I.C.

Engines

Engine: An engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into

another form. The heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical
energy of a fuel into thermal energy and utilizes this thermal energy to perform
useful work.
Classification of Heat Engines:
Heat engines can be broadly classified into

 External combustion engines ( E C Engines)

o In this engine, the products of combustion of air and fuel transfer heat
to a second fluid which is the working fluid of the cycle.
 In the steam engine or a steam turbine plant, the heat of
combustion is employed to generate steam which is used in a
piston engine (reciprocating type engine) or a turbine (rotary type
engine) for useful work.
 In a closed cycle gas turbine, the heat of combustion in an
external furnace is transferred to
gas, usually air which the working fluid of the cycle.
 Internal combustion engines ( IC Engines )
o In this engine, the combustion of air and fuels take place inside the
cylinder and are used as the direct motive force. It can be classified into
the following types:
 According to the basic engine design- (a) Reciprocating engine
(Use of cylinder piston arrangement), (b) Rotary engine (Use of
turbine)
 According to the type of fuel used- (a) Petrol engine, (b) diesel
engine, (c) gas engine (CNG, LPG), (d) Alcohol engine (ethanol,
methanol etc)
 According to the number of strokes per cycle- (a) Four stroke
and (b) Two stroke engine
 According to the method of igniting the fuel- (a) Spark ignition
engine, (b) compression ignition engine and (c) hot spot ignition
engine
 According to the working cycle- (a) Otto cycle (constant volume
cycle) engine, (b) diesel cycle (constant pressure cycle) engine,
(c) dual combustion cycle (semi-diesel cycle) engine.
 According to the fuel supply and mixture preparation- (a)
Carburetted type (fuel supplied through the carburettor), (b)
Injection type (fuel injected into inlet ports or inlet manifold, fuel
injected into the cylinder just before ignition).
 According to the number of cylinders- (a) Single cylinder and (b)
multi-cylinder engine Method of cooling- water cooled or air
cooled
 Speed of the engine- Slow speed, medium speed and high-speed
engine
 Cylinder arrangement-Vertical, horizontal, inline, V-type, radial,
opposed cylinder or piston engines.
 Valve or port design and location- Overhead (I head), side valve
(L head); in two-stroke engines: cross scavenging, loop
scavenging, uniflow scavenging.
  Method governing- Hit and miss governed engines, quantitatively
governed engines and qualitatively governed engine.

EC and IC Engines: External Combustion (EC) engines are those in which

combustion takes place outside the engine whereas in Internal Combustion
(IC) engines, combustion takes within the engine.
Classification of IC Engine

 Two Strokes Engine: The thermodynamic cycle is completed in two strokes of

the piston or in one revolution of the crankshaft. Thus, one power stroke is
obtained in each revolution of the crankshaft with uniform turning moment an d
light flywheel.
 Four Strokes Engine: The thermodynamic cycle is completed in four strokes of
the piston or in two revolutions of the crankshaft. Thus, one power stroke is
obtained in every two revolutions of the crankshaft with non-uniform turning
moment and heavier flywheel.
 Spark Ignition (SI) Engine: It works on Otto cycle or constant volume heat
addition cycle. A gaseous mixture of fuel-air introduced during the suction
stroke. A carburettor and an ignition system are necessary. Modern engines
have gasoline injection.
 Compression Ignition (CI) Engine: It works one diesel cycle or constant
pressure heat addition cycle. Fuel is injected directly into the combustion
chamber at high pressure at the end of the compression stroke. A fuel pump
and injection are necessary.

