops such as inner banks(meandering)
• The size of the sediments transported in the river decreases from upper to lower
course.

Depositional landforms of rivers:

1. Flood plains
2. Channel bars
3. Point bars
4. Delta bars
5. Natural levees
6. Meander belt
7. Oxbow lake
8. Alluvial plain
9. River deltas
10. Alluvial fans
11. Bajadas

FIGURES:

Figure :1: hydrological cycle

Figure:2: drainage patterns

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Figure: 3: longitudinal profile of river

Figure : 4: river courses

Figure : 5: hydraulic action

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Figure : 6: abrasion

Figure : 7:attrition (and others)

Figure : 8: transportation processes

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