Module 1: Metacognition

Definition:

 The term " metacognition " was coined by John Flavell. The term comes from the root word meta,
meaning "beyond", or "on top of" and cognition, meaning " thinking".
 According to Flavell, metacognition consist of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive
experience or regulation.
 Metacognition, simply put, is " thinking about thinking " or " learning how to learn ". It refers to
higher order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the cognitive processes
engaged in learning.
 Metacognition knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge
that can be used to control cognitive processes.

Flavell further divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories:

1. Person Variables
 This includes how one views himself as a learner and thinker. Knowledge of person variables
refers to knowledge about how human beings learn and process information, as well as
individual knowledge of one's own learning processes.
2. Task Variables
 Knowledge of task variables includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the
type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual. It is about knowing what
exactly needs to be accomplished, gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind of effort it will
demand for you.
3. Strategy Variables
 Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a
topic and evaluating whether this strategy is effective. If you think your strategy is not
working, then you may think of various strategies and try out one to see if it will help you
learn better.
Related to Strategy Variables
Meta-attention - is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your
attention focused on the topic or task at hand.
Meta-memory - is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you.

These three variables all interact as you learn and apply metacognition.

Omrod includes the following in the practice of metacognition:

 Knowing the limits of one's learning and memory capacities.
 Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within a certain amount of time.
 Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not.
 Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful.
 Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new material.
  Monitoring one's own knowledge and comprehension. In other words, knowing when
information has been successfully learned and when it's not.
 Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information.
 Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in a purposeful manner to ensure
that a goal is met.

Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning

Metacognitive strategies refers to methods used to help students understand the way they
learn; in other words, it means processes designed for students to ‘think’ about their ‘thinking’.

Teachers who use metacognitive strategies can positively impact students who have learning
disabilities by helping them to develop an appropriate plan for learning information, which can be
memorized and eventually routine. As students become aware of how they learn, they will use these
processes to efficiently acquire new information, and consequently, become more of an independent
thinker.

Here are some examples of teaching strategies to develop metacognition:

1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking.

2. Teach students study or learning strategies.

TQLR- This can be taught to younger students. It is a metacognitive strategy before listening to a
story or presentation.

Tune in - It is first important for the learner himself to be aware that he is paying attention, and that
he is ready to learn.

Question - The learner is given questions or he thinks of questions what he will soon learn.

Listen - The learner then intentionally exerts efforts to listen. He becomes aware if he is momentarily
detracted and goes back to listen again.

Remember - The learner uses ways or strategies to remember what was learned.

PQ4R - This is usually for older students in the intermediate levels and onwards. This strategy is used to
study a unit or chapter.

Preview - Scan the whole chapter before delving on each paragraph. Check out the objectives. Look for
outlines or advance organizers that will give you an idea about the important topics and ideas in the
chapter. Read the summary of the chapter first.

Question - Read the guide questions provided, or think of your own questions about the topic.

Read - Check out sub headings as you read. Pay attention on words that are printed in bold or italicized.
Find out the meaning of words that are not clear to you. Use a marker or colored pencil to highlight
important words or phrases.

Recite - Work on answering the questions you had earlier.

Review - Pinpoint topics you may need to go back to and read in other to understand better.
Reflect - Think about what you read. Is everything clear to you? What are the main points you learned?
How is this relevant or useful to you?

3. Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based on what they have
read.

4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures. ( It is important to have relevant
knowledge structures well learned.)

5. Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about what's going on around them.

6. Help students to know when to ask for help. ( He/she must be able to self- monitor; require students
to show how they have attempted to deal with the problem of their own. )

7. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to other situations or tasks.

Novice and Export Learners

In the last twenty years, cognitive psychologist have studied the distinctions among learners in
the manner they absorb or process information. They are able to differentiate expert learners from
novice learners. A very important factor that separates these two types of learners mentioned is
metacognition.

 Expert learners employ metacognitive strategies in learning. They are more aware of their
learning process as they read, study and do problem solving.
 Expert learners monitor their learning and consequently adjust their strategies to make learning
more effective.

The Table below shows the differences between a novice learners and an expert learner.

