Puma Bitumen

Bitumen Basics
Index

Introduction and Historical Perspective 2

Bitumen Sources and Types 3

Applications 6

Manufacturing Process 11

Test Procedures 13

Optimising Bitumen Performances 14

Glossary 17
Introduction and Historical Perspective
The Romans were enthusiastic about the medicinal qualities
The description of bitumen as ‘mankind's oldest engineering
of bitumen for preventing and curing a number of ailments
material’ can be supported by a considerable amount of
including boils, toothache and ringworm. It was also in favour
evidence from scholars. Nearly 3000 years BC the Sumerians
amongst Roman ladies as a means of beautifying their
in Mesopotamia used bitumen to fasten into the eye sockets
eyebrows.
of statues the materials such as ivory or mother-of-pearl
pieces that represented the eyes. They also sculptured votive
As civilisation developed in Europe, it did so without significant
offerings out of a mixture of bitumen and clay.
use of bitumen as it was not a widely available material.
Christopher Columbus and Sir Walter Raleigh found the lakes
Some thousand years later, bitumen was being used by the
of asphalt in Trinidad useful for re-caulking their ships for the
early Babylonians as a building material because of its
return voyage. Apart from maritime usage, bitumen was used
properties as an adhesive and water-proofing agent. With the
mainly for medicinal, cosmetic and crop protection purposes.
passing of centuries, it became the standard material used in
civil engineering and architectural projects to hold bricks and
The extent of knowledge about bitumen in these times was
stones together and line drains, watercourses and grain silos.
quite variable. On the one hand, the German metallurgist
It was also used to create damp courses and seal the flat roofs
Georg Agricola was writing in the early part of the sixteenth
of the houses in the same way as it is used today. Its
century that "Bitumen is produced from mineral waters
importance in paving was also appreciated.
containing oil, also from liquid bitumen and from rocks
containing bitumen. Liquid bitumen sometimes floats in large
About 600 BC King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon had the city
quantities on the surface of wells, brooks and rivers and is
wall, intended to restrain the waters of the Euphrates, rebuilt
collected with buckets or other pots. Small quantities are
with burnt bricks and bitumen because the wall of dried clay
collected by means of feathers, linen towels and the like.
bricks had failed to keep the waters at bay. The Babylonians
developed a technique for building houses from layers of
The bitumen easily adheres to these objects and is collected
bricks, bitumen and clay, reinforced with reeds. The system
in big copper or iron vessels and the lighter fractions
was so successful that they were able to build towers up to
evaporated by heating. The residual oil is used for different
twelve storeys high. Nearly two thousand years later,
purposes and some people mix it with pitch, others with used
archaeologists excavating the site of the ancient city found
axle oil to make it thicker."
traces of the bitumen that had been used for building.

On the other hand, the entry for bitumen in Blount's Glossary

Apart from its properties, the reason why bitumen was widely
used in this area was its availability in various forms. It oozed
out of the ground in certain places and was even found floating
in lumps on waterways that were so useful for moving it to
where it was wanted. It was also available as a solid material
in the form of bituminous limestone, which was used as the
basis for small carvings.
Given its general availability, it is not surprising that bitumen
has a part to play in many of the great legends of Biblical and
pre-Biblical times. It is said to have been used in the building
of the Tower of Babel and for the waterproofing of Noah's Ark
and Moses' wicker basket.
published in 1656 defined it as "…a kind of clay or slime
naturally clammy, like pitch, growing in some countries of sia."
By the middle of the nineteenth century, serious attention was
being given to the problem of the dust raised by the horse-
drawn traffic in towns. The availability of a regular supply of
coal tar from local coal-gas works led to its use in treating
streets and pavements. The realisation that the horseless
carriage was here to stay and would need streets and roads
constructed to a hitherto unimagined standard of smoothness
and durability resulted in serious attention being given to the
elements needed for their creation. Rock asphalt and the
Trinidad Lake were the sources of bitumen first used to bind
mixtures of aggregates in road building in the modern style.

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By the turn of the century the potential of petroleum as a
Bitumen Sources and Types
readily available source of low-cost, high quality bitumen was
being exploited on a small scale. What is Bitumen?

Bitumen is a non-crystalline, black or dark brown viscous

As bitumen production grew with the rise of the motorcar and
material, which is substantially soluble in organic solvents,
the universal demand for paved highways, so too did the
such as toluene and carbon disulphide, and which possesses
proportion of bitumen derived from petroleum refining to the
adhesive and water-proofing qualities.
extent that today most bitumen is sourced from the distillation
of crude petroleum oil.
It consists essentially of hydrocarbons and typically comprises
at least 80% carbon and 15% hydrogen. The remainder is
In the USA, bitumen is referred to as asphalt or asphalt
oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen and traces of various metals.
cement. In the term rock asphalt, it defines a mineral
substance that may be impregnated with bitumen or pitch.
Outside the USA, the word asphalt means a mixture of
Source of Bitumen
bitumen and mineral aggregates laid as a road surface.
Bitumen can be obtained from various sources. As mentioned
earlier, it occurs naturally, but for most purposes it is
petroleum on which the world relies for its supplies of bitumen.
The bitumen content of crude petroleum oil can vary between
15% and 80%, but the more normal range is 25% to 40%. The
three broad classifications for crude oils are:

 bitumen based

 paraffin based

 bitumen and paraffin based.

Depending on the type of crude petroleum oil, bitumen is

present either in the form of a colloidal dispersion, or in a true
solution. During the refining process, as petroleum oils are
taken away by distillation, the proportion of oil to bitumen
particles changes. Instead of these particles being dispersed
and relatively few in number, they become closer to one
another and their size increases. At the point when the
distillation process is usually stopped, the petroleum bitumen
is a colloidal dispersion of black solids (hydrocarbons). These
are known as asphaltenes, which are dispersed in an oily
brown-yellow liquid, known as the maltenes fraction. Also
present to act as a stabilising agent to keep the asphaltenes
in suspension are another group of hydrocarbons known as
resins.

Bitumen is found in nature in several forms, from the hard,

easily crumbled bitumen in rock asphalt to the softer, more
viscous material found in oil sands and so-called asphalt

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lakes. It is commonly mixed with varying proportions of industry provides all but a small percentage of this vital
mineral or vegetable impurities that need to be extracted material.
before it can be used effectively as an engineering material.

Bitumen may also be found as asphaltite, natural bitumen Properties

without impurities that varies in the extent to which it is soluble
Bitumen is a strong and durable adhesive that binds together
in carbon disulphide. Natural bitumen, like petroleum, occurs
a very wide variety of other materials without affecting their
as the result of the special decomposition of marine debris. It
properties. Its durability is essential to major engineering
will have been moved over many thousands of years through
projects such as roads and waterways where it must perform
porous rocks such as limestone or sandstone, often by
for up to 20 years or more.
volcanic action. In some areas notable for their petroleum
resources, for example the Middle East, semi-fluid bitumen
Bitumen is insoluble in water and can act as an effective
can be found oozing out of fissures near hot springs or
waterproofing sealant. It also resists action by most acids,
seeping out of the ground.
alkalis and salts and does not contaminate water, so it can be
used to line watercourses.

Bitumen is a thermoplastic material: it softens and becomes

liquid with the application of heat and hardens as it cools. It
can be spread relatively easily in the areas where it is required
because it can readily be liquefied by one of three methods:

 applying heat

 dissolving it in petroleum solvents

 dispersing it in water (emulsification).

Bitumen gives controlled flexibility to mixtures of mineral

aggregates, which is why so much of the total annual
production is used in road building. It is available at an
economic cost virtually all over the world.

Figure 1 - The decomposition of marine debris over millions of years

produces natural bitumen in a petroleum residue, which is extracted
through the refining process.
Types of Bitumen

Rock asphalt, with its variable and relatively low content of

There are six major classifications of petroleum bitumen
bitumen, tends to be found away from the places where
produced by the refining and manufacturing process:
bitumen is needed. It is costly to move around and to process.
Paving grade bitumen (or asphalt cement in the USA) is the
It is important to draw the distinction between bitumen and
most widely used bitumen and is refined and blended to meet
coal tar. Although coal tar is black and viscous like bitumen, it
road engineering and industrial specifications that take into
is obtained from the carbonisation of coal and therefore has
account different climatic conditions. Paving grade bitumen
very different chemical properties.
may also be considered as the parent bitumen from which the
other forms are produced.
Engineering projects in every part of the world, from the
construction of transcontinental highways to the waterproofing
Cutback bitumens consist of bitumen that has been diluted
of flat roof surfaces, rely on the particular properties of
in solvent (cutter or flux) to make it more fluid for application.
bitumen. Crude petroleum oil processed by the petroleum

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The fluidity of cutback bitumens (or cutbacks as they are  Anionic with negatively charged
known) depends on the degree of hardness of the bitumen droplets
and the proportion of diluent. Cutbacks are classified
 Cationic with positively charged
according to the time it takes for them to cure, or become solid
droplets
due to the evaporation of the diluent. Classifications are rapid
 Non-ionic with neutral droplets.
curing (RC), medium curing (MC) or slow curing (SC). A
cutback varies in behaviour according to the type of cutter or
The main grades for bitumen
flux used as the diluent with white spirit commonly used for
emulsions are classified as follows:
RC grades, kerosene for MC and diesel for SC.
Anionic Cationic
Bitumen emulsions are dispersions of bitumen in water. Hot
ARS CRS Rapid setting
bitumen, water and emulsifier are processed in a high speed
colloid mill that disperses the bitumen in the water in the form AMS CMS Medium setting
Figure 3:
of small droplets. These droplets or particles of bitumen are Microscopic
representation of ASS CSS Slow setting
normally in the 5-10 micrometre size range but may be even emulsion structures.

smaller. The emulsifier assists in forming and maintaining the

The development of bitumen emulsions is an area where
dispersion of fine droplets of bitumen. Bitumen emulsions
technological progress is still being made to meet current and
normally comprise between 30% and 80% bitumen by volume.
emerging engineering demands. The first emulsions were the
If the bitumen starts to separate from the water solution in
anionic types. They are currently less favoured than the
storage, the emulsion can usually be easily restored by gentle
cationic types because the positively charged globules of
agitation to redisperse the droplets.
bitumen in cationic emulsions better coat the majority of

Bitumen emulsions have a low viscosity compared to the aggregate types and result in greater adhesion. Use of

bitumen from which they are produced and can be workable cationic emulsions is therefore preferred in most applications.

at ambient temperatures. Their application requires controlled

Modified bitumens are formulated with additives to improve
breaking and setting. The emulsion must not break before it is
their service performance by changing such properties as their
laid on the road surface but, once in place, it should break
durability, resistance to ageing, elasticity and/or plasticity. The
quickly so that the road can be in service again without delay.
most important modifiers are polymers.

Polymer modified binders (PMB) are a major advancement

in bituminous binder technology as these materials better
satisfy the demands of increasing traffic volumes and loads on
our road networks. As well as natural rubbers, polymers such
as styrene butadiene styrene (SBS), polybutadiene (PBD) and
ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) are commonly used to modify
bitumen.

Multigrade bitumen is a chemically modified bitumen that

has the properties of a hard paving grade bitumen at high
Figure 2 - Particles of bitumen dispersed in water to make bitumen
emulsions are usually between 5 and 10 micrometres in size. This diagram
service temperatures coupled with the properties of a soft
gives an indication of relative size.
paving grade bitumen at low temperatures (i.e. it has
properties that span multiple grades). Multigrade bitumens
The mechanical performance of bitumen emulsions can be
provide improved resistance to deformation and reduce the
tailored like that of other construction materials. Bitumen
detrimental effects of high service temperatures,
emulsions are divided into three categories.

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whilst providing reduced stiffness at low service temperatures
Applications
than exhibited by a similar normal paving grade bitumen.
Road Construction and Maintenance
Industrial bitumens (or oxidised bitumens) are made by
Over 80% of the 100 million tonnes of worldwide annual
blowing air through hot paving grade bitumen. The so-called
bitumen consumption is used for paving applications in the
blowing process results in harder bitumen that softens at a
construction and maintenance of roads. The remainder is
higher temperature than that at which paving grade bitumen
used for various purposes. The use of bitumen in road
softens. Industrial bitumens also have more rubber-like
maintenance can be up to four times its use in road
properties and their viscosities are much less affected by
construction.
changes in temperature than is the case with paving grade
bitumen.
An understanding of how roads are built is necessary for an
appreciation of the importance of the role played by bitumen.
Bitumen Handling
Modern road design and construction techniques are aimed at
The four major factors involved in handling bitumen are: building flexible road layers or courses so that the tensile and
compressive stresses imposed by passing traffic are
 the high handling temperatures and the need for purpose
distributed evenly through these layers, according to their
designed
relative strengths. This ensures that neither the ground
 storage and transport tanks and equipment
supporting the road nor the individual layers are permanently
 the flammable nature of certain grades, particularly deformed by these concentrated stresses.
 cutbacks
The courses must also be made weather resistant and
 the need to safeguard the health and safety of personnel
durable. Bitumen plays a major part in meeting this
 the training of personnel.
requirement because it strongly binds the aggregate particles
and seals and fills the voids between them. Its effectiveness
Owing to their high viscosity, almost all bitumen and
depends on the aggregate specification, the size and number
bituminous products must be heated to make them sufficiently
of voids and the type of bitumen. By sealing the gaps, bitumen
fluid for bulk distribution and application.
makes it difficult for water to penetrate the road courses and

Contact with bitumen or the equipment involved in damage the natural foundation of the road.

transporting, storing or applying it can cause severe skin

burns at the recommended handling temperatures. For
example, even a fleeting touch at 80°C can be expected to
burn unprotected skin.
It is essential that anyone working with bitumen or bituminous
products make themselves familiar with the necessary health,
safety and environmental considerations. Users are advised
to always refer to product Material Safety Data Sheets
(MSDS) for a full description of hazards associated with the
use of bitumen products.
In the context of road building, the entire road structure is
called the pavement.
The lowest layer of a road is the natural soil of the subgrade.
For a new road the subgrade is carefully prepared by modern
machinery, but for an old road this layer consists of whatever
has been left by generations of traffic.
The rest of the road is made up of layers of aggregates and
bitumen, each designed to do a specific job (see Figure 4 on
page 8). Aggregate is the term used to describe hard non-
metallic minerals such as crushed rock, gravel, sand and slag.
Aggregates must meet engineering specifications that include
shape, strength, surface characteristics and size.

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 The subbase is the first layer put down by the road builder
and consists of compacted granular material — stone, gravel
or sand. Its function is to contribute towards the strength of the
road and give the road building machinery an operating
platform.
The base course is a mixture of aggregates and bitumen
used as a structural layer. It adds to the strength of the road
and is an even surface foundation for the top layer.
The wearing course is the top layer normally consisting of a
more finely textured mixture of aggregates and bitumen. Its
role is to act as a smooth running surface for traffic. It must
also be as weather-proof as possible and resist the continual
action of the abrasive forces imposed by the vehicles as they
pass along it. The wearing course should also disperse
surface water effectively to minimise the danger of skidding.
Variable Design Factors
The exact make-up of a road will depend on several variable
factors such as the weight and volume of traffic it has been
designed to carry, local climatic conditions and the availability
of mineral aggregates. In most cases, bitumen will be needed
for its properties of waterproofing and durability and as the
cheapest adhesive generally available. A minor secondary
road may use bitumen only for its top two courses, at the rate
of 7 tonnes per kilometre. A highway engineer may call for
three asphalt courses, with tack coats in between, because of
asphalt's superior load bearing properties. In this case,
bitumen consumption can amount to 1,000 tonnes per
kilometre. The bitumen percentage in asphalt is usually
between 4-8% (see Table 1).

Where appropriate, a tack coat of bitumen may be applied

between courses to ensure adhesion of the layers.

The layers of asphalt in a road pavement can vary widely in

maximum stone size used and thickness laid, from as low as
15mm thickness using 5mm maximum stone size up to
250mm layers using up to 40mm maximum stone size.

Table 1 Typical road construction and maintenance applications for different types of bitumen.

General Road Construction and Maintenance Applications

Modified
Paving Grades Cutback grades Emulsions
Bitumen

Examples of Low High

C170 C320 C600
use Viscosity Viscosity

Cutback
manufacture

Hotmix
manufacture

Hotmix asphalt

Sprayed seals

Tack coat

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Hot Mix

The mixing of aggregates and bitumen to produce asphalt

may take place at a purpose-built plant located away from the
road construction site, or it may be done at the site itself.

Controlled amounts of various size aggregates, which have

been carefully blended and graded to meet the required
specification, are dried and heated before being mixed with a
measured quantity of hot bitumen. All this takes place in a
purpose-built plant. The hot mixture, or hot mix, at a
temperature of up to 160°C, is carried to the construction site
and laid while still hot.

The above describes, in simple terms, a process in which skill

and experience are combined with computerised control
systems to carry out a complex series of operations. Various
sizes of aggregate dry out, gain and retain heat at different
rates. Their temperature must be controlled so that the
bitumen does not cool when it is mixed with the aggregates.
The supply of aggregates is continuously weighed by scales
linked to the pump metering the bitumen to ensure that a
constant ratio of aggregate to bitumen is maintained.
Figure 4 - Distribution of load through a bituminous road

The mixing time should be no longer than is necessary for the

uniform distribution of the bitumen as a coating for the
aggregate particles, otherwise the bitumen film will harden
due to oxidation as it is exposed to air. The durability of the
mixture will be impaired if the mixing process takes too long.
Continuous operation of the plant is required to provide
consistent high quality mixtures. This, in turn, means that all
parts of the operation must be integrated so there are no hold-
ups as the drying, screening, mixing, transporting and laying
processes are carried out.

Bitumen supplies are ordered daily to meet the production

schedules on the road gangs' programs for the following day.
As bitumen storage capacity is usually limited, delivery has to
be made on a 'when required' basis, often within thirty minutes
of the target time based on the moment when the aggregates
Figure 5 and 6 - This
have been heated to the right temperature for mixing with purpose-built asphalt mixing plant
grades and dries the aggregates
bitumen. Any delay means that expensive fuel is wasted in and then mixes them with bitumen.
All aspects of the mixing plant are
keeping the aggregate at the right temperature. This precision carefully controlled from the
computer console. (Pictures
in delivery calls for a high degree of commitment on the part courtesy of Boral Asphalt).
of the supplier in terms of capital equipment, logistics and
technical expertise.

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 Asphalt and Other Treatment Types
Asphalt mixtures have been classified into a number of
different types, which may be simply stated as:
Dense-graded Asphalt or Asphaltic Concrete: a dense,
continuously graded mixture of coarse and fine aggregates,
mineral filler and bitumen, having a carefully controlled air void
content.
Hot Rolled Asphalt: a sand-based material, bound with high
viscosity grade bitumen, and having approximately 30%
selected stone content, with larger stones rolled into the
surface.
Stone Mastic Asphalt: a high stone content mixture where
the large stones form a load-bearing matrix within the mixture
to provide high resistance to deformation with the interstices
substantially filled with bitumen/filler mastic.
Tack Coat: a thin layer of emulsified or cutback bitumen that
bonds a layer of road to the layer beneath. Current practice is
to favour the use of bitumen emulsions in place of cutbacks in
this application.
Sprayed Seal: also known as surface dressings and chip
seals, these involve spraying a coating of bitumen onto the
surface of a wearing course or granular pavement. Sprayed
seals can be sprayed as an emulsion, a cutback or as neat
paving grade bitumen. Either a single or double coating of
aggregates or stone chippings is applied. These treatments
are applied to renovate and waterproof old roads that require
maintenance or to protect unbound granular pavements in
new constructions. An example of a remedial treatment is a
fog seal, which is a coat of bitumen emulsion applied to an
existing surface to seal cracks or to replenish aged bitumen
as a maintenance treatment.

Open-graded Asphalt: a mixture of graded aggregates and

bitumen produced to provide an open texture and high air
voids content to allow ready drainage of water through the
finished asphalt layer – also known as Porous Asphalt and
Drainage Asphalt.

Table 2 Asphalt mixture compositions

Composition of Road surface

Dense-graded Stone Mastic Open-graded

Hot Rolled Asphalt
Asphalt Asphalt Asphalt

Bitumen content % 4–7 6-9 6-8 5-7

Air Voids content % 3-5 3-5 2-4 18 – 20

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Bituminous Slurry Surfacing: an important maintenance
treatment for the surface in which a mixture of fine aggregates,
filler and emulsified bitumen is applied to a structurally sound
road surface for minor shape correction and to improve skid
resistance. It has the advantage that it can be applied rapidly
and at a relatively low cost by a truck mounted mixing plant.
Road Recycling
The techniques of road recycling reclaim the materials used
to build roads. They offer benefits in terms of reduced
demands for aggregates and energy. The layers of road
surface are ripped up, crushed and reprocessed with varying
proportions of fresh aggregate, new bitumen or bitumen
emulsion and, if necessary, a recycling agent. The process
may be carried out on site (in situ), or the reclaimed material
can be transported to and from the site to be mixed in a
dedicated static plant. Such reclaimed material is known as
RAP or reclaimed asphalt pavement.
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Industrial Usage
The use of bitumen in industrial applications accounts for less
than 20% of world bitumen consumption. It is nevertheless
important to those manufacturers and engineers who rely on
its particular properties as an economical binder and
protector. In many parts of the world it is used extensively to
waterproof the roofs of houses, often in the form of shingles,
which are strips of felt first impregnated with bitumen and then
covered on both sides with harder bitumen and a coating of
mineral granules. A similar construction technique involves
sheets of bitumen saturated felt laid onto a flat roof with layers
of bitumen below, between and above them. By contrast,
bitumen is also used in damp-proofing and floor tiles.
Other materials, particularly felts and papers, are impregnated
with bitumen to improve their performance as insulators.
Packaging papers, printing inks, linoleum, sound deadening
felts hidden inside car bodies and undersealing compounds
beneath them, electrical insulating compounds and battery
boxes are some of the hundreds of industrial and domestic
products likely to contain industrial grade bitumen.
10
Manufacturing Process
Refinery Processes
In an oil refinery, the crude oil being processed is separated
into different ‘cuts’ on the basis of their boiling range. In
atmospheric distillation, which is the first stage of this
continuous process, the crude oil is heated to 300°C-350°C
and the more volatile components, e.g. petrol and kerosene,
are distilled off. This leaves a residue called atmospheric
residue, which is then further distilled under vacuum. The
actual processing temperature of the residue is 350°C- 390°C,
but because of the applied vacuum, the further effective
distillation cut point is 500°C-560°C. This vacuum distillation
process yields further volatile products known as vacuum
distillates and leaves a non-volatile residue of high viscosity,
which is called vacuum residue.
Depending on the crude origin, the vacuum residue may be
used directly as bitumen without further processing. For some
crude oils though, or to meet particular specifications,
additional processing may be required, such as mild air
blowing of the residue. The air blowing process demands
careful selection and control of process temperature, air rate
and residence time to ensure consistent product. Sometimes
bitumens are produced by blending vacuum residue with
asphaltenes derived from the manufacture of lubricating oils.
For example, propane-precipitated asphalt (PPA) is
commonly used in the manufacture of bitumens when
lubricating oils are produced at the same refinery.
The selection of crude is an important aspect of bitumen
manufacture, requiring expertise and experience to yield a
satisfactory product – not all crude can be used to make
bitumen. Few of the nearly 1500 available crude petroleum
oils are suitable for the manufacture of good quality bitumen.
Within the Australian context, a very small number of crude
oils are able to be used to manufacture bitumen compliant with
the current Australian Standard.
Cutback bitumens are produced by diluting the paving grade
bitumen with a cutter or flux. Bitumen emulsions are made in
a colloid mill by dispersing paving grade bitumen in water with
the aid of an emulsifying agent.
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For industrial bitumens, in order to produce a material that will
soften at a higher temperature than paving grade bitumen of
equivalent penetration, severe air blowing is required. The
product is therefore also known as ‘air-blown’ or ‘oxidised’
bitumen. Typically the blower feedstock has a lower initial
boiling point than for paving grade bitumens. It is this,
combined with severe blowing, that gives industrial bitumens
their special physical properties.
The production of high quality bitumen relies on a combination
of skills, experience and modern refinery technology. These
are used extensively to ensure the suitability of feedstocks
and to monitor and control all stages of the process.
Storage
Bitumen is stored at refineries and large depots in large
permanent tanks made of mild-steel plate, with capacities of
between 100 and 10,000 tonnes. Steam or hot oil is pumped
through heating coils in the heavily insulated tanks so that the
bitumen remains fluid. Smaller depots and big users store
bitumen in small permanent or semi-mobile tanks of up to 60
tonnes capacity, typically heated by electricity or flame heater
tubes.
Distribution
As bitumen cools, it gradually becomes unworkable.
Therefore the delivery of paving grade bitumen not only calls
for the supply of bitumen to be provided at the right quality and
quantity at the right time, but the product must also be kept
between 150°C-190°C throughout the supply chain. When it
is loaded into a road tanker, the temperature can drop by
about 7°C-10°C and continue to fall by a further one or two
degrees per hour while in transit.
Road tankers with capacities of between 10 and 40 tonnes are
normally used to take most of the bitumen from the refineries.
They have insulated single-compartment tanks, usually with
some kind of heating such as heating tubes. To transport
bitumen to intermediary depots with reheating facilities,
insulated rail cars are sometimes used.
11
Their capacity ranges from 10 tonnes to 50 tonnes and they tankers of up to 30,000 tonnes capacity. The temperature of
are also fitted with electric heaters or direct oil-fired flame tube the hot-loaded bitumen is maintained by high pressure steam
heaters. When bitumen is moved by sea, it can be shipped in or hot oil passing through coils in the bitumen tanks.
a variety of vessels from 300 tonne barges to ocean-going

Figure 7 - A refinery process diagram illustrating a typical off-take for bitumen products.

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Test Procedures

Characteristics Specifying Authorities

The main bitumen characteristics of interest are its viscosity Various organisations representing bitumen manufacturers
and its ability to be handled safely. and users have laid down standard test procedures. Major test
methods specifiers are:
Viscosity: the degree of fluidity of the bitumen at a standard
SA Standards Australia
test temperature. The viscosity of bitumen varies according to
its temperature; therefore when comparing grades of bitumen, Ausrads The association of Austrranlian and New

it is essential to carry out tests at standard temperature. Zealand road transport and traffic authorities

AusSpec Joint Venture between Standards Australia and

Safety: to ensure that bitumen may be used safely, it is critical
the Institute of Public Works Engineering
that its flash point occurs at a much greater temperature than
Australia (IPWEA)
that at which road construction work is carried out. The flash
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
point is the temperature at which the heated bitumen will
release fumes that will ignite (flash) in the presence of a naked (USA)

flame or a spark. AASHTO American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (USA)

DIN Deutsche Industrie Norm (Germany)

Test Development
IP Institute of Petroleum (UK)
Experience in using bitumen in engineering projects has led
to the adoption of certain test procedures that are indicative of LCPC Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées
the characteristics that identify adequate performance. (France)
However, there are two important points to be taken into
account when considering these test procedures.
Paving Grade Bitumens
1. Strict adherance to the specified test procedures.
The test procedures used for paving grades of bitumen are as

2. Different specifying authorities use different standard test follows:

procedures.
Penetration Test: used to determine the consistency of

Some of the tests have evolved with the development of the bitumen by measuring the distance that a standard needle will

industry and are empirical methods. Consequently it is penetrate vertically into a sample under specified conditions

essential that they are carried out in strict compliance with the of loading, temperature and time, i.e. load of 100g at a

recommended procedures if they are to be accurate temperature of 25°C for 5 seconds, reported in tenths of a

measurements of the bitumen’s properties. Modern millimetre.

technology is continually being employed by major bitumen

manufacturers at their research centres and in
industrysponsored university research projects to find new
ways of measuring the physical properties of bitumen, and
translating these into specifications relating to road
performance.

Figure 8 - The penetration test as applied to bitumen.

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Viscosity: is a more scientific measure of consistency than
Penetration. Various tests are used to measure the resistance
to flow of bitumen and to thereby define its consistency.
Results are given in units of Poise (P), centistokes (cSt) or
Pascal seconds (Pa s) as standard units of measurement, the
relationship between these units depending on the specific
gravity of the bitumen. Different types of viscometers are used
according to the type of bitumen being tested and the
preferences of local specifying authorities.

The capillary tube viscometer with a means of applying a

partial vacuum is most commonly used for testing paving
Figure 9 - The recognised methods used to measure viscosity.
grade and cutback bitumens at 60°C. The time taken for the
bitumen to flow between two points is taken and multiplied by
Flash Point: used to measure the temperature to which a
a calibration factor to give a value in Pascal seconds.
sample of bitumen may be safely heated by establishing the
temperature at which a small flame causes the vapour above
A vacuum is sometimes not required when testing paving
the sample to ignite or flash. Various methods may be used
grade bitumen at 135˚C as the bitumen is fluid enough to pass
but the most common is the Cleveland Open Cup (COC) test
through the tube within a reasonable time under gravity alone.
in which a brass cup filled with a specified amount of bitumen
The time taken for its passage is also multiplied by a
is heated and a flame is passed over the top at specified
calibration factor and the result is expressed in Pascal
intervals of time. The flash point is the temperature reached
seconds.
when the vapour causes an instantaneous flash. A modified

Another type of viscometer used for cutbacks and bitumen Pensky-Martens closed tester is used in the Australian

emulsions is the efflux viscometer. This measures in seconds Standard test.

the time a specified quantity of bitumen takes to flow through

an orifice of specified dimensions under standard temperature
conditions.

A fourth viscometer is the Brookfield Viscometer. A spindle is

suspended in a sample of bitumen. When the spindle is
twisted, the resistance to rotation is recorded through a
calibrated spring connected to a dial where the reading is
taken. Modern Brookfield Viscometers utilise digital displays
which directly show the viscosity of the material being tested.

Figure 10 - This test establishes the temperature at which a sample of

bitumen will ignite, i.e. flash point.

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Ductility: gives an indication of the extent to which a sample
of the material can be stretched before breaking. A standard
briquette of bitumen, placed in a mould in a water bath heated
to 15°C, is pulled apart, usually at a speed of 5 cm per minute.
The length of the thread of bitumen at the moment when it
breaks, expressed in centimetres, is the ductility of the ample.

Figure 12 - The Softening Point test (‘Ring and Ball Test’) measures the
temperature at which bitumen has a particular viscosity.

Cutback Bitumens
For cutback bitumens, in addition to the viscosity and flash
point tests, the following test is included in specifications:

Distillation test: a measured quantity of cutback is heated to

360°C in a distillation flask. The volatile constituents vaporise
and pass into a water-cooled condenser flask where they are
Figure 11 - Ductility testing of bitumen samples: Above: illustrates the measured to show the percentage of the volume of the
position at the start of the test, and Below: the points of failure.
cutback that has been driven off. This indicates the volatility of
the cutback. The material that remains in the distillation flask
Solubility and the Presence of Insolubles: indicates the
is treated as paving grade bitumen for further testing for
degree of contamination of the bitumen by other matter and
viscosity and solubility.
therefore the presence of pure bitumen. The Australian test
measures the percentage of matter that is insoluble in toluene.

Effect of Heat and Air: is determined to simulate the

conditions obtained when the bitumen is used to manufacture
hot-mix. In the Rolling Thin Film Oven Test a moving film of
bitumen is heated in an oven at 163°C for 60 minutes. The
viscosity is measured before and after treatment.

Softening Point: a measurement of the temperature at which

a sample of bitumen held in a ring in a water bath allows a
steel ball of specified weight to fall to a point at a specified
distance below it. It is used as an indication of the temperature
at which bitumen has a particular viscosity – or more simply, Figure 13 - The Distillation test indicates the volatility of a sample of
cutback bitumen.
the temperature at which it softens.

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Bitumen Emulsions
electrode at the end of the test the emulsion is cationic; if
Bitumen emulsions are subject to their own test procedures.
bitumen is deposited on the positive electrode, the emulsion
Some of the tests used for determining their properties are as
is anionic.
follows:

Sieve Residue test: shows the presence of coarse binder

Consistency: Also known as the Engler Viscosity test, this
particles in the emulsion. These particles may be in the form
measures the rate of flow of the bitumen emulsion at 25°C.
of relatively large globules or strings and may indicate
The emulsion is heated to 25°C and poured into a standard
instability or result in poor coating performance or clogging of
container. The time taken by 200mL of emulsion to pass
equipment. The sample is strained through a 150μm sieve and
through a standard orifice at the bottom of the container is
the percentage mass of emulsion retained on the sieve is
measured.
calculated and reported as sieve residue.

Water Content test: determines the weight percent of water

Residue from Evaporation test: indicates the percentage
in an emulsion. This can be performed by Dean and Stark
mass of binder present in an emulsion. An emulsion sample
distillation or Karl Fischer titration. In the Dean and Stark
is heated so that water and other volatile components are
distillation, a sample is heated with a solvent that is immiscible
evaporated. Residue from evaporation is calculated from the
with water. During the distillation process, the solvent and the
mass of the sample and residue after evaporation.
water are separated in a trap so that the amount of water can
be measured. In the Karl Fischer water content method, the
emulsion is dissolved in a solvent and titrated with a Karl
Fischer reagent, which reacts with the water in the emulsion.
The amount of Karl Fischer reagent consumed is used to
determine the water content of the emulsion.

Sedimentation test: indicates the extent to which the

components of an emulsion sample will separate during
storage. Samples are taken from the top and bottom of a
500mL sample that has stood undisturbed for three days. The
samples are tested for water content. The difference between
the water content of each sample is an indication of the degree
to which sedimentation has taken place.

Stone Coating Ability and Water Resistance test: it is

essential that a bitumen emulsion stands up to the action of
being mixed with aggregates, coat them as completely as
possible and not be washed off by any water that may fall on
it once the mixing is completed. This test shows the extent to
which a sample meets these requirements. It involves coating
a sample of aggregate with emulsion, spraying it with water
until the water coming from it is clear. The coating on the
sample is assessed.

Particle Charge test: identifies the charge on the bitumen

particles in an emulsion. A positive and a negative electrode
are left in a sample of emulsion for half an hour and an electric
current applied. If there is bitumen deposited on the negative
Figure 14 - The ‘Dean and Stark test’ (‘Water Content Test’)
records the percentage volume of water in a bitumen
emulsion.

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Optimising Bitumen Performance

Background Keep bitumen within the range of temperatures recommended

for the type and grade. Bitumen solidifies as it cools and
Petroleum based bitumen is a product of consistently high
becomes unworkable and the viscosity may increase due to
quality. Its production involves a heavy investment in high-
oxidation if it is overheated. Keep asphalt at the lowest
technology equipment and a commitment to quality
temperature that will permit it to be thoroughly mixed,
management at all stages of crude oil selection, manufacture,
transported and compacted to the specified density. The
blending, storage and distribution. By retaining and checking
maximum bitumen storage temperature relating to the grade
samples of consignments of bitumen, the composition and
should not be exceeded during the mixing process.
quality of the bitumen at the time it was delivered to the
contractor can be confirmed.
Temperature control is a major factor in the quality control of
asphalt mixes. Avoid contaminating the bitumen, particularly
The actual performance of the bitumen when it is doing its job
with petroleum based solvents that reduce the flashpoint and
is just one part of the total performance of an asphalt mixture
the viscosity, and increase the penetration. Just 0.1% diesel
or sprayed seal. Asphalt performance depends on a number
in an asphalt mixture can lower the flash point and viscosity,
of factors, including the design of the mixture, the way it was
and increase the penetration significantly.
mixed, the quality of mineral aggregate used and how it was
laid and compacted. Sprayed seal performance depends on
Stability is an essential quality in the performance of asphalt.
similar factors and can be significantly affected by weather
It depends on friction and cohesion within the mixture. Too
conditions at the time of spraying and the cleanliness of the
much bitumen will act as a lubricant for the aggregate
aggregate. As bitumen is an integral part of both asphalt
particles, reducing friction and therefore the stability of the
mixtures and sprayed seals, advice on how to avoid and
mix. The cohesion, or internal binding force in the mixture,
correct errors would need to cover many factors and types of
increases as the proportion of bitumen in the mixture is
applications. This subject is outside the scope of this booklet.
increased, until it reaches the optimum. If the amount of
bitumen increases further, stability decreases. It is therefore
However, it is possible to put forward the following essential
essential to ensure that the optimum proportion of bitumen is
guidelines to optimising the performance of bitumen, mainly in
used in any mixture.
hot mix asphalt, on the basis of what is known about bitumen
itself. Some of the points are mentioned elsewhere but they
The following are useful examples of what can be seen by
have been repeated in this section for convenient reference.
simple observation. They can be treated as early warning
signs that further checks should be made:

 blue smoke coming from the mixture can indicate

General Advice
overheating
Minimise the time during which hot bitumen is exposed to air.
 steam coming from the mixture indicates the presence of
Bitumen hardens and loses some of its adhesive property
too much moisture
when it is exposed to a combination of air and excessive heat.
Careless mixing of bitumen and aggregate is an example of a  if the distribution of bitumen on the aggregate is not
practice that exposes bitumen to the air and heat for longer uniform, the temperature in the mixing operation may be
than the minimum time required to coat the aggregate. It is too low
therefore likely to reduce the bitumen’s performance as an  if the mixture looks stiff and dull rather than black and
adhesive. shiny there may be too little bitumen in the mixture, or
overheating has excessively oxidised the binder
Keep bitumen dry and away from contamination by water at
 if the mixture lies slumped on the floor of the truck the
all times. When hot bitumen comes into contact with water it
mixture may contain too much bitumen
will foam. In extreme cases it will violently boil over from
storage vessels due to the presence of small quantities of
water.

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Glossary
AAPA – Australian Asphalt Pavement Association.
adhesion agent – A substance added to a bituminous binder
to improve adhesion between the binder and aggregate. The
term is usually applied to adhesion in the presence of water.
Also commonly known as an anti-stripping agent.
age hardening – Hardening of a bituminous binder due to
loss of volatiles and oxidation of the binder resulting from
exposure to weather over a period of time.
aggregate – A material usually produced by crushing rock,
slag, gravel, sand or similar material and screened to provide
a specific size distribution.
air voids – The spaces within the bulk of a material, such as
an asphalt mix, which is not occupied by solid matter or filled
with bituminous binder.
ALGA – Australian Local Government Association. anionic
bitumen emulsion – A bituminous emulsion in which the
suspended bitumen droplets are negatively charged.
anti-foaming agent – A substance (e.g. silicone oil) added to
bitumen to reduce the surface tension and hence the frothing
tendency of hot bitumen in the presence of water.
application rate (aggregate) – The amount of aggregate
spread in a sprayed seal expressed as square metres per
cubic metre (m2/m3). Commonly known as the aggregate
spread rate or coverage.
application rate (binder) – The amount of bituminous binder
applied in a sprayed seal expressed as litres per square metre
(L/m2), usually expressed at 15°C. Commonly known as the
spray rate.
ARF – Australian Road Federation.
ARRB – Australian Road Research Board, now known as
ARRB Group Limited.
asphalt – A mixture of bituminous binder and aggregate, with
or without mineral filler. Usually produced hot in a mixing plant
and delivered, spread and compacted while hot. Also known
as hot mix or hot mix asphalt (HMA).
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Asphalt Institute (AI) – An association of international
petroleum bitumen producers, manufacturers, and affiliated
businesses, based in the USA.
asphalt, dense-graded (DGA) – An asphalt comprised of
coarse and fine aggregates, filler and a bituminous binder,
which is placed hot and then compacted to a dense state as a
road pavement layer. The aggregate gradation of dense
graded asphalt is considered to be continuous and the
intimate interlocking of the aggregate particles is a major
factor in the strength of the compacted asphalt. Also known
as asphaltic concrete.
asphalt, hot rolled (HRA) – An asphalt material used as a
dense wearing course, base course or road base material and
which consists of a mixture of gap-graded coarse aggregate,
fine aggregates, filler and bituminous binder. Common in the
UK.
asphalt, lake – A highly viscous natural bitumen found in well-
defined surface deposits e.g. Trinidad Lake Asphalt.
asphalt, open-graded (OGA) – An asphalt comprised of a
large proportion of a single size aggregate, filler and
bituminous binder, which has an interconnecting voids content
of about 20% to 25%. Also known as porous asphalt and
drainage asphalt.
asphalt, stone mastic (SMA) – An asphalt with a high coarse
aggregate content and a high volume of both filler and
bituminous binder, the strength of which is predominantly
provided by stone-on-stone contact of the coarse aggregate
particles. Also known as Splitt Mastic Asphalt.
asphaltenes – High molecular weight compounds in bitumen
which are soluble in carbon disulphide, but insoluble in
aromatic-free low-boiling petroleum solvents, such as n-
heptane.
asphaltic cement – North American term for bitumen.
asphaltic concrete – See asphalt, dense-graded (DGA).
atmospheric residue (atres) – The residue obtained in the
atmospheric distillation of crude petroleum oil.
18
Austroads – The association of Australian and New Zealand
road transport and traffic authorities.
AustStab – Australian Stabilisation Industry Association.
base course – One or more layers of material immediately
below the wearing course of a pavement. Also known as base
or binder course.
binder – A material that is used to hold aggregate particles
together or to a substrate, such as bitumen in asphalt and
sprayed seals, or cement in concrete.
bitumen – A viscous liquid or solid, consisting essentially of
hydrocarbons and their derivatives, which is substantially
soluble in organic solvents, such as toluene and carbon
disulphide, and is substantially non-volatile and softens
gradually when heated. It is black or brown in colour and
possesses waterproofing and adhesive properties. It is either
obtained by refinery processes from petroleum or is found as
a natural deposit or as a component of naturally occurring
asphalt, in which it is associated with mineral matter. Also
known as asphalt in North America.
bitumen emulsion – A liquid mixture in which bitumen is
suspended as small droplets in water by means of emulsifying
and stabilising agents.
bitumen, blown – Bitumen through which air has been
passed (blown) at high temperature for the purpose of altering
its viscosity characteristics.
bitumen, cutback – See cutback bitumen
bitumen, fluxed – A bitumen to which a flux oil has been
added to provide a long-term reduction in its viscosity.
bitumen, industrial grade – See bitumen, oxidised.
bitumen, oxidised – Bitumen, to which other refinery
products such as paraffinic oils may have been added, that
has been subjected to a prolonged blowing process to
substantially change its viscosity characteristics. Also known
as industrial grade bitumen.
bitumen, paving grade – Bitumen manufactured specifically
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for use in road pavement applications.
bitumen, petroleum – Bitumen obtained from crude
petroleum oil by a refinery processes.
bitumen, straight run – Bitumen produced from crude
petroleum oil solely by a process of distillation (atmospheric &
vacuum). Also known as residual bitumen.
bituminous – A material that resembles or contains bitumen.
bituminous slurry – A mixture of bitumen emulsion (with or
without added polymer modifier), mineral aggregate, filler,
additives and water properly proportioned to form a slurry
which can be spread evenly on a road surface (as in
bituminous slurry surfacing).
blowing – A refinery process involving the blowing of air
through bitumen, usually at high temperature, to alter its
viscosity characteristics. Also known as air blowing.
blown bitumen – See bitumen, blown.
boil over – The sudden overflow of a tank contents caused
by the rapid evaporation of water within hot bitumen.
break (of a bitumen emulsion) – The separation of a
bitumen emulsion into free bitumen and water, which occurs
as a result of coagulation of the dispersed bitumen droplets to
form a continuous phase.
cape seal – A surfacing treatment incorporating the
placement of a bituminous slurry over a sprayed seal to
provide an asphalt-like appearance.
cationic bitumen emulsion – A bituminous emulsion in
which the suspended bitumen droplets are positively charged.
chip seal – See sprayed seal.
cohesion – The magnitude of internal forces that resist the
separation of a material into its constituent particles.
cold mix – A mixture of bituminous binder and aggregate, with
or without added filler, which is produced warm or cold in a
mixing plant and can be delivered in a workable condition
suitable for stockpiling, spreading and compaction. It is
19
typically used in areas where it is impractical to do repair work
using hot mix.
compaction – The process of producing a closer packing of
aggregate and filler particles in asphalt by rolling or other
mechanical means. Usually aimed at achieving a desired
voids content.
consistency – A general term describing the relative
resistance to deformation or flow of a semi-fluid or plastic
material.
continuous grading – An aggregate grading or particle size
distribution where all sizes or fractions from the maximum
particle size down are represented. The grading curve has a
smooth concave shape without abrupt changes in slope.
creep – The slow deformation of a material, such as asphalt,
generally measured under constant stress.
crumb rubber – Either natural or styrene butadiene rubber
recovered by comminuting used vehicle tyres into small
crumbs which are then graded to conform to a specified size
range for use as a bitumen modifier.
crumb rubber modified seal (CRM seal) – A sprayed seal in
which the binder consists of bitumen modified by the
incorporation of crumb rubber.
cure (of an emulsion) – The increase in cohesive strength of
a bituminous binder following application in emulsified form,
usually due to the progressive loss of water and other volatile
materials following emulsion break.
cutback bitumen – Bitumen to which a suitable volatile
diluent, known as a cutter oil, has been added for the purpose
of temporarily reducing its viscosity.
cutter oil – A light petroleum distillate, such as kerosene,
which is added to bitumen to temporarily reduce its viscosity
(cutback bitumen).
dense-graded asphalt – See asphalt, dense graded.
DIER Tas – Department of Infrastructure, Energy and
Resources, Tasmania.
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distillation, atmospheric – A refinery process that separates
components in a crude petroleum oil by virtue of their different
boiling points. Atmospheric distillation is carried out at normal
atmospheric pressure.
distillation, vacuum – A refinery process that separates
components in a crude petroleum oil by virtue of their different
boiling points. Vacuum distillation is carried out at reduced
pressure to separate higher boiling components that would
otherwise decompose if higher distillation temperatures and
normal atmospheric pressures were used. Vacuum distillation
is usually carried out on the residue obtained from
atmospheric distillation.
DOTARS – Australian Department of Transport and Regional
Services.
double seal – A sprayed seal constructed by applying two
successive sprayed seals. Usually, the first sprayed seal uses
a larger aggregate size than the second sprayed seal.
DCI NT – Department of Construction and Infrastructure,
Northern Territory.
drainage asphalt – See asphalt, open graded.
DTEI SA – Department for Transport, Energy and
Infrastructure, South Australia.
DTMS ACT – Department of Territory and Municipal Services,
Australian Capital Territory.
ductility – The characteristic of a bituminous binder that
allows it to be elongated without rupture when stretched.
Ductility values are defined as the distance to which a
standard-sized sample of bituminous binder can be elongated
before the thread so formed breaks under standard specified
test conditions.
ductility recovery – A modification of the ductility test
whereby the sample is stretched to a thread of fixed length
and then cut in the middle. The distance between the ends of
the half threads, which develops after a standard period of
time, is used to calculate the elastic recovery. It is usually
expressed as a percentage of the elongation length.
20
durability – The maintenance of performance properties of
bitumen and bituminous materials to traffic, weather and other
external factors. For bitumen, the measurement under
standard specified test conditions of the long term effect of
heat and air is known as the Durability and is based on the
accelerated aging of bitumen to determine the time required
for it to reach a specified viscosity level that has been
associated with distress in pavement surfacings.
dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) – An instrument that
measures the rheological properties, such as deformation and
flow characteristics, of bituminous binders.
dynamic viscosity – The ratio of shear stress to shear
(strain) rate of a fluid.
elastomer – A polymeric material that exhibits predominantly
elastic properties.
emulsifier – A chemical that stabilises an emulsion by
reducing the coalescence of dispersed droplets.
emulsion – A colloidal suspension of a liquid (the dispersed
phase) in another liquid (the continuous phase) in which it is
not soluble.
emulsion, bitumen – See bitumen emulsion.
ethylene methyl acrylate (EMA) – A plastomeric polymer
used in the modification of bitumen.
ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) – A plastomeric polymer used
in the modification of bitumen.
Eurobitume – European bitumen association.
filler – A finely divided mineral powder, which is normally less
than 0.075mm in size. Typically derived from crushed
aggregate, although cement and lime are also used as filler.
flash point – The lowest temperature at which the vapour of
a material momentarily catches fire when a flame is applied,
but does not continue to burn.
flux oil – A substantially non-volatile petroleum diluent, such
as automotive diesel fuel, which is used to produce a longterm
reduction in the viscosity of bitumen.
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fluxed bitumen – See bitumen, fluxed.
foamed bitumen – Hot bitumen to which steam or water has
been added to temporarily greatly expand its volume by
creating a foamed state.
fog seal – See surface enrichment.
high stress seal (HSS) – A sprayed seal which is applied
specifically to withstand heavier than normal traffic loading
due to braking, accelerating and turning vehicles.
hot mix (HMA) – See asphalt.
IPWEA – Institute of Public Works Engineering Australia.
IRF – International Road Federation.
kinematic viscosity – The ratio of dynamic viscosity to
density of a material.
maltenes – Lower molecular weight compounds in bitumen
which are soluble in normal heptane.
microsurfacing – A bituminous slurry, which usually contains
polymer, that is capable of being applied in variably thick
layers for rut-filling, correction courses and wearing courses.
mineral aggregate – See aggregate.
mineral filler – See filler.
modulus – The ratio of a component of stress to a component
of strain. Also called stiffness.
multigrade bitumen – A bitumen produced in a special
refinery process to modify the temperature susceptibility
otherwise characteristic of normal bitumen. A multigrade
bitumen will exhibit a higher viscosity at a high service
temperature and a lower viscosity at a low service
temperature than an equivalent normal paving grade bitumen.
open-graded asphalt – See asphalt, open-graded (OGA).
particle size distribution – The percentages of the various
sizes of aggregate or filler as determined by sieving. Also
known as grading.
21
pavement – The road structure placed above the subgrade.
paving grade bitumen – See bitumen, paving grade.
penetration – An indication of the softness of a bituminous
binder and measured as the vertical distance penetrated by a
standard needle entering a bituminous binder sample under
specified conditions of load, time and temperature.
penetration index (PI) – The penetration index represents a
quantitative measure of the temperature susceptibility of
bitumen and is determined by calculation from two penetration
values determined at different temperatures. Alternative
equations exist that calculate PI from a combination of
penetration, softening point and viscosity measurements.
plastomer – A polymeric material that exhibits predominantly
plastic flow properties.
polybutadiene (PBD) – An elastomeric polymer used in the
modification of bitumen.
polyethylene (PE) – A plastomeric polymer used in the
modification of bitumen.
polymer – Long thread-like molecule made up from small,
repeating units or monomers. Molecular weight may range
from a few thousand to millions. Polymers typically used in
bitumen have molecular weights of several hundred thousand.
polymer modified binder (PMB) – A pre-formed blend of
bitumen, polymer and other additives made under carefully
controlled conditions and which has enhanced binder
performance for particular applications.
Portland cement – Hydraulic cement made by heating to a
high temperature a mixture of clay and limestone and grinding
the resulting clinker to a fine powder.
precoat – A precoat, or more accurately, an aggregate
precoating fluid, is a liquid that, when applied to the surface of
aggregate particles, serves to enhance the adhesion of those
particles to bituminous binders in sprayed seal applications.
Precoats can be water-based, neat diesel, or more often a
blend of bitumen with flux or cutter oils. Adhesion agents may
also sometime be added.
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prime – An application of a bituminous material (primer) to a
prepared base as a preliminary treatment to a more
permanent surfacing. The role of a prime is to penetrate and
bind the substrate surface and provide a waterproof bonding
layer between the existing pavement and the subsequent
sprayed seal or asphalt layer.
primer – A bituminous material of low viscosity and low
surface tension used in priming. Often a cutback bitumen.
primer binder – A material which is more viscous than a
primer that is used to act both as a primer and binder and used
in primer sealing.
primer seal – A preliminary sprayed seal treatment intended
to carry traffic for an interim period, which is constructed by
applying a primer binder with a fine cover aggregate. Typically
applied to new granular pavements prior to the placement of
an asphalt overlay.
propane-precipitated asphaltenes (PPA) – Asphaltene
material obtained as a precipitate from a mixture of vacuum
residue in propane. Normally derived as a by-product of
lubricant base oil manufacture.
pyrophoric deposit – A deposit often found on the inside
surfaces of bitumen storage tanks and normally formed in an
oxygen depleted environment, which can be self heating when
its temperature or the surrounding oxygen concentration is
increased.
reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) – Materia reclaimed
from an asphalt pavement, usually by cold milling, and which
may be reutilised in new asphalt pavement layers.
reseal – A sprayed seal applied to a surface which has an
existing seal.
residual bitumen – See bitumen, straight run.
rheology – The study of flow and deformation of materials.
rheometer – An instrument for measuring the rheological
properties (deformation and flow characteristics) of materials.
May be used for creep tests, dynamic tests, viscosity
measurement, etc.
22
rolling thin film oven test (RTFOT) – A laboratory test to
simulate the ageing a bituminous binder will undergo in an
asphalt mixing plant.
RTA NSW – Roads and Traffic Authority, New South Wales.
rubber – See crumb rubber.
SA – Standards Australia.
sand – A non-cohesive granular material, usually under 2.36
mm in size, which results from the natural disintegration of
rock and consists mainly of mixtures of irregular or sub
angular and rounded particles.
scrap rubber – See crumb rubber.
seal coat – See sprayed seal.
sedimentation – The process whereby the more dense
bitumen droplets settle out of the less dense continuous
aqueous phase of a bitumen emulsion to form a sediment.
segregation – The separation of polymer from bitumen,
usually during hot storage, which sometimes results in
polymer concentrations increasing in the top layers and
decreasing in the bottom layers of PMBs held in storage.
set up – To harden or cure, either by evaporation of volatiles
or natural oxidation by air.
single/double seal – A sprayed seal constructed by applying
a single application of bituminous binder followed by a double
application of aggregate.
single/single seal – A sprayed seal constructed by applying
a single application of bituminous binder followed by a single
application of aggregate.
slurry seal – A surface treatment consisting of a thin layer of
bituminous slurry, usually without added polymer.
slurry surfacing – See bituminous slurry.
softening point – The temperature at which a bituminous
binder softens under standard specified conditions. Usually
determined by the ring and ball softening point test, which
measures the temperature at which a disc of the binder
softens sufficiently to allow a standard steel ball, initially
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placed on the surface, to fall through the disc for a prescribed
distance.
sprayed seal – A thin layer of bituminous binder sprayed onto
a pavement surface followed by the application of a layer of
single-sized aggregate. Also known as surface dressing (UK)
and chip seal (NZ).
stabilisation – The treatment of a road pavement or subgrade
material by the introduction of a bituminous binder to improve
its engineering strength.
stiffness – See modulus.
stone mastic asphalt (SMA) – See asphalt, stone mastic
(SMA).
straight-run bitumen – See bitumen, straight run.
strain alleviating membrane (SAM) – A sprayed seal in
which the bituminous binder is formulated to reduce reflection
cracking, usually by the incorporation of polymer. Used to
waterproof an underlying cracked pavement surface.
strain alleviating membrane interlayer (SAMI) – Similar to
a SAM, but provided as an interlayer between pavement
layers to reduce the likelihood of cracks reflecting through the
top asphalt layer from the underlying pavement.
styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) – An elastomeric polymer
used in the modification of bitumen, the polymer backbone of
which is made up of randomly distributed styrene and
butadiene monomers. Also known as synthetic rubber.
styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) – An elastomeric polymer
used in the modification of bitumen, the polymer backbone of
which is made up by joining polystyrene, polybutadiene and
polystyrene polymer blocks in either a linear or radial
formation.
subbase – The material laid on the subgrade to either make
up additional pavement thickness, to prevent intrusion of the
subgrade into the base, or to provide a working platform for
placement of the base course.
subgrade – The soil foundation below a pavement.
23
surface enrichment – A light application of bituminous binder vacuum residue (vacres) – The residue obtained in the
to an existing sprayed seal for the purpose of increasing its vacuum distillation of atmospheric residue.
binder volume and extending its service life.
VicRoads – The Victorian road authority.
tack coat – A light application of a bituminous binder to a
viscoelasticity – The rheological characteristic of a
prepared base as a preliminary treatment to promote surface
bituminous binder represented by both viscous and elastic
adhesion of the subsequent asphalt layer.
behaviour, i.e. behaviour which is like that of both a solid and
tar – A viscous solid, semi-solid, or liquid material, black in a liquid, in response to an applied stress.
colour and having adhesive properties, which is typically
viscometer – An instrument for measuring the viscosity of a
obtained by the destructive distillation of coal, wood or shale.
material.
temperature susceptibility – The change in viscosity of a
bituminous binder with change in temperature. A high
viscosity – The property of a fluid whereby, through internal
temperature susceptibility indicates a large change in viscosity
friction, it resists movement and expressed as the stress
with temperature.
divided by the strain rate.

TMR – Department of Transport and Main Roads,

voids – See air voids.
Queensland.

wearing course – The surface layer of a pavement that is in

direct contact with traffic.

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