MN 508 Surface Mine Planning and Design

CHAPTER 1
SURFACE MINING TERMINOLOGY/DEFINITIONS
1.1 DEFINITIONS
Material which is excavated and possibly processed before
ORE being sold to produce revenue at a profit to the operation

Material that contains mineral values that are not economic

under present technology and market conditions
PRO TORE
Material that has no economic value and which must be
excavated to release the ore
WASTE
The non-economical material (or waste) above flat tabular
deposits (e.g. coal)
OVERBURDEN
The classification of ore according to its purity or content of
the desired metal or mineral
GRADE
The ratio of the amount of "waste or overburden material
(S/R) that has to be moved to release “one unit of ore or
STRIPPING RATIO (S/R) mineral”.

DILUTION Waste that becomes part of the ore as it is mined. It dilutes

the ore grade.

LOSSES Ore that is lost into the waste during the excavation of the
waste material
MINING RECOVERY
The percentage of the in-situ ore that is recovered in the
BANK VOLUME mining process
The volume occupied by the solid undisturbed material
LOOSE VOLUME
The larger volume (due to the creation of voids) occupied by
the material when it has been disturbed by mining

SWELL FACTOR The ratio of the loose volume to the solid or bank volume

1.2 NATURE AND MORPHOLOGY OF ORE DEPOSITS

DEFINITIONS OF OREBODY DIMENSIONS

STRIKE The longest direction across an orebody when viewed in plan.

AXIS The longest dimension of an orebody.
DIP
The inclination of an orebody perpendicular to the strike.
PLUNGE
The vertic The vertical angle between the horizontal and the axis of the orebody

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MN 508 Surface Mine Planning and Design
PITCH The angle between the strike direction and the long axis of the
orebody.

BREADTH The maximum dimension measured at right angles to the plunge

line.

PLUNGE LENGTH The maximum distance along the plunge axis

WIDTH OR THICKNESS The maximum dimension of the deposit measured at right angles
to the breadth.

1.3 GEOLOGICAL TERMINOLOGY

Prior to considering the extraction process, it is important to understand the geological

terminology used to describe the orebody.

Ore deposits broadly fall into three categories:

a) Igneous: Deposits of primary origin which are deposited by magmatic processes (for
example iron, copper, chromium, nickel).
b) Sedimentary: Deposits of secondary origin which result from the deposition of eroded
and possibly upgraded primary ones (for example alluvial deposits, phosphates, copper,
iron, kaolin, coal),
c) Metamorphic: Deposits of either igneous or sedimentary origin which have
undergone alteration due to pressure and/or heat (for example: iron. copper, asbestos).

Fig. 1 .1 illustrates some further geological terms:

Fig. 1.1 Common Geological Terminology

Anticline: An upfold of rocks opening downwards.

Bedding Plane: The plane of separation between individual layers of sedimentary rock.
Cap Rock: A solid or unconsolidated material overlying a deposit of ore.
Dip: The dip of a rock surface is the angle and direction at which the surface
slopes beneath the horizontal.
Dyke: A wall-like mass of igneous rock that fills a fissure in pre-existing rocks.

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MN 508 Surface Mine Planning and Design
The extent or portion of a mineral deposit that may be mined at a profitFault: A fracture in the
rocks along which displacement of one side relative to the other has taken place parallel to the
fracture. Faulting maybe caused by compression, tension or torsion and is likely to be
associated with mineralization.
Groundwater: Water which occurs within the rock mass below the water table.
Host Rocks: The rock formations in which ore deposits occur. The rock may be particularly
favorable to mineralization or ore deposition due to its structure, its
position or its chemical properties.
Mineralization: The processes taking place in the earth's crust resulting in local
concentrations of accumulation of useful minerals.

Fig. 1 .2 Diagram

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MN 508 Surface Mine Planning and Design
A mass of rock or mineral rock material which is of such a grade
Ore body: and in such a quantity that it may be worked profitably.
The angle between the long axis of an orebody and its horizontal
projection measured in a vertical plane (see Fig. 1 .2).
Pitch or Plunge:
The direction or bearing along which an orebody runs
perpendicular to the maximum dip.
Strike: A downf old of rocks opening upwards.

Syncline: A break in the stratigraphic sequence in which younger beds

repose on older beds which do not immediately precede them in
Unconformity: the geological succession.

1.4 EXPLOITATION METHODS

Exploitation is the fourth and final stage of mining. It is associated with the actual recovery in
quantity of the mineral from the earth’s crust. While some amount of exploration and
development work continues throughout the life of a mine, the emphasis in the exploitation
stage is now on production. Usually enough development is done prior to exploitation to
ensure that production continues uninterrupted throughout the life of the mine.

Exploitation methods may be classified into two broad categories as:

1) Traditional methods.
2) Novel or Innovative methods.

1.4.1 TRADITIONAL METHODS OF EXPLOITATION

Traditional methods of exploitation are classified into two broad categories namely:

a) Surface mining
b) Underground mining

Fig. 3 shows the exploitation methods.

Fig. 3. Exploitation Methods

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MN 508 Surface Mine Planning and Design

c) SURFACE MINING METHODS – may be subdivided into:

i. Methods that employ mechanical extraction techniques. (These account for > 90% of
surface mineral extraction in the US).
ii. Methods that employ aqueous extraction techniques. (These account for < 10% of
surface mineral extraction in the US).

1.4.1.1 Mechanical Extraction Techniques

These methods employ mechanical extraction methods in a dry environment to free the
minerals from the earth’s crust.

1.4.1.2 Mechanical Extraction Methods may be by:

 Open pit mining

 Open cast/Strip mining or Stripping
 Quarrying
 Auger mining

1.4.1.3 Aqueous Extraction Methods are those that rely mainly on water and other liquid
solvents to recover the minerals from the earth’s crust (e.g. jetting, slurrying,
dissolving or melting).
Placer Mining*
Aqueous extraction methods Solvent In-situ techniques**
Solution Mining
Solvent Solvent leaching***
* Placer mining – dredging, hydraulicking, etc., which are applicable to heavy minerals from
shallow and unconsolidated deposits usually along river beds, beaches, etc.
** In-situ techniques in salt wells, uranium dissolution and the Frasch process for the
extraction of sulphur.
*** Solvent leaching of mineral values from heaps or dumps or an insoluble matrix or host
rock, e.g. heap leaching of gold and silver ores.

A) Surface Mining (Mechanical extraction and Aqueous techniques)

i.Placer Mining – panning of gold, diamonds, tin and other heavy minerals from river
beds, etc. This may be by:
a) Dredging: scooping up of loose placer deposits. Such as gold, tin, etc. laid
down by running water in river beds, on the sea bed by dredges (bucket ladder or
suction head dredges) which are usually mounted on pontoons. E.g. the dredges at
Dunkwa-on-Offin are bucket-ladder dredges).
b) Hydraulicking or Hydraulic Mining – This utilizes a high pressure stream of
water directed against an expose bank of unconsolidated rock/soil, thereby
undercutting it and causing it to collapse
ii. Open Cast/Strip Mining/Stripping - This is the best known surface mining method
employed in mining near-surface or shallow or slightly inclined deposits such as coal
seams, gold beds and other thin layers of mineral. The depth of the pit is virtually the
same throughout the life of the mine. The face of the mine advances very rapidly laterally
but not longitudinally.
iii. Open Pit Mining – This is employed in mining deposits that are thicker or more deeply
Course Lecturer: Assoc. Prof. Sulemana Al-Hassan 1-5
MN 508 Surface Mine Planning and Design
buried or that dip steeply or sharply downwards. e. g. open pit mining is being done at
Ghana Bauxite Company at Awaso; Ghana Manganese Company, Nsuta; the Sansu
Open pit mine at Obuasi, etc. The pit is usually developed into several benches and the
dimensions of the pit increase both laterally and longitudinally. The depth of pit increases
with time as more and more benches are opened up.

The terms “opencast” and “open pit” are often used interchangeably. To avoid
confusion, “open cast” is used for shallower surface stripping while “open pit” is used
for mining deeper deposits in surface mining.

In both open pit and open cast metal mining, the rock is usually ground to powder and
treated for the mineral or metal and the tailings discarded.

iv. Quarrying – where valuable rock or stone is cut or broken into blocks or
crushed to suitable dimensions and sold out with or without treatment. The stone or
broken rock is neither ground into powder form nor are any chemicals added to them at
the treatment stage.

v. Auger Mining - This is employed in recovering coal from the high wall the pit
limit by means large diameter auger machines.

B. Solution Mining2

This includes both in-situ techniques and surface mining techniques (solvent leaching of
mineral values from heaps, dumps or insoluble matrix of host rock).

Employed in mining soluble minerals such as salt (e.g. common salt or potash), sulphur that
can be dissolved or melted by hot water or other solvent and the pregnant solution (the
solution that contains the dissolved mineral) pumped up to the surface for concentration or
treatment at the Treatment Plant. This may be done in several ways such as:
i. Bottom injection: - Water is pumped down an inner tube and the dissolved solution
(e.g. brine) pumped up throughout-the outer tube.
ii. Top injection: - Reverses the direction of flow – The water or solvent is pumped down
through the outer tube and the bearing solution pumped up through the inner tube
iii. The Frasch Process: of extracting sulphur.
iv. In-situ Leaching: - Applied on low grade uranium or copper deposits.
a) Multiple Well System – Where a series of bore holes are drilled into the ore
zone, the solvent is pumped down some of the boreholes which serve as injection
wells while the pregnant solution is recovered (pumped up) through production
wells.
b) Flooding and leaching of a mine- (mainly done after a mine has been worked
out) – Applicable to copper mines to dissolve the remaining mineral.
c) Breaking of the ore in-situ (by atomic bombing) and using the leaching process.

v. Heap leaching of low grade oxidised or laterised ores. Heap leaching is actually a recovery
method and not a mining method. Used in recovering low grade copper, gold or silver ores.
The broken ore is usually heaped on an impermeable pad, dilute cyanide solution (for Au
bearing ores) or sulphuric acid (in the case of Cu bearing ores), etc., is sprayed
continuously on the heap (pile) for a long time (up to 60 days in some cases). As the
solvent percolates through the heap (pile), it dissolves the mineral of interest. The mineral
is collected on coming to the impermeable pad layer and is drained to a solution pond or
Course Lecturer: Assoc. Prof. Sulemana Al-Hassan 1-6
MN 508 Surface Mine Planning and Design
dam where it is clarified and pumped to the treatment plant where the mineral of interest is
recovered. AngloGold Ashanti (Iduapriem Mine) as well as Gold Fields Ghana Ltd., Tarkwa
Mine, employ the heap leaching technique to recover gold from some of their ores.

Disadvantages of Solution Mining and Leaching Techiques

1) The solvent tends to flow directly from the injection wells to the production wells without
dissolving the minerals in the ore Low recoveries.
2) Possible contamination of surface and ground water sources by the solvent (if there
any overflows from the dams or there are cracks in the matrix of the rock underground).
3) Partial recovery (≤ 80%) of the contained minerals is possible.

Surface mines can be subdivided into various classes and subclasses as shown in Table 1 .1.

Table 1 .1 Classification of Surface Mining Methods

Class Subclass Method

Mechanical
-
Open Pit Mining
Strip Mining
Quarrying
Auger Mining

Placer Mining
Aqueous Dredging
Hydraulic Mining

Solution Mining
Surface Techniques
In Situ Leaching Techniques

Table 1 .2 Classification of Mining Methods

Class Subclass Method Commodities

Acceptance/ Relative
Locale Cost, %

Traditional
Surface
Mechanical - 10

Open pit mining Metal, non-metal

Quarrying Non-metal
Open cast mining Coal, Non-metal
Auger mining Coal
Aqueous Placer Hydraulicking Metal, non-metal
Dredging Metal, non-metal

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MN 508 Surface Mine Planning and Design
Solution
In situ techniques Metal, non-metal
Surface techniques Metal
Unsupported -
Room & pillar mining Coal, Non-metal
Stope & pillar mining Metal, non-metal
Sublevel stoping Metal, non-metal
Vertical crater retreat mining Metal, non-metal

Supported -
Shrinkage stoping Metal
Underground Cut & fill stoping Metal
Resuing method Metal
Stull stoping Metal
Square set stoping Metal

Caving -
Longwall mining Coal, Non-metal
Sublevel caving Metal
Block caving Metal

- -

Rapid excavation
Automation, robotics
Hydraulic mining
Methane drainage
Underground gasification
Underground retorting
Marine mining
Nuclear mining
Extraterrestrial mining

Source: Hartman 1987

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MN 508 Surface Mine Planning and Design

At the turn of the century the only surface mines were placer mines. Today over 60% are
surface mines.
1.5.1 Pros and Cons of Surface Mining: - Pros

1) Equipment size gives efficiency

In 1950 trucks were no more than 50 t capacity, draglines 20 cubic yard and hydraulic shovel 2
cubic yards. Today the figures are 350, 220 and 20 respectively.

2) Energy demand - equipment more efficient, no ventilation, no water pumping (or little),
no lights. Surface uses 5 - 10 kW/t underground uses 20 - 50 kW/t
3) Accident rates: underground rates much higher - ventilation, roof control, cramped
operations.
4) Mine development time typical the difference is 3 to 5 years underground 1 to 2 years
surface (largely infrastructure and lead time on equipment).
5) Recovery of the resource: surface 85 to 90%, underground 60 to 70%
6) Human factors:
 less skilled work force
 less 'danger money', easier to recruit.

7) Surface mines invest in equipment rather than shafts (easier to sell trucks than shafts!).

1.5.2 Cons:

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MN 508 Surface Mine Planning and Design
1) Environmental factors - Size, waste, impact, air, water, noise, vibration, reclamation.
2) Selectivity may not be as good.
3) Depth limitations.
4) Some minerals cannot be worked on the surface.

1.6 MAJOR FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE MINING

i. Ore grade and tonnage. ii.

Topography.
iii. Physical size, shape and structure of the deposit.
iv. Capital expenditures.
v. Economic factors of operating costs.
vi. Profit.
vii. Pit limits, cut off grade and stripping ratios.
viii. Mining equipment.
ix. Rate of production.
x. Access.
xi. Mine design (bench heights, road grades, etc.).
xii. Geotechnical aspects.
xiii. Hydrological conditions.
xiv. Available power.
xv. Location.
xvi. Waste rock disposal.
xvii. Climate and altitude.
xviii. Support
infrastructure.
xix. Environmental
restrictions.

Course Lecturer: Assoc. Prof. Sulemana Al-Hassan 1-10