Differences Between Novice and Expert Learners

Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Expert Learners

Knowledge in different  Have limited knowledge  Have deeper knowledge

in the different subject in different subject areas
subject areas areas because they look for
interrelationships in the
things they learn

Problem solving  Satisfied at just scratching  First try to understand the

the surface; hurriedly problem, look for
gives a solution to the boundaries, and create a
problem mental picture of the
problem
 Learning/thinking  Employ rigid strategies  Design new strategies
that may not be that would be appropriate
Strategies appropriate to the task at to the task at hand
hand

Selectivity in Processing  Attempt to process all  Select important

information they receive information to process;
able to breakdown
information to
manageable chunks

Production of output  Do not examine the  Check their errors and

quality of their works, nor Redirect their efforts to
stop to make revisions maintain quality output

Written Report in ED 203

( Facilitating Learner-Centered-Classrom)
M-W-F 8:00-9:00 am

Module 2: Learner- Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)

Learner Centered Psychological Principles

 They focus in the psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the
learner rather than conditioned habits or physiological factors. However, the principles also
attempt to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that interact with these
internal factors.
 The principles are intended to deal Holistically with learners in the context in real- world learning
situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of principles.

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

1. Nature of the learning process

 The learner of a complex subject matter is most effective when it is intentional process of
constructing meaning from information and experience.

2. Goals of Learning Process

 The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.

3. Construction of Knowledge

 The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful way.

4. Strategic Thinking

 The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.

5. Thinking about thinking

 Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative thinking.

6. Context of Learning

 Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and instructional

practices.

7. Intrinsic motivation

 The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. it
is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for
personal choice and control.

 Educators can encourage and support learner's natural curiosity and motivation to learn by attending to
individual differences in learner's perceptions to optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal
choice and control.
8. Effects of motivation on effort

 -Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice.
without learner's motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without
coercion.

 Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner
effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension and
understanding.

9. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

 What and hoe much is learned is influenced by the learners motivation. Motivation to learn, in
turn, is influenced by the individuals emotional states, beliefs, interest and goals, and habits of
thinking.

DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS(2 principles)

10. Developmental influences on learning

- As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. learning is most effective
when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional and social domains is taken into
account.

Over emphasis on one type of developmental readiness- such as reading readiness- may preclude learner's
from demonstrating that they are more capable on other areas of performance.

Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the quality of language interactions and two-
way communications between adults and children can influence these developmental areas.

11. Social influences in learning

- learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations and communication with others.

learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate with others
on instructional tasks.

family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation strategies can offset
factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a particular
subject.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTOR(3 principles)

12. Individual differences in learning

- learner's have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience
and heredity.

Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.

Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify them, if
necessary.

13. Learning and diversity

- learning is most effective when differences in learner's linguistic, cultural and social backgrounds are taken into
account.

the same basic principles of learning, motivation and effective instruction apply to all learners. language,
ethnicity, race, beliefs and socioeconomic status all can influence learning.

14. Standards and assessment

-setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning progress
including diagnostic process and outcome assessment are integral parts of the learning process.

Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the learning
process.

Module 3: Focus on the Learner

Highlighted Theories that focus on the Learners development:

SIGMUND FREUD

" This mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its bulk above water"

-This is of course the very famous analogy that freud referred to when he explained the subconscious
mind. He believed that much of what the person is really about is not what we see in the outside and
what is conscious, but what is there hidden in the subconscious mind.
-Freud emphasized the three components that make up one's personality, the id, ego, and the superego.
The ID is pleasure centered; the ego, reality centered and the superego, which is related to the ego ideal
ot conscience.

-Freud believed that an individual goes through five psychosexual stages of development. This includes
oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital stages. Each stage demands satisfaction of needs, and failure to do
so results in fixations.

ERIK ERIKSON

"Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death"

-he believed in the impact of the significant others in the development of one's view of himself, life and
of the world. He presented a very comprehensive framework of eight psycho-social stages of
development. It is he who described the crisis (expressed in opposite polarities) that a person goes
through; the maladaptionsand malignancies that result from failure to effectively resolve thr crisis; and
the virtue that emerges when balance and resolution of the crisis os attained.

JEAN PIAGET

"The principle goal of education in the schools should br creating men and women who are capable of
doing nee things, not simply repeating what other generations have done"

-Piagets theory centered on the stages of cogniyive development. He described four stages of cognitive
development, namely Sensory-Motor, Pre-operational, Concrete-operational and Formal Operational
stages. Each has characteristic ways of thinking and perceiving that shows how one's cognitive abilities
develop.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

"Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been
critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society."

-Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral develoment (Pre-conventional, Coneventional and Post-
conventional) which are further subdivided into tha stages. Through being influenced, he believed that
one's cognitive development influenced the development of one's moral reasoning.

LEV VYGOTSKY

" The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday's development in the child but on tomorrows"

-He emphasized the role of social interaction in learning and development. Scaffolding is the systematic
manner of providing assistance to the learner that helps the learner to effectively acquire a skill. He
believed that guidance from a mpre knowledgeable other (MKO) would lead a learner to a high level of
performance than if he were alone. This higher level of performance then eventually becomes the
learners actual performance when he works independently in the future. His concept of zone of proximal
development ZPD illustrates this.

URIE BRONFENBRENNE

-his model is also known as Bioecological Systems theory . This presents child development within the
context of relationship systems that comprise the child's environment. The model is composed of
Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem and the Chronosystem. Each layer is further is
made up of different structures.

-The term biological points out that a child's own biological make-up impacts on his/her development.
The childs growing and developing body and the interplay between his or her family and community
environment, and the societal landscape fuel and steer his or her development. Changes or conflict in any
one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child's development then, but also at the larger
environment with which the child interacts.

Module 4: Individual Diffences

Dissinilary is principle of nature.No two persons are alike ,All the individuals differ from each other in many
respect.Children born of the same parents and even the twins are not alike.This differential psychology is linked
with the study of individual differences.

FACTORS THAT BRING ABOUT STUDENT DIVERSITY

In all learning environment,individuals interact with others ho are in some ways different from them.Recall how
these differences were shown in your class tally-gender and racial, ethic or cultural background
(nationality,province,language).This diversity also comes from other actors like the following.

1.Socioeconomic Status

 The millionaires lifestyle differs from that of the middle invome or lower income group.

2.Thinking/Learning Style
  Some of you learn better by seeing something; others by just listening;and still others by manipulating
something.

3.Exceptionalities

 In class there maybe one who has difficulty in spoken language comprehension or in seeing,hearing,etc.

How student Diversity Enriches the Learning Environment

1.Student selfawareness is enhanced by diversity

Exposing students to others with diverse background and experiences also serves to help students focus on thier
awareness to themselves.

2.Students diversity contributes to cognitive development

The opportunity to gain access to the perspective of peers to learn from other students,rather than the instructor
only, may be especially important for promoting the cognitive development of learners.

3.Student diversity prepares learners for thier role as responsible meembers of society.

Suzanne Morse stresses one competency that has strong implications for instructional strategies that capitalize on
diversity.The capacity to imagine situations or problems from all perspective and to appreciate all aspects of
diversity?.Furthermore she argues"The classroom can provide more than just theory given by the teacher in a
lecture with student diversuty,the classroombecomes a"public place"where community can be practiced.

4.Student diversity can promote harmony

When student diversity is integratedinto the classroom teaching ang learning process,itcan become a vehicle for
promoting harmonous race relations.

Some Tips on Student Diversity

1.Encourage Learners to share thier personal history and experiences.

2.Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students multicultural and cross-cultural awareness.

3.Aside from highlighting diversity,patterns of unity that treasured group differences.

4.Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups.

5.Use varied instructional methods to accomodate students diversity in learning styles.

6.Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple contexts that are releavant to
students from diverse background.

7.Adapt to the students'diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing them personal choice and decision-
making opportunities concerning what they will learn and how they will learn it.

8.Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating students learning.

9.Purposely,form small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds.You can form groups of students
with different leThiings styles, different cultural background,etc.

Module 5: Learning/ Thinking Styles

 -refer to the preferred way an individual process information. They describe a persons typical
mode of thinking,remembering or problem solving.having a particular learning/thinking style
simply denoyes a tendency to behave in a certain manner. Your style is usually descrined as a
personality dimension which influences your attitudes, values and social interaction.
 There are several perspective about learning/thinking styles. We shall focus on Sensory
preferences and global-analytic continuum.

VISUAL LEARNERS
  these learners must see their teachers actions and facial expressions to fully understand the content of a
lesson.they may think in pictures and learn best from visual aids including: diagrams,illustrated text books,
overhead transparrncies,videos,flipcharts and handouts.

Ri Charde further breaks down visual learners into:

VISUAL ICONIC

 -those who prefer this form of input are more interested in visual imagery such as film,graphic displays,or
pictures in order to solidify learning.they usually have good picture memory.