Main components of reciprocating IC engines

 Cylinder: It is the main part of the engine inside which piston reciprocates to
and fro. It should have a high strength to withstand a high pressure above 50
bar and temperature above 2000 o C. The ordinary engine is made of cast iron
and heavy-duty engines are made of steel alloys or aluminium alloys. In the
multi-cylinder engine, the cylinders are cast in one block known as cylinder
block.
 Cylinder head: The top end of the cylinder is covered by c ylinder head over
which inlet and exhaust valve, spark plug or injectors are mounted. A copper
or asbestos gasket is provided between the engine cylinder and cylinder head
to make an airtight joint.
 Piston: Transmit the force exerted by the burning of charge to the connecting
rod. Usually made of aluminium alloy which has good heat conducting property
and greater strength at higher temperature.
 Piston rings: These are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the
outer surface of the piston and made of steel alloys which retain elastic
properties even at high temperature.
o 2 types of rings- compression and oil rings. Compression ring is upper
ring of the piston which provides airtight seal to prevent leakage of the
burnt gases into the lower portion. Oil ring is lower ring which provides
an effective seal to prevent leakage of the oil into the engine cylinder.
 Connecting rod: It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into circular
motion of the crankshaft, in the working stroke. The smaller end of the
connecting rod is connected with the piston by gudgeon pin and bigger end of
the connecting rod is connected with the crank with crank pin. The special
steel alloys or aluminium alloys are used for the manufacture of connecting
rod.
 Crankshaft: It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary
motion with the help of connecting rod. The special steel alloys are used for
the manufacturing of the
crankshaft. It consists of an eccentric portion called a crank.
  Crankcase: It houses cylinder and crankshaft of the IC engine and also serves
as sump for the lubricating oil.
 Flywheel: It is big wheel mounted on the crankshaft, whose function is to
maintain its speed constant. It is done by storing excess energy during the
power stroke, which is returned during other strokes.

IC ENGINE –TERMINOLOGY

 Cylinder bore (D): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder
 Piston area (A): The area of circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore.
 Stroke (L): The nominal distance through which a working piston moves
between two successive reversals of its direction of motion.
 Dead centre: The position of the working piston and the moving parts which
are mechanically connected to it at the moment when the direction of the
piston motion is reversed (at either end point of the stroke).
o Bottom dead centre (BDC): Dead centre when the piston is nearest to
the crankshaft.
o Top dead centre (TDC): Dead centre when the position is farthest from
the crankshaft.
 Displacement volume or swept volume (Vs): The nominal volume generated by
the working piston when travelling from the one dead centre to next one and
given as, Vs=A × L
 Clearance volume (Vc): the nominal volume of the space on the combustion
side of the piston at the top dead centre.
 Cylinder volume (V): Total volume of the cylinder. V= Vs + Vc
 Compression ratio (r): V s /V c

Otto Cycle

 A four-stroke engine (also known as a “four cycle” engine) is an internal

combustion (IC) engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes
while turning a crankshaft through 2 complete rotations. A stroke refers to the
full travel of the piston along the cylinder in one of the two reciprocal
directions. The four separate strokes are termed and described as follows
 The four-stroke cycle petrol engines operate on Otto (constant volume)
cycle.The four different strokes are:
o Suction stroke
 This stroke of the piston begins at top dead center (T.D.C. or
TDC) and ends at bottom dead center (B.D.C. or BDC).
 In this stroke, the intake valve must be in the open position while
the piston pulls an air-fuel mixture into the cylinder by producing
below-atmospheric (vacuum) pressure inside the cylinder
through its downward motion.
o Compression stroke
 This stroke begins at BDC, or just at the end of the suction
stroke, and ends at TDC.
 In this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture in
preparation for ignition during the next stroke. Both the intake
and exhaust valves are closed during this
stage.
o Working or power or expansion stroke
 This is the start of the second revolution of the four stroke cycle.
At this point the crankshaft has completed a full 360 degree
revolution.
  While the piston is at or close to TDC (at the end of the
compression stroke), the compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited
by a spark plug (in a gasoline engine) or by heat generated by
high compression (diesel engines).
 The hot combustion gases expand and forcefully return the
piston to BDC. This stroke is the one and only stroke which
produces mechanical work from the engine to turn the
crankshaft.
o Exhaust stroke: During the exhaust stroke, the piston once again
returns from BDC. to TDC while the exhaust valve is open. This action
expels the spent air-fuel mixture through the exhaust valve.
 The linear distance between TDC and BDC is the stroke and the diameter of
the piston is the bore.
 At TDC, the residual gas space in the combustion chamber is called the
clearance volume. The volume added in moving from TDC to BDC (the volume
of a cylinder defined by the stroke height and bore diameter) is th e
displacement volume.
 The compression ratio r is a volume ratio > 1 defined as r = Vmax / Vmin =
VBDC /VTDC = (clearance volume + displacement)/(clearance volume)

Mean Effective Pressure MEP

 The Mean Effective Pressure MEP is a fictitious Otto cycle pressure reflecting
the concept that Work = P ΔV.
 “The mean effective pressure (MEP) is a fictitious pressure that, if it operated
on the piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount
of net work as that produced during the actual cycle.”
 W net = P MEP ΔV
= MEP × Piston area × Stroke
= MEP × Displacement
 MEP = W net /Displacement= W net /Vmax−V min
 Increasing MEP increases net work performed when displacement is
unchanged.
  For the actual cycle, exhaust pressure is slightly above amb ient pressure Patm
and intake pressure is slightly below ambient pressure. It can be seen that the
area enclosed in the actual cycle P-v process curve resembles that of the ideal
Otto process curve.

fig above shows actual Otto Cycle

 The air standard Otto cycle approximates the Spark Ignition Combustion
Engine where process-
 o 1-2: Isentropic Compression
o 2-3: Const. Volume Heat Addition
o 3-4: Isentropic expansion
o 4-1: Const. volume Heat rejection
 There are also two-stroke (“two-cycle”) engines, which have been extensively
used in lawn mowers and other small SI IC engines, but they have generally
been more inefficient and more polluting. Their efficiency can be improved by
direct fuel injection, stratified charge combustion, and electronic controls.

Otto Cycle Efficiency (Ideal and Actual)

 The ideal Otto cycle efficiency is calculated as

η th,Otto = 1 − (1/r k−1 )

where r = compression ratio k = cp/cv for air at room T

 Clearly, the efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle increases by making r larger
and/or by increasing k.
 The value of k increases for air compared to CO2 and other larger molecules
like ethane and octane, but falls as T rises.
 The ideal cycle efficiency behaviours are also seen with actual four -cycle
engines so that real engines designs can attempt to improve efficiency by
optimization or r and/or k.
 The value of r for SI IC engines can be increased (from a baseline value of
about 6 to 10) to up to about 12 or 13 by increasing the compression ratio.
 High r requires gasoline of higher octane rating (which is more expensive to
produce, and for many years contained polluting tetraethyl lead)
o This is needed to prevent premature autoignition (engine knocking).
o The engine components including pistons, cylinders, valves, and
bearings must also be made stronger to withstand higher r.
 For actual spark-ignition four-stroke engines, the actual average thermal
efficiency achieved is only ηth ≈ 25% to 30% compared to theoretical values
for ideal Otto engines of around 52% to 60% (when k = 1.4).

Diesel Cycle

 This is the idealized cycle for actual 4-stroke compression ignition internal
combustion engines (CI IC engines), and actual CI IC engines are described
as operating on the Diesel Cycle.
 These engines are similar to SI IC engines. However, fuel is injected near TD C
at a point where high compression has already raised the T above the
autoignition temperature. Thus the fuel-air mixture spontaneously ignites and
burns as further fuel is injected.

 The p–V diagram is a simplified and idealized representation of the even ts

involved in a Diesel engine cycle, arranged to illustrate the similarity with a
Carnot cycle.

Diesel Cycle Efficiency (Ideal and Actual)

 The ideal Diesel cycle thermal efficiency under cold air standard assumptions
is calculated as:
ηth, Diesel = 1 −(1/rk −1)[(r c )k - 1/k(r c -1)]
where
r = compression ratio, rc = cutoff ratio (rc = V3/V2 = v3/v2) k = cp/cv for air at
room T

 The quantity in the square brackets is always > 1. Thus, comparing with the
ideal Otto cycle, ηth, Otto is always greater than ηth, Diesel for the same values of
r and k.
 However, the much higher compression ratios possible in diesel engines (with
r range of approximately 12 ≤ r ≤ 23) substantially improve ideal and actual
diesel engine efficiency.
 As with the Otto cycle, thermal efficiency also improves with rising k and rising
rc.
 Real engines improve in efficiency also by relatively slow, more complete
combustion, and higher air/fuel mass ratio. Fuels for diesel engines need not
be as highly refined as for SI IC engines.
 In actual diesel engines, efficiency and fuel consumption (thus mileage) is
improved over SI IC engines, with large diesel engines having ηth, Diesel = 35 to
40%, compared to ηth, Otto = 25 to 30%

Diesel Cycle Engine Advantages and Disadvantages Compared to Otto Cycle

Engines
Advantages

 Have higher actual efficiency than Otto cycle (see above)

 Scalable to very large size and power output
 No high voltage electrical ignition system (improving reliability)
 Increased longevity and durability
 Fuel is inherently lubricating
 Can run on renewable biodiesel fuel
 Can accept super-charging or turbo-charging pressures
 Generate relatively low CO2 and CO emissions.

Disadvantages

 Must be more rugged to withstand higher compression, thus heavier and more
costly to build
 More noisy (producing diesel “clatter”)
 Fuel is no longer cheaper than gasoline
 Produce smelly exhaust laden with toxic air contaminants216 including
aerosols of soot and other particles, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
various other carcinogens,
and greater NOx.

Dual cycle or limited pressure cycle

 Thermodynamic cycle for high-speed diesel and hotspot ignition engine

 Reversible adiabatic compression and expansion process
 Constant pressure and constant volume heat addition (combustion) and heat
rejection process.
 Total heat supplied, Q1= Cv(T3-T2)+ Cp(T4-T3)
 Heat rejection, Q2=Cv(T5-T1)
  Compression ratio, r k = V 1/V2
 Cut off ratio, = r c = V 4/V3
 Pressure ratio, = r p= P 3 /P2

Efficiencies for Internal combustion Engine

Indicated Thermal Efficiency: Total power developed by the combustion of fuel
in combustion chamber is called “indicated power”. This efficiency gives an
idea of the output generated by the engine with respect to heat supplied in the
form of fuel. The indicated thermal efficiency can be defined as indicated
power.

Here, I p = Indicated power, Cv = Calorific value of fuel, and M f = Mass of fuel/second

 Brake Thermal Efficiency: It is defined as ratio at heat equivalent to break

power to heat energy supplied to engine in fuel.

 Mechanical Efficiency: It is the ratio of brake power to indicated power.

 Volumetric Efficiency: Volumetric efficiency is a measure of the success with

which the air supply, and thus the charge, is inducted into the engine. It is a
very important parameter, since it indicates the breathing capacity of the
engine.

Here, p a = Inlet density of air, Ma = Mass of air, Vdis = Displaced volume of air,=

Volume flow rate for four strokes engine, V d = Volume flow rate of air.

 Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio: It is the ratio of indicated thermal

efficiency to thermal efficiency to theoretical cycle at same compression ratio.
  Mean Effective Pressure (p m): The parameter mean effective pressure is
measured by the formula which is given below

where, ip = Indicated power in kW, p m = Indicated mean effective pressure (N/m 2), L =
Length of the stroke (m), A = Area of the piston (m 2), N = Speed in revolutions per
minute (rpm), n = Number of power strokes N/2 for four strokes and N for two strokes
engine, and K = Number of cylinders.

 Mean Piston Speed: Mean piston speed can be given by

 Specific Fuel Consumption: It is the ratio of amount of kilogram of fuel used

per hour by engine to power produced by the engine.

 Fuel Air (F/A) or Air Fuel Ratio (A/F): The ratio of actual fuel air ratio to
stoichiometric fuel air ratio is called equivalence ratio.

Accordingly, for stoichiometric mixture, For lean mixture, and for rich mixture.