VISUAL SYMBOLIC

 -those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable with abstract symbolism such as mathematical
formulae or written word.they would prefer to read a book than a map.

AUDITORY LEARNERS

 -they learn best through verbal lectures,discussions,talking things through and listening to what others
have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of speech rhrough listening to tone of
voice,pitch,speed and othernuances.they are not easily distracted in their listening ability.

Auditory learners also fall into two categories:

THE LISTENERS

-listeners mostly do well in school. They remember things said to them and make the information their own. They
may even carry on mental conversations and figure out how to extend what they learned by reviewing in their
heads what they heard others say.

THE TALKERS

-they are the ones who prefer to talk and discuss. They often find themselves talking to those around them.

TACTILE/KINESTHETIC LEARNERS

-they are the ones who would benefit much from a hands on approach,actively exploring the physical world around
them. They may find it hard to sit still for long periods.they tend to prefer learning by doing.

GLOBAL - ANALYTIC CONTINUUM

ANALYTIC

-analytic thinkers tend toward the linear,step by step processes of learning. They are the "tree seers". They are
more comfortable in a world of details and hierchies of information.

GLOBAL

-global thinkers lean towards non linear thougjt and tend to see the whole pattern rather than particle
elements.they ate the :forest seers" who give attention only to the overall structure and sometimes ignore details.
Several theorists have tied the global analytic continuum to the left brain/right brain continuum. In accord with
Roger Sperry's model, the left nrained dominant individual is portrayed as a linear (analytic), verbal,mathematical
thinker while the right brained person is one who viewed as global,non linear and holistic in thougt preferences.

Both sides of the brain can reason but through different strategies in an individual, one side may ne dominant rhan
the other.

A SUCCESSIVE PROCESSOR (left brain) prefers to learn in a step ny step sequential format,beginnimg with details
leading to a conceptual understandin of a skill.

A SIMULTANEOUS PROCESSOR (right brain) prefers to learn beginnig with the general concept and then going
on to specifics.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

The theory of multiple intelligence was first described by Howard Gardner in Frames of mind (1983). Gardner
defines intelligence as "an ability or set of abilities that allows a person to solve a problem or fashion a product
that is valued in one or more cultures." Gardner believes that different intelligence may ne independent abilities - a
person can be low in one domain area but high in another. All of us possess the intelligence but in varying degrees
of strengh.

VISUAL/SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE (Picture Smart)

-learning visually and organizing ideas spatially. Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them. The ability
to see things in ones mind in planning to create a product or solve a problem.

VERBAL/LINGUISTIC (Word Smart)

-learning through the spoken and written word. This intelligence is always valued in the traditional classroom and
in traditional assessments of intelligence and achievement.

MATHEMATICAL/LOGICAL (Number Smart/Logic Smart)

-learning through reasoning and problem solving. Also highly valued in the traditional classroom where students
are asked to adapt to logically sequenced delivery of instruction.

BODILY/KINESTHETIC (Body Smart )

-learning through intetaction with ones environment. This intelligence is the domain of overly active learners. It
promotes understanding through concrete experience.

MUSICAL (Music Smart)

-learning through patterns,rhythms, and music. This includes not only auditory learning but also the identification
of patterns trough all these senses.

INTRAPERSONAL (Self Smart)

-learning through feelings,values, and attitudes. Students place value on what they learn and take ownership for
their learning.
INTERPERSONAL (People Smart)

-learning through interaction with others. This intelligence promotes collaborayion and working cooperatively with
others.

NATURALIST (Nature Smart)

-learning through classification,categories, and hierarchies. The naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle
differences in meaning.

EXISTENTIAL (Spirit Smart)

-learning by seeing the big picture. This intelligence seeks connectioms to real world understanding and application
of new learning.

TEACHING STRATEGIES GUIDED BY THINKING/LEARNING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

1.Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling factual information to drawing
implications and making value judgements.

2.Provide a general overview of material to be learned, i.e., structured overviews,advance organizers, etc. So that
students past experiences will be associated with the mew ideas.

3.Allow sufficient time for indormation to be proceased and then integrete using both the right and left brain
hemispheres.

4.Set clear purposes before any listening viewing or reading experience.

5.Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming set induction , etc.

6.Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information.

7.Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning.

8.Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising.