LWUA Operation and Maintenance Manual PDF

Republic ot the Philippines ·
LOCAL WATER UTILITIES ADMINISTRATION
A Manual
of Operation and Maintenance
Procedures
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L W U A
0 & M Manual
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Republic of the Philippines
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OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE MANUAL
SECTION 8: TREATMENT FACILITIES
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PREFACE
The problems of supplying adequate and safe water for public use do not end with
the design and construction of supply facilities. They must be properly operated and main-
tained to obtain the maximum efficiency built into their various parts, and full benefits from
the money invested.
This manual has been developed by the Local Water Utilities Administration to serve
as a guide to proper operation and maintenance of water systems supplying water for domes-
tic use throughout the Philippines.
It brings together a body of information for the benefit of all water district officers
and the personnel directly responsible for operations and maintenance of the system and its
ability to deliver potable water to the consumers.
It is a generalized text in that it does not relate to any specific water supply district
or to any specific make or manu.facture of equipment""or material. It is intended to amplify
and complement an operation and maintenance manual prepared for a specific district,
and does not eliminate the need for such a manual.
To facilitate its convenience and use, the manual is divided into fourteen sections,
each one covering a major aspect of a public water supply system. These sections are iden-
tified in a table of contents at the front of the manual. A table of contents, or index, is
placed at the beginning of each major section. Thus, the manual could be separated into its
sections for use in those departments of the district which are most pertinent, yet be avail-
able to all.
No operation and maintenance manual should ever be consider.ed~mplete. As new

ideas, methods, materials or equipment are developed, the manual should be modified to
reflect these changes.
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TABLEOF CONTENTS
1. OVERVIEWOF WATER SUPPLY

2. WATER QUALITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH
3. BASIC HYDRAULICS
4. WELLS
5. PUMPING FACILITIES
6. STORAGE FACILITIES
7. DISTRIBUTION FACILITIES
8. TREATMENT FACILITIES
9. MISCELLANEOUS MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
."-- 10. ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
11. WATER METERS AND SERVICE CONNECTIONS
12. CORROSION CONTROL
13. WORK SAFETY
14. MATHE.MATICS FOR WATER WORKS OPERATt>'ftS
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SECTION 1: OVERVIEW OF WATER SUPPLY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUBSECTION
NO. SUBJECT PAGE
1.1 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE WATER UTILITY 1-1

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1.2 POPULATION AND WATER NEEDS 1-2
1.3 WATER SOURCES 1-7
1.4 THE WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 1-10
1.5 METERING OF WATER PRODUCTION AND

CONSUMPTION · 1-13
1.6 RECORD KEEPING 1-16

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SECTION 1: OVERVIEW OF WATER SUPPLY
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1.1 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE WATER UTILITY
The water utility has an awesome responsibility in its job of furnishing potable
water to a trusting public. It has the power to prevent - or cause -sickness and death
from water borne disease or poisonous pollutants.
1.1.1 Purity
Most people are unaware of, or unconcerned about the degree to which
their well-being is in the hands of the employees of the water utility. Unfor-
tunately, this is sometimes true of individuals within the utility organization
as well. It should not be forgotten, for even a moment, that the first respon-
sibility of every employee of the water utility is to do his part to insur~ that
only SAFE POTABLE WATER will be provided to the public.
1.1 .2 Reliability
The second responsibility of the water utility is to insure that the water
supply is RELIABLE. Every problem that threatens interruption of supply
should be treated ·as an emergency of the same seriousness as a house on
fire.
There are many reasons for the importance of reliability of supply -
mostly concerned with public relations -but the main one is related to water
safety. When water service is interrupted, continued withdrawal of water from
water mains in low areas results in creation of a vacuum in other areas, which
can suck pollutants into the pipelines through loose joints and minor leaks.
1. 1.3 Water Costs
Most people expect water to be cheap; probably because it is so plentiful

m nature. For that reason, the public will not usually. _..,tolerate high water
rates. In general, consumers consider the water as a natural, God-given pro-
duct, when in reality, the cost is based on service performed by the water
utility wherein the water is collected, treated as necessary to guarantee
potability, and delivered to the consumer's premises. An informative public
relations program can ease the pain of a rate increase. In any case, it is the
responsibility of the utility to fumisb water at the lowest cost possible without
relaxing its standards of potability and reliability. Many costs are beyond the
control of the water utilities; for example, office expenses and costs of equip-
ment, chemicals and electric power, to name a few. The main controls that the
utility has over the cost of water are proper design of facilities, efficiency
of operation, and proper maintenance to ensure that costly repairs or replace-
ment of equipment are not required any sooner, than absolutely necessary.
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1.1.4 Planning for the Future
The utility that does not plan long in advance finds sooner or later, that
it cannot provide safety, reliability nor economy of water supply.
The utility management must anticipate population growth and changing

water consumption habits, and make provisions for orderly expansion of its
facilities in advance of critical needs. The long-range plan must be flexible
enough to provide for unexpected development, yet as accurate as possible so
that financing can be arranged in advance of need.
1.2 POPULATION AND WATER NEEDS
All long-range plans for water supply expansion are based on estimates
of future water needs. These, in turn, are dependent on estimates of future
population growth. Also, the locations of planned future pipelines, reservoirs
and pumping stations are based on expected land use, or how the cities will
spread out as population grows.
1.2.1..•. Population Growth
There are few areas of the world where population is constant or

decreasing. It may reasonably be expected that all population centers
in the Philippines will see growing numbers of people each year far
beyond the forseeable future.
Population does not grow at a steady rate from year to year,
but has alternating periods of rapid and slow growth. For that reason
it is not possible to predict exactly what the population will be at a
given time in the future. In estimating future population, no one pre-
tends to know how many people will live in a giwn area in a given
year. Nonetheless, estimates of future population are essential to
overall planning, and. the uncertainty does not make them any less
useful. If it is estimated the population of an area will double in 20
years, and facilities are planned to serve that population, the plan
will not be affected if population actually doubles in 15 or 25 years,
except that planned facilities will have to be constructed earlier or later
than expected.
The usual approach m estimating future population is to plot a

curve of past population figures; then extend the curve into the future.
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1.2.2 Land Use
In long-range water supply planning, it is necessary not only to estimate

future populations, but to try to forsee how the land will be used. This will
determine the location of future pipelines, reservoirs and pump stations.
As in the case of population estimates, it is not possible to know for certain
how land will be used in the future (except in the rare cases where the city
enacts zoning laws that specify how land may be used). It is possible, however,
to predict fairly closely the number of hectares of various kinds of residential,
commercial and government areas that will be required to meet the needs of
a given population. For example, if the population of a city is presently 10,000
people and the total land area occupied by commercial establishments is 10
hectares, one hectare of commercial land is needed to serve each 1,000 people.
Therefore, if the population at some future date is 20,000, twenty hectares
will be devoted to commercial use. There are a great number of similar rules
used in predicting future land use, though not all are as simple as the one just
mentioned.
There are also predictable relationships between the locations of commer-

cial, industrial, residential and governmental areas. For example, industrial
development usually takes place along main highways and, to some extent,
along railway tracks. Then, low cost housing usually surrounds the industrial
areas.
The usual approach to projecting land use begins with a map showing
present land use patterns. The total number of hectares of each type of land
use are calculated on the basis of population estimates; then outlined on a
land use map on the basis of the previously mentioned relationships.
Water distribution systems are, by their nature, extremely flc::~g~l~J.'his is

true mainly because water can t1ow in any combination of directions and velo-
cities in the pipelines, depending on reservoir levels and water demands. This
allows actual future land use to vary considerably from the projections without
the necessity of altering the planned distribution facilities. The thoughtful
planner, recognizing the limitations of predictions of population and land use
will avoid the inclusion of inflexible elements in the overall plan.
1.2.3 Water Demands
The amount of water required each year by a person, a commercial estab-

lishment, a government office, or an industrial concern is fairly easy to esti-
mate, given. sufficient information on types of housing, daily habits of people
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(i.e., hours cutomarily devoted to work, sleep, washing, sh~pping, etc.)
and types of industries. Also, watc;r lost through leakage, waste, evaporation,
illegal connections and the like (Unaccounted-for-Water) can be closely esti-
1-4
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mated, given the condition of the existing water system and the extent of
planned improvements. The total of all water requirements for one year is
known as Gross Annual Demand, or sometimes simply Gross Demand.
(a) Demand Fluctuations
Unfortunately, Gross Demand is not evenly spread out during the year.
Water use fluctuates from day-to-day and hour-to-hour, depending on
weather conditions, degree of industrialization, seasonal changes, water-
1- use habits, and other factors peculiar to the area and the system under
consideration. In the Philippines, the maximum amount of water required
in a single day (Maximum Day Demand) is about 125% of the average
daily demand, while the most required in a single hour (Peak Hour Demand)
is about 200% of the average . Typically, the day of maximum demand
will be the hottest day of the year. The hour of maximum demand will
usually be early evening (when people are bathing, cooking, watering
yards, etc.) on the hottest day of the year. •
(b) Unaccounted-for-Water
Every water distribution system supplies a quantity of water that

cannot be accounted for through meter records or otherwise. This in-
cludes water lost through leakage, evaporation from reservoir surfaces,
fire fighting, illegal connections, and the like. Of these, however, leakage
at pipe joints, valve packing and leaky house connections account for
a major part of the water loss.
A distribution system that IS m good condition, with no excessive

operational waste (such as overflowing of reservoirs, open hydrants and
the like) or so-called "administrative losses" (illegal connections, account-
ing errors, etc.), will experience unaccounted-foe-water demand amount-
ing to no more tJtan perhaps 10 percent of total water production. Poorly
managed water systems often experience losses of up to 50 percent of
production.
(c) Fire Flows
Excess capacity is often provided in pumps, reservoirs and pipelines

to allow for fire fighting. In addition, fire hydrants are installed at inter-
vals on the distribution network.
The spacing of hydrants and excess delivery capacity are determined

partly by the value of buildings in the area. Also, the nature of demand
fluctuations is an important factor. Reservoir. storage generally includes
excess capacity fo allow for fire flow demand to be met for a fixed period
of time.
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THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
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1.3 WATER SOURCES
The total amount of water in and around the earth is constant. Water is neither
manufactured nor destroyed, but is constantly recycled by nature. The cycle that it
endlessly goes through is called the hydrologic cycle.
Water vapor is continually added to the atmosphere by evaporation from the seas,
lakes, and other water surfaces. Vegetation draws water from the group, extracts
nutrients from it, converts it to vapor and releases it to the atmosphere from leaf
surfaces (this is called transpiration). As water vapor moves upward to cooler levels in
the atmosphere, it condenses to form clouds. Sooner or later, particles of dust in the
atmosphere attract water vapor until they become too heavy to remain suspended in
the air, and fall to earth as rain, snow, hail or sleet. As the rain falls through lower
levels of the atmosphere, a small amount evaporates before hitting the ground. Rain
which falls on the earth does one of three things: (1) soaks into the earth (percolation),
(2) runs off into rivers, lakes or seas (runoff) or ( 3) evaporates from the earth's surface.
1.3.1 Ground Water
The term ground water refers to water that is stored (or is moving) beneath
the earth's surface. Many people are under the mistaken impression that water
is captured in large underground rivers and lakes. While there are, of course,
bodies of water stored in limestone caverns in a few locations around the world,
they are so rare as to be of little or no interest to persons concerned with water
supply. Most ground water is stored in underground layers of sand and gravel,
or in the crack's and crevices of certain types of rocks (for example, limestone
and sandstone). When an underground layer of sand or fractured rock contains
water, the layer is called an aquifer.
Ground water may be free or confined. Free ground water refers to the
condition where a layer of waterbearing sand, or aquife~,...extends downward
from just below the top soil. Confined ground water occurs when water bearing
sand lies below an impervious layer of clay, shale or rock. ln most cases, con-
fmed ground water will be under artesian pressure because it flows from a
higher elevation and, being trapped by the impervious layer above, carmot rise
upward through the ground.
When a well is drilled into a confined aquifer, the water level inside the
well will be higher than the top of the aquifer, and may even flow over the top
of the well casing (i.e., a flowing well). It should be noted that the term artesian
well refers to any well where the water rises inside the casing by artesian
pressure, whether it flows over the top or not. Since ground water generally
travels great distances through sand from the point rwhere it falls on the ground
as rain, until it is intercepted by a well, it is naturally filtered. In general,
by the time water P.ercolates downward for ten or fifteen meters below the
ground surface, mos~ microbes (bacteria, virus, etc.) are filtered out. For that
1-7
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reason, deep wells are usually constructed with the upper 15 meters sealed off
to exclude shallow water and surface water.
As rain falls through the atmosphere, it collects gases from the air. Then,
as it travels over and through the earth's surface, it dissolves and collects
minerals, gases and certain kinds of organic compounds. These are not filtered
out by percolation. If any of these gases or minerals are accumulated in e:l$.ces-
sive amounts, they must be partially removed before well water is pumped
into the water system.
The term water quality refers to the physical, chemical and biological
makeup of the water. Water quality is good if there are no unpleasant tastes
or odors, bacteriological contamination, toxic materials, or quantities of mine·
rals that pose problems to the public health or convenience. (For example, ex-
cessive iron is not hazardous to health but causes problems or stained clothing,
porcelain, etc.)
1.3.2 Surface Water
Approximately 3/4 of the world's population relies on surface water

sources such as rivers, lakes and man-made impounding reservoirs to meet
their water needs. In all too many cases the water is untreated, with the result
that large numbers of people are afflicted with such water-home diseases as
chloera, typhoid, dysentery, and polio, to name a few. In many cases, people
are encouraged to use untreated surface water by the mistaken belief that flow
ing water purifies itself. It should be understood that the "self purification"
process of a surface water depend primarily on aeration, and is accelerated
by turbulent flow. A slow moving stream will require many more kilometers
of travel and hours of time to accomplish the same degree of aeration and
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"self purification" than a stream which tumbles over rocks ...and- ledges
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mately exposing the water to the air and to sunlight and its ultraviolet rays.
The idea, often expressed by l~ymen, that a stream will "self purify" itself
in 7 miles of flow is not necessarily true. It is true that bad tastes, odors
and certain minerals and gases are removed from flowing water by contact
with the air; but there is no removal of toxic materials or other harmful subs-
tances, and probably only partial kill of disease causing microbes.
The most common sources of surface water pollution are human and
industrial wastes which are discharged into rivers and lakes. A less frequent,
but no less dangerous source of pollution is drainage into rivers from agricul-
tural lands where the water carries chemical fertilizers anrl pesticides.
Surface water quality tends to change from day to day, season to season,
and year to year. Moreover , a factory, or farm ,located upstream of a treat·
ment plant may suddenly begin~ discharging harmful wastes. Therefore, surface
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water sources must be frequently, if not constantly, watched for changes in
water quality that will not be automatically corrected by the treatment process
(Section 2 of this manual discusses water quality control in detail). Since
surface water sources rely almost entirely on rainfall for replenishment, the
amount of water available is sometimes at a minimum during hot, dry months,
when public demand for water is greatest. (This is not generally true of ground
water sources for the reason that ground water travels slowly, and usually for
great distances, through underground aquifers). For that reason, collection,
treatment, storage and distribution facilities must be designed on the basis
of dry weather conditions.
1.3.3 Other Sources
One source of water that may become valuable in the future is de-salted
sea water (de-salinization). This source is being used to a limited extent in
some areas where no other alternatives exist. Obtaining water by this method
is extremely expensive (perhaps 50 times the cost of treating surface water).
It is not likely that desalinization will ever be much less costly than at pres-
ent, but as costs of producing water from other sources become greater in the
future, it may become more practical, especially to meet "peaking" demands.
The other potential source of water is reclamation of waste water. Although

it is now possible to treat sewage to the extent that it would be entirely safe
and undistinguishable in taste from other treated water, this is not generally
acceptable to the public. Nonetheless, reclaimed water is presently supplement-
ing water supplies in many areas of the world in an indirect way. If reclaimed
water is used in manufacturing and agriculture, the potable water that would
otherwise be used for these purposes is "released" for domestic use.
1.4 THE WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM __......
Confusion sometimes results from the use of the terms "Water Distribution
System" and "Water Distribution Network". The term water distribution system refers
to all facilities required to get water from the source to the customer, including reser-
voirs, pipelines and booster pumps. The term distribution network, on the other hand,
refers to the pipelines which distribute water throughout the system. Moreover, a
distinction is made between distribution mains and transmission mains. The former
are used to distribute water to the customer, while the latter are used to transport
water from a remote treatment plant to the distribution system.
1.4.1 Reservoirs
I
Reservoirs may be classed, according to their fut;1ction as regulating
reservoirs, storage reservoirs 9r regulating/storage reservoirs.
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Typically, a storage reservoir would be the clearwell of a treatment
plant where water i~ stored until it is released, or pumped, into the distribution
system. Another would be where water is impounded behind a dam and released
to the treatment plant or distribution system by gravity flow.
A regulating reservoir is connected to the distribution network, with its

level allowed to rise and fall in response to demand (often referred to as float·
ing on the system). Typically, distribution system booster pumps operate
continuously as long as regulating reservoirs are not full. When demand is
greater than the capacity of the pumps, water flows out of the reservoir to
satisfy the deficit. When demand falls below pump capacity, the excess pump
discharge flows into the reservoir. When the reservoir is full, the pumps are
shut off, either manually by the operator or by automatic control devices.
Frequently , a reservoir function includes both storage and regulation; for

example, when a well discharges through a transmission main into the reservoir
while outflow from the reservoir is in response to demand.
1.4.2 Distribution Network
- The two principal types of distribution networks are the reticulated or

looped network and the herringbone or feeder-and-lateral network.
The looped network is the most flexible type. All mains are laid in a grid
of interconnected loops, allowing water to flow to any point in the network
from two or more directions. Since water is free to flow in either direction in
every pipe, heavy demands in one area of the system will automatically cause
flows to converge from all directions to the point of high demand and low
pressure.
The herringbone network consists of large ··diameter mains, or feeders,

which deliver water to general areas. Smaller mains, or laterals, branch from
the feeders to deliver water in individual streets. The herringbone network
not only lacks of the flexibility of the looped network but also has many
deadends where silt and stagnant water may accumulate unless frequently
flushed out.
As may be expected, the network that is entirely looped or entirely

herringbone is rare. More commonly, densely populated areas of a city will
have a looped system, with feeders extending out to the suburbs.
1.4.3 Pumping Equipment
The operation of pumps is a complex subject, discussed in detail in other

sections of this l\l~nual. Most pumps used in waterworks, including both well
pumps and booste.rs, are of the centrifugal turbine or volute type. The main
1-11
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TYPICAL DAILY VARIATION OF SYSTEM DEMAND
1-12
characteristic of these types of pumps is that discharge always depends on the
pressure they operate against. Therefore, pump discharge varies continuously
as system pressures fluctuate. When water demands are high and pressures
drop, pump discharge tends to increase.
Pumps may be operated manually by the operator or they may be started

and stopped by automatic control devices that respond to low and high
system pressures, flow rates, or levels in reservoirs.
1.5 METERING OF WATER PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
A water utility is a business like any other. As such, it cannot lose money
and still remian in business. Usually, the water utility has only one source of funds:
the revenues it collects from its customers as payment for water consumed. These
revenues must be sufficient to pay all the utility's expenses, including:
*Annual payments on loans previously taken out to finance new construction.

*Costs of replacing worn out or damaged equipment.
*Costs of materials, tools and services required for operation and maintenance
of the water system, such as electric power, fuels, spare parts, lubricant, etc.
*Administrative costs such as employee's salaries, rent, office supplies, outside
services, and the like.
If the utility is to remain solvent financially, it must maintain accurate records

of operating costs, water production and customer consumption, in order to ensure
that water rates are always adequate to meet all costs.
Water meters enable the utility to precisely determine water production and
cor.sumption. Water production is monitored by bulk metering through main-line
meters installed on the discharge piping of each well, spring, .!r_:_at_!?_j;nt plant, or pump-
ing station. Consumption is determined by adding up water used by all the utility's
customers, from records of monthly seruice meter readings.
l\.1etering of production and consumption serves important functions as described

in the following paragraphs.
1.5.1 Control of Revenues
The use of service meters allows the utility to charge its customers fairly
for water consumed. That is, those who use more water pay a proportionate-
ly higher share of the cost of supplying it.
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1.5.2 Control of Waste:
It is a nearly universal fact that customers who pay for every liter of water
used, on the basis of monthly meter readings, waste less water than those who
pay a fixed monthly cost (flat rate) or who pay for water se~ice through
general taxes.
Whenever a utility changes over from unmetered to metered service,

water consumption usually drops sharply, sometimes by as much as half.
1.5.3 Determination of Water Losses:
The total amount of water billed for each month can be compared with
production for the month, to determine the amount of unaccounted-for-
water.
1.5.4 Detection of Leaks:
If pressure drops in a localized area of the distribution system with no

noticeable increase in metered consumption, it is an indication that a pipe-
line leak may have developed (or possibly a large, newly installed, illegal
connection). However, it may also indicate a closed valve or deterioration
of pipe.
1.5.5 Determination of Unit Production Costs:
Metering permits relating all operating costs to a unit of production such

as one million gallons, or 1,000 cubic meters, for evaluation of performance
and efficiencies. Also knowing the rate of flow is necessary for proper feed of
treatment chemicals. ... - - ~
1.5.6 Anticipation of Need for New Facilities:
Observation of increases in metered consumption from month-to-month

m specific areas of the syste1~ pem1it the utility to anticipate and budget
funds for additional pipeline and/ or storage capacity long in advance of needs.
..
1-14
RETICULAR SYSTEM
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1-15
1.6 RECORD KEEPING
1.6.1 General
1.6.1.1 Importance of Good Records
It is impossible for a water utility to operate efficiently without

a systematic program of accurate up-to-date record keeping. With
a good system of records, a water utility can:
* Anticipate replacement of facilities long m advance, allowing

ample time for planning and budgeting.
* Ensure uniformity of service, operation, <>.nd maintena~ce.
* Control unaccounted-for-water.
* Closely predict future needs of spare parts, fuels, lubricants,
chemicals and the like, so that they can be budgeted in advance.
* Evaluate performance of equipment of various manufacturers
or designs when undertaking purchase of replacements.
* Adjust operation and maintenance procedures and schedules
based on observed realistic needs.
* Set water rates that are neither too high nor too low, based on
trends in administrative, operational, and maintenance costs.
* Provide, on short notice, any statistical information required by
its governing board.
1.6.1.2 Record Numbering System
A record keeping system is worthless if information cannot be

quickly retrieved when needed. The simplest way of ensuring easy
access to past infonnation is to adopt a coded master
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ring system that may be applied to every item of business of the

utility.
If such a numbering system is properly designed, it will be

possible, using the number stamped on a piece of equipment, to im-
mediately find a file containing the complete history of that item;
or to open an accounting ledger to the right page, without hesita.tion,
and find all costs that have ever been incurred in connection with it.
Details of record numbering systems may be found in the Local

Water Utilities Administration's "Commercial Practices Manual".
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1.6.2 Accounting Records
Accounting records should contain all information on revenues and costs,

broken down in such detail that any operation of the utility can be quickly
analyzed economically.
It is important from the standpoint of operation and maintenance that

costs be quickly availableon such items as:
* 0 & M manpower costs

*Electric power, chemicals, and fuel costs
* Spare parts and equipment replacements
* Purchases of tools and support equipment
* Costs of paints, solvents, and lubricants.
1.6.3 Water Consumption and Production Records
1.6.3.1 Water Production Records
Production logs, including da.iiy water production quantities,

electric power used, fuel used, chemical quantities used, in-plant
water used, if any, and water quantities delivered to distribution
system, etc. are maintained by the operators.
The operators also record comments concerning any out-of-

ordinary operating conditions and the performance of periodically
scheduled functions such as pump tests, measuring drawdown of
wells, cleaning of basins and storage facilities, accidents, etc.
A daily, monthly, semi-annual, and annual-summary taken from

the opera~or's log is submitted by the Production Supervisor or
Chief Operator and is flled as a part of the permanent records in
the utility office.
1.6.3.2 Water Consumption Records
Each month, total consumption is compiled from meter reader

books, and shown on the Monthly Consumption Summary which is
filed in its own folder in the utility office. This form also shows
estimated amounts of water used by the utility for flushing of mains,
hydrostatic testing, hydrant flow tests, and the like.
,.......
1-17 f
1.6.4 Operation and Maintenance Records
1.6.4.1 Check Lists
Each section of the Operation and Maintenance Manual contains

check lists of scheduled preventive maintenance measures. The
operator should check off each item as it is performed on a given
item of equipment. When completed, it should be placed in the
utility's files where it will become part of the permanent 0 & M
history of the equipment in question.
1.6.4.2 Maintenance Record Cards
Where preventive maintenance requires measurements to be ~---

made or parts to be routinely replaced, Maintenance Record Cards
are filled out in addition ·to the Maintenance Check Lists. These
show a running history of the performance of each item of equip-
ment, enabling the operator to observe gradual deterioration and to
estimate when replacement or major repairs will be necessary. This
will allow the utility to budget the necessary funds well in advance.
1.6.4.3 Equipment Performance Records
From time to time, performance tests of equipment will be

carried out to determine power consumption, operating efficiency
and other data. Appropriate reports are prepared and filed as part of
the maintenance history of the equipment.
1.6.4.4 System Mapping
It is essential that the utility keep up-to date .~naps--9fwwing

the locations and size~ of all distribution facilities. Ideally, some
indications of the condition of facilities - for example, locations
of leaks located and repaired -are shown on the maps.
1.6.5 Water Quality Records
A utility must set up a program of systematically monitoring the chemical

and biological quality of water served to other public. Reports should be
prepared on each water sample analyzed, and these filed in their own file.
1-18
SECTION 2: WATER QUALITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUBSECTION SUBJECT PAGE
2.1 INTRODUCTION 2-1
2.2 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL QUALITY 2-1
2.3 POLLUTION AND CONTAMINATION 2-3
2.4 CROSS CONNECTION CONTROL 2-5
2.5 WATER PURITY SAFEGUARDS . .. ..... -~

2-8
2.6 WATER QUALITY SAMPLING 2-8
2.7 MONTHLY CHECK LIST 2-15
_,
\ \
-
SECTION 2: WATER QUALITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH
_ .,.
\~\
-
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The first and foremost responsibility of the water utility is to provide its customers
with safe potable water. This means that the water must not contain anything that is
hannful to the health of the public and must be free of any 1.mpleasant taste, odor or
color. Although much discussion of public health centers around prevention of water
bornes disease, other factors affect public health indirectly to the extent that they
influence hygiene (for example if the public water supply provides water that is entirely
safe but has an unpleasant taste, people will be encouraged to obtain more palatable
drinking water from other, unsafe sources).
Water is considered the "universal solvent" because, given enough time, it will
dissolve anything. As rain falls, it collects and dissolves gas from the air. Then, as it
travels over and through the soil, it collects minerals, organic compounds and micro-
organisms. By the time the water fmally arrives at the point where it is to be collected
and used by people, it has ·acquired its own unique combination of ingredients. The
extent to which a given water contains objectionable or hannful ingredients is known
as water quality. For convenience, water quality is broken down into three categories:
*Chemical quality (minerals, gases, acidity)

*Physical quality (taste, odor, color, temperature)
* Biological quality (usually called Bacteriological quality even though it covers
not only bacteria, but all types of micro-organisms.)
From a quality standpoint, water falls into the following classifications:
* Pure - This ic; not normally found in nature. Due to the absence of normal
dissolved material this water would not be satisfying to drink.
* Wholesome - This is ,t he most desirable quality level.
* Potable - This would be suitable for drinking even if there may be one or more
aspects of the water that is undesirable.
* Polluted - This water has received substances in sufficient quantities to render it
objectionable for use, such as a taste or odor, or color, but it would not
necessarily constitute a health hazard.
* Contaminated - This water has been adulterated by the introduction of toxic
substances, bacteria, or other harmful agents that make it hazardous and
unfit for human consumption.
2.2 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL QUALITY
2.2.1 General
I
Water may contain minerals that are poisonous to humans even when
present in minute q~antities, such as arsenic, lead; and chromium. Fortunately
these toxic minerals are rarely found in water in quantities great enough to
2-1
be hazardous, except in the event of an industrial accident whereby large
quantities of a toxic substance is "spilled" into a stream or lake which is used
as a water supply. When larger than minute amounts are found, the source
should be discovered and eliminated.
Other minerals such as fluoride, copper, zinc and nitrate may be harmful
if present in larger than minute quantities. With the ~xception of fluorides,
these minerals also are rarely found in significant, naturally present amounts.
Other objectionable quality characteristics sometimes found in water

include the following:
* Excessive iron and/or manganese (stains clothing, porcelain, equip-

ment, etc. and imparts a musty, metallic taste to the water.)
* Hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg taste and odor).
* Alkalinity (scale deposits in piping and cooking utensils).
* Acidity (corrosive to metal).
* Hardness (excessive soap needed for washing and scale deposits in
piping, and cooking utentils.)
* Chlorides(salty taste).
* Magnesium (laxative effect).
* Nitrates (laxative effect) .
Some chemicals occasionally found in water are not dangerous in them-

selves, (unless the concentrations are above the acceptable health standards)
but their presence may indicate that industrial or domestic wastes are fmding
their way into the water. These include nitrities, nitrates, and carbon dioxide.
Finally, surface waters Ul)ually contain suspended particals and colloids

or organic material. The resulting murky appearance is known as turoi.dity .
When turbid water evaporates, a silty residue is left behind. Obviously turbid
water is not desirable for drinking "'r washing fabrics. In addition, turbidity
particles may include or harbor bacteria, resulting in lowered bacterial quality
and disinfection efficiency.
If a given water supply cannot be protected or treated to maintain accep-

table dissolved mineral concentrations as delineated by public health standards,
it should be abandoned.
2.2.2
• Measurement of Chemical and Physical Quality
Various ways of measuring chemical and physical characteristics have

become widely used.
2-2
2.2.2.1 Minerals and Gases. Where the constituents of water can be extract-
ted and weighed, they are measured in milligrams per liter of water
(mg/1} or, parts per million parts of water by weight (ppm). These
units are the same (i.e., 1 mg/1 - 1 ppm}; however the metric unit,
mg/1, is becoming more and more widely used .
.>
2.2.2.2 Turbidity. Turbidity is measured by the degree to which the water

scatters or difuses light. The units of turbidity are based on the
standard candle turbidimeter, called Jackson Turbidity Units QTU).
Other more precise and repeatable methods of measuring turbidity
have been developed, but are all as nearly as possible, related by
calibration to the Jackson Candle Turbidimeter techniques.
2.2.2.3 Color. Color in water may result from the presence of natural
metallic ions (iron and/or manganese, humus, and peat materials,
plaukton, weeds and industrial wastes.) Color is determined by visual
comparisons of the sample with known concentration of colored
solutions or standard color glass discs, which have been calibrated
against a platinum-cobalt standard solution. Since the color value of
water invariably increases as the pH is increased, it is necessary to
specify the pH of the water at which the color is determined.
2.2.2.4 Odor. Odor of water is measured in Threshold Odor Untts. This is

the number of times that a sample of water is repeatedly diluted
with an equal amount of odor-free water before odor is no longer
detectable.
2.2.2.5 Acidity and Alkalinity. Water is classed as acid, neutral or alkaline

depending on its pH number on a scale of 0-14. (This is related to the
concentration of hydrogen ions in the water.) If the pH is about
7.0 the water is neutral; if below 7.0, it -is-acid-, and if above 7.0,
it is alkal~. In addition, alkalinity is sometimes expressed as an
equivalent concentration of calcium carbonate in mg/1.
2.3 POLLUTION AND CONTAMINATION
2.3.1 General
The term pollution, is used when any undesirable substance - not neces-
sarily harmful - are added to water. Contamination is the introduction of harm-
ful chemicals or micro-organisms. Therefore, pollution of water can take
place without contaminating it (though, in fact, that is almost never true.)
I
2-3
·-
2.3.2 Micro-Organisms and Water Borne Disease
2.3.2.1 General. There are many types of small organisms in water. Most of
them are harmless and of no interest to the water utility operator,
while other types indicate that WCJ.ter is polluted but are, in them-
selves, harmless; and some, a very few types, cause disease. Still
others, while harmless, create operational problems or impart tastes,
odors or color to water.
In general, water borne disease-causing organisms are found in

the intestines of humans and warm-blooded animals. They have
found their way into water supplies when water is polluted by even
the smallest amounts of sewage. It should be emphasized that disease-
causing organisms may exist in the intestines of apparently healthy
people with the result that a disease can appear where no known
cases existed before.
2.3.2.2 Types of Water-Borne Disease. The following types of microbes

are known, or st~ongly believed, to spread disease through conta-
minated water supplies:
(a) Viruses
* Poliomyelitis
* Infectious Hepatitis
{b) Bacteria
* Typhoid Fever
* Bacillary Dysentery
*Gastroenteritis
*Cholera
{c) Protozoa
•• · -
.
_.;...&.
* Amoebic Dysentery
* Schistosomiasis.
2.3.2.3 Other Small Organisms. The following types of organisms are not
known to cause disease but are a nuisance to the water utility:
* Algae {Tastes and Odors)

* Fungi (Tastes .and Odors)
* Actinomycetes (Taste and Odors)
* Water worms (Harmless but cause customer complaints)
* Leptothix and Crenothrix (Oxidize iron, manganese or aluminum;
causing color, taste, odor and sometimes, clo~ging problems.
'
2-4
,
I
2.3.3 Detecting Micro-organisms in Water
It is impossible to determine whether a given disease-causing organism

exists in water because they are so few in number. However, it is possible to
detect the presence of harmless bacteria (E. Coli) known to live in the intestine
of human and animals. Therefore, if these are present in water, it must be
assumed that disease-causing organisms are also present.
If samples of water are collected and sent to a sanitary laboratory, it is

possible to not only detect the presence of intestinal bacteria but also to e~ti
mate their numbers.
Obviously, the greater the number of intestinal bacteria in water, the

greater the chance that they will include disease-causing organisms.
2.4 CROSS CONNECTION CONTROL
2.4.1 General
The term cross connection describes a situation where pollutants may

accidentally flow into a piped water system. This is a serious and persistent
problem in water supply that should be of great, continuing concern to every
water utility.
The most dramatic · but fortunately rare · type of cross connection is

the accidental connection of a water main to a pipeline carrying some other
liquid such as sewage, cooking gas or petroleum. Such an obvious cross connec-
tion seldom goes unnoticed.' Unfortunately, many other cross connection inject
fairly small amounts of pollutants into the water supply at irregular in tervals;
but are all the more dangerous because they are not detected.
. - __....
2.4.2 How Cros·s Connectioru; Work
Aside from the interconnection of water mains with other types of pipe-
lines as previously mentioned, the typical cross connection consists of an
unbroken link between the water supply system and a body of polluted water
outside the system. Most cross connections only function when the water main
pressure is low. For example, if a water main is undersized and any large draft
occurs (say, an open fire hydrant, a major pipeline break or high water demand) ,
pressure in the main drops enough to create a vacuum at or above ground level.
Then, wherever a cross connection exists, polluted water will be sucked into
the water main.
2-5
2.4.3 Why Cross Connection Exist
2.4.3.1 Faulty Distribution System Records. Typically, the type of cross

connection where a water main is connected to a pipeline carrying
some other fluid results when distribution system maps fail to show
other pipelines in the vicinity of water mains. For example, if the
distribution map shows only a 100 mm water main with no other
pipelines nearby, and a field crew locates a different 100 mm pipe,
they may reasonably assume that it is the water main. The problem
is compounded if distribution maps are known to sometimes show
inaccurate pipe sizes and locations of water mains. In that case, a
field crew looking for a 100 mm pipe might, for example, find and
connect to a 150 mm pipeline.
2.4.3.2 Inadequate Pipeline Leakage Repair_ Program. Le~king p_ipeli~e

joints are cross connections if pollutants are present around them;
for example, where soils d~. not drain well and waste water accu-
mulates around the pipe. This is probably the most common type of
cross connection.
2.4.3.3 Faulty Installation of Cu~omer Plumbing. Plumbing is frequently

installed by persol].s who ate unaware of the dangers of cross connec-
tions, or ignorant of how they work.
2.4.3.4 Lack of Backflow Preventers. Where a water supply customer has

concentrations of pollutants of toxic materials on his property,
a backflow prevention device should be installed on the service
connection. Such devices usually consist of two check valves in
series, with a vacuum breaker between them. A simple check valve
tends to float at low flows and should not, therefore, be considered
a satisfactory backflow preventer. .... .- - ~
The types of installations where backflow preventers are required

include the following:
* Property with lawn or crop irrigation systems.

* Industries which use water in the manufacturing process.
* Dairies, produce markets, fish markets, slaughter houses.
* Chemical plants and tanneries.
* Any industries which use toxic or radiological chemicals in the
manufacturing process.
2-6
.. '
• ~ • I
..,. - .. ;... .
II ~ I \
.......-
--
TYPICAL CROSS- CONNECTIONS
2-7
2.5 WATER PURITY SAFEGUARDS
2.5.1 Continuous Positive Pressure in Pipelines
Maintaining continuous positive pressure is necessary to prevent back-

siphonage and resultant contamination. This depends on an adequate supply of
water, proper pipeline sizes, control of leaks and proper operation.
2.5.2 Maintaining Chlorine Residuals in the System
Chlorine residuals should be maintained throughout the system to ensure

that any micro-organisms entering the system through cross connections will
automatically be killed. Chlorine residuals are checked using a chlorine compa-
rator.
~2.5.3 Cross Connection Control
The operator should be on the alert to spot any obvious cross connections,
correcting them immediately, it possible, or reporting them to the utility
office if he cannot correct them on the spot. Cross connection control includes
a good leak location and repair program. This is discusssed in detail in Section
7, "Distribution Facilities".
2.6 WATER QUALITY SAMPLING
2.6.1 General
A water sample must be truly representative of the water to be tested.

Therefore, the frequency and location of sampling is very important. Also, the
operator must be very careful to avoid adding any bacteria or chemicals tc
water while, or after, collecting samples. Sample collec_!ipg ..te&hniques may
vary, depending on the kind of test to be made. A carelessly collected sample
can make the highest quality water, or the best of treatment processes appear
bad.
2.6.2 Sampling Locations
In general, samples for analysis of chemical and physical quality are

collected at the water source and immediately following any treatment facilities.
Samples for bacteriological testing are taken at widespread, scattered

points in the distribution network and at reservoirs. It is also a good idea to
I
collect samples at surface water sources 'in order to detect any massive new
contamination upstream.
2-8
2.6.3 Frequency of Sampling
The Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water include certain

minimum standards for water quality, and frequency of water sampling of
potable water supplies.
Under these standards, bacteriological samples should be collected and

analyzed as shown in Table 2-1. Bottles for bacteriological samples must be
washed, then receive 0.1 ml of a 10% solution of sodium thiosulfate to neutra-
lize the residual chlorine in the sample water. The sample bottle is then loosely
capped and sterilized in either moist or dry heat (20 min. at 250°F). The
sample bottles are not opened until the moment of collecting the sample then
immediately tightly capped and taken to the laboratory for bacteriological
examination. The sample bottles are only 3/4 filled with sample water so
they can be thoroughly shaken b efore being opened and used in the laboratory.
If a routine sample shows an excessive number of microorganisms, another

sample ("recheck sample") should be taken from the same location, after
determining and correcting the cause if possible.
In addition to the routine and recheck samples, which are reported

to LWUA, the utility may collect samples for its own use ("Information
Samples").
Sample bottle labels should clearly indicate the reason the sample is
taken : "Routine", "Recheck" or 'Informational." Process control samples
should be collected and analyzed daily or more frequently if water is subject
to rapid quality changes. Specific analysis to be made depend on treatment
process being used.
TABLE 2-1 ..... ~ · - _....,.

MINIMUM WATER SAMPLING
FOR BACTERIAL EXAMINATION
Population Served Maximum Interval* Minimum Number*

Between Successive of Samples
By Utility
Samplings
20- 20,000 One Month One per 5,000

20,000 - 50,000 Two Weeks -do-
50,000 - 100,000 Four Days -do-
Over 100,000 One Day One per 10,000
population per
month.
* Sampling must mc;et both requirements.
2-9
I. FILL BOTH CELLS WITH
WATER TO BE CHECKED
2. ADD 4 DROPS OF 3. INSERT CELLS IN COMPARATOR

ORTHOTOLIDINE TO AND TURN WHEEL UNTIL
ONE OF THE CELLS COLORS MATCH
.
_., ... - ...........
-.
CHECKING CHLORINE RESIDUAL
2-10
It is suggested that informational samples for Chemical and Physical
Quality testing be taken every three months at all surface water sources and
immediately downstream of treatment facilities. Where no treatment is pro-
vided, as in the case of well supplies, samples should be collected annually
at the pump discharge or spring collection works.
2.6.4 Sampling Techniques
2.6.4.1 Chemical and Physical Quality Sampling
(a) General
Rinsing sample bottles in the field should not be necessary.

The bottles should have been cleaned in the laboratory with
appropriate cleaning solutions and rinsed with distilled water.
Only when .a clean bottle is not available should rinsing in the
field be necessary.
The sample bottle should be completely filled when it is

being collected for chemical and physical analysis.
(b) Sampling Technique
(1) When sampling water from a water surface, lower the

bottle as far below the surface as possible, holding the
cap over the opening. Then remove the cap, allow the
bottle to fill and replace the cap under water. (Water on
the surface may not be representative because of dust
particles or the effect of sunlight and air on certain chemi-
cals.)
(2) When sampling from a pump dischar.ge, faucet, fire hydrant
. etc., let it run for at least a minute then hold the bottle
opening under it, being careful not to touch the opening
against the tap.
(3) Immediately check the temperature of the water and of
the air with a centigrade thermometer.
(4) Check the chlorine residual.
(5) Tightly cap the bottle with a non-metallic lid or cork.
(6) Put a lable on the sample bottle showing the following:
*Type of sample (i.e. "Chemical and Physical Sample")
*Date and time of day
* Location (be exact; e.g., "Discharge of Well Pump
t No.1")
*Name of person taking sample
* Air and water temperature
2-11
* Chlorine residual
(7) Send sample to laboratory within 24 hours.
(8) Schedule sample collecting so that samples can be deli-
vered to laboratory before noon on Fridays. This is to
assure that the analysis can be done before the weekend
shut-down of the laboratory.
2.6.4.2 Bacteriological Quality Sampling
(a) General
Water samples for bacterial analysis should be collected

only in the special sterilized bottles prepared and provided by
the laboratory. Extreme care must be exercised to avoid conta-
minating the sample by any bacteria on the hands, clothing or
tap.
(b) Sampling Technique

(1) If sample is taken from the surface of a body of water,
use the technique previously given for chemical and
physical quality sampling.
(2) Open tap and let water run for a length of time required
to change the water in the service pipe. Shut off water.
(3) Expose faucet to flame of portable burner for a minute;
especially the inner edges. A small, portable liquid pro-
pane or butane torch is ideal, but a cigarette lighter may
be used.
(4) Tum on faucet and let water run with a stream about the
diameter of a pencil, for a long enough time to displace
water in the service piping.
(5) Remove stopper from sample bottle without re~.~~i~
paper foil liner from cap and fill bottle from faucet by
holding at an angle tG expose as little opening as possible
to air. When bottle is + 3/4 full, take away bottle witheut
touching faucet with bottle opening. Replace stopper
tightly.
(6) Check air temperature with thermometer then hold under
faucet to check water temperature.
(7) Check chlorine residual.
(8) Put lable on bottle showing the following information:
* Type of sample (i.e .. "Bacteriological Sample")
* Date and time of day
* Exact location of sampling point
* Reason for sample ("Routine", "Recheck" or "!nfo")
*Name of person taking sample
I
2-12
Representative water samples ore token regularly throughout the entired system.
Field personnel assist the laboratory by taking samples as required .
Collecting Water Samples for Bacteriological Analysis
In order to ovoid occidental contamination of the sample, the procedure for taking sam-
ples In the sterile plastic (polypropylene) bottles is herein depicted for strict compliance by all per-
sonnel. ·
3
Allow water to run at least five After line has been f I ushed,
Flame the mouth of sample top minutes to flush line; longer, determine water temperature
of faucet with Butane torch. if necessary to draw a fresh and record on sample sticker.
sample through the delivery
line.
5
Determine residual chlorine. Remove cop from sample bottle. Place cop on bottle with core
Avoid touching lip of bottle to ovoid contaminating the
This data will indicate when o
fresh representative sample is
or inside of cop when removing woter 'and~rew cop on tightly .
or replacing. Fill bottle to Place identification tog on each
flowing through the line.
biock'mork. Never fill bottle bottle, showing location. dote,
completely. time, temperature, residual
chlorine, initio Is of sampler,
etc. Keep all sample bottles In
NOTE :
a vertical position while
The screw caps on the plastic bottles are not screwed down tightly transporting them to the
when the bottles are sterilized. If the cap should become separated laboratory, Samples should be
from the bottles in the field, please return empty bottles and cap to stored at a temperature of
laboratory for re-sterilization. Plastic bottles marked ''PL" have 40°-50° F. and delivered to
not been sterilized, and they are to be use only for taking plankton laboratory as soon as possible,
samples. preferably the some day.
BACTERIOLOGICAL SAMPLING
2-13
*Air and water temperatures
* Chlorine residual
(9) Take sample to laboratory within 2 hours, if possible. In
no case should a sample be more than 4 hours old when
reaching the laboratory. If travel distance to the laboratory
will not permit sample to be delivered in less than 4 hours,
keep packed in ice until delivered to laboratory.
Sample should be in laboratory within 24 hours under any

circumstances. Also, since test requires two days or more,
sample should be delivered to laboratory on Monday, Tuesday,
or Wednesday; unless laboratory technicians check bacterio-
logical samples on Saturdays and Sundays.
•• • - - -..~t:~.
........
L..
2-14 \
MONTHLY CHECK LIST
WATER QUALITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH
MONTH OF _________________________________________ 19 _ __
LOCATION _________________________________________________
NAME OF OPERATOR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - D A T E__________
Check One:
Subsection Work Item Yes No
2.6.1 Positive pressures maintained throughout

the distribution system at all times? 0 0
2.6.2 Chlorine residuals maintained throughout

the distribution system at all times? 0 0
2.6 .3 Chemical and physical quality samples

collected before and after treatment? 0 0
2.6.4 Bacteriological samples collected at

widely scattered parts of distribution
system? 0 0
2.6.5 Number of routine bacteriological samples

collected at least as shown in Table 2-1? 0 0
(a) Water allowed to run to waste for

ftlling? 0 0
(b) Water allowed to run to waste for

a length of time necessary to displace
all the water in the service pipe? 0 0
(c) Bottles properly labelled? 0 0
(d) Every sample sent to laboratory

within 24 hours? 0 0
I
2-1 5
MONTHLY CHECK LIST
WATER QUALITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH

(Cont'd.)
Check One:
2.6.6 Bacteriological Quality Sampling: 0 D
(a) Samples collected in sterilized

bottles? 0 0
(b) Water always allowed to run to

change water in service pipes? 0 D
(c) Sterilized faucet with flame? 0 0
(d) Water allowed to tun before filling

sample bottle? 0 0
(e) Checked chlorine residual and tern-
perature of air and water? 0 0
(f) Bottles properly labelled? 0 0
g) Every sample sent to laboratory

within 24 hours? 0 0
..... -- -.......-:...
REMARKS=-----------------------------------------------------
2-16
SECTION 3: BASIC HYDRAULICS
..·- _......
SECTION 3: BASIC HYDRAULICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 ~ INTRODUCTION 3-1
3.2 WATER PRESSURE 3-2
3.3 FLOW AND VELOCITY 3-5
3,4 FRICTION LOSS IN PIPE 3-5
3.5 HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE 3-8
3.6 MEASURING FLOWS

. 3-9
... ·-_....a;
3.7 WATER. HAMMER 3-19
3.8 CAVITATION 3-21

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Hydraulics - the study of liquid in motion and/or under pressure - is a complex

subject requiring years of study to master completely. However, if the utility operator
understands some of the basic principles of hydraulics of water, he will be better
equipped to understand the operation and maintenance of water supply facilities.
3.1.1 Units of Measure. . No doubt, the operator is acquainted with the metric
system of measurement. However, since some units are used so often in water
supply, the operator should know them so well that he can recall them instant-
ly.
Some imported equipment may have nameplate data or instruction book-

lets presented in the English system of units. Table 14-3 at the back of this
manual gives conversion factors for units commonly used in water supply.
3.1.1.1 Units of Length
MM CM M KM
1.0 = 0.1
10. = 1.0 = 0.01
1000. = 100. = 1.0 = 0.001
1000. = 1.0
3.1.1.2 Units of Area
MM2 CM2 M2 Hectare

1.0 0.01
100. = 1.0 = 0.0001
1,000,000. = 10,000. =
---1.0
10,000.0
=
=
0.0001
1.0
3.1.1 .3 Units of Volume
cc 1 (liters) M3
1.0 0.001 0.0000001
1,000. 1.0 0.001
1,000,000. 1,000. 1.0
3.1. 1.4 Weight of Water
1.0 cc weighs 1.0 gm

1.0 I iter , weighs 1000 gm or 1.0· kg.
1.0 M3 · weighs 1000 kg.
3-1
3.1. 1.5 Units of Flow
1/s 1/Hr M3/Hr M3/Day

1.0 3600. 3.6 86.4
1.0 0.001 .· 0.024
0.278 1000. 1.0 24.0
0.0116 41.67 0.417 1.0
3.2 WATER PRESSURE
3.2.1 Definition
Pressure is the force exerted on each square centimeter of a surface by

the weight of water lying above it; the greater the depth of water, the greater
the pressure. Example: If a tank 1.0 M square is filled 1.0 M deep with water, it
contains 1.0 M3 or 1000}W'Of water. Since the area at the bottom of the tank
is 1.0 M2 or 10,000 CM2, the weight of water on each square centimeter
(i.e ., the pressure) is 1000 kg+ 10,000 cm2, or 0.10 kg/cm2. Hence 10 meters
of water column will exert a pressure at the bottom of the column of 1 kg/cm2,
which is a unit of pressure in the metric system.
3.2.2 Characteristics of Pressure
(a) Water exerts pressure equally in all directions. In the previous example,
the pressure against the sides of the tank at the side bottom is the same as
on the bottom. Moreover, the pressure against the sides half way up the
tank is one half the pressure at the bottom. In fact, the pressure at any
point, in kg/cm2, is 1/10 of the height of the water level above it in
meters. For example the pressure 5 m below the surface of a reservoir is
1/10 x 5 or 0.5 kg/cm2.
(b) Water pressure depends only on the vertical height of water. The static
water pressure at any point in a hydraulic system depends on and is equal
to the vertical difference between that point and the highest level open
to atmospheric pressure such as in an elevated tank, or the piezometric
level induced by a pump.
In a supply system however, conditions are seldom if ever static,

hence the actual or dynamic pressure, or head, is the static pressure minus
losses due to velocity of flow and friction, between the location of the
highest pressure in the system and any other point being checked.
3-2
---
10M
P=8.75 P=IOM P= 8.75 P= 10M
= --
-===·
:;J-::=_-
-=-- ~
-- -~
=
..
V = 5 M/ SEC .
PRESSURE HEAD CONVERTING TO

VELOCITY HEAD AND BACK- TO
PRESSURE HEAD AGAIN.
3-3
l
1
0
<(
w
I
lJ...
0
(f)
(f)
0
_j
MAIN SECTION ( d2) THROAT THROAT SECTION

DIAMETER
--
VENTURI
,----
..
h=HEAD
""'""'
DIFFERENTIAL
_
~
.
.
LOSS OF
HEAD
( d 1 ) = Throat
Diameter
-
PROPELLER ORIFICE
3-4
3.2.3 "Head" vs "Pressure"
The terms "head" and "pressure mean basically the same thing. How-
ever, head is generally expressed in terms of an equivalent height of a water
column, in meters, while pressure is expressed in kg/cm 2 .
Suppose a pump produces a pressure of 5.0 kg/cm2 in a pipeline. The

same pressure could be by connecting the pipeline to a tank with its water surface
50 M above the pipeline (i.e., I/10 x 50= 5.0 kg/cm2). Therefore, the pump is
said to provide 50 M of head. ln fact, pumps are usually rated in terms of
meters of head, rather than in pressure units.
3.2.4 Measuring Pressure
Pressure is usually measured with a pressure gauge, calibrated in kg/cm2 or

meters.
Small pressures are often measured with a piezometer, or clear plastic

tube graduated in centimeters or millimeters. When connected to a pipeline,
pressure in the pipe . causes water to rise in the tube. Obviously, piezometers
are only used where pressure is less than about 0.2 or 0.3 kg/cm2 (2-3-meters).
When using a manometer, a liquid with a specific gravity greater than that of
water such as mercury which weighs 13.6 times an equal volume of water can
be used. Thus a head of 50 meters water column would be equal to a column
of mercury only 3.6 7 meters high.
3.3 FLOW AND VELOCITY
Water is pushed through a pipe by pressure. The higher the pressure, the greater
the velocity and volume o~ water passing a point in a unit of times.
Velocity is usually expressed in meters per second. To atbuntlie velocity some of

the pressure is converted to velecity head which is expressed in meters of water column.
The amount of pressure converted to velocity head is about 1/20 of the velocity
(meters/second) multiplied by itself, (V2).
20
Pressure converted to velocity is not lost but is converted back to static pressure
as the water slows or stops.
3.4 FRICTION LOSS IN PIPE
When water flows through a pipe, part of the pressure or head which causes the
water to move is lost due to friction between wall of the ~ipe and the water moving
past it. The longer the pipe, the greater the total pressure los.t , hence the friction poten-
tial of a pipe line is usually ~efined as meters of head loss per kilometer of pipe line
length.
3-5
Friction in a pipeline actually depends on three primary factors:
1. Velocity, or rate of flow, defined as meters per second (m/sec.).

2. Pipe size, that is, the inside diameter.
3. The roughness of the inside surface of the pipe.
The roughness depends on the pipe material, length of time it has been service,
and the degree of surface deterioration due to corrosion products, and/or deposition
of minerals such as calcium, or pitting, resulting from the quality of the water being
transported.
The friction caused by the roughness of the inside pipe walls is denoted in hydrau-
lic studies of a pipeline system as the "C" factor. "C" values are numerical evaluations
of the inside pipe condition as it affects friction and its resulting carrying capacity at
a given water pressure. The "C" value of a pipeline can range from 140 for new pipe
with smooth interiors to as low as 70, or even less, for older pipe with very rough
inside walls.
The "C" value for a given pipeline can be determined by actual flow measure-
ments and pressure readings along a portion of its length, and using these values to
determine velocity of flow in meters per second and head loss in meters per kilome-
ter. Knowing the pipe size, the velocity or pressure, and the head loss, one can use
the Tables at end of this Section to determine the "C" value for that particular pipe·
line. From the table then, one can determine "C" values of pipelines which permit
making reasonably accurate judgments and plans toward maintaining or improving
system efficiencies. Some examples are:
1. Pressures necessary to produce a desired flow rate.

2. Whether a pipeline should be cleaned and relined.
3. Abandon a pipeline and replace it with a new one of suitable size.
4. Reinforce the system with feeder mains. .. . . . -- _.,..
The choice of what to do and when to do it depends on cost benefit calculations
made after a survey to determine "C" values.
Sometimes during the course of making such a survey, large leaks are discovered.
A study of the table will illustrate the importance of friction considerations. One
can see that at any given flow rate in a pipe with a "C" value of 70 the head loss is
approximately 4 times that of pipe the same size but with a "C" value of 140. Also,
following any "C" value of column downward from one flow rate to a flow rate equal
to twice as much, the head loss is quadrupled. In other words, to double the flow rate
through any pipe it is necessary to increase the head or pressure by approximately
4 times.
3-6
HEAD LOSS IN PIPELINE A
--~HEAD LOSS .ACROSS PARTIALLY CLOSED

l_ VALVE
- - - -GRADE ~,;- - ~;AD
LOSS IN
LENGTH A• 8 PIPELINE
8
- A 8
l
LOSS lN PIPE A
LOSS IN PIPE 8
HEAD
LOSS
IN PIPE
LENGTH A• B • C c
A B c
- 200 .... 180 ....

_,. _
.. -~
-- - -----
-
t 4 - - HEAD LOSS IN P IPELINE A
- - - - - - -LIN£
--
=r
HEAD
· LOSS IN
LENGTH A• 8 • . PI:ELINE
A B
aoo 1111
FLOW IN PIPE
3 -7
\
The following example is given to illustrate the use of the Tables.
1. A 400 mm pipeline, 800 meters long carries a flow of 200 liters per
second.
2. Pressure gages installed at each end of the pipeline give an upstream
pressure of 3.4 kg/cm2 and a downstream pressure of 3.2 kg/cm2.
3. The elevation of the upstream gage is 4 meters higher than the downstream
gage,- equal to 0.4 kg/cm2 static pressure ..
4. If the pipe was level, the downstream gage would read 3.2 kg/cm2 - 0.4
kg/cm2 = 2.8 kg/cm2.
5. The actual head loss in the 800 meters of pipeline is 3.4 kg/cm2- 2.8
kg/cm 2 = 0.6 kg/cm2 equal to 6 meters of water column.
6. The table gives pressure loss in meters of water column in 1000 meters,
but the length of pipeline tested in 800 meters, or 0.8 of values as present-
ed.
7. The head loss due to friction according to the table, therefore, is 6 meters,
x 1000 = 7.5 meters.
800
8. Using Table 3-2 f for 400 mm pipe and locating a flow rate of 200 liters
per second in the left hand column then looking to the right we find a
head loss value of 7.79 meters per 1000 meters of pipe length in the
column headed by "C" = 110.
Unlike velocity head which may be ·converted back to pressure, head loss due to
friction is lost forever.
3.5 HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE
If no water is flowing in a pipeline, there is neither velocity head nor friction loss,
and all pressures are said to be static pressure. If there are no differences in elevation
(relative to sea level), pressures will be the same anywhere. If wateris-flo~ing, however,
the gauge pressure at any point ~n the pipeline will be the pressure at the source,
minus all friction losses plus velocity head between it and the point in question.
The surface elevation of the water source (say, a reservoir), measured from sea level,
minus friction loss is known as the hydraulic grade line. Put another way, the hydraulic
grade line is an imaginary line above a pipeline; and if a high enough standpipe could
be constructed at any point on the pipeline, water would rise in the standpipe up to
that line.
Any restriction, such as a partially closed valve or change in pipe size will create
an abrupt change in the slope of the grade line.
3-8
-
3.6 MEASURING FLOWS
3.6.1 General
It is often necessary to measure discharge flowing out of a pipe; for

example when testing pump performance. This is simple if there is a flow
meter on the pump discharge piping. Often, however, there is no meter and
other means must be used.
3.6.2 Weir Box Method
3.6.2.1 Material Required
(a) A weir box constructed of concrete, wood or steel plate, with

a millimeter scale.
(1) The weir should be made of steel plate 1/4 inch thick.
The overflow edges must be bevelled on the downstream
side so that the opening has flat edges of 1/16" or less.
The weir plate must be secured in the discharge end of
the box so that 1) there will be no leakage around it,
2) it is perpendicular to the weir box bottom, 3) the bot-
tom of the weir opening is parallel to the weir box bot-
tom, and 4) weir box is placed and maintained perfectly
level.
(2) The stilling box or piezometer connection to the box to
measure the head above the weir crest should be upstream
of the weir a distance 2.5 times the vertical opening of
the weir plate.
(3) The weir box must be long enough that flow through the
weir opening is laminar (i.e., S11!,0oth,yithout turbulence),
baffeling may be required.
(b) Fittings on the pipe and so that flow is directed into the weir
box without splashing over.
3.6.2.2 Procedure
(a) Be certain that the weir box is placed perfectly level both length-
wise and crosswise. This can be checked by using a carpenter's
level.
(b) When tlow through the weir is steady, measure the depth of water
in the sight glass by means of a scale placed behind the glass tube.
Zero on the scale must be level with the bottom of the weir.
(c) Using Table 3-4, look up the flow ra~e given for the depth of flow
H, under the column corresponding to the width of the weir
openm~.
3-9
<{
(t:
w
~
1-
z
w
~
w
(t:
::::>
en
<{
w
~
~
0
...J
LL
.
-··- -~
3·10
I .I
STAFF GAGE -o't' ''"':

MET.
AL STRIp . <>;~-~•~~'""''* •oli11'T
, " •"' " · ·· ··
'••:·W '; I ~"11
·,• \1\J'' If·''· •'' ~rv>:
"'"' ""'
, ' \ . ' : · ' ~ . d· ~ ~ : . . - : : -.......:-~~

~~.
,.,·"''"~ . .,'··· v,...... ·;.. :,....-:~~:::..------~~ ~/://
.·· . / -:/: /
.·~ "!:· · ·~
~- ;/i'~"·' ;, ..J'. ~
{;. / :;//~/' /
'" ':\''' -
,...........· .... .
1
.
"' ~'•
'. . . ' ,..
' '\ , '
"• l I • . .
. '
/:::::
-:/ /-/./
/. /,/ . / .
'/f I ··
~ ..·~1\••~ ' "'.1 '.\ .,~

~...E~A
.· /~/
'tl
_. . . . •.. •··. Y'. / /
....
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·•·•
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... 7~~-
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~z I
.
_.....----- / ' / , ' 1 '--- ~~~E~O~~~~~TI:~R
-RECTANGUL
WITH
.,<;. 6~R~UGH THEISO~NTRACTED
FROMH~HWEIR NOTC~NG SINCE ASTH~T PASSES
E SIDES OF THE
ARE SOME
WEIR DISTANCE
ENDS
POOL.)
Table 3-4
WEIR DISCHARGE
FOR RECTANGULAR WEIR WITH TWO END CONTRACTIONS
DISCHARGE LIS DISCHARGE LIS

H H
(mm) B=300 mm B=750 mm B=1.2 M (mm) B=300 mm B=750 mm B=1 .2M
">,
50 5.8 15.0 24.1 100 16.3 42.2 68.6

52 6 .2 16.3 26.3 102 43.7 70.7
54 6.6 17.1 27.6 104 44.9 72.7
56 7 .0 18.1 29.1 106 46.2 74.8
58 7 .4 19.0 30.6 108 47.6 67.9
60 7 .6 20.0 32.1 110 48.9 79.1

62 8.0 20.9 33.6 112 50.2 81.2
64 8.5 22.0 35.4 114 51.4 83.1
66 8.9 23.0 37.1 116 52.7 85.3
68 9.3 24.0 38.6 118 54.2 87.8
70 9 .7 25.0 40.4 120 55.5 90.0

72 10.2 26.1 42.1 122 56.9 92.1
74 10.6 27.2 43.8 124 58.3 94.5
76 11.0 28.4 45.8 126 59.6 96.6
78 11 .3 29.4 47.5 128 61.0 98.9
80 11 .7 30.5 49.2 130 62.4 101.3

82 12.2 31.7 51.2 132 . 63.9 103.6
- · .. - - .....»;..
84 12.6 32.9 53.1 134 65.3 105.9
86 13.1 34.0 54..8 136 66.7 108.3
88 13.6 35.2 56.8 138 68.2 110.6
90 14.0 36.4 58.7 140 69.6 112.9

92 14.5 37.5 60.6 142 71 .6 115.3
94 14.9 38.7 62.6 144 72.4 117.6
96 15.4 40.1 64.7 146 74.0 120.1
98 15.7 41.2 66.6 148 75.4 122.5
100 16.3 42.4 68.6 150 76.9 125.0
3-12
A-Greater than c
twice H
B-Twice H
C-At least twice H CIPOLLETTI WEIR I: 4 SLOPE
upstream side
H- Maximum Head
V NOTCH WEIR
upstream side
.
-· ·- -...Jr...
----- ..-=-:--=-
---=--= HEAD
-----=
- --=-~-
- - -
-- -----=--=-
- -- -
3-13
-3------YARDSTICK
Calibrated in MM
Water Level----+-1
Clear Plastic - -- ---·H /1

Tubing, 3 MM 0
-
'-----3 MM Top Flush w/
inside of Pipe
Standard Steel Pipe
Stondord Coupling
... ·- __....
FLOW MEASUREMENT THROUGH AN ORIFICE

ON END OF PIPE
3-14
- - - -- -- - - -- - - -- - - -
Table 3-5
DISCHARGE, L!SEC, FROM CIRCULAR ORIFICE
Head ORIFICE DIMENSIONS (MM) Head ORIFICE DIMENSIONS (~M)

IIH'' (PIPE 1.0. x ORIFICE 1.0.) "H, (PIPE I.D. x ORIFICE 1.0.)
(MM) 100 X 50 150 X 90 200 X 150 250 X 215 (MM) 100 X 50 150 X 90 200 X 150 250 X 115
10 0.6 1.8 210 2.6 8.2 27.7 64.0

20 0.8 2.5 8.6 220 2.6 8.4 28.4 65.5
30 1.0 3.1 10.5 24.2 230 2.7 8.5 29.0 67.0
40 1.1 3.6 12.1 27.9 240 2.7 8.7 29.6 68.4
50 1.3 4.0 13.5 31.2 250 2.8 8.9 30.2 69.8
60 1.4 4.4 14.8 34.2 260 2.9 9.1 30.8 71.2

70 1.5 4.7 16.0 36.9 270 2.9 9.3 31.4 72.6
80 1.6 5.0 17.1 39.5 280 3.0 9.4 32.0 73.9
90 1.7 5.4 18.1 41.9 290 3.0 9.6 32.6 75.2
100 1.8 5.6 19.1 44.2 300 3.1 9.8 33.1 76.5
110 1.9 5.9 20.1 46.3 310 3.1 9.9 33.7 77.7
120 1.9 6.2 20.9 48.4 320 3.2 10.1 34.2 79.0
130 2.0 6.4 21 .8 50.3 330 3.2 10.2 34.2 80.2
140 2.1 6.7 22.6 52.2 340 3.3 10.4 35.3 81.4
150 2.2 6.9 23.4 54.1 350 3.3 10.5 35.8 82.6
160 2.2 7.1 24.2 55.9 360 3.4 10.7 36.3 83.8
170 2.3 7.4 24.9 57.6 370 3.4 10.8 36.8 84.9
180 2.4 7.6 25.7 59.2 380 3.5 11.0 37.3 86.1
190 2.4 7.8 26.4 60.9 390 3.5 11.1 ..
_. ·--~
37.8 87.2
200 2.5 8.0 27.0 62.4 400 3.5 11.3 38.2 88.3
3-15
X.>;
·I
F
~
;:.
"""
&-
1'-
I I . I .I .I. .I .I .L .. I ll .I .I .1. .I .I .I .I .I .I .IE-
l - ..
.... ·-
·~ ......... l
y-300 mm
- - - ~ - - -~~~' ~
·~ " '-·~ ~~~
~ ' '· '· ··., .,
. '\
'
!
FLOW MEASUREMENT OF FREE

DISCHARGE FROM OPEN END OF A
HORIZONTAL PIPE, RUNNING FULL~--
3-16
Table 3-6
FREE DISCHARGE FROM HORIZONTAL PIPES

Q = 1/sec.
Horiz.
Dist.
''X'' PIPE DIAMETERS (MM)
(MM) 25 l)' 40 50 75 100 150 200 250
300 0.6 1.5 2.4 5.4 9.6 21.6 38.4 60.G
350 0.7 1.8 2 .8 6 .3 11.2 25.2 44.8 70.0
400 0.8 2.1 3 .2 7 .2 12.8 28.8 51.2 80.0
450 0.9 2.3 3.6 8.1 14.4 32.4 57.5 90.0
500 1.0 2.6 4.0 9 .0 16.0 36.0 63.0 100.0
550 1.1 2.8 4.4 9 .9 17.6 39.6 70.3
600 1.2 3.1 4.8 10.8 19.2 43.2 76.7
650 1.3 3.3 5.2 11.7 20.8 46.8 83.1
700 1.4 3.6 5.6 12.6 22.4 50.4 89.5
750 1.5 3.8 6.0 13.5 24.0 54.0 95.9
800 1.6 4.1 6.4 14.4 25.6 57.6 . 102.3

, .. . -
-~
850 1.7 4.4 6.8 15.3 27.2 61.2
900 1.8 4.6 7.2 16.2 28.8 64.7
950 1.9 4.9 7.6 17.1 30.4 68.3
1,000 2.0 5.1 8.0 18.0 32.0 71.9
3··17
3 .6.3 Orifice Plate Method
,-
3.6.3.1 Materials Required
(a) Discharge pipe with threaded or flanged end. The.pipe should be

straight and level for at least ten diameters ahead of the orifice.
A three mm diameter tubing connection is made at the horizontal
centerline of the pipe, 30 em from the discharge end. The fitting
must be flush with the inside pipe wall. The pipe must be level.
(b) Orifice plate clamped or screwed onto the end of the pipe as
shown in the illustration. Alternatively, an orifice plate may be
permanently fixed on the end of the discharge pipe. There must be
no leakage around the orifice plate.
(c) Clear plastic piezometer tubing.
(d) Yardstick, calibrated in mm.
3.6.3.2 Procedure
(a) Measure distance from horizontal center of pipe to water surface

in piezometer tube.
(b) Use table 3-5 to find flow corresponding to height of water
column in piezometer tube.
3.6.4 Horizontal Free-Discharge Method
It is possible to measure flow to within 90 percent accuracy by observing

the path of water flowing out of the end of a horizontal pipe, provided the
pipe is perfectly level and flowing full.
3.6.4.1 Materials Required
(a) Two yardsticks fastened at a perfect right angle.
3.6.4.2 Procedure
(a) With p1pe discharging full, measure horizontal distance from

top of pipe and to point when! top water surface is 300 mm
below top of pipe.
(b) Look up flow rate in Table 3.6.
3-18
3.6.5 Vertical Free-Discharge Method
Flow can be measured to within 90 percent accuracy by observing the

height to which water rises when discharging upward from a vertical pipe. The
pipe must be absolutely vertical {check it with a carpe~ter's level) and the pipe
should be vertical for a length at least equal to twice the pipe diameter.
Simply measure the vertical distance from the top of P.ipe to the average
height of the top of the water column and look up the flow in Table 3-7.
3.6.6 Volumetric Method
This method consists of allowing flow into a receptacle of a known

volume, and noting the time required to fill it. The volume, in liters, is divided
by the filling time in seconds to find discharge in liters per second. Ideally,
the filling time should be at least 30 seconds.
3.6.7 Small Flows
If the flow is expected to be less than about 5 1/sec., a standard oil drum
(208 liters) may be used as a satisfactory receptacle.
3.6.8 Moderate Frows
If the flow is expected to be less than about 20 1/sec., several oil drums
may be placed close together and fllled one after the other, being careful to
avoid loss of water during transfer of flow from one drum to the other. Each
drum should take at least 15 seconds to fill.
3.6.9 Large Flows

--
When flows are -too large for measuring with oil drums, flow must be
diverted into a reservoir and the rise in reservoir level measured together with
the elapsed time.
3.7 WATER HAMMER
For all practical purposes water is non-compressible. It is also relatively heavy.
Because of these characteristics, when the flow of water in a pipeline is abruptly

stopped or started it will create enormous shock waves of pressure throughout the
system.
The longer the pipelin~ and/or the higher the velocity of flow, the greater the
shock impact and the more li:kely damage will be done.
3-19
I
H
.
~ .. ·- -....:..:.
FLOW MEASUREMENT OF FREE DISCHARGE

FROM OPEN END OF VERTICAL PIPE
3·20
There are several methods of controlling water hammer:
(a) Most importantly, open, and close system valves slowly.

{b} Where a pump develops serious water hammer when started or shut
down, such devices as an air chamber, surge tank, surge suppressor, or
automatically operated plug or ball type valves can eliminate the problem
except under emergency conditions such as a power failure.
These systems however, must be designed for the specific condition by an engineer
with experience in solving this type of problem.
3.8 CAVITATION
Cavitation in a hydraulic system may occur when a large increase in velocity

causes a decrease in pressure, especially if the original pressure was quite low.
Examples are partly open valves in a pipeline and the areas near the faces of a
pump impeller especially where the suction lift is great and/or flow velocity is great
due to excessive impeller speed.
Cavitation can be detected by sound. It makes a rapid popping noise, and can
cause vibration.
Cavitation, that can be distinctly heard, will rapidly pit and erode away metal
surfaces in the area where it is occurring.
Cavitation in a pipeline can normally be avoided by installing concentratic redu-

cers instead of abrupt changes in pipe sizes.
A partially open valve that is cavitating should be opened, if not fully, then at
least enough to eliminate the sound. -· -- - -
3-21
Table3-7
FREE DISCHARGE FROM VERTICAL PIPE

0 = L/Sec.
Vert.
dist.
'H" PIPE DIAMETERS (MM)
(MM) 50 75 100 150 200 250 300
50 1.7 3.9 6 .9 15.9 28.9 46.2 67.9
75 2.1 4.7 8.5 19.5 35.4 56.6 83.2
100 2.4 5.4 9.8 22.5 40.9 65.3 96.0
150 2.9 6.7 12.0 27.6 50.1 80.0
200 3.4 7.7 13.8 31.9 57.9 92.3
250 3.8 8.6 15.5 35.6 64.7 103.3
300 4.1 .. 9.4 17.0 39.0 70.9
350 4.5 10.2 18.3 42.1 76.5
400 4.8 10.9 19.6 45.0 81.8
_.., · -
.
- .-..~~r
3-22
VOLUMES AND AREAS OF PIPE
Cross Volume of
1.0.
Sectional One Meter
of
Area Length
Pipe
(M2) (1)
(MM)
0.00126 1.26
40
0.00196 1.96
50
0.00442 4.42
75
0.00785 7.85
100
0.0177 1.77
150
0.0314 3.14
200
0 .0491 4 .91
250
0.0707 7.07
300
0.0962 9.62
350
0.126 12.6
400
450 0 .159 15.9
0.196 19.6
500
550 0 .238 23.8
600 0.283
_,. .. -
.
-~
28.3
700 0.385 38.5
750 0.442 44.2
800 0.503 50.3
900 0 .636 63.6
1000 0.785 78.5
3-23
FLOW OF WATER IN PIPES
HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA
METRIC UNITS
DIAMETER PIPE 50 mm
a v LOSS OF HEAD IN METERS PER 1000 METERS
li4s/sec M/sec C=140 C=130 C=120 C=110 C=100 C=90 C=80 C=70
0.1 0.05 0.096 0.110 0.128 0.150 0.179 0.218 0.271 0.347
0.2 0.10 0.347 0.398 0.462 0.542 0.647 0.787 0.978 1.25
0.3 0.15 0.735 0.844 0.978 1.15 1.37 1.67 2.07 2.65
0.4 0.20 1.25 1.44 1.67 1.96 2.34 2.84 3.53 4.52
0.5 0.25 1.89 2.17 2.52 2.96 3.53 4.29 5.34 6.84
0.6 0.31 2.65 3.04 3.53 4.15 4.95 6.02 7.48 9.58
0.7 0.36 3.53 4.05 4.70 5.52 6.58 8.00 9.95 12.7
0.8 0.41 4.52 5.19 6.02 7.07 8.43 10.2 12.7 16.3
0.9 0.46 5.62 6.45 7.48 8.79 10.5 12.7 15.9 20.3
1.0 0.51 6.84 7.84 9.09 10.7 12.7 15.5 19.3 24.7
1.2 0.61 9.58 11.0 12.7 15.0 17.9 21 .7 27.0 34.6

1.4 0.71 12.7 14.6 17.0 19.9 23.8 28.9 35.9 46.0
1.6 0.81 16.3 18.7 21 .7 25.5 30.4 37.0 46.0 58.9
1.8 0.92 20.3 23.3 27.0 31 .7 37.9 46.0 57.2 73.3
2.0 1.02 24.7 28.3 32.8 38.6 46.0 55.9 69.6 89.1
2.2 1.12 29.4 33.8 39.2 46.0 54.9 66.7 83.0 106
2.4 1.22 34.6 39.7 46.0 54.1 64.5 78.4 97.5 125
2.6 1.32 40.1 46.0 53.4 62.7 74.8 90.9 113 145
2.8 1.43 46.0 52.8 61.2 71.9 85.8 104 130 145
3.0 153 52.3 60.0 69.6 81.7 97.5 118 147 189
3.2 1.63 58.9 67.6 78.4 92.1 110 134 166 213
3.4 1.73 65.9 75.6 87.7 103 123 149 186 238
3.6 1.83 73.3 84.1 97.5 115 137 166 207 265
3.8 1.94 81.0 92.9 108 127 151 -· - "l"B4 228 292
4.0 2.04 89.1 102 118 139 166 202 251 322
4.2 2.14 97.5 112 130 252 182 221 275 352
4.4 2.24 106 122 141 166 198 241 300 384
4.6 2.34 115 132 153 180 215 261 325 416
4.8 2.44 125 143 166 195 233 283 352 451
5.0 2.55 135 154 179 210 251 305 380 486
5.2 2.65 145 166 193 226 270 328 408 523
5.4 2.75 155 178 207 243 290 352 438 560
5.6 2.85 166 191 221 260 310 376 468 600
5.8 2.95 177 203 236 277 330 402 500 640
6.0 3.06 189 216 251 295 352 428 532 581
'
6.2 3.16 201 230 267 313 374 454 565 724
6.4 3.26 213 244 283 332 397 ' 482 600 768
6.6 3.36 225 258 I
300 352 420 510 635 813
6.8 3.46 238 273 317 372 444 539 671 859
7.0 3.57 251 288 334 392 468 569 708 906
3-24
METRIC UNITS
DIAMTER OF PIPE 62.5 mm
liters/sec m/sec C=140 C=130 C=120 C=110 C=100 C=90 C=80 C=70
0.2 0.07 0.117 0.134 0.156 0.183 0.218 0.265 0.330 0.423
0.4 0.13 0.423 0.485 0.562 0.660 0.788 0.958 1.19 1.52
0.6 0.20 0.895 1.03 1.19 1.40 1.67 2.03 2.52 3.23
0.8 0.26 1.53 1.75 2.03 2.38 2.84 3.46 4.30 5.51
1.0 0.33 2.31 2.64 3.07 3.60 4.30 5.23 6.50 8.32
1.2 0.39 3.23 3.71 4.30 5.05 6.03 7.32 9 .11 11.7
1.4 0.46 4.30 4 .93 5.72 6.72 8.02 9.74 12.1 15.5
1.6 0.52 5.51 6.32 7.32 8.61 10.3 12.5 15.5 19.9
1.8 0.59 6.85 7.85 9.11 10.7 12.8 15.5 19.3 24.7
2.0 0.65 8.32 9.55 11.1 13.0 15.5 18.9 23.5 30.0
2.3 0.75 10.8 12.4 14.3 16.9 20.1 24.4 30.4 38.9
2.6 0.85 13.5 15.5 18.0 21.1 25.2 30.7 38.1 48.8
2.9 0.95 16.6 19.0 22.0 25.9 30.9 37.5 46.7 59.3
3.1 1.01 18.7 21.5 24.9 29.3 34.9 42.5 52.8 67.6
3.4 1.11 22.2 25.5 29.6 34.8 41 .5 50.4 62.7 80.3
3.7 1.21 26.0 29.8 34.6 40.6 48.5 58.9 73.3 93.9
4.0 1.30 30.0 34.5 40.0 47.0 56.0 68.1 84.7 108
4.3 1.40 34.3 39.4 45.7 53.7 64.0 77.8 96.8 124
4.7 1.53 40.5 46.5 53.9 63.3 75.5 91.8 114 146
5.0 1.63 45.5 52.1 60.4 71.0 84.7 103 128 164
5.3 1.73 50.6 58.0 67.3 79.1 94.3 115 143 183
5.6 1.83 56.0 64.3 74.5 87.6 104 127 158 202
5.9 1.92 61.7 70.8 82.1 96.4 115 140 174 223
6.2 2.02 67.6 77.6 90.0 106 126 153 191 244
6.5 2.12 73.8 84.7 98.2 115 138 ..... ·- - -467 208 266
6.8 2.22 80.3

.
92.1 107 125 150 182 226 290
7.1 2.31 86.9 99.7 116 136 162 197 145 314
7.4 2.41 93.9 108 125 147 175 213 265 339
7.7 2.51 101 116 134 158 188 229 285 365
8.0 2.61 108 124 144 169 202 246 306 391
8.4 2.74 119 136 158 186 221 269 335 428
8.8 2.87 129 148 172 202 241 293 365 467
9.2 3.00 140 161 187 220 262 318 396 507
9.6 3.13 152 174 202 238 283 344 428 549
10.0 3.26 164 188 218 256 306 372 462 592
10.4 3.39 176 202 235 276 329 400 497 636
10.8 3.52 189 217 251 295 353 1 428 533 682
11.2 3.65 202 232 269 316 377. 458 570 730
11.6 3.78 216 248 I 287 337 402 489 608 779
12.0 3.91 230 264 ' 306 359 428 521 648 829
3-25
METRIC UNITS
DIAMETER OF PIPE Th__!nm
0.5 0.11 0.263 0.302 0.350 0.411 0.490 0.596 0.741 0.949
0.6 0.14 0.368 0.423 0.490 0 .576 0.687 0.835 1.104 1.33
0.7 0.16 0.490 0.562 0.652 0.766 0.914 1.11 1.38 1.77
0.8 0.18 0.628 0.720 0.835 0.981 1.17 1.42 1.77 2.27
0.9 0:20 0.781 0.895 10.4 1.22 1.46 1.77 2.20 2.82
1.0 0.23 0.949 1.09 1.26 1.48 1.77 2.15 2.67 3.42
1.1 0.25 1.13 1.30 1.51 1.77 2.11 2.57 3 .19 4.09
1.2 0.27 1.33 1.53 1.77 2.08 2.48 3.01 3.75 4.80
1.3 0.29 1.54 1.77 2.05 2.41 2.88 3.50 4.35 5.57
1.4 0.32 1.77 2.03 2.35 2.77 3.30 4 .01 4.99 6.39
1.5 0.34 2.01 2 .31 2.67 3.14 3.75 4.56 5.67 7.26
1.6 0.36 2.27 2.60 3.01 3.54 4.22 5.13 6.39 8.18
1.7 0.38 2.53 2.91 3.37 3.96 4.73 5.74 7.14 9.15
1.8 0.41 2.82 3.23 3.75 4.40 5.25 6.39 7.94 10.2
2.0 .45 3.42 3.93 4.56 5.35 6.39 7.76 9.65 12.4
2.2 0.50 4.09 4.69 5.44 6.39 7.62 9 .26 11.5 14.7
2.4 0.54 4.80 5.51 6.39 7.50 8.95 10.9 13.5 17.3
2.6 0.59 5.57 6.39 7.41 8.70 10.4 12.6 15.7 20.1
2.8 0.63 6.39 7.33 8.50 9.98 11.9 14.5 18.0 23.0
3.0 0.68 7.26 8.32 9.65 11.3 13.5 16.4 20.5 26.2
3.3 0.75 8.66 9.93 11.5 13.5 16.1 19.6 24.4 31.2
3.6 0.81 10.2 11.7 13.5 15.9 19.0 23.1 28.7 36.7
3.9
4.2
0.88 11.8 13.5 15.7
18.0
18.4 22.0
25.2
. 26...2
30.7
33.3
38.1
42.6
48.8
0.95 13.5 15.5 21.1
4.5 1.02 15.4 17.6 . 20.5 24.0 28.7 34.8 43.3 55.5
5.0 1.13 18.7 21.4 24.9 29.2 34.8 42.4 52.7 67.5
5.5 1.24 22.3 25.6 29.7 34.8 41.6 50.5 62.8 80.5
6.0 1.36 26.2 30.0 34.8 40.9 48.8 59.4 73.8 94.5
6.5 1.47 30.4 34.8 40.4 47.5 56.6 68.9 85.6 110
7.0 1.58 34.8 40.0 46.4 54.5 65.0 79.0 98.2 125
7.5 1.70 39.6 45.4 52.7 61.9 7,~.8 89.7 112 143
8.0 1.81 44.6 51.2 59.4 69.7 83.2 101 126 161
8.5 1.92 49.9 57.3 66.4 78.0 93.1 113 141 180
9.0 2.04 55.5 63.7 73.8 86.7 103 126 156 200
10 2.26 67.5 77.4 89.7 105 126 153 190 243
11 2.49 80.5 92;3 107 126 150 182 227 290

12 2.72 94.5 108 , 126 148 176 214 267 341
13 2.94 110 126 146 171 204 249 309 396
14 3.17 126 144 167 197 235 285 355 454
15 3.40 143 164 190 223 267 324 403 516
3-26
METRIC UNITS
DIAMETER OF PIPE 100 mm

'
0.5 0.06 0.065 0.074 0.086 0.101 0.121 0.147 0.183 0.234
1.0 0.13 0.234 0.268 0.311 0.365 0.436 0.530 0.659 0.844
1.5 0.19 0.495 0.568 0.659 0.774 0.923 1.12 1.39 1.78
2.0 0.25 0.844 0.968 1.12 1.32 1.57 1.91 2.38 3.05
2.5 0.32 1.28 1.46 1.70 1.99 2.38 2.89 3.59 4.60
3.0 0.38 1.79 2.05 2.38 2.79 3.33 4.05 5.04 6.45
3.5 0.45 2.38 2.73 3.16 3.72 4.43 5.39 6.70 8.58
4.0 0.51 3.05 3.49 4.05 4.76 5.68 6.90 8.58 11.0
45 0.57 3.79 4.34 5.04 5.92 7.06 8.58 10.7 13.7
5.0 0.64 4.60 5.28 6.12 7.19 8.58 10.4 13.0 16.6
5.5 0.70 5.49 6.30 7.31 8.58 10.2 12.4 15.5 19.8
6.0 0.76 6.45 7.40 8.58 10.1 12.0 14.6 18.2 23.3
6.5 0.83 7.48 8.58 9.96 11.7 14.0 17.0 21.1 27.0
7.0 0.89 8.58 9.85 11.4 13.4 16.0 19.5 24.2 31.0
7.5 0.96 9.75 11.2 13.0 15.2 18.2 22.1 27.5 35.2
8.0 1.02 11.0 12.6 14.6 17.2 20.5 24.9 31.0 39.7
8.5 1.08 12.3 14.1 16.4 19.2 22.9 27.9 34.7 44.4
9.0 1.15 13.7 15.7 18.2 21.4 25.5 31.0 38.5 49.3
9.5 1.21 15.1 17.3 20.1 23.6 28.2 34.2 42.6 54.5
10.0 1.27 16.6 ~9.1 22.1 26.0 31.0 37.7 46.8 60.0
11 1.40 19.8 22.7 26.4 31.0 37.0 44.9 55.9 71.6

12 1.53 23.3 26.7 31.0 36.4 43.4 52.8 65.6 84.1
13 1.66 27.0 31.0 35.9 42.2 50.4 61.2 76.1 97.5
14 1.78 31.0 35.5 41.2 48.4 57.8 70.2 87.3 112
15 1.91 35.2 40.4 46.8 55.0 65.6 .• - 7!1:8 99.2 127
16 2.04 39.7 45.5 52.8 62.0 74.0 89.9 112 143

17 2.16 44.4 50.9 59.1 69.4 82.8 101 125 160
18 2.29 49.3 56.6 65.6 77.1 92.0 112 139 178
19 2.42 54.5 62.6 72.6 85.2 102 124 154 197
20 2.55 60.0 68.8 79.8 93.7 112 136 169 216
21 2.67 65.6 75.3 87.3 103 122 149 185 237

22 2.80 71.6 82.1 95.2 112 133 162 202 258
23 2.93 77.7 89.1 103 121 145 176 219 280
24 3.06 84.1 96.4 112 131 157 191 237 303
25 3.18 90.7 104 121 142 169 205 256 327
26 3.31 97.5 112 130 152 182 I 221 275 352

27 3.44 105 120 139 163 1~5 237 295 377
28 3.57 112 128 149 175 209 . 353 315 404
I
29 3.69 119 137 159 187 223 270 336 431
30 3.82 127 146 169 199 237 299 358 459
3-27
METRIC UNITS
1.0 0.08 0.079 0.090 0.105 0.123 0 .147 0.179 0.222 0.284
1.5 0.12 0.167 0 .191 0.222 0.261 0.311 0.378 0.470 0.602
2.0 0.16 0.284 0.326 0.378 0.444 0.53p 0.644 0 .801 1.02
2.5 0.20 0.430 0.493 0.572 0.672 0.801 0.974 1.21 1.55
3.0 0.24 0.602 0.691 0.801 0.942 1.12 1.37 1.70 2.17
3.5 0.29 0.801 0.919 1.07 1.25 1.49 1.82 2.26 2.89
4.0 0.33 1.03 1.18 1.37 1.60 1.91 2.33 2.89 3.70
5 0.41 1.55 1.78 2.06 2.42 2.89 3.52 4.37 5.60
6 0.49 2.17 2.49 2.89 3.40 4.05 4.93 6.13 7.85
7 0.57 2.89 3.32 3.85 4.52 5.39 6.56 8.15 10.90
8 0.65 3.70 4.25 4.93 5.79 6.91 8.40 10.4 13.4

9 0.73 4.61 5.29 6.13 7.20 8.59 10.4 13.0 16.6
10 0.81 5.60 6.42 7.45 8.75 10.4 12.7 25.8 20.2
11 0.90 6.68 7.66 8.89 10.4 12.5 15.1 18.8 24.1
12 0.98 7.85 9.00 10.4 12.3 14.6 17.8 22.1 28.3
13 1.06 9.10 10.4 12.1 14.2 17.0 20.6 25.7 32.9

14 1.14 10.4 12.0 13.9 16.3 19.5 23.7 29.4 37.7
15 1.22 11.9 13.6 14.8 18.5 22.1 26.9 33.4 42.8
16 1.30 13.4 15.3 17.8 20.9 24.9 30.3 37.7 48.3
17 1.39 15.0 17.2 19.9 23.4 27.9 33.9 42.2 54.0
18 1.47 16.6 19.1 22.1 26.0 31.0 37.7 46.9 60.0

19 1.55 18.4 21.1 24.5 28.7 34.3 41.7 51.8 66.4
20 1.63 20.2 23.2 26.9 31.6 37.7 45.8 57.7 42.8
22 1.79 24.1 27.7 32.1 37.7 45.0 -· . - -94.7 68.0 87.1
24 1.96 28.3 32.5 37.7 44.3 52.8 64.2 79.9 102
.
26 2.12 32.9 37.7 43.7 51.4 61.3 74.5 92.6 119
28 2.28 37.7 43.2 50.1 58.9 70.3 85.4 106 136
30 2.44 42.8 49.1 57.0 66.9 79.9 97.1 121 155
32 2.61 48.3 55.4 64.2 75.4 90.0 109 136 174
34 2.77 54.0 61.9 71.8 84.4 101 122 152 195
36 2.93 60.0 68.9 79.9 93.8 112 136 169 217

38 3.10 66.4 76.1 88.3 104 124 150 187 240
40 3.26 73.0 83.7 97.1 114 136 165 206 263
42 3.42 79.9 91.6 106 125 149 181 225 280
44 3.59 87.1 99.9 116 136 162 197 245 314
46 3.75 94.5 108 126 148 176 I 214 266 341

48 3.91 102 117 136 160 191 232 288 369
50 4.07 110 127 I 147 272 206 250 311 398
52 4.24 119 136 158 185 221 269 334 428
54 4.40 127 146 . 169 199 237 288 359 459
3-28
METRIC UNITS
DIAMETER .OF PIPE 150 mm
liters/sec M/sec C=140 C=130 C=120 C=110 C=100 C=90 C=80 C=70
1 0.06 0.032 0.037 0.043 0.050 0.060 0.073 0.091 0.117

2 0.11 0.117 0.134 0.156 0.183 0.218 0.265 0 .330 0.423
3 0.17 0.248 0 .285 0 .330 0.388 0 .463 0.562 0 .699 0.896
4 0.23 0.423 0.485 0.562 0.661 0.788 0.958 1.19 1.52
5 0.28 0.639 0.733 0.850 0 .999 1.19 1.44 1.80 2.30
6 0.34 0.895 1.02 1.19 1.40 2.67 2.03 2.52 3.23

7 0.40 1.19 1.36 1.58 1.86 2.22 2.70 3.35 4.30
8 0.45 1.52 1.75 2.03 2.38 2.84 3.45 4 .30 5.50
9 0.51 1.89 2.17 2.52 2.96 3.53 4 .30 5.34 6.84
10 0 .57 2.30 2.64 3.06 3.60 4.30 5.22 6.50 8.32
12 0.68 3.23 3.70 4 .30 5.05 6.02 7.32 9.11 11.6

14 0.79 4.30 4.93 5.72 6.72 8.01 9.74 12.1 15.5
16 0.91 5.51 6 .32 7.33 8.61 10.2 12.4 15.5 19.8
18 1.02 6.85 7.86 " 9.11 10.7 12.7 15.5 19.3 24.7
20 1.13 8.32 9.55 11 .0 13.0 15.5 18.8 23.4 30.0
22 1.24 9.93 11.3 13.2 15.5 18.5 22.5 27.9 35.8

24 1.36 11.7 13.4 15.5 18.2 21.8 26.4 32.9 42.1
26 1.47 13.5 15.5 18.0 21.2 25.2 30.7 38.1 48.8
28 1.58 15.5 17.8 20.7 24.3 28.9 35.2 43.8 56.0
30 1.70 17.6 20.2 23.5 27.6 32.9 40.0 49.7 63.7
32 1.81 19.9 22.8 26.4 31.1 37.1 45.1 56.0 71.7

34 1.92 22.2 25.5 29.6 34.8 41 .5 50.4 62.7 80.3
36 2.04 24.7 28.4 32.9 38.6 46.1 56.0 69.7 89.2
38 2.15 27.3 31.3 36.4 42.7 51 .0 61 .9 77.0 98.6
40 2.26 30.0 34.5 40.0 47.0 56.0 68.1 - 84.7 108
.. ·- _......_
42 2.38 32.9 37.7 43.8 51.4 61 .3 74.5 92.7 118
44 2.49 35.8 41.1 47.7 56.0 66.8 81.2 101 129
46 2.60 83.9 44.7 51.8 60.8 72.6 88.2 109 140
48 2.72 42.1 48.3 56.0 65.8 78.5 95.5 118 152
50 2.83 45.4 52.1 60.4 71.0 84.7 102 128 164
55 3 .11 54.2 62.2 72.1 84.7 101 122 152 195

60 3.40 63.7 73.0 84.7 99.5 118 144 179 229
65 3.68 73.8 84.7 98.2 115 138 167 208 267
70 3.96 84.7 97.2 113 132 158 192 239 306
75 4.24 96.2 110 128 150 179 218 271 347
80 4 .53 108 124 144 170 202 246 306 392

85 4 .81 121 139 161 190 226 275 342 438
90 5.09 135 155 179 211 252 I 305 380 487
95 5.38 149 171 198 233 278 . 338 420 538
100 5.66 164 188 I
218 256 306 372 462 592
3-29
METRIC UNITS
4 0.13 0.104 0.119 0.138 0.163 0.194 0.236 0.293 0.376

6 0.19 0.221 0.253 0.293 0.345 0.411 0.500 0.622 0.796
8 0.25 0.376 0.431 0.500 0.587 0.701 0.852 1.05 1.35
10 0.32 0.568 0.652 0.756 0.888 1.06 1.29 1.60 2.05
12 0.38 0.796 0.91~ 1.06 1.24 1.48 1.80 2.24 2.87
14 0.45 1.06 1.22 1.41 1.66 1.98 2.40 2.99 3.82

16 0.51 1.36 1.56 1.80 2.12 2.53 3.07 3.82 4.90
18 0.57 1.69 1.94 2.24 2.64 3.15 3.82 4.6 6.09
20 0.64 2.05 2.35 2.73 3.20 3.82 4.65 5.78 7.40
22 0.70 2.45 2.81 3.25 3.82 4.56 5.54 6.90 8.83
25 0.80 3.10 3.56 4.12 4.84 5.78 7.03 8.74 11.2

28 0.89 3.82 4.39 5.09 5.98 7.13 8.67 10.8 16.7
31 0.99 4.62 5.30 . 6.14 7.22 8.61 10.5 13.0 16.7
34 1.08 5.48 6 .28 7.29 8.56 10.2 12.4 15.4 19.8
37 1.18 6.41 7.35 8.52 10.0 11.9 14.9 18.1 23.1
40 1.27 7.40 8.49 9.85 11.6 13.8 16.8 20.9 26.7

44 1.40 8.83 10.1 11.7 13.8 16.5 20.0 24.9 31.9
48 1.53 10.4 11 .9 13.8 16.2 19.3 23.5 29.2 37.4
52 1.66 12.0 13.8 16.0 18.8 22.4 27.3 33.9 43.4
56 1.78 13.8 15.8 18.4 21.6 25.7 31.3 38.9 49.8
60 1.91 15.7 18.0 20.9 24.5 29.2 35.5 44.2 56.6

65 2.07 18.2 20.9 24.2 28.4 33.9 41.2 51.3 65.7
70 2.23 20.9 23.9 27.8 32.6 38.9 47.3 58.8 75.3
75 2.39 23.7 27.2 31.5 37.1 44.2 53.7 66.8 85.6
80 2.55 26.7 30.6 35.5 41.8 49.8 ' 60:6' 75.3 96.4
.
85 2.71 29.9 34.3 39.8 46.7 55.7 67.7 84.3 108
90 2.86 33.2 38.1 44.2 51.9 62.0 75.3 93.7 120
95 3.02 36.7 42.1 48.9 57.4 68.5 83.2 104 133
100 3.18 40.4 46.3 53.7 63.1 75.3 91.5 114 146
105 3.34 44.2 50.7 58.8 69.1 82.4 100 125 160
110 3.50 48.2 55.3 64.1 75.3 89.8 109 136 174
120 3.82 56.6 64.9 75.3 88.5 106 128 160 204
130 4.14 65.7 75.3 87.3 103 122 149 185 237
140 4 .46 75.3 86.4 100 118 140 171 212 272
150 4.77 85.6 98.2 114 134 160 194 241 309
160 5.09 96.4 111 128 151 180 219 272 348
I
170 5.41 108 124 144 169 201 245 304 389
180 5.73 120 138 160 187 224 372 338 433
190 6.05 133 152 176 207 247 300 374 479
200 6.37 146 167 194 228 272 330 411 526
3-30
METRIC UNITS
DIAMETER OF PIPE ~mm
6 0.12 0.074 0.085 0.94 0.116 0.139 0.169 0.210 0.268

8 0.16 0.127 0.145 0.169 0.198 0.236 0.287 0.357 0.457
10 0.20 0.192 0.220 0.255 0.299 0.357 0.434 0.540 0.691
12 0.24 0.268 0.308 0.357 0.420 0.501 0.608 0.757 0.969
14 0.29 0.357 0.410 0.475 0.558 0.666 0.809 1.00 1.28
16 0.33 0.457 0.525 0.608 0.715 0.853 1.04 1.29 1.65

18 0.37 0.569 0.652 0.757 0.889 1.06 1.29 1.60 2.05
21 0.43 0.757 0.868 1.01 1.18 1.41 1.71 2.13 2.73
24 0.49 0.969 1.11 1.29 1.51 1.81 2.20 2.73 3.50
27 0.55 1.21 1.38 1.60 1.88 2.25 2.73 3.40 4.35
30 0.61 1.46 1.68 1.95 2.29 2.73 3.32 4.13 5.29

34 0.69 1.85 2.12 2.46 2.89 3.44 4.19 5.21 6.67
38 0.77 2.27 2.60 3.02 3.55 4.23 5.14 6.40 8.19
42 0.86 2.73 3.13 3.63 4.27 5.09 6.19 7.70 9.86
46 0.94 3.23 3.71 4.30 5.05 6.03 7.33 9.11 11.7
50 1.02 3.77 4.33 5.02 5.90 7.03 8.55 10.6 13.6

54 1.10 4.35 4.99 5.79 6.80 8.11 9.86 12.3 15.7
58 1.18 4.97 5.70 6.61 7.76 9.26 11.2 14.0 17.9
62 1.26 5.62 6.44 7.47 8.78 10.5 12.7 15.8 20.3
66 1.34 6.31 7.24 8.39 9.86 11.8 14.3 17.8 22.8
70 1.43 7.03 8.07 9.36 11 .0 13.1 15.9 19.8 25.4

75 1.53 7.99 9.17 10.6 12.5 14.9 18.1 22.5 28.8
80 1.63 9.01 10.3 12.0 14.1 16.8 20.4 25.4 32.5
85 1.73 10.1 11.6 13.4 15.8 18.8 .• . - 22:8 28.4 36.4
90 1.83 11 .2 12.8 . 14.9 17.5 20.9 25.4 31.6 40.4
95 1.94 12.4 14.2 16.5 19.4 23.1 28.1 34.9 44.7

100 2.04 13.6 15.6 18.1 21.3 25.4 30.9 38.4 49.1
110 2.24 16.2 18.6 21.6 25.4 30.3 36.8 45.8 58.6
120 2.44 19.1 21.9 25.4 29.8 35.6 43.3 53.8 68.9
130 2.65 22.1 25.4 29.4 34.6 41 .3 50.2 62.4 79.9
140 2.85 25.4 29.1 33.8 39.7 47.3 57.5 71.6 91.6
150 3.06 28.8 33.1 38.4 45.1 53.8 65.4 81.3 104
160 3.26 32.5 37.3 43.3 50.8 60.6 73.7 91.6 117
180 3.67 40.4 46.4 53.8 63.2 75.4 91 .6 114 146
200 4.07 49.1 56.4 65.4 76.8 91.6 111 139 177
'
220 4.48 58.6 67.3 78.0 91.6 109 133 165 212
240 4.89 68.9 79.0 91 .6 108 128 156 194 249
160 5.30 79.9 91.6 ~ 106 125 149 181 225 288
280 5.7· 91 :6 105 122 143 171 208 258 331
300 6.11 104 119 139 163 194 236 294 376
3-31
METRIC UNITS
.......
10 0.14 0.079 0.090 0.105 0.123 0.147 0.179 0.222 0.284

12 0.16 0.110 0.127 0 .147 0.173 0.206 0.250 0.311 0.399
14 0.20 0.147 0.169 0.196 0.230 0.274 0.333 0.414 0.530
16 0.23 0.188 0.216 0.250 0.294 0.351 0.426 0.530 0.679
18 0.25 0.234 0.268 0.311 0.366 0.436 0.530 0.660 0.845
20 0.28 0.284 0.326 0.378 0.445 0.530 0.645 0.802 1.02

23 0.33 0.368 0.423 0.490 0.576 0.687 0.835 1.04 1.33
26 0.37 0.462 0.530 0.615 0.723 0.862 1.05 1.30 1.67
29 0.41 0.566 0.649 0.753 0.885 1.06 1.28 1.60 2.04
32 0.45 0.679 0.779 0.904 1.06 1.27 1.54 1.91 2.45
35 0.50 0.802 0.920 1.07 1.25 1.50 1.82 2.26 2.89

40 0.57 1.03 1.18 . 1.37 1.60 1.92 2.33 2.89 3.71
45 0.64 1.28 1.46 1.70 2.00 2.38 2.89 3.60 4.61
50 0.71 1.55 1.78 2.07 2.43 2.89 3.52 4.38 5.60
55 0.78 1.85 2.12 2.46 2.89 3.45 4.20 5.22 6.68
60 0.85 2.18 2.50 2.89 3.40 4.06 4.93 6.13 7.85

65 0.92 2.52 2.89 3.36 3.94 4.71 5.72 7.11 9.11
70 0.99 2.89 3.32 3.85 4.52 5.40 6.56 8.16 10.4
75 1.06 3.29 3.77 4.38 5.14 6.13 7.45 9.27 11 .9

80 1.13 3.71 4.25 4.93 5.79 6.91 8.40 10.4 13.4
90 1.27 4.61 5.29 6.13 7.21 8.60 10.4 13.0 16.6

100 1.41 5.60 6.43 7.45 8.76 10.4 12.7 15.8 20.2
110 1.56 6.68 7.67 8.89 10.4 12.5 • -15;2->- 18.8 24.1
120 1.70 7.85 9.01 10.4 12.3 14.6 17.8 22.1 28.3
130 1.84 9.11 10.4 . 12.1 14.2 17.0 20.6 25.7 32.9
140 1.98 10.4 12.0 13.9 16.3 19.5 23.7 29.5 37.7
160 2.26 13.4 15.3 17.8 20.9 24.9 30.3 37.7 48.3
180 2.55 16.6 19.1 22.1 26.0 31.0 37.7 46.9 60,1
200 2.83 20.2 23.2 26.9 31.6 37.7 45.8 57.0 73.0
220 3.11 24.1 27.7 32.1 37.7 45.0 54.7 68.0 87.1
240 3.40 28.3 32.5 37.7 44.3 52.9 64.2 79.9 102
260 3.68 32.9 37.7 43.7 51.4 61.3 74.5 92.7 119
280 3.96 37.7 43.3 50.2 58.9 70.3 85.5 106 136
300 4.24 42.9 49.2 57.0 67.0 79.9 97.1 121 155
320 4.53 48.3 55.4 64.2 75.5 90.1 109 136 174
'
340 4.81 54.0 62.0 71.9 84.4 101 122 152 195
370 5.23 63.2 72.5 I 84.1 98.8 118 143 178 228
400 5.66 73.0 83.7 97.1 114 136 165 206 264
430 6.08 83.5 95.7 ' 111 130 156 189 235 301
460 6.51 94.6 108 126 148 176 214 267 341
3-32
METRIC UNITS
15 0.16 0.079 0 .090 0.105 0 .123 0.147 0.179 0.222 0.285

20 0.21 0.134 0.154 0.179 0.210 0.250 0.304 0.379 0.485
25 0.26 0.203 0.233 0.270 0.317 0.379 0.460 0.572 0.733
30 0.31 0.285 0.326 0.379 0.445 0 .531 0.645 0.802 1.02
35 0.36 0.379 0.434 0 .504 0.592 0.706 0.858 1.07 1.37
40 0.42 0.485 0.556 0.645 0.758 0.904 1.10 1.37 1.75

45 0.47 0 .603 0 .692 0 .802 0 .942 1.12 1.37 1.70 2.18
50 0.52 0.733 0.840 0.975 1.15 1.37 1.66 2.07 2.64
55 0.57 0.874 1.00 1.16 1.37 1.63 1.98 2.46 3.16
60 0.62 1.03 1.18 1.37 1.61 1.91 2.33 2.89 3.71
80 0.83 1.75 2 .01 2.33 2.73 3.26 3.97 4.93 6.32

100 1.04 '1)4 3.03 3 .52 4.13 4.93 5.99 7.46 9.55
120 1.Z5 3.71 4.25 4.93 5.79 6.91 8.40 10.4 13.4
140 1.46 4.93 5.66 6.56 7.71 9.20 11.2 13.9 17.8
160 1.66 6.32 7.24 8.40 9.87 11.8 14.3 17.8 22.8
180 1.87 7.85 9.01 10.4 12.3 14.6 17.8 22.1 28.4
200 2.08 9.55 11 .0 12.7 14.9 17.8 21 .6 26.9 34.5
220 2.29 11 .4 13.1 15.2 17.8 21.2 25.8 32.1 41 .1
240 2 .49 13.4 15.3 17.8 20.9 25.0 30.3 37.7 48.3
260 2.70 15.5 17.8 20.6 24.3 28.9 35.2 43.7 56.0
280 2 .91 17.8 20.4 23.7 27.8 33.2 40.3 50.2 64.3
300 3 .12 20.2 23.2 26.9 31.6 37.7 -45.8--"' 57.0 73.0
320 3.33 22.8 26.1 30.3 35.6 42.5 51.7 64.3 82.3
340 3.53 25.5 29.3 '33.9 39.9 47.6 57.8 71.9 92.1
360 3.74 28.4 32.5 37.7 44 .3 52.9 64.3 79.9 102
480 4.99 48.3 55.4 64.3 75.5 90.1 109 136 174
500 5.20 52.1 59.8 69.3 81.4 97.1 118 147 188
520 5.40 56.0 64.3 74.5 87.6 104 127 158 202
540 5.61 60.1 68.9 79.9 93.9 112 136 169 217
560 5.82 64.3 73.7 85.5 100 120 146 181 232
580 6.03 68.6 78.7 91 .2 107 128 155 193 248

600 6.24 73.0 83.8 97.1 114 136 165 206 264
620 6.44 77.6 89.0 103 121 145 176 219 280
640 6.65 82.3 94.4 109 129 153 186 232 297
I
660 6.86 87.1 99.9 116 136 162 197 246 314
3-33
METRIC UNITS
25 0.20 0.106 0.122 0.141 0.166 0.198 0.240 0.299 0.383

30 0.24 0.149 0.170 0.198 0.232 0.277 0.337 0.419 0.536
40 0.32 0.253 0.290 0.337 0.396 0.472 0.574 0.713 0.913
50 0.40 0.383 0.439 0.509 0.598 0.713 0.867 1.07 1.38
60 0.48 0.536 0.615 0.713 0.838 1.00 1.22 1.51 1.84
70 0.56 0.713 0.818 0.949 1.11 1.33 1.62 2.01 2.57

80 0.64 0.913 1.05 1.22 1.43 1.70 2.07 2.57 3.30
90 0.72 1.14 1.30 1.51 1.78 2.12 2.57 3.20 4.10
100 0.80 1.38 1.58 1.84 2.16 2.57 3.13 3.89 4.98
120 0.95 1.94 2.22 2.57 3.02 3.61 4.39 5.46 6.99
130 1.03 2.24 2.57 2.99 3.51 4.19 5.09 6.33 8.10
140 1.11 2.57 2.95 3.43 4.02 4.80 5.84 7.26 9.29
160 1.27 3.30 3.78 4.39 5.15 6.15 7.47 9.29 11.9
180 1.43 4.10 4.70 5.46 6.41 7.65 9.29 11.5 14.8
200 1.59 4.98 5.72 6.63 7.79 9.29 11.3 14.0 18.0
220 1.75 5.95 6.82 7.91 9.29 11.1 13.5 16.8 21.5
240 1.91 6.99 8.01 9.29 10.9 13.0 15.8 19.7 25.2
260 2.07 8.10 9.29 10.8 12.7 15.1 18.4 22.8 29.2
280 2.23 9.29 10.7 12.4 14.5 17.3 21.1 26.2 33.5
300 2.39 10.6 12.1 14.0 16.5 19.7 23.9 29.8 38.1
320 2.55 11.9 13.6 15.8 18.6 22.2 27.0 33.5 43.0
340 2.71 13.3 15.3 17.7 20.8 24.8 30.2 37.5 48.1
360 2.86 14.8 17.0 19.7 23.1 27.6 • --3S.-!J· 41.7 53.4
380 3.02 16.4 18.8 21.8 25.6 30.5 37.1 46.1 59.0
400 3.18 18.0 20.6 . 23.9 28.1 33.5 40.8 50.7 64.9
420 3.34 19.7 22.6 26.2 30.8 36.7 44.6 55.5 71.1
440 3.50 21.5 24.6 28.6 33.5 40.0 48.6 60.5 77.5
460 3.66 23.3 26.7 31.0 36.4 43.5 52.8 65.7 84.1
480 3.82 25.2 28.9 33.5 39.4 47.0 57.2 71.1 91.0
500 3.98 27.2 31.2 36.2 42.5 50.7 61.6 76.7 98.2
520 4.14 29.2 33.5 38.9 45.7 54.5 66.3 82.4 105
540 4.30 31.4 36.0 41.7 49.0 58.5 71.1 88.4 113
560 4.46 33.5 38.5 44.6 52.4 62.6 76.0 94.6 121
580 4.62 35.8 41.1 47.6 56.0 66.8 81.1 101 129
600 4.77 38.1 43.7 50.7 59.6 71.1 86.4 107 138
I
630 5.01 41.7 47.8 55.5 65.2 77.7 94.5 117 151
660 5.25 45.5 52.1 I 60,5 71.1 84.8 103 128 164
690 5.49 49.4 56.6 . 65.7 77.2 92.0 112 139 178
720 5.73 53.4 61.3 . 71.1 83.5 99.6 121 151 193
750 5.97 57.6 66.1 76.6 90.0 107 131 162 208
3-34
METRIC UNITS
Q v LOSS OF HEAD IN METERS PER 1000 METERS
20 0.13 0.039 0.045 0.053 0.062 0.074 0.089 0.111 0 .143

30 0.19 0.084 0.096 0.111 0.131 0.156 0.190 0.236 0.302
40 0.25 0.143 0.164 0 .190 0.223 0.266 0.323 0 .402 0.515
50 0.31 0.215 0.247 0 .287' 0.337 0 .402 0.488 0.607 0.778
60 0 .38 0.302 0.346 0.402 0.472 0.563 0.684 0 .851 1.09
70 0.44 0.402 0.461 0.535 0 .628 0.749 0.911 1.13 1.45

80 0.50 0.515 0.590 0.684 0.804 0.959 1.17 1.45 1.86
90 0.57 0.640 0.734 0.851 1.00 1.19 1.15 1.80 2.31
100 0.63 0.778 0.892 1.03 1.22 1.45 1.76 2.19 2.81
110 0.69 0.928 1.06 1.23 1.45 1.73 2.10 2.62 3.35
120 0.75 1.09 1.25 1.45 1.70 2.03 2.47 3.07 3 .94
130 0.82 1.26 1.45 1.68 1.98 2.36 2.87 3.56 4.56
150 0.94 1.65 1.89 2.19 2.58 3 .07 3.74 4.65 5.95
170 1.07 2.08 2.38 2.76 3.25 3.87 4.71 5.86 7.50
190 1.19 2.55 2.93 3.40 3.99 4.76 5.79 7.20 9.22
210 1.32 3.07 3 .53 4 .09 4.80 5.73 6.96 8.66 11.1
230 1.45 3.64 4.17 4.84 5.68 6 .78 8.24 10.3 13.1
250 1.57 4.24 4.87 5.65 6.63 7.91 9.62 12.0 15.3
270 1.70 4.89 5.61 6 .51 7.65 9.13 11 .1 13.8 17.7
410 2.58 10.6 12.2 14.1 16.6 19.8 24.0 29.9 38.3
440 2.77 12.1 13.9 16.1 18.9 22.5 27.4 34.1 43.6
470 2.96 13.7 15.7 18.2 21.4 25.5 31.0 38.5 49.3
500 3.14 15.3 17.6 20.4 23.9 28.6 34.7 43.2 55.3
530 3.33 17.1 19.6 22.7 26.7 31.8 38.7 48.1 61.6
560 3.52 18.9 21.7 25.1 29.5 35.2 .• ·- "4~8 53.3 68.2
740 4.65 31 .7 36.3 42.1 49.5 59.0 71.8 89.3 114

770 4.84 34.1 39.1 45.3 53.3 63.5 77.2 96.1 123
800 5.03 36.6 42.0 48.7 57.2 68 .2 82.9 103 132
830 5.22 39.2 44.9 52.1 61.2 73.0 88.8 110 141
860 5.41 41.8 48.0 55.6 65.4 78.0 94.8 118 151
3-35
METRIC UNITS
30 0.15 0.050 0.057 0 .067 0 .78 0.093 0.114 0 .141 0.181

40 0.20 0.085 0.098 0.114 0.133 0.159 0.193 0.241 0 .308
50 0.25 0.129 0.148 0.172 0.202 0.241 0.292 0.364 0.466
60 0.31 0.181 0.207 0.241 0.283 0.337 0 .410 0.510 0.655
70 0.36 0.241 0.276 0.320 0.376 0.449 0.545 0.678 0.868
80 0.41 0.308 0.353 0 .410 0.481 0.574 0.698 0.868 1.1 1

90 0.46 0 .383 0.439 0.510 0.599 0.714 0.868 1.08 1.38
100 0.51 0.466 0.534 0 .619 0.728 0.868 1.06 1.31 1.68
110 0.56 0.555 0.637 0.739 0.868 1.04 1.26 1.57 2.01
120 0.61 0.653 0.749 0.868 1.02 1.22 1.48 1.84 2.36
140 1.22 2.36 2.70 . 3.13 2.68 4.39 5.34 6.64 8.50
160 0.81 1.11 1.28 1.48 1.74 2.07 2.52 3.13 4.01
180 0.92 1.38 1.59 1.84 2.16 2.58 3.13 3.90 4.99
200 1.02 1.68 1.93 2.24 2.63 3.13 3.81 4.74 6 .07
220 1.63 4.01 4.60 5.34 6 .27 7.48 9.10 11 .3 14.5
340 1.73 4.49 5.15 5.97 7.02 8.37 10.2 12.7 16.2
360 1.83 4.99 5.73 6.64 7.80 9.31 11.3 14.1 18.0
400 2.04 6.07 6 .96 8.07 9.48 11 .3 13.7 17.1 21 .9
420 2.14 6.64 7.62 8.83 10.4 12.4 15.0 18.7 24.0
450 2.29 7.55 8 .66 10.0 11.8 14.1 17.1 21 .3 27.2

480 2.44 8.50 9.75 11.3 13.3 15.9 19.3 24.0 30.7
510 2.60 9.51 10.9 12.7 14.9 17.7 21 .6 26.8 34.3
540 2.75 10.6 12.1 14.1 16.5 19.7 . 24~ 29.8 38.2
570 2.90 11.7 13.4 15.6 18.3 21.8 26.5 33.0 42.2
.
600 3.06 12.9 14.7 17.1 20.1 24.0 29.1 36.2 46.4
640 3.26 14.5 16.6 19.3 22.6 27.0 32.8 40.8 52.3
680 3.46 16.2 18.6 21.6 25.3 30.2 36.7 45.7 58.5
720 3.67 18.0 20.7 24.0 28.2 33.6 40.8 50.8 65.0
760 3.87 19.9 22.8 26.5 31 .1 37.1 45.1 56.1 71.9
BOO 4 .07 21 .9 25.1 29.1 34.2 40.8 49.6 61 .7 79.0

840 4.28 24.0 27.5 31.9 37.5 44.7 54.3 67.6 86.5
880 4.48 26.1 30.0 34.8 40.8 48.7 59.2 73.6 94.3
920 4.69 28.4 32.5 37.7 44.3 52.9 64.3 80.0 102
940 4.79 29.5 33.9 39.3 46.1 55.0 66.9 83.2 107
3-36
FLOW OF' WATER IN PIEPS
METRIC UNITS
40 0.14 0.035 0.040 0 .047 0.055 0.065 0.080 0.099 0 .127

60 0.21 0.074 0.085 0.099 0.116 0.139 0.169 0.210 0.269
80 0.28 0.127 0.145 0.169 0.198 0.236 0.287 0.357 0.458
100 0.35 0.192 0.220 0.255 0.299 0.357 0.434 0.540 0.692
120 0.42 0.269 0.308 0.357 0.420 0.501 0.609 0.757 0.969
140 0.50 0.357 0.410 0.475 0.558 0.666 0.810 1.00 1.29
160 0.57 0.458 0.525 0.609 0.715 0.853 1.04 1.29 1.65
180 0.64 0.569 0.653 0.757 0.889 1.06 1.29 1.60 2.05
200 .71 0.692 0.793 0.920 1.08 1.29 1.57 1.95 2.50
220 0.78 0.825 0.947 1.10 1.29 1.54 1.87 2.33 2.98
240 0.85 0.969 1.11 1.29 1.52 1.81 2.20 2.73 3.50
260 0.92 1.12 1.29 1.50 1.76 2.10 2.55 3.17 4.06
280 0.99 - 1.29 1.48 1.72 2.02 2.40 2.92 3.64 4.66
300 1.06 1.47 1.68 1.95 2.29 2.73 3.32 4.13 5.29
320 1.13 1.65 1.89 2.20 2.58 3.08 3.74 4.66 5.96
350 1.24 1.95 2.24 2.59 3.05 3.64 4.42 5.50 7.04
380 1.34 2.27 2.60 3.02 3.55 4.23 5.15 6.40 8.19
410 1.45 2.61 3.00 3.48 4.08 4.87 5.92 7.37 9.43
440 1.56 2.98 3.42 3.96 4.66 5.55 6.75 8.40 10.8
470 1.66 3.37 3.86 4.48 5.26 6.28 7.63 9.49 12.1
500 1.77 3 .77 4.33 5.02 5.90 7.04 8.55 10.6 13.6
550 1.95 4.50 5.16 5.99 7.04 8.40 10.2 12.7 16.3
600 2.12 5.29 6.07 7.04 8.27 9.86 . 12..9 14.9 19.1
650 2.30 6.13 7.04 8.16 9.59 11.4 13.9 17.3 22.1
. 9.36 11.0 13.1 15.9 19.8 25.4
700 2.48 7.04 8.07
750 2.65 8.00 9 .17 10.6 12.5 14.9 18.1 22.5 28.9
800 2.83 9.01 10.3 12.0 14.1 16.8 20.4 25.4 32.5
850 3.01 10.1 11.6 13.4 15.8 18.8 22.9 28.4 36.4
900 3.18 11.2 12.9 14.9 17.5 20.9 25.4 31 .6 40.5
950 3.36 12.4 14.2 16.5 19.4 23.1 28.1 34.9 44.7
1000 3.54 13.6 15.6 18.1 21.3 25.4 30.9 38.4 49.2
1100 3 .89 16.3 18.6 21.6 25.4 30.3 36.8 45.8 58.7
1200 4.24 19.1 21.9 25.4 29.8 35.6 43.3 53.8 68.9
1300 4.60 22.1 25.4 29.5 34.6 41.3 50.2 62.4 79.9
1400 4.95 25.4 29.1 33.8 39.7 47.4 57.6 71.6 91.7
I
1500 5.31 28.9 33.1 38.4 45.1 53.8 65.4 81.4 104
1600 5.66 32.5 37.3 I 43.3 50.8 60.7 73.7 91.7 117
41.7 48.4 56.9 67.9 82.5 103 131
1700
1800
6.01
6.37
36.4
40.5 46.4 . 53.8 63.2 75.4 91.7 114 146
1900 6.72 44.7 51.3 59.5 69.9 83.4 101 126 161
3-37
METRIC UNITS
40 0.10 0.017 0.019 0.022 0.026 0.031 0.038 0.047 0.060

60 0.16 0.035 0.040 0.047 0.055 0.065 0.080 0.099 0.127
80 0.21 0.060 0.069 0.080 0.094 0.112 0.136 0.169 0.216
100 0.26 0.090 0.104 0.120 0.141 0.169 0.205 0.255 0.326
120 0.31 0.127 0.145 0.169 0.198 0.236 0.287 0.357 0.458
140 0.36 0.169 0.193 0.224 0.264 0.314 0.382 0.475 0.609
160 0.42 0.216 0.248 0.287 0.338 0.403 0.489 0.609 0.780
180 0.47 0.269 0.308 0.357 0.420 0.501 0.609 0.757 0.970
200 0.52 0.326 0.374 0.434 0.510 0.609 0.740 0.920 1.17
220 0.57 0.389 0.447 0.518 0.609 0.726 0.883 1.10 1.41
240 0.62 0.458 0.525 0.609 0.715 0.853 1.04 1.29 1.65
260 0.68 0.531 0.609 0.706 0.829 0.990 1.20 1.50 1.92
280 0.73 0.609 0.698 0.810 0.951 1.14 1.38 1.72 2.20
300 0.78 0.692 0.793 0.920 1.08 1.29 1.57 1.95 2.50
320 0.83 0.780 0.894 1.04 1.22 1.45 1.77 2.20 2.81
350 0.91 0.920 1.06 1.22 1.44 1.72 2.09 2.59 3.32
380 0.99 1.07 1.23 1.43 1.67 2.00 2.43 3.02 3.87
410 1.07 1.23 1.42 1.64 1.93 2.30 2.80 3.48 4.45
440 1.14 1.41 1.61 1.87 2.20 2.62 3.19 3.96 5.07
470 1.22 1.59 1.82 2.11 2.48 2.96 3.60 4.48 5.73
500 1.30 1.78 2.04 2.37 2.78 3.32 4.04 5.02 6.43 ..,
550 1.43 2.13 2.44 2.83 3.32 3.96 4.82 5.99 7.67
600 1.56 2.50 2.86 3.32 3.90 4.66 5.66 7.04 9.01
650 1.69 2.90 3.32 3.85 4.53 5.40 .. - '6:SS 8.16 10.5
700 1.82 3.32 3.81 4.42 5.19 6.19 7.53 9.36 12.0
750 1.95 3.77 4.33 5.02 5.90 7.04 8.55 10.6 13.6
800 2.08 4.25 4.88 5.66 6.65 7.93 9.64 12.0 15.4
850 2.21 4.76 5.46 6.33 7.44 8.87 10.8 13.4 17.2
900 2.34 5.29 6.07 7.04 8.27 9.87 12.0 14.9 19.1
950 2.47 5.85 6.71 7.78 9.14 10.9 13.3 16.5 21.1
1000 2.60 6.43 7.38 8.55 10.1 12.0 14.6 18.1 23.2
1100 2.86 7'!J7 8.80 10.2 12.0 14.3 17.4 21.6 27.7
.......,
1200 3.12 9.01 10.3 12.0 14.1 16.8 20.4 25.4 32.5
1300 3,38 10.5 12.0 13.9 16.3 19.5 23.7 29.5 37.7
1400 3.64 12.0 13.8 16.0 18.7 22.4 27.4 33.8 43.3
I
1500 3.90 13.6 15.6 18.1 21.3 25.4 30.9 38.4 49.2
1600 4.16 15.4 17.6 20.4 24.0 28.6 • 34.8 48.4 62.0
I
1700 4.42 17.2 19.7 22.9 26.8 32.0 38.9 48.4 62.0
1800
1900
4.68
4.94
19.1
21.1
21.9
24.2
. 25.4
28.1
29.8
33.0
35.6
39.4
43.3
47.8
53.8
59.5
68.9
76.2
3-38
METRIC UNITS
60 0.08 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014 0.017 0.022

70 0.09 0.008 0.009 0.011 0.013 0.015 0.019 0.023 0.030
80 0.10 0.011 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.020 0.024 0 .030 0.038
90 0.11 0.013 0.015 0.017 0.020 0.024 0.030 0.037 0.047
100 0.13 0.016 0.018 0.021 0.025 0 .030 0.036 0.045 0.057
120 0.15 0.022 0.026 0.030 0.035 0.042 0.051 0 .063 0.081
140 0.18 0.030 0.034 0.039 0.046 0.055 0.067 0.084 0.107
160 0.20 0.038 0.044 0.051 0.059 0.071 0.086 0.107 0.137
180 0.23 0.047 0.054 0.063 0.074 0.088 0.107 0.133 0.171
200 0.25 0.057 0.066 0.076 0.090 0.107 0.130 0.162 0.207
220 0.28 0.069 0.079 0.091 0.107 0.128 0.155 0.193 0.248
240 0.31 0.081 0.092 0.107 0.126 0.150 0.183 0.227 0.291
260 0.33 0.093 0.107 0.124 0.146 0.174 0.212 0.263 0.337
280 0.36 0.107 0.123 0.143 0.168 0.200 0.243 0.302 0.387
300 0.38 0.122 0.140 0.162 0.190 0.227 0.276 0.343 0.440
350 0.45 0.162 0.186 0.216 0.253 0.302 0.367 0.457 0.585
400 0.51 0.207 0.238 0.276 0.324 0.387 0.470 0.585 0.749
450 0.57 0.258 0.296 0.343 0.403 0.481 0.585 0.7272 0.931
500 0.64 0.314 0.360 0.417 0.490 0.585 0.711 0.884 1.13
550 0.70 0.374 0.429 0.498 0.585 0.698 0.849 1.055 1.35
600 0.76 0.440 0.504 0.585 0.687 0.820 0.996 1.24 1.59
650 0.83 0.510 0.585 0.678 0.797 0.951 1.16 1.44 1.84
700 0.89 0.585 0.671 0.778 0.914 1.09 1.32 1.65 2.11
750 0.95 0.664 0.762 0.884 1.04 1.24 . ·1 :56"' 1.87 2.40
800 1.02 0.749 0.859 . 0.996 1.17 1.40 1.70 2.11 2.70
900 1.15 0.931 1.07 1.24 1.46 1.74 2.11 2.63 3.36
1000 1.27 1.13 1.30 1.51 1.77 2 .11 2.57 3.19 4.09
1100 1.40 1.35 1.55 1.8- 2.11 2.52 3.06 3.81 4.87
1200 1.53 1.59 1.82 2.11 2.48 2.96 3.60 4.47 5.87
1300 1.66 1.84 2.11 2 .45 2.88 3.43 4.17 5.19 6.64
1400 1.78 2.11 2.42 2.81 3.30 3.94 4.78 5.95 7.62
1500 1.91 2.40 2.75 3.19 3.75 4.47 5.44 6.76 8.66
1600 2.04 2.70 3.10 3.60 4.22 5.04 6.13 7.62 9.76
1700 2.16 3.02 3.47 4.02 4.73 5.64 6.85 8.85 10.1
1800 2.29 3.36 3.86 4.47 5.25 6.27 7.62 9.48 12.1
1
2000 2.55 4.09 4.69 5.44 6.39 7.62 9.26 11 .5 14.7
2200 2.80 4.87 5.59 6.49 7.62 9.09 · 11.0 13.7 17.6
2400 3.06 5.73 6.57 7.62 8.95 10.7 13.0 16.1 20.7
2600 3.31 6.64 7.62 8.84 10.4 12.4 15.1 18.7 24.0
2800 3.57 7.62 8.74 10.1 11.9 14.2 17.3 21.5 27.5
3-39
SECTION 4: WELLS
.
~ .. ··- -....-~
SECTION 4: WELLS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.2 CHECKING WELL PERFORMANCE 4-6
4.3 REHABILITATION AND MAINTENANCE 4-15
4.4 MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST 4-20

4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.1.1 Construction
There are many ways of constructing water wells. The method used usually
depends on the depth of the well. This section is only concerned with deep
wells (i.e., those deeper than 35 meters), which are normally drilled by one of
the following two methods:
4.1.1.1 Percussion (Cable Tool) Method. A cutting tool suspended by a

cable is repeatedly raised and dropped, breaking up subsurface
materials, which are then removed from the hole at frequent inter-
vals as the depth increases. Usually, a steel liner, or casing, is driven
downward inside the hole as drilling progress.
The Cable Tool method is normally used where the required

depth of the well is less than about 250 meters.
4.1.1.2 Rotary Method. A rotating bit mounted on the end of a "string"

of drtll pipe chews up the formation as drilling progreesses. Addi-
tional length of drill pipe are added at the surface as the well depth
increases. A clay slurry, or drilling mud, continuously pumped
downward through the pipe and out through the bit, rises back to
the surface carrying the cuttings out of the well. It flows into a mud
pit dug near the drilling rig; the cuttings settle to the bottom; and
the drtlltng mud is again pumped down the drill pipe to repeat the
cycle.
In a variation of this method, known as reverse circulation,

the drilling mud overflows from the mud pit into the well and is
pumped upward through the drill pipe. """
In addition to removing cuttings, in either method the drilling

mud exerts enough pressure to prevent caving-in of the well during
drilling operations.
After the well is drilled to the desired depth, a well casing made
of steer or fiberglass is lowered into the hole. When the casing is in
place, fresh water is circulated to remove the drilling mud. Gravel is
sometimes used to fill the space between the casing and the walls of
the bore hole (gravel packing).
'
The rotary method is much faster 1than the cable tool method.
It is suited to drilling wells to almost unlimited depths, and is seldom
.. used to drill less than 200 meters .
4-1
Recharge drea
at outcropping
Nonflowing
artesian
well
Water
' Piezometr ic
surface____,.
of formation
table
well - - - - , Flowing
artesian
well
----
~
,:.,;,
Water-table ·:. .-:.

acquifer :::.:.~· •.. :
··..-· (~.n~~~~;n~~-J-: ._:·.:..:·/::·~ :;> : :·~·:

- _:.: .. :~ ,·... : ..... : .·. .... ·.. '.
·_
TYPES OF AQUIFERS
I } I I
4.1 .1.3 A well may be considered as consisting of two main parts. The upper
part, or cased section serves as housing for the pumping equipment
and as a vertical conduit through which water flows from the aquifer
to the pump. It is of water tight construction. The lower part is the
intake section where the water from the aquifer enters the well
casing. The intake section is actually a screen or perforated part of
the casing located in the water bearing formation.
The casing must be able to withstand the pressures of earth

tending to crush it and must be large enough to accommodate th~
pump with sufficient clearance for easy installation and efficient
operation. The casing diameter is usually 2 standard sizes larger
than that of the pump bowls.
The intake section or screen must also be able to resist crushing

pressures of the earth. It is designed to permit entry of sufficient
flow from the aquifer and at the same time prevent entry of the
aquifer materials.
(a) There are two general types of commercially fabricated screens,
termed continuous-slot, and louver, or shutter. They are designed
to permit the maximum flow-through with a minimum velocity
and head loss.
(b) Sometimes slots or perforations are pre-cut in the casing prior
to installation so that when all casing is in place the perforated
section will be in the water bearing formation.
(c) Sometimes, after non-perforated casing is placed in the well
hole, a special tool is lowered to the depth of the aquifer where
it is used to cut holes in the casing wall. The types of screens
described in (b) and (c) are not as dc:sirable as the commercially
fabricated screens because they permit more sand to pass
through. However they are less expensive:· ""
4.1 .1.4 Sanitary Seal. In a properly constructed well, the top 12-15 meters
of the space between the casing and bore hole is filled with cement
slurry to create a seal against contaminated surface water or sub-
surface water that might otherwise percolate down the well between
the casing pipe and the bore hole.
4.1.1.5 Pump Base. After the well is drilled, cased and developed, a large
block of concrete is cast around the top of the well casing, as shown
in the illustration to serve as a foundation for the well pump.
The gravel chute allows gravel to be added as the gravel pack

settles. The sounding tube permits measurement of well depth and
pumping level; with the pump in place.
4-3
,-.
A TURBINE TYPE PUMP
ONCRETE PUMP BASE
ANCHOR BOLT
/II
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. • : .. I · 4 I . •
.' . 6. ' 4
4 .
, . ~ . ..
41
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t
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'
A
0. •• • • • ••
• • . ' II. •
-
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COLUMN PIPE
COLUMN COUPLING
w . - - - WELL CASING
PUMP BOWLS
~ .. .....
•
-..:Jr..
---SUCTION BELL
4-4
STEEL PLATE TACK
WELDED TO CASING
GRAVEL CHUTE
REINFORCING BARS
EACH FACE
EQUALLY SPACED
. ~
.·. CASING
. .,..
~··
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GRAVEL
II ... ... .... '1 ~-~--
a
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SECTION
.,-
4-5
4.1.2 Terminology of Well Hydraulics
4.1.2.1 Static Water Level. The maximum level that water will rise in tht.
well when the pump is not operating.
4.1.2.2 Pumping level. When a well is pumped the water level will drop to
a certain depth and remain nearly constant for as long as the pump-
ing rate is not changed. (Subject, however, to fluctuations in static
level due to seasonal variation and pumping activity in the area.)
For a given static level, every well has a specific, steady pumping
level for every flow rate; the greater the flow rate, the lower the
pumping level.
4.1.2.3 Drawdown. The distance that the water level falls below the static
level while pumping. In other words, pumping level minus static
level equals drawdown.
4.1.2.4 Yield. The amount of water a well can produce under a given set of
conditions. Maximum yield, or Capacity, is the greatest flow rate
that can be steadily pumped out of the well.
4.1.2.5 Discharge. The amount of water being pumped out of a well at a

giVen time (same as flow rate).
4.1.2.6 Specific Capacity. The well discharge that will result in one meter
of drawdown, expressed as cubic meters per hour per meter ( cm/h/m)
or liters per second per meter ( 1/s/m). Specific capacity is nearly
constant at all flow rates, and is therefore a convenient way to ex-
press the ability of the well to produce water.1
4.1.2.7 Well Recovery. When a well pump is stopped, !Jle_~r level will
rise, or recover, to the static level over a period of time; the higher
the well capacity, the quicker the recovery.
4.2 CHECKING WELL PERFORMANCE
4.2.1 General
Over a period of years, or even months, a well's performance may deterio-

rate, with decreasing specific capacity and slower recover. This results from
clogging of screen, or of the water-bearing formation around the screen by sand,
clay or encrusted mineral deposits.
Decreased well performance results in higher electric power costs because

more energy must be supplie~ by pumps to extract water from the well. Also,
4-6
the amount of water pumped decreases, which means that less water is available
to meet the needs of the public.
The perfomance of a ?ew well should be checked at least once each day
for the first several days, then if the performance s~ems stable, it should be
checked once each month for the first year which constitutes a climatic cycle.
After the first year, and as long as the performance remains stable it
should be checked at least every six months. A permanent record of well
performance checks should be kept and comparisons between checks made
to discover any trends towards deterioration.
The well performance check consists of the following steps:
4.2.1.1 S_!atic lev~l. Before starting the pump, carefully measure the static
level and record on the Well Performance Record Card. (The pump
should have been stopped for at least 12 hours before doing this.)
4.2.1 .2 Flow-Drawdown. The pump is operated for several hours at a steady

rate; then the pump discharge and pumping level are carefully
checked and recorded on the Well Performance Record Card.
The drawdown is computed by subtracting the static level

from the pumping level, and noted on the Well Performance Record
Card.
4.2.1.3 Specific Capacity. The pump discharge is divided by the draw-

down to compute the specific capacity (in liters/sec. per meter). This
is recorded on the Well Performance Record Card.
4.2.1.4 Well Recovery. A well recovery test is earned out when the pump is
stopped. This is discussed in detail later in the section.
4.2.1.5 Well Depth. The depth of the bottom of the well is measured as
aescnbed later in this section. This will reveal build up of sand in
the bottom.
4.2.2 Measuring Pumping levels
(a) Electric Probe Method:
(1) Materials Required:
1. Electri~ tester (or "Megger"), battery operated. Check batteries

before.using.
4-7
RADIUS OF INFLUENCE
Discharge pipe
WATER TABLE
. . ....
•
t
....
0
' • • • • • .. • ••••
here · when ·: • ·.' · ." ·~ · : ·· ·.
; 0 not. running)'.· . ·.. ·: ·. · · .' .'· · ·
_:.:r·: ~:~: :;·. : ·; <.. ::·:.. ·... ·;· ...~......-..=-.-: .....

0
00
. ."""
·. ·.:AREA. DE WATERED .... 0
. _...... : ':
: .'· · · · ·. DURING . PUMPING···: · · :
·. (/) · . .WATER . · .. : . · . ·. : ..
. . : IJ...: :-, ..
...
.
·:.....:.· :. :· :·. ·~6~-~
..
:ot :·6.~~~i~~.~o~.-
. . . . ..
.. . .: .. :·...' . ~.
. ·. . ...:. .. ·........
BEARING. •• ·. ... ·•..... ' '
.
·... o·:: ... ·. . . SANDS . . ... . . :- , : ·. . . . ·'. . ...... •
](> _:. ; .:·.:: ._: ..:_: :::>.
. . . ... ·. :
.. . PUM.PING .'LEVEL · · . . , .• .' ..
: ·: : : : ··_'·Pump bow is must be . located · ·.
· · . · ... above this level. :
.·. · .: ... ....... .
· · · ·
: • • a • • • '·, •• • • • _.: •,' • • ·,. • ... • : ."
GROUNDWATER- PUMPING TERMINOLOGY
. ..
. . . . ..
. . .· ...
PUMPING WATER LEVEL •
.. .·
.. ..
. .. ·.
MUTUAL INTERFERENCE
4-8
u. Probe wue consisting of a length of insulated copper wire,
30-40 m in length, marked in one-meter intervals with bands of
plastic electricians' tape. Insulation is stripped about one centi-
meter at both ends, with a 500 gram weight attached to one end
and a spring loaded clip on the other. (A length of 6 rom brass
welding rod, firmly taped to the end of the wire makes an ideal
weight.)
When marking the one meter length of the probe wire,

be sure it is laid out straight with a slight tension, and use a
long, 25-30 meter measuring tape so that the marking can be
done with one, or at the most, two settings of the tape along
the wire. In this way the probe wire will be accurately marked.
The weight should be shielded with plastic or rubber to

prevent false readings if it comes into contact with the casing
or pump column.
m. Ground wire consisting of a length of insulated copper wire,

two meters long, with spring loaded clips on both ends.
tv. A wood yardstick, one meter long, marked in centimeters.
(b) Procedure. The probe wire is connected to the electric tester, and the
weighted end lowered into the well. The short wire is connected from the
tester to a good metal contact on the well casing or sounding tube. When
the weighted end of the probe wire is immersed in water, a circuit is
completed through the tester, probe wire, water, well casing and ground
wire, resulting in a current reading on the electric tester dial.
1. With both wrres properly connected, low« the probe wtre

into the well until the tester shows a current flow.
u. Grip the probe wire with thumb and forefinger at the entrance
to the top of the sounding tube; then pull out the probe wire
and lay along meter-stick with the known tape depth marker
at the zero end. Read fraction of a meter location of thumb
on yardstick.
Add numbered marker to thumb to obtain exact distance

from top of well to the water surface.
(b) A 2 or 3 cell flash light can also be used. Remove the switch and thread
one end of the short insulated ground wire into the hole where the switch
had been. Solder the end of wire to the la~p holder where the switch
had made contact. The other end of this grou'n d wire has a spring loaded
clip for making a contact at the top of the well casing as described above.
4-9
The unweighted end of the long probe wire is soldered to the spring
in the cap at the other end of the flashlight which makes contact with the
bottom end of the batteries. When the weighted end of the probe wire
touches the water, the "switch" is "on" and the lamp will light, BUT
MAY BE DIM DUE TO ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE.
WELL PERFORMANCE RECORD
WELL DESIGNATION
DATE DRILLED DRILLER
WELL DEPTH CASINGDIA. SCREEN DEPTH
Checked Static Pumping Draw- Specific Time to Well

Date
By Level Discharge Level down Capacity Recover Depth Remarks
(c) Commercial Electric Level Indicator
Manufactured water level indicator units are available. All the compo-
nents of the electric probe method are included in a single instrument.
The probe wire is wound on a spool inside the unit with an exterior hand
crank. Rotation of the pool as the probe is raised or••
lowered
- J ·
is indicated
on a counter calibrated in meters and centimeters. It is only necessary
to connect the ground wire to the well. Lower the probe using the hand
crank, when the probe contacts the water a dial on the face of the instru-
ments registers. The depth is read direcdy from the counter on the face
of the instrument.
(d) Air Line Gage Method
This method requires that an air tubing be installed together with

the well pump. A tee fitting at the pump base has a pressure gage, reading
in meters, on one side and a tire pump \·alve on the other. Before using
this method to measure pumping levels, check the air tube by measuring
static level with a plumb line and comparing with air line gage reading.
If they do not agree, there may be a leak in the air line, or loose con-
nections. The pressure' gage must be accurate.
4-10
The unweighted end of the long probe wire is soldered to the spring
in the cap at the other end of the flashlight which makes contact with the
bottom end of the batteries. When the weighted end of the probe wire
touches the water, the '~switch" is "on" and the lamp will light, BUT
MAY BE DIM DUE TO ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE.
WELL PERFORMANCE RECORD
WELL DESIGNATION
DATE DRILLED DRILLER
WELL DEPTH CASINGDIA. SCREEN DEPTH
Checked Static Pumping Draw- Specific Time to Well

Date
By Level Discharge Level down Capacity Recover Depth Remarks
(c) Commercial Electric Level Indicator
Manufactured water level indicator units are available. All the compo-
nents of the electric probe method are included in a single instrument.
The probe wire is wound on a spool inside the unit with an exterior hand
crank. Rotation of the pool as the probe is raised or lowe~ed is indicated
-· ..,.
on a counter calibrated in meters and centimeters. It is only necessary
to connect the ground wire to the well. Lower the probe using the hand
crank, when the probe contacts the water a dial on the face of the instru-
ments registers. The depth is read directly from the counter on the face
of the instrument.
(d) Air Line Gage Method
This method requires that an air tubing be installed together with

the well pump. A tee fitting at the pump base has a pressure gage, reading
in meters, on one side and a tire pump valve on the other. Before using
this method to measure pumping levels, check the .air tube by measuring
static level with a plumb line and comparing with air line gage reading.
If they do not agree, there may be a leak in the air line, or loose con-
'
nections. The pressure gage must be accurate.
4-10
w
CD
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4-11
\
CHECKING DRAW DOWN WITH

AIR LINE GAGE AND AIR PUMP
4-12
( 1) Materials Required
I. A plunger-type tire pump
(2) Procedure
I. Connect the tire pump to the valve on the air line .

u. Pump the tire pump several times until the pressure gage reading
cannot be increased further.
m. Observe the pressure gage for a few seconds.
IV. When the pressure gage reading is steady, deduct the reading
from the known length of air line. This gives the pumping level.
v. Record level on Well Performance Record Card .
(e) Manual Method
(1) Materials Required
I. A 50 .M cloth tape with a lead weight of about 25 gm attached

at the zero end.
(2) Procedure
1. Slowly lower the weighted end of the cloth tape into the well,
frequently jerking it up a few centimer with a fingertip. Feel the
following jerk as it straightens again. When the weight is in
water, it feels different because the tape does not become taut
at quickly as when the weight is in air.
4.2.3 Measuring Well Pump Discharge
4.2.3.1 Production Flow Meter Method. If a flow meter is available on the

well pump discharge piping, read discharge directly from the flow
rate dial or, if there is no dial, by observing the change in the cumu-
lative register over a period of at least 4-5 minutes of time, using a
stop watch or the sweep second hand of a wrist watch.
4.2.3.2 Other Methods. Several other methods of measuring pump discharge

are described in Section 3: "Basic Hydraulics". In general, these are
not as accurate as metering and, therefore, should only be used
when no meter is available. But whenever used, the flow rate should
be made at normal operating discharge pressure.
4-13
1
4.2.4 Measuring Well Recovery
A curve is plotted showing well levels, measured at close intervals between

the time the pump is stopped and the time the static water level restored.
The curve is compared with previous curves to determine whether the recovery
is decreasing. The time required to recover to within 50 em of the static level is
noted and shown on the Well Pu~p Performance Record. (The recovery rate
slows as the water level rises. Often, the last 50 em will take one hour or more.)
{a) Procedure
(1) Use one of the water level measuring methods previously described.
(2) If the electric probe method is used, set the probe two meters above
the pumping level.
(3) Stop pump; start stop watch or note time on wrist watch. Measure
level at frequent intervals as follows:
1. If air line method is used, record level every 15 seconds until

recovery slows to less than 50 em each 15 seconds; then increase
periods to 30 seconds, etc.
n. If electric probe method is used, record time required to reco-
ver first two meters, (this will be only a few seconds) then
record time to recover each 50 em.
(4) Plot curve of elapsed time vs. water level rise increments.
(5) Note total elapsed time from stopping of pumps to recovery within
50 em of static level, and show on Well Performance Record.
4.2.5 Measuring Well Depth
The only way of measuring the depth of a well is by soundil)_g._T.hi~.simply

amounts to lowering a strong wire or cord with a weight attached down the
well, and measuring the length. The sounding line should be lowered and raised
slowly to avoid wrapping of the line around the pump column. A well should
never be sounded below the pump while the pump is running.
4.2.6 · Performing the necessary checks to determine the performance characteristics

ot a well, and making permanent records of the results enables the operator
to detect progressive deterioration, often, long before corrective procedures
must be done.
The operator can diagnose the results to determine not only the general
conditions of the well, but usually the type of developing problem. Following
are some examples of information to be gained.
...__
4-14
I
(a) If the static level drops but the drawdown is the same, the operator
knows that the water table is dropping. This means that the aquifer is
being depleted faster than it can recharge itself.
(b) If the static level is unchanged but the drawdown is increased, the ope-
rator knows that the screen or the aquifer near the screen is clogged and
water is not flowing freely into the well.
(c) If the static level is unchanged but the drawdown is decreased, the ope-
rator knows that the pump has lost its efficiency. When measuring the
static or pumping levels sufficient time must be allowed for the true
levels to be reached.
Power consumption records also provide valuable evidence of the

development of problems in wells. An increase in power costs can indi-
cate either a problem in the pump or an increased drawdown table.
An investigation should be made to pin-point the source of trouble.
Since there can be no incrustation in the absence of incrusting

chemicals, the water should be analyzed regularly, say, every 6 months.
The quality of ·some well waters change slowly and only regular analysis
will indicate such changes. The incrusting chemicals in the water are the
carbonates and sulfates or calcium and magnesium, iron and manga-
nese hydroxides, or the gelatinous slimes of iron bacteria, Creno thrix or
Leptothrix.
The increase of flow velocity as the water flows toward the screen
and through it can cause the precipitation of iron and manganese hydro-
xides.
4.3 REHABILITATION AND MAINTENANCE

.. ~- _.....,......
4.3.1 Causes of Decreased Well Yield
(a) Accumulation of sand and silt in bottom of the well until part of the
screen is blocked.
(b) Incrustation, or clogging of the water-bearing formation next to the
screen and/or in the opening of the screen itself, due to build up of
mineral deposits, or clay.
(c) Metal c• rrosien deposits in screen openings.
(d) Bacterial deposits: Some bacteria feed on iron or carbon compounds in
the water, producing a biologically harmless slime which collects on
the screen or surrounding formation. This slime traps mineral salts from
water passing through the screen, resulting ip clogging of the screen
openings.
4-15
4.3.2 Corrective Measuring
(a) General
Corrective maintenance is best carried out by a qualified well drilling

contractors. This is particularly true in the removal of accumulated sand
and silt, since a drilling rig is required for the necessary batltng and rede-
velopment work.
Whether or not the corrective measures to rehabilitate a deteriorated

well are performed by the water district, or by a well drilling contractor,
it is necessary for the operator to understand as much as possible the kind
of problem that exists. An analysis of all the records, i.e., well design,
performance checks, water quality analyses, power consumption, types of
problems that have been encountered with nearby wells and successful
measures taken to correct them.
. ·- .
These investigations should indicate the type of corrective measures
to be taken. For example, if the problem is mechanical the pumping
equipment must be overhauled, followed by thorough disinfection of the
well and pump. Or, if a water analysis indicates the presence of iron
bacteria, Crenothrix, or Leptothrix the screen may be clogged with;slimes
of these organisms. Being an organic problem, the treatment is one of
sterilization with chlorine or potassium permanganate which is much
less costly and safer to use than acid and polyphosphate treatment which
is normally used to remove inorganic materials which are clogging screens
and the adjacent aquifer.
Any chemical used to treat a problem, organic or inorganic, in a

well must be applied in proper dosages, that is, enough to do the job and
not so much that the well is damaged.
It is a good practice when a strong chemical is to be used to test

various concentrations of the chemical in the same water, so far as its
effectiveness in killing bacteria or its potential to destroy or damage
metals which will be exposed to it.
To determine the amount of chemical to use in any given well it is

necessary to calculate the volume of the well structure up to the static
water level. This much water must be dosed with chemical concentra-
tion usually expressed in parts per million by weight, or in percent by
weight, depending somewhat on the strength of solutipns to be used.
A one percent solution equals 10,000 parts per million.
4-16
...
Unclogging of encrusted screens may be accomplished by the utility

without specialized equipment, but cleanmg may not be as thorough as
that done by a well drilling contractor with all proper equipment at his
disposal.
The following procedure may be tried by the utility without danger

of damaging the well if sounding reveals that blockage of the screen by
accumulated sand is not the problem. It is not guaranteed to solve the
problem of decreasing performance and, therefore, it may still be neces-
sary to call on a well drilling contractor to surge the well by bailing or
jetting.
(b) Procedure
(1) Remove the well pump from the well, and remove the strainer and
foot valve. (See Section 5 "Pumping Equipment").
(2) Prepare a perforated length of 100 mm PVC pipe, 4 m long, with a
r (3)
3.0mm diameter stainless steel cable long enough to reach down to
the water be<l!ing formation.
Fill the perforated cylinder with sodium hypochlorite powder (HTH)
r and cap both ends.

(4) Lower cylinder to the bottom of the screen, then alternately raise
and lower between the bottom and top of the screen section, agita-
ting briskly to dissolve the chlorine powder.
(5) Let well sit overnight.
(6) Fill the cylinder with hexametaphosphate (sold in the Philippines
under the brand name, "Calgon") and repeat the procedure used to
place chlorine.
(7) Install the well pump (See Section 5, "Pumping Equipment").
(8) Alternately start and stop the pump at two or three minute inter-
vals for about one hour. Run water to waste. -· - -
(9) Check pump qischarge for chlorine odor, discoloration of water
or other indications that chlorine or calgon remain in the well. If so,
continue the surge pumping procedure. When the water is clear, with
no odor of chlorine, allow the pump to run continuously for several
hours, checking well performance at frequent intervals.
(10) Remove the well pump, if necessary, to replace the foot valve and
either reinstall the pump or if procedure has been ineffective, call a
well drilling contractor, as appropriate .
. -
(c) Applying an acid treatment to a well requires much care in the procedure
The acids normally used are hydrochloric (muriatic} or sulfamic.
Both of these acids will readily dissolve calcium and magnesium carbonate.
Hydrochloric acid will also dissolve iron and .manganese hydroxides.
4-17
The acid should be used with an inhibitor to the corrosive effect of
the acid on steel casing. Hydrochloric acid, which is much more corrosive
to steel than sulfamic, can be inhibited by adding 2.5 to 3 kg of gelatin
to each 100 gallons of the full strength commercial acid, designated as
27.9 percent grade.
The acid is normally applied to the well at the screen level through a
pipe which intends to screen bottom.
As the acid is poured down the pipe, to displace the water, the pipe
is raised. Usually the volume of acid applied is 1.5 to 2 times the volume
of the screen portion of the well. This provides sufficient chemical to fill
the screen and additional acid to maintain adequate strength as the
reaction with encrusting materials takes place.
The acid is agitated by means of a surge plunger, for 1 to 2 hours,

then bailed until the water is clear.
Sometimes this treatment is alternated with chlorine and/or poly-

phosphate treatment. The chlorine will help to remove the slime deposit
if any is present. The chlorine dosage to water volume in the well is
100-200 ppm. The polyphosphate helps to disperse and remove the silts,
and oxides of iron and manganese by pumping. The effective treatment
is 8 to 16 kg for every 300 liters of water in the well.
When using acid there are some precautions to take, for example
the men handling the chemicals must use rubber gloves, boots, aprons,
and a face mask. There should be adequate ventilation to remove the
fumes. Above all, when making acid solutions the acid is always added to
the diluting water. Never add water to acid. In general, this is good advice
when adding any chemical compound to water. -· = ""
4.3.3 Routine Maintenance
(a) Add make-up gravel. During the first year of operation of a new well,
the gravel pack may settle. The gravel chute cap should be removed, and
with the pump running, gravel added slowly as necessary to fill the gravel
chute up to the top. (A sudden drop in the gravel may indicate a hole in
the casing. In that case, remove pump and consult a well drilling contrac-
tor.)
-
(b) Periodic Chlorination. Once each six months, the well should be chlori-
nated to help prevent the build-up of encrustation.
This is most easily accomplished as follows:
(1) Dump 10 kg of 70% powdered chlorine down to well~ and let sit for
20-30 minutes to dissolv~.
4-18
(2) Run pump (discharging to waste) until an odor of chlorine is detec-
table at the pump discharge. The odor should be detectable in a very
short time.
(3) Shut the pump down and let sit for several hours, preferably over-
night.
(4) Before putting pump back in service, operate (again discharging to
waste) until chlorine odor is no longer detectable at the outlet.
( 5) If there is no odor of chlorine, or chlorine residual, during this final
pumping it is necessary to rechlorinate, because the well has been
contaminated and has a high chlorine demand. In other words, a
good job of chlorinating the well has not been accomplished.
4.3.4 Sanitation Aspects of Operation of Wells
All ground water supply systems must be adequately protected from con-
tamination or pollution. It is the responsibility of all waterworks employees to
be c.onstant!y on guard against any condition that could lead to possible
contamination.
Sources of pollution include septic tanks, and other private or public

sewage disposal facilities, animals, fertilizers, and pesticides. The casing head, or
discharge head, and all vents into the well should be properly constructed and
maintained to prevent contamination.
For safety and as a precaution against possible contamination of the

aquifer unused wells should be capped, and abandoned wells should be filled
with clean, disinfected sand to a point above the aquifer, then with selected
dirt, then concrete for the top 2-3 meters.
Pump houses should be kept clean, adequately drained and protected

from flooding. --
4-19
ANNUAL
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
WELLS
LOCATION/DESIGNATION ............................................... .
NAME OF OPERATOR .............................. DATE . . ·.... .. .... . .. . .
Oleck off work completed. Explain any "NO" answers under "Remarks"
Check One
SUBSECTION WORK ITEMS Yes No
4.2 WELL PERFORMANCE CHECK:

EQUIPMENT:
4.2.1 Is a satisfactory device available for measuring pumping

levels? ' 0 0
4.2.2 (a) Electric probe apparatus batteries checked before
starting performance check? D 0
4.2.2 (c) Air line gage apparatus:
{1) Is gage in good working order? ./ D D
(2) Is length of air line known? 0 0
(3..} Is tire pump in good working order? / 0 0
(4) Air line checked for leakage t efore starting /
performance check? 0 0
4.2.3 Is a flow-meter available on pump discharge pipe? /
(If no, show method used under "Remarks"). 0 0
WELL PERFORMANCE RECORD CARD:
4.2.1 Is the record card available at the well location before

starting the performance check? / 0 0
4.2.1 Has all the upper section on well construction details ' _,. -- _....,.._
been filled in? 0 0
4.2.1 Is well performance history up to date? / 0 0
4.2.1 If there was a ~hange in performance since the last perfor-
1
mance check, has the utility management been notified? 0 0
4.2 WELL PERFORMANCE
4.2.1.1 Was the static level checked and recorded on the Well
Performance Record Card before starting the pump? 0 D
4.2.1.2 Was discharge carefully checked ~d recorded after
several hours steady pumping? 0 D
4.2.1.2 Was the pumping level checked and recorded at the time
0 0
of discharge reading? '/
4-20
4.2.1.2 Was the drawdown computed and recorded?
4.2.1.3 Was the specific capacity computed and recorded?
4.2.1.4 Was the well recovery curve prepared and the time required
to recover to 50 em recorded?
4.2.1.5 Was the well depth measured and recorded?
4.3 ROUTINE PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
4.3.3 Was the well chlorinated after completion

of the performance check?
4.3.3 Was make-up gravel added?
REMARKS : •• .. ..... • . ... . . .. . ...•. . .. .. ... •...... •.•..•. .. . . . . . . . ••. .. . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.... . ... . ... ... . ..... . .. ......... . .. . .... . . .. . ....... . .. . . ... ...... .. . . . --
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
~
4-21
SECTION 5: PUMPING FACILITIES
~J
SECTION 5: PUMPING FACILITIES
5.2 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS 5-1
5.3 CENTRIFUGAL TURBINE PUMPS 5-5
5.4 WELL PUMPS 5-16
5.5 BOOSTER PUMPS 5-24
5.6 PUMP DRIVERS 5-30
5.7 COMPLETING INSTALLATION & START-UP 5-34
5.8 MAINTENANCE OF PUMPS, GENERAL 5-35
5.9 RECORD KEEPING 5-38

5.1 INTRODUCTION
There is an almost unlimited number of different types of pumps. However, only

a few of these are used in water supply. This section is concerned with pumps of two
basic types: {1) a.ntrlfugal turbine pumps,;and (2) positive displacement pumps.
Centrifugal turbine pumps are used mainly for pumping large quantities of water
at moderate pressures. They are used almost exclusively in well pumping and booster
pumping applications. However, small centrifugal turbine pumps are sometimes used at
treatment plants or pump stations for pumping plant utility water (i.e. for hosing down
concrete floors, washing equipment, irrigation of landscaping, etc.).
Positive displacement pumps are used to pump small quantities of water. Their
uses include the following :
* Pumping Chemical Solution

* Pumping Utility Water
* Providing Hydraulic Control Pressures
* Hydrostatic Pressure Testing of Piping
5.2 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
There are as many positive displacement pump designs as there are manufacturers.
However the two most common principles of operation are the flexible diaphragm
and the pocked plunger, or piston type.
Positive displacement pumps are seldom driven at more than 100 revolutions
--
per minute. Both the diaphgragm and packed piston pumps can be equipped with an
air compression surge chamber to smooth out the discharge ·pressure.
5.2.1 Flexible Diaphragm Pumps
5.2.1.1 Operation. These are used primarily for pumping chemical solutions,
such as lime and carbon that would clog other types of pumps by
deposition of residues in moving parts. Diaphragm pumps use expan-
sion and contraction of flexible diaphragm made of neoprene, rubber,
or soft plastic to alternately increase and decrease the volume of the
chamber by rotation of an eccentric drive. The movement of the
diaphragm may be provided by direct mechanical linkage to the drive
shaft (mechanical diaphragm pump) ot by action of a piston and a
fluid such as oil or glycerine which applies a fluctuating pressure to
the diaph~agm (hydraulic diaphragm pump).
5-1
5.1 INTRODUCTION
There is an almost unlimited number of different types of pumps. However, only

a few of these are used in water supply. This section is concerned with pumps of two
basic types: (1) ctntrtfugal turbine pumps, and (2) posittue displacement pumps.
Centrifugal turbine pumps are used mainly for pumping large quantities of water
at moderate pressures. They are used almost exclusively in well pumping and booster
pumping applications. However, small centrifugal turbine pumps are sometimes used at
treatment plants or pump stations for pumping plant utility water (i.e. for hosing down
concrete floors, washing equipment, irrigation of landscaping, etc.).
Positive displacement pumps are used to pump small quantities of water. Their
uses include the following :
* Pumping Chemical Solution

* Pumping Utility Water
* Providing Hydraulic Control Pressures
* Hydrostatic Pressure Testing of Piping
5.2 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
There are as many positive displacement pump designs as there are manufacturers.
However the two most common principles of operation are the flexible diaphragm
and the packed plunger, or piston type.
Positive displacement pumps are seldom driven at more than 100 revolutions
..
per minute. Both the diaphgragm and packed piston pumps can be equipped with an
.
air compression surge chamber to smooth out the discharge pressure.
5.2.1 Flexible Diaphragm Pumps
5.2.1.1 Operation. These are used primarily for pumping chemical solutions,
such as lime and carbon that would clog other types of pumps by
deposition of residues in moving parts. Diaphragm pumps use expan-
sion and contraction of flexible diaphragm made of neoprene, rubber,
or soft plastic to alternately increase and decrease the volume of the
chamber by rotation of an eccentric drive. The movement of the
diaphragm may be provided by direct mechanical linkage to the drive
shaft (mechanical diaphragm pump) or by action of a piston and a
fluid such, as oil or glycerine which applies a fluctuating pressure to
the diaphragm (hydraultc diaphragm pump).
5-1
The diaphragm may be a single sheet or it may be cylindrical in
shape. The pump may be driven by an electric motor or by a hydrau-
lic motor (i.e., powered by water pressure from another source).
The discharge is often varied by simple adjustment of the length

of stroke or speed. This is especially useful for controlling feed rates
of chemical solutions.
Unless the diaphragm is broken, and/or the valves are in need

of repair or replacement this type of pump is self-priming.
5.2.1.2 Maintenance. The most common maintenance problem is a· damaged

diaphragm. This is often caused by build up of scale is downstream
piping, which tends to increase the pressure within the pump cham-
ber. Usually, the diaphragm tears loose from its anchoring at the
edge of the pumping chamber. In this event, no water will be
pumped even though the shaft is seen to rotate. The only remedy
is to disassemble the pump and replace the diaphragm.
Periodic maintenance such as lubrication and adjustment should

be carried out as recommended by manufacturer.
If used to pump chemical solution, scale will tend to build up

on metal surfaces inside the pumping chamber, depending on the
type of chemical being handled, thereby decreasing the volume and
causing error in the feed rate. The interval between cleaning can be
lengthened considerably if fresh water is run through the pump
immediately after each period of pumping the chemical so~tion,
before the pump is shut down. ......,
5.2.2 Packed Plunger Pumps
5.2.2.1 Operation This is the ordinary reciprocating piston pump: a

piston moves back and forth inside a cylinder, drawing in water
through the inlet valve and discharging it through the outlet valve
during each cylce.
This type of pump is used to deliver clean water or true solu-

tions with no solid particles suspended in it, such as lime or activated
carbon slurries whose abrasive action would rapidly wear away
packing and score the cylinder walls.
5-2
The diaphragm may be a single sheet or it may be cylindrical in
shape. The pump may be driven by an electric motor or by a hydrau-
lic motor (i.e., powered by water pressure from another source).
The discharge is often varied by simple adjustment of the length

of stroke or speed. This is especially useful for controlling feed rates
of chemical solutions.
Unless the diaphragm is broken, and/or the valves are in need

of repair or replacement this type of pump is self-priming.
5.2.1.2 Maintena~ce. The most common maintenance problem is a · damaged

diaphragm. This is often caused by build up of scale is downstream
piping, which tends to increase the pressure within the pump cham-
ber. Usually, the diaphragm tears loose from its anchoring at the
edge of the pumping chamber. In this event, no water will be
pumped even though the shaft is seen to rotate. The only remedy
is to disassemble the pump and replace the diaphragm.
Periodic maintenance such as lubrication and adjustment should

be carried out as recommended by manufacturer.
If used to pump chemical solution, scale will tend to build up

on metal surfaces inside the pumping chamber, depending on the
type of chemical being handled, thereby decreasing the volume and
causing error in the feed rate. The interval between cleaning can b~
lengthened considerably if fresh water is run through the pump

immediately after each period of pumping the chemical sol~tion,
before the pump is shut down.
5.2.2 Packed Plunger Pumps
5.2.2.1 Operation This is the ordinary reciprocating piston pump: a

piston moves back and forth inside a cylinder, drawing in water
through the inlet valve and discharging it through the outlet valve
during each cylce.
This type of pump is used to deliver clean water or true solu-

tions with no solid particles suspended in it, such as lime or activated
carbon slurries whose abrasive action would rapidly wear away
packing and score the cylinder walls.
5-2
/~- _ E CC ENTRI C
f / n ) DRIVE
ECCENT RIC DRIVE

~~
Ii
FLEXIBLE
DIAPHRAGM
DIRECT CONNECTED HYDRAULICLY CONNECTED

DIAPHRAGM TYPE PUMP DIAPHRAGM TYPE PUMP
"'""\
5-3
OUTFLOW VALVE
1+ - - - + - - - PISTON
-flll-+-- - - - 1 f - - - CYLINDER
.. . _.....
RECIPROCATING PUMP
5-4
The discharging pressure will fluctuate widely with a one
cylinder unit, but is smoothed out somewhat with two cylinders.
Since each stroke will deliver a volume of liquid equal to the

cross-sectional area of the cylinder times the length of stroke if
there is no leakage past the piston, valves or packing, they are fre-
quently used to measure chemical solutions the same as a diaphragm
pump.
Also, since the piston is stronger than a diaphragm, they are

used to pump against very high heads. Some common applications
are:
* Providing liquid pressure for hydraulically operated valves.

* Metering chemical solutions.
* Hydrostatic pressure testing of pipelines.
Unless the valves and/or packing are in need of repair or replace-
ment, a piston type pump is self priming.
5.2.2.2 Maintenance Individual manufacturer's designs vary a great deal

- and therefore, the instruction booklet furnished with the unit should
be consulted for specific details of routine maintenance. However,
the trouble shooting chart at the end of this section may be helpful
in the event of operating malfunctions.
5.3 CENTRIFUGAL TURBINE PUMPS
5.3.1 Principles of Operation
The heart of the turbine pump is the impeller. It consists of curved vanes
spinning around a central shaft inside a bell-shaped housing. Water enters at
the center of the impeller and is flung outward by the rotation of the vanes.
This causes a va~um at the center, drawing in more water. The shape of the
housing (or bowl) permits water to be pushed only toward the outlet end
under pressure of water being thrown out by the impeller vanes, resulting in a
continuous flow of water under pressure, out of the housing.
Several impellers may be installed in a line, one behind the other (i.e.,
multi-etage). Each impeller adds successively more pressure to the water but
has no effect on the amount of water pumped. Multi-stage pumps are mainly
used in wells, because the diameter of a well pump impeller is small and will
not produce high discharge pressure at normal speeds. Two impellers will pro-
duce twice the pressure of one.
The rotation of the impellers is provided by a prime mover or driver,

which may be an electric motor or a diesel or gasoline engine.
5-5
5.3.2 Terminology of Pump Performance
The following terms are used in any discussion of pump performance

The section of this manual dealing with basic hydraulics should be reviewed ....,
for a more thorough explanation of each term.
5.3.2.1 Head and Pressure. These two terms mean the same thing. However,
liead Is usually expressed in meters of water column, while pressure
is expressed in kilograms per square centimeter (kglcm2).
5.3.2.2 Head Loss. The pressure that is lost due to friction between the
<=="""" >
water and the walls of the pipe or between individual drops of water.
5.3.2.3 ~fficie~ When water is pumped, a certain amount of the work

applied to the impeller is lost due to friction within the pump
itself. The usable work produced by the pump is expressed as a per-
centage of the work that could be produced if there were no losses
within the pump. This percentage, usually 70-85% is known as
pump efficiency.
M~fE_r efficiency is the percentage of power actually delivered

by a motor, compared with the power that could be furnished if
there were no mechanical friction or heat generation; in other --,
words, the power output as a percentage of electrical power input.
(If not known, motor efficiency can be assumed to be 92 percent.)
Overall efficiency is the total energy supplied to the water by

the pump, expressed as a percentage of the total electrical or mecha-
nical energy supplied to the driver. The difference or lost energy
includes head loss in the pump (but not in the discharge piping or
pipelines); energy (converted into heat) in the electrical eEJ.uipment;
and mechanical frictio? in the pump shaft, motor bearing, etc.
5.3.2.4 Horsepower (HP). The basic unit of mechanical energy. It is the

e~gy ~~d to lift 76 kg to a height of one meter in one second.
If there were no friction in a motor, 746 watts of electrical energy
would be required to produce the horsepower of mechanical energy.
Wat~ HorsepowE[J!\riP) is the energy that would h ave to be

supplied to water to lift a given amount through a given distance in a
given time if there were no friction in the p iping. Put another way, a
pump delivers water horsepowe_r at the pump discharge.
· Brake ~se~~HP) is the horsepower that must be deli-

vered to the pump sha t y the motor (Brake Horsepower) + (Pump
Efficiency) = (Water H~mepower) .
5-6 .~-·f f/
I '
FRESH" WATER INLET I
LANTERN RING
t
OUTLET
,.---- FRESH WATER

r------'---....SUPPLY
METERING PUMP PACKING
5-7
RADIAL FLOW PUMP RADIAL IMPELLER
,
I
I
I
SUCTION ---=----
TO DISCHARGE
AXIAL FLOW OR PROPELLER PUMP
AXIAL
IMPELLE~ ___ ~
TO DISCHARGE
_ ~r
I
t
7
r~\ I
,
1
'- - - - - - - - )
I
/
-t
I
__,.
1:----l ,--------
I
I \ 1 I
II \ -/ - - - __... I
\
f ~SUCTION
SHAFT
... -. _.,..
I
MIXED FLOW PUMP

MIXED FLOW IMPELLER
_______ ...)
""' I
I I
,' I
,• I
r---- \
I I \
I
'' "
I
SUCTION-+- SHAFT
I
I
5-8
ANY PRESSURE ABOVE ATMOSPHERIC
GAGE PRESSURE
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE = ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

GAGE + BAROMETl
PRESSURE
I VACUUM
BAROMETRIC
PRESSURE
I ANY PRESSURE
BELOW ATMOSPHERIC
I
I ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
I
I
I ABSOLUTE ZERO PRESSURE I
RELATION BETWEEN VARIOUS PRESSURE TERMS
STAT\J
DISCHARGE
HEAD
TOTAL
STATIC
HEAD
CENTERLINE
1
TOTAL
STA-TIC
HEiAD
OF PUMP
STATIC
---~ DISCHARGE
HEAD
- - --
STATIC
SUCTION
STATIC HEAD STA IC
SUCTION SUCTION
LIFT LIF
(A) (B) (C)
HEAD TERMS USED IN PUMPING
5-9
5.3.2.5 Total Dynamic Head (TOH). The total dynamic head the pump must
deliver includes lift and pipeline head losses. Lift is the total vertical
distance the water is raised. In a well pump lift is the difference in
elevation between the pumping level in the well and the water level
in a reservoir into which the well pump discharges. If there is no
reservoir, the lift is calculated as the distance (in meters) between
the pumping level in the well and the discharge head plus the pres-
sure at the discharge head converted to meters of water column.
If a booster pump raises water from one reservoir to ano ther, the !itt
is the difference in reservoir levels, even though the pump may be
located at a point lower than either reservoir.
5.3.2.6 Capacity. The capacity of a pump is the rate of flow of water being
-== .::;-
pumped, expressed as liters/second to a given pressure, or head.
5.3.2.7 Shut-off Head. The head pumped against which there is no discharge.
1
It may be determined by pumping against a closed valve and mea-
suring the pressure at the pump outlet.
5.3.3 Head-Dischar~e Relations.. One important characteristic of centrifugal pumps

is that discharge capacity and pressure depends on each other. As the pressure
pumped against increases, the discharge decreases; as pressure decreases, dis-
charge increases. Every pump has a characteristic pump curve that shows the
discharge that will result for every pressure.
Also, every pump has one combination of head and discharge at which
the pump operates most efficiently. A curve o f efficiency is generally shown on
the same drawing with the pump curve.
The pump curve in the illustration is shown as an example, and is only

valid for one particular pump. Other pumps have entirely diffcrent-!h.aped
curves and, therefore, the OM shown In the Illustration must not be used to
any actual pumptng sttuatton.
Example: A well pump operates against a total dynamic head (TDH) of

50 m. What is the pump discharge and pump operating efficiency? What
horsepower must be delivered by the motor? From the pump curvy
(a) Discharge is 60 1/sec.
(b) Pump operating efficiency is 76%.
(c) Horsepower is 50 HP.
5-10
5.3.4 Checking Pump Performance
5.3.4.1 General. Periodic checking of performance of pumping equipment

will disclose deterioration of operation before serious problems deve-
lop. Performance checks should be carried out annually, or more
often when pumps are subject to severe conditions such as corrosion,
sand-bearing water, abrasion, or cavitation.
Performance checks should be carried out with the pump

operating at its normal operating pressure and at least two additional
points above and below it (done by throttling the discharge valve).
Shutoff head should be checked, but do not maintain shutoff

head for more than 30 seconds.
The following items are determined and recorded on a Pump

Test Data Sheet.
(a) Pump Discharge Rate
While operating normally, the pump discharge (Q) is

carefully measured using the flow meter, if any, or one of the
methods described in Section 3, "Basic Hydraulics".
(b) D~harge Pressure
Discharge pressure (P ) is read on a pressure gage mounted

1
at the pump outlet- If gage reads in kg/cm2, multiply by 10.0
to convert to meters of head.
(c) Suctioll Head
Measure the suction head (P ) in meters.

2
(1) Well Pumps: P is the pumping level in the well, measured

2
as described in Section 4, "Water Wells".
(2) Booster Pumps: P2 is the pressure at the inlet side of the
pump, or the vertical distance that water is being raised
from the water level to the centerline of the pump dis-
charge pipe.
(d) Total Dynamic Bead
the TDH for a well pump or booster pump lifting water
5-11
...
I. Remove all old packing. Aim 2. To find the right size of packing
packing hook at bore of the box to install, measure stuffing- box
to keep from scratching the bore and subtract rod diameter,
shaft. Clean box thoroughly so divide by 2 . Packing is too
the new packing won't hang up. critical for guesswork.
3. Wind packing, needed for filling stuffing box, snugly around rod (for same
size shaft held in vise) and cut through each turn while coiled, as shown.
If the packing is slightly too large, never flatten with hammer. Place each
turn on a clean newspaper, and then roll out with pipe as you would with
a rolling pin .
.
Right Wrong
..,
....,
4. Cutting off rings while packing 5. If you cut packing while stretched
is wrapped around shaft will out straight, the ends will be at
give you rings with parallel ends. an angle. With gap at angle, ...,
This is very important if packing packing on either side squeezes
is to do the job. into top of gap and ring cannot
close. This brings up the question
about gap for expansion. Most
packings need none. Channel- type
packing with lead core may need
slight gap for exp ansion.
5-12
-
L
I
I-
I_
Right
Wrong
6. Open ring joint sidewise, especially lead -filled and

metallic types. This prevents distorting molded
circumference . . . breaking the ring opposite gap. Install
first turn of packing, then force into bottom of box
by tightening gland against bushing. Seat each turn
this way.
7. Stagger joints 180 degrees if 8. Install packing. so.. lslntern ring lines
only two rings are in stuffing up with cooling -liquid opening.
box. Space at 120 degrees for Also remember that this ring moves
three rings, or 90 degrees if back into box as packing is com-
four rings or more are in set. pressed. Leave space for gland to
enter as shown. Tighten gland with
wrench . . . back off finger-tight.
Allow the packing to leak until it
seats itself, then allow a slight
operating leakage.
5-13
,
MONTHLY PUMP OPERATION SUMMARY
FOR PERIOD TO-----
PUMP No. I PUMP No. 2 PUMP No.3 PUMP No.4 PUMP No. 5 TOTALS
Total Hours Operated
3
Flow Meter Final, m
3
Flow Meter Initial, m
3
Total Delivery m
~ Average Delivery Hour j

Electric Meter Final, KWH
Electric Meter Initial, KWH •
.~
Total Electric, KWH
3
KWH/1000 m
Total Engine Operation, Hours
Total Fuel Used, Liters
IJ~alf
' ;.......... / lf'\f'\0 f'ft3
-- ~.
I I _;
.J J I
J J J J
out of a sump, TDH = P 1 + P . For an in-line booster (i.e.,
2
positive pressure at inlet), TDH = P 1 - P .
2
Have the electrician do the following:
( 1) Check voltage on all legs of motor and compute average

voltage (V).
(2) Measure amperage on all legs of motor and compute
average ampered (i).
(3) Determine power factor (P.F.) using a clamp-on P.F.
meter, or estimate it after discussion with the electric
power utility.
5.3.4.2 Overall Efficiency
Overall efficiency (also known as wire-to-water efficiency)

of the combined operating performance of the pump, motor, panel,
wiring and controls. If the decrease in Overall Efficiency is much
greater than pump and motor efficiency, there is a need to replace
some component in the control panel or wiring.
...
Overall Plant Efficiency, E, is computed as follows:
(a) Use a stop watch to record the time, t, in seconds, required for
five or more revolutions, R, of the disc on the watt-hour meter.
(b) Record the Disc Constant, K, shown on the face of the watt-
hour meter.
(c) Record the Transformer Ratio, M, shown on the edge of the
disc. (If none is shown, M = 1).
(d) Compute Input Horsepower, IHP as follows:
niP= K x R x 4.83 x M
t
(e) Compute Overall Plant Efficiency
E= Qx TDH
76.15 X IHP
Example: Q = 100 liters per sec.
TDH = 42 meters
Given: K = 120
R = 5 revolutions of disc
t = 104 seconds
M= 3
5-15
IHP = 120 X 5 X 4.83 X 3 - 83.6
104
E = 100 X 42
66.0.%
76.15 X 83.6
NOTE: If no watt-hour meter is available, have an electrician

check V, I and P.F. at main service panel and compute IHP as
follows:
1. 732 X v X I X P.F.
INPUT HP
lOOOx .746
5.4 WELL PUMPS
5.4.1 Construction
Generally, pumps used on deep wells are of the multi-stage, vertical

turbine type. There are two basically different types of construction: the
line shaft type and the submersible type.
5.4.1.1 A submersible pump has the motor mounted next to the bo wls
and is therefore submerged. While it has the advantage of no shaft
loss, it has the disadvantage of not being adjustable and the motor
is less efficient than the above ground type. This type of pump cha-
racteristically operates efficiently at very high heads and is well-
suited to use where lifts are unusually high. A waterproof electric
power cable delivers power to the motor. Great care must be exer-
cised when installing the pump to avoid damaging the cable.
5.4.1.2 Lineshaft Pumps are the most commonly used by water utilities.
In this type, the motor is mounted atop a cast Iron ~7 steel pump
head (commonly referred to by the confusing name, "discharge
head"). The motor is connected to the bowl assembly by a steel
shaft. ...,
Lineshaft pumps are either water-lubricated or oil-lubricated.
(a) WatBr-lubrtcated pumps. (Also known as open shaft pumps).

-
These have rubber shaft bearings mounted in bronze central-
izing rings or spiders. Since at least one bearing will be above
water when the pump is stopped, it is nc:cessary to prelubricate
exposed bearings with the water immediately before starting
up; otherwise, the rubber bearing in contact with a dry shaft
quickly becomes worn. A manual or automatic prelubrication
svstem is provided for this purpose.
5 -16
7~-------+--------~------+-------~-------+--------r-----~~
- SHUTOFF HEA
>-
L)
.~~~---+--------~------+-~~--~------~~~----+-----~~ z
w
-
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L)
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w lJ..
I- w
W5o---
-
2 SAMPLE PR . H ::50 M
I ~ ...... _...,..
30
I.
10 l w
~
<!
a::
CD
o+-------~------~------~~------~------~------~------~0~
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
DISCHARGE ( L/SEC)
TYPICAL PUMP CURVE

(WELL PUMP)
5-17
Water-lubricated pumps are not generally used where
water contains large amounts of sand. Although bearings are
designed to pass small amounts of sand, excessive amounts
could jam into the spaces between the bearings or cause scoring
of shaft; and might cause the shaft to bind, resulting in a broken
shaft, burnt motor, or both.
(b) Oil-lubricated (enclosed sh4ft) pump. In this type of pump, the

lineshaft is surrounded by a watertight steel tubing, or oil tube.
Bearings are usually made of bronze, stainless steel or other
corrosion-resistant material. A mechanical oiler, mounted on
the pump head, automatically adds oil while the pump is
running. In general, oil is added at the rate of 5 drops per minute
for each 100 feet of pump column.
The main disadvantage of the enclosed lineshaft pump is

that oil tubes tend to develop leaks. Oil collects at the water
surface inside the column when the pump is not running, provi-
ding a breeding ground for bacteria. If the amount of oil needed
to keep the oil tube full suddenly increases, the pump should be
pulled and the oil tube repaired.
5.4.2 Pump Installation
5.4.2.1 Cleaning Prior to Installation
(a) Clean all dirt or grease from threads and hardware.

(b) Flush the pump with clear water.
(c) Remove rust spots from machined surfaces with fme emery
cloth or steel wool. Take care that corrosion product, steel
wool, or emery particles are wiped away so they. do 'ftet enter
sleeve bearings or wearing ring clearances. (Do not use wire
brush on machined. surfaces.)
.......
5.4.2.2 Installation
(a) Positioning Lifting Device. Position the crane or derrick with

hook centered over well. Be sure that lifting equipment is on a
firm foundation so that settlement will not take place during
installation of the pump. A steel cable sling, about 1-1/2 meters
in length with a ring at each end, is needed.
(b) Installing Bowl Assembly.
(1) Attach strainer to lower end of suction pipe.
(2) Attach a clamp to upper end of suction pipe and lift with
cable sling until centered over hole.
5-18
(3) Lower suction pipe into well until the clamp rests on the
pump base. Leave clamp in place.
(4) Attach foot-valve, if used, to suction end of pump bowl
assembly.
(5) Attach a second clamp to upper end of bowl assembly
and lift until centered over suction pipe.
(6) Lower bowl assembly and screw onto suction pipe.
(7) Lift bowl assembly slightly, to take weight off lower
clamp, and remove clamp.
(8) Lower bowl assembly until upper clamp rests on pump
base.
(c) Installing Column Assembly
{1) Insert shaft and oil tubing m a length of column pipe,
protruding about 30 em and 20 em, respectively, from the
lower end.
Great care must be exercised to avoia bending the

shaft end due to the great weights and leverage used when
installing.
(2) Screw pipe coupling onto upper end of length of column.
(3) Tie a rope around column pipe, oil tube, and shaft, as
shown in the illustration.
(4) Install clamp on column pipe next to coupling.
{5) Lift column pipe and center over bowl assembly.
(6) Lower slowly until line shaft can be coupled to pump
shaft.
(7) Remove rope from line shaft only, oil shaft threads and
couple to pump shaft by turning counter-clockwtu.
(8) Remove rope and connect oil tube to pump bowl case,
turning counter-clockwtu.
(9) Lower and couple column pipe·t~-bo;l case.
{10) Lift column slightly, to take off weight, and remove clamp
from bowl assembly. Then lower until clamp on column
pipe rests on pump base.
{11) Install an oil tube spacer in column pipe.
{12) Pour a small amount of oil in the oil tube as each section
is installed, to ensure that bearing will be lubricated
when starting up the pump for the first time.
{13) Install line shaft bearing in upper end of oil tube, using a
non-hardening joint compound.
{14) Place small amount of oil on line shaft threads and screw
on a coupling.
{15) Install column spacers (spiders) at intervals as recom-
mended by the pump manufacturer, usually ten meters.
5-19
PUMP PERFORMANCE RECORD
PUMP LOCATION/DESIGNATION
DATE INSTALLED
PUMP DATA :
MANUFACTURER SERIAL NO.
HORSEPOWER CAffiCITY HEAD
BOWL DEPTH NO. STAGES COLUMN PIA.
MOTOR DATA :
MANUFACTURER
HORSEPOWER RATED VOLTAGE RATED CURRENT
SERVICE FACTOR INSULATION CLASS TEMP. RISE

.......
( FRON T )
PERFORMANCE CHECK HISTORY
COMPUTED
CHECKED DISCHARGE TDH SHUTOFF POWER EFFICIENCIES
DATE BY (L/SEC) (M) HEAD(M) VOLTS AMPS FACTOR PUMP OVERALL
- - - - - - - __ ___,
- -- -- -- --- - - ----
- --- ----
- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
- -- - - - - - - - - - -- - -
--- - - - - -- - - - ----
--- -- -- --- -- ----
- -- ---- --- -- ----
--- -- -- --- - - ----
- - - - - -- --- -- ----
- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
REMARKS :_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __
(BACK~
5-20
SOLE PLATE - - - - - -
ANCHOR NUT
CONCRETE PUMP BASE
ANCHOR BOLT
.. 4 .
\ ...... ...
· 4 I .
. . . ..
.
. : .. I
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b. .
.
.' ...
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.• 6
,.
. - . '4 .
_-,._- :-~· : · ~
. 4 · . .... ' :
COLUMN PIPE
COLUMN COUPL lNG
~--WELL CASING
PUMP BOWLS
TURBINE TYPE
WELL AJMP
---SUCTION BELL
5-21
I
r
-
DISHARGE ELBOW
. .
/; o A
• (J • • I
.A • I . b ~ /i - CONDUIT FROM CONTROL

. o ~> · . ·1 1 PANEL
~ • I I
. > . 0 ~
l L.____ -
.'COLUMN PIPE ...,
OLUMN COLLAR
WELL CASING
~;~t-----~UCTION STRAINER
--
A SUBMERSIBLE PUMP
-
I
5-22
06) Repeat steps (4) through (15) until the entire pump bowl
and column assembly is in place.
( 1 7) Connect top shaft to line shaft.
(18) Connect top shaft oil tube to line shaft oil tube.
(d) Open Shaft Pump
( 1) Insert length of line shaft in length of column pipe lying
horizontally on skids, protruding about 30 em from the
lower end.
(2) Screw pipe coupling onto upper end of length of column
p1pe.
(3) Tie a rope around column pipe and shaft as shown in
the illustration.
(4) Install clamp on column pipe next to coupling.
{5) Lift column pipe and center over bowl assembly, taking
care to avoid bending the shaft end due to the great weights
and leverage involved.
(6) Lower slowly until line shaft can be coupled to pump
shaft.
(7) Remove rope from shaft, oil the threads and couple to
pump shaft by turning counter-clockwtse.
(8) Lower column pipe and connect to bowl assembly,
turning-clockwtse.
(9) Lift column pipe slightly to take weight off lower clamp
and remove clamp from bowl assembly. Then lower until
clamp or column rests on pump base.
( 1 0) Insert bearing bracket over lineshaft and screw into column
pipe coupling, down to top end of column pipe.
{11) Install shaft coupling on end of line shaft. Make sure that
end of shaft is exactly half-way through the coupling.
(12) Report steps (1) through (11) until the entire bowl and
column assembly is in place.
(e) Installing Pump Head
( 1)Install sole plate on concrete pump base. Level by adjust-
ment of anchor bolt nuts and shims on under side of
plate. Make sure that it is not binding the column or pump
against the casing. Do not tighten nuts on top.
(2) Invert pump head and connect flanged top column pipe
to pump head flange, making sure tha': the gasket is
centered.
(3) Attach cable sling to lifting hooks on sides of pump head,
center over well and lower onto column pipe.
{4) Rotate pump head clockwise to screw column pipe into
column coupling.
(5) Lift slightly to take weight off column pipe clamp, remove
clamp and rotate pump head until pump discharge points
in the desired direction.
5-23
-
(6) Lower pump head carefully guiding bolt holes in base of
pump head onto sole plate bolts.
(7) Screw anchoring nuts onto sole plate bolts, using flat
washers and double nuts.
(8) Insert o-ring packing in stuffing box, slide over shaft
and oil tube (if used) and bolt finger-tight, to pump head.
(9) Install water slinger, if used.
5.5 BOOSTER PUMPS
5.5.1 Construction
There are a large number of different types of centrifugal turbine booster

pumps; however, they nearly always fall into one of three categories:
* Can-type (vertical mounting)
* Close-coupled horizontal
* Split-case horizontal
5.5.1.1 Can-type. The can-type booster pump is usually a vertical turbine,
multi-stage pump similar to a lineshaft type well pump. It is mounted
inside a vertical length of pipe, closed at one end (i.e., a "can" with
an inlet near the top).
Installation and maintenance is the same as for the lineshaft

well pump. They generally have only one length of shaft, and there-
fore do not have a shaft-bearing lubrication system.
5.5.1.2 Close-Coupled horizontal. The dose-coupled booster pump is manu-

factured as a complete unit containing the pump and motor in a
common casing. They are generally used for small flows. Construction
varies from one manufacturer to the next. They are extremely simple
to install. The manufacturer's instruction booklet.on .Qperation and
maintenance should be consulted for specific details.
5.5.1.3 Split-case horizontai. This is probably the type of pump most
widely used in water supply booster pumping. The pump and elec·
trical motor are usually coupled shaft. When driven by an engine, the
pump and engine are mounted on separate bases linked by a drive
shaft with two or. more Oexible couplings, in which case pump and
engine should be parallel but offset slightly.
The upper half of the pump casing can be removed to permit

the impeller to be inspected and removed; hence the name, "split-
case". They are generally, but not always, single stage pumps.
The following paragraphs give instruction on installation and

maintenance of split-case pumps. The part of this section dealing
with lineshaft well pumps should be consulted for can-type pumps,
and the manufacturer's instruction for dose-coupled pumps.
5·24
-
r-
WELL PUMP INSTALLATION
.. . - ---
5-25
5.5.2 Pump Installation
5.5.2.1 Installing Foundation. If a new pump is being installed, a concrete

foundation must be constructed for the pump and driver. If the driver
is an electric motor, the pump and motor will have a common
foundation; if an engine, it is best to install separate foundations.
Foundations should be large enough to weigh at least twice the

weight of the equipment . to be mounted (concrete weighs 2400 kg
per cubic meter).
Steel reinforcement should consist of 9 mm steel bars placed

no more than 35 em apart in all directions, both horizontally and
vertically. Also, every bar should he covered by at least 25 mm of
concrete. No ends of bars should protrude out of concrete.
The top surface of the foundation should slope slightly away

from the center to ensure that any water will drain away from the
pump base. The formulation for concrete used in making foun-
dations is as follows:
* One part Portland Cement
* Three parts clean coarse sand
* Four parts crushed rock, 15-25 mm
* Sufficient water to make a workable mix
Before pouring concrete, place anchor bolts using a template
frame (see illustration). Allow for 3-4 em of grout under pump base.
5.5.2.2 Mounting Pump. If the pump and motor are mounted on a common
base, disconnect the shaft coupling.
·• -...JII;.
(a) Screw one nut and large flat-washer on each foundation bolt.
(Thes~ will be used for adjusting the pump base.) Screw down
until enough of the bolt threads protrude above to accommodate
the pump base and top nuts.
(b) Set the pumping unit on the adjusting nuts. Do not lift the
pumping unit by brackets or by lifting bolts on the pump casing;
using slings under the base plate.
(c) Adjust the levelling nuts to align the pump flanges with the
suction and discharge piping and to level the base plate.
(d) Install nuts and washers on foundation bolts and screw down
snug but not tight.
(e) If the driver is separate from the pump, install on its own foun-
dation using a procedure similar to the one above; but including
vibration dampeners as furnished or recommended by the
manufacturer of the driver.
5-26
(f) Align the shafts of the pump and driver. Test for alignment by
laying a straight-edge across the coupling halves, rotating the
shafts 90° at a time, and checking alignment at each position.
(If not perfectly aligned, the shaft will be placed under stress
when coupled together. This will cause excessive vibration and
probable bearing and shaft failure after a short time.)
(g) If shafts are not in perfect alignment, correct by driving wedges
under the base, tapping lightly with a hammer.
(h) Recheck to see that base plate is level, shafts perfectly aligned,
and pump flanges in line with piping flanges.
(i) Tighten down nuts at top of foundation bolts, and recheck
alignments and levelling.
U) Bolt the shaft couplings together. Clearance between coupling
halves must not exceed the manufacturer's recommendations.
If the driver is an engine, the shaft will probably have

flexible couplings. Refer to manufacturer's instructions.
(k) After a pumping unit (pump and driver) has been properly
aligned it is suggested that steel taper pins be installed through
the feet of the units into the base plate.
In this way the equipment can be uncoupled and removed

for major maintenance and reinstalled without the time con-
suming procedure of realignment. It is only necessary to keep
the shims as they were placed during the initial installation.
When the equipment is replaced on the base plate, the

taper pins are set in their tapered holes and tapped home. Next,
the hold-down bolts are made tight.
fhe equipment should be in the same alignment as before

removal if the shims have not been removed from their original
location to another. However, the correct alignment should be
proved by a thorough check before and after the first period of
operation.
Any mechanic with the proper tools, a drill and taper

reamer can make the tapered holes. The taper pins must have
threads and a nut on the larger (upper} end to facilitate removal.
They should be lubricated before installation.
5-27
INSTALLING SHAFT 8
PROOUCTION · Pi'PE
......,
5-28
...
INSTALLING SHAFT 8
PROOUCTION · ptpE
5-28
- --
INSTALLING WELL PUMP
DISCHARGE HEAD
I - 5-29
5.6 PUMP DRIVERS
5.6.1 Electrical Motors
5.6.1.1 General. The basic principles of operation of electric motors are

discussed in Section 11, "Electrical Equipment".
(a) Mounting Vertical Well Pump Motors
( 1) Remove top shell.

(2) Remove clutch and/or non-reversing ratchet.
(3) Lift motor by lifting hooks, using cable sling, and center
over pump top shaft.
(4) Lower motor over pump top shaft, making sure that bolt
holes in motor and pump ahead are lined up perfectly.
(5) Install bolts, with weight of motor taken up by hoist,
screwing nuts on with the fmgers Qnly.
(6) Lower motor completely and remove sling.
(7) Check that top shaft is in center of motor hollow shaft.
... If not, adjust sole plate (if used) or place shims under
discharge head.
(8) Tighten bolts.
(9) Connect pump discharge to discharge piping.
( 10) Make electrical connections.
(11) "Bump" motor by quickly operating the start switch on-
and-off, checking to see that rotation is in the right direct-
ion. If not, rearrange electrical connections as appropriate.
(12) Install motor clutch and/or non-reverse ratchet (if used).
(13) Connect pump shaft coupling.
(14) Install adjusting nut on t~p shaft and tight-eR< down to
raise motor shaft until pump turns freely.
(15) Adjust impellers as follows:
(i) Continue to tighten adjusting nut, counting number
of turns, until motor cannot be turned by hand.
(ii) Loosen half way by backing off one-half the number
of turns counted in step (i).
(iii) Start the pump, operating at normal discharge pres-
sure.
(iv) Have electrician check motor amperage.
(v) Stop pump and back off adjusting nut one-half
turn.
(vi) Repeat steps (iii)-(v) until amperage shows a large
change.
(vii) Tighten one-half turn.
(16) Install top shell of motor.
5-30
(b) Mounting Horizontal Booster Pump Motors
(1) Mount motor on foundation, align and level as explained

in instruction for mounting of booster pumps. (5.5.2)
(2) Connect pump discharge and suction to yard piping.
Check alignment again which may have been distributed
by piping connections.
(3) Make electrical connections.
(4) "Bump" motor by quick operating the start switch, ON·
0 FF, checking to see that rotation is in the right direction.
If not, rearrange electrical connections as appropriate.
(5: Connect pump coupling.
5.6.2 Right Angel Drives
The right angle drive is used to change the direction of a pump shaft by
90 degrees. It is usually mounted on a vertical-shaft pump driven by a horizontal·
shaft driver. A typical example is where a well pump is driven by a diesel or
gasoline engine.
5.6.2.1 Mounting
(a) Remove clutch and/or non-reverse ratchet.

(b) Attach sling to lifting hooks, lift until centered over shaft
pump head.
(c) Lower right angle drive onto pump head, making sure that the
bottom flange bolt holes are perfectly aligned with holes in
pump head, and that horizontal shaft is pointed toward engine.
(d) Install bolts with weight of right angle drive taken up by hoist,
screwing nuts on \\--ith the fingers only_.
(e) Check that top shaft is in center of right angle drive. If not,
instalfshims as needed under the pump discharge head flanges.
(f) Tighten bolts.
(g) Connect pump discharge to rlischarge piping.
(h) Install clutch and non-reverse ratchet, if used.
(i) Adjust bowl settings as explained in electric motor installation
procedure.
5.6.3 Engines (Diesel or Gasoline)
See Section 9, "l\liscellaneous Mechanical Equipment".
5-31
: • I I •- I
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.,.. 'i FOUNDATION FOUNDATION

TEMPLATE BOLT WITH
WASHER
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II I I Q
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(11 PUMP OR
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MOTOR
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2" IRON PIPE SLEEVE I I · ,<. ..1 .. ,.

:b
. l> h· t. CONCRETE
FOUNDATION BOLT
NUT AND WASHER
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ANCHOR BOLT 0 b
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FORM FOR
CONCRETE
0 of
FOUNDATION BOLT LOCATION AND ANCHORAGE
I . J J
PUMP AND DRIVE UNIT ALIGNMENT
MEASURING ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT MEASURING VERTICAL MISALIGNMENT

AT TOP AND BOTTOM OF COUPLING AT COUPLING HALVES
MEASURING ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT MEASURING HORIZONTttl"'MISALIGNMENT

AT StDES OF COUPLING AT COUPLING HALVES
5-33
5.7 COMPLETING INSTALLATION & START-UP
5.7.1 Grouting Pump Base
The main reason for grouting the pump base is to provide a permanent,
uniform bearing surface so that, once levelled and grouted, the alignment
and levelling of the pump base will not be affected by vibration.
In the case of a well pump installation, the grout serves an important

secondary purpose - preventing entry of surface water, insects, rodents and
debris into the well.
(1) Check the levelness of the sole plate (of well pump) or pump base frame
by placing a carpenter's level in various positions. Minor adjustments
can be made by loosening the foundation nuts as required on the under-
side and tightening those on top.
(2) Mix 10-15 liters of grout, depending on the pump size, in the following
proportions:
* One part Portland Cement

* One part non-shrinking cement (sometimes known as Embeco Cement)
* One part coarse, clean sand
* One part 6 mm pea gravel
* Sufficient water to make a stiff but workable mix
(3) Wet the surface of the pump foundation thoroughly, removing standing
water just before grouting.
(4) If a well pump , work the grout under the sole plate as far as possible
without pushing any into the well. Slope grout layer outward and down-
ward from the edge of the sole plate at an angle of 45 degrees, and trowel
smooth.
(5) If a booster pump, construct a wooden form about 10 em wider than the
pump base (i.e., so that "the base will be about 5 em back from the edge
of grout). Pour in grout, and rod with stick or steel bar to ensure all space
under the pump base is filled. Trowel edges smooth and round off the top
edges.
5.7.2 Pre-Starting Check
(1) Check lubrication of pump driver to see that all parts are greased as
instructed by the manufacturer and that oil reservoirs are filled to the
correct levels with the proper grade and weight of lubricating oil.
(2) Check well pump shaft lubrication systems.
(3) If the pump is equipped with packing, be sure that the packing gland is
not too tight.
(4) Tighten all anchoring nuts and connecting bolts.
5-34
(5) If booster pump, bleed all air from the pump and piping by opening
the pet cock on top of the pump casing and opening the valves on the
discharge and suction piping. When no more air comes out of petcock
close it.
(6) Recheck alignment and levelling of pump and driver.
(7) Check driver rotation and correct if necessary.
(8) Tum pump sha~t by hand to see that it rotates freely with no binding
or drag.
(9) Close the discharge valve and open the suction valve.
5.7 .3 Starting
(1) If pump is equipped with water lubrication system start pre-lubrication

four minutes before starting pump.
(2) Close the pump start switch.
(3) If the driver does not start immediately (or upon tripping of a time
delay switch) tum off and consult "trouble shooting" chart in this section.
Do not continue or repeat until problem is determined, and corrected.
(4) If vibration is excessive, shut down immediately and consult trouble-
shooting chart.
( 5) Gradually open the valve on the discharge piping until fully open.
(6) Tighten packing gland slowly until a small trickle of water - about one
drop per second - is passing through the packing, do not shutoff all flow
through the packing. (A small flow is necessary for lubrication of the
packing material.) If a water-lubricated pump, it will be necessary to
readjust the packing gland frequently for a few days, until the packing is
completely "set" around the shaft and gland wall.
(7) Readjust impeller settings (well pump only). After the pump has run for
a few minutes, rotation of the shaft will cause shaft joints to tighten and
the shaft to shorten.
(8) Observe operation closely for several minute_~·- fr~qpently checking for
high temperatures, excess vibration or unusual noise. If any develops,
stop the pump and consult the trouble-shooting chart.
(9) During the same period, check pump and motor performance as explained
earlier in this section. Compare with manufacturer's performance curve.
If efficiency is more than three percent below that shown on the pump
curve, check the trouble shooting chart.
5.8 MAINTENANCE OF PUMPS, GENERAL
5.8.1 Trouble Shooting
The trouble-shooting chart gives the more common causes of malfuctions

of pumping equipment. Before undertaking any ~ajar steps, such as pulling
a pump, it is a good idea to check with the :manufacturer to be sure that the
malfunction is not a' result of some minor maladjustment commonly occuring
in this particular pie~e of equipment.
5-35
.....
--
..__-
--
... .. -
~
--
\.
5-36
The following maintenance measure should be carried out at the intervals

shown. This schedule is based on average conditions, and may be adjusted
to suit actual operating conditions. For ~xample, if water is corrosive, the
climate is particularly extreme, there is sand in the water, there are frequent
electric power supply failures, or other unusual condition exist, the routine
maintenance measures should be done more often.
5.8.2.1 Every Day
(a) Check pump meter reading if so equipped and pressure. Record

in pumping log.
(b) Check bearing cases and motors with the fist of the hand for
unusual heating.
(c) Check lubricant levels and operation of water lubricating systems.
(d) Check packing for too much or too little flow-through.
(e) Inspect and repair protective coatings.
5.8.2.2 Every Months
(a) Check bearing temperatures with thermometer. If running hot,

check for too much or too little lubricant, and check shaft
.. alignment .
(b) Check motor bearing lubrication.
5.8.2.3 Every Three Months
(a} Drain lubricants, wash out lubricant reservoirs with kerosene,
turers. -
and replace with lubricant as recommended by the manufac-
(b) Check bearings for wear (clearance should not exceed 0.06 mm).
5.8.2.4 Every Six Months
(a) Replace packing material, using packing material recommended

by the pump manufacturer.
(b) Check shaft sleeves for scoring under packing and replace as
necessary.
(c) Check alignment of pump and motor shafts. Adjust by use of
shims if necessary.
(d) Check piping support for solid bearing on pipe.
5.8.2.5 Every Year

I
(a) Ca.rrr out pump performance checks.
5-37
--
_ ,
5.8.3 Unscheduled Maintenance
If annual performance tests reveal that pumping units are operating

at substandard efficiencies, the pump should be pulled, inspected and repaired
or reconditioned.
(a) Remove and inspect impellers for wear, corrosion or damage.

(b) Remove any mineral deposits or scale in water passages and impeller
surfaces.
(c) Clean out water lubrication system piping.
(d) Check all bearings and shaft surfaces for excess1ve wear or corrosiOn.
Reverse lineshaft sections if bearing surfaces are scored.
'--.
5.9 RECORD KEEPING
5.9.1 General
Keeping of adequate records of performance is an integral part of good

utility plant operation. Only by keeping clear and intelligent records of what
has happened and what has been accomplished will past experience be useful
in making future decisions.
5.9.2 Pumping Station Data
The essential data concerning pumpmg equipment should be recorded

when initially installed and when any changes are made thereafter. A separate
data sheet is completed for each pumping unit and filed according to unit
location.
5.9.3 Pump Log .. 4 - - - -......11:.
Each day an entry is made on the pump log indicating the hour a pump
is started and stopped. Total hours running time are summarized monthly and
compared with electric and fuel consumption to determine optimum opera-
tions. Figure 5-18 illustrates the monthly pump log suitable for recording times
of five pumping units.
5.9.4 Production Summary
Monthly production in million cubic meters for each source of supply is

recorded on the annual Production Summary sheet. The data will be used for
economic analysis, comparison of previous projections and t4e basis for calcu-
lating the needs of the utility in future projections.
5-38
As of------------------- -
PUMPING STATION DATA
PRODUCTION WELL NO. - - - - - -- - - --------------,OR

BOOSTERNO.- ----~------------------------
PUMP'DATA:
MANUFACTURER- - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- -------TYPE - - - - -- - - - - - -
(Horizontal or Vertical)
MANUFACTURERS DESIGNATION-------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -
(Model No .)
RATED GPM - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - --AT--------- - - -FT. HEAD

IMPELLERNUMBER- - - - - - - - - -- - --TYPE--------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(Open or Closed)
IMPELLER DIAMETER - - -- -- - - - -- - -- - - - - - - -
NUMBEROF STAGES - - - - - -- - - - - - -- -- - - - - - -
OUTSIDE DIAMETER BOWLS- - -- - - - - - - -- -- -- -
INLET SIZE-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --OUTLET SIZE- - - -- -- - - -- -- - - -
DRIVER DATA:
ELECTRIC:
MANUFACTURER- - - - -- -- - - - -TYPE- -- - ----SERIAL NO.- - - - - -
RPM----- - --VOLTS- - -- -- - --AMPS- - - - - - --FRAMENO. - - - - - -
PHASE :- - - - - -- - H.P.------- - - - -- -POWER FACTOR- -- - -- - - - - -
ENGINE (DIESEL OR GASOLINE)
MANUFACTURER-------------------MODEL---~-----------
..... .. ..
RATED HP---- - - - - - - - - - - --NO. 0 F CYLINDERS- - - - - - - - - -- - - - -
BORE----- - -- - - - -STROKE- - - -- - - - -- -NORMAL RPM- - - - - - - - -
ANGLE DRIVE
MANUFACTURER- - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - -- - - --SERIAL :NO.- - - - - -- - -
MODEL------- - - -- - - - -- -- - - -- - - -- - - - -RAT IO- - - - - - - -- - -
NUMBER OF GEAR TEETH:
INPUT - - - - - - - - -- - -
OUTPUT---- - - - -- --
5-39
5.9.5 Production Cost Analysis
Analysis of pumping costs will play a large part in determining which

pumps to operate and when to operate them. Cost analysis of this type becomes
essential data for determining future rate strategies through ·cash flow project·
ions.
TROUBLE-SHOOTING CHART
For Turbine pumps
P R 0 8 L E M POSSIBLE C AU S E
Pump Does not Start 1. Low voltage supplied to electric motor.

2. Electrical circuit not completed.
3. Pump shaft bin~g in bearings or packing.
4. Improper setting of impeller(s).
5. Foreign matter in bowl( s).
Motor overloaded 1. Low voltage supplied to pump motor.

;::::=:::> ~
2. Pump shaft binding in bearings of packing.
3. Improper impeller setting.
4. Suction blocked, suction valve closed.
5. Foot valve installed upside-down.
6. Packing tightened too much.
7. Discharge pressure too low.
Motor runs but pump does not 1. Low pump speed caused by low voltage
deliver water or discharge is low. or frequency.
2. Incorrect direction of rotation.
3: Total head greater than design head.
4. Downstream valve closed.
5. Pump not primed.
6. Ruptured diaphragm (in diaphragm pump).
7. Foreign matter in bowl(s).
8. Valves and/or seats of piston pump need
repair to stop blow-by.
9. Packing of inside packed piston pump need
to be replaced.
10. Suction blocked.
11. Broken shaft.
12. Loose impeller.
5-40
TROUBLE-SHOOTING CHART
For Turbine Pumps
P RO B L E M POS SIBLE C A US E
Pump operates noisily or 1. Wom bearings.

vibrate
__ excessive!~
_ ,.
2. Bent or misalined shaft.
3. Loose foundation bolts.
4. Impeller corroded or partially clogged,
resulting in unbalanced rotation.
5. Air or vapor entering suction.
6. Unbalanced rotor in motor.
I
7. Bent impeller.
8. Pump is cavitating.
Excessive wear 1. Sand in water.

2. Vibration not corrected.
3. Malfunctioning of pump lubrication system
(water pre-lubrication or oiler)
4 . Packing too tight on open lineshaft pump.
5. Cavitation m bowl(s) due to inadequate
suction pressure or partial blockage of inlet.
t
Motor runs hot 1. Inadequate ventilation.
2. Motor overloaded.
3. Unbalanced voltage.
Motor stops; can be restarted 1. Thermal overloads cut out due to overloading
after a few minutes of motor. ·· - - _ ...,..
2. Pump room temperature too high.
3. Buildup of scale in chemical solution pump
discharge piping.
4. Starter panel vents blocked.
5. Motor ventilation ports blocked.
5-41
MONTHLY
PUMPING FACILITIES
MONTH OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 ... . . . .. . .
LOCATION/DESIGNATION ..... . ..... . ..... .... .. .. . ... .. .. . . .. . . . ..... . . . .
NAME OF OPERATOR . . ...... . .... . . . .. .. ..... .. .. . . . DATE . . . . .. . .. . . .. • .
Check off work completed, explain any "NO" answers under "Remarks"
CHECK ONE
SUBSECTION WORK ITEM YES NO
5.8.2.2 Monthly Routine Maintenance: /
5.8.2.2(a) Bearings checked with thermometer? 0 0
5.8.2.2(b) Bearing lubrication checked? 0 0
5.8.2.2(c) Checked motor casing temperature with thermometer? 0 0
5.8 .2.1 Daily Routine Maintenance:
During the past month, have the following been done

everyday? 0 0
5.8.2.1(a) Checked pumping rates and discharge pressure and I

recorded them in the pumping log? 0 0
5.8.2.1(b} Checked bearing cases and motors with the flat of the
hand for unusual heating? 0 0
-· ~ -- -.-.:.
5.8.2.1(c) Checked lubricant levels in motor and pump prelubrication

system? 0 0
5.8.2.1(d) Checked packing for proper flow-through? 0 0
5.8.2.1(e) Inspected protective coati!lgs and touched up as

required? 0 0
5.8.2.3(a) Lubricant drained and lubricant flushed with kerosene? 0 0
5.8.2.3( a) Lubricant reservoirs refilled v:ith new lubricant as recom-

mended by manufacturer of equipment? 0 0
5.8.2.3(b) Bearing clearance checked for wear? 0 0
5-42
SEMI-ANNUAL
PUMPING FACILITIES
Date .... ,................... .
LOCATION/DESIGNATION ................................................ .
NAME OF OPERATOR ............... 0..... 0... 0 0. 0 0...................... .
Check off work completed. Explain any "NO" answer under "Remarks"
SUBSECTION WORK ITEM CHECk ONE

YES NO
5.8.2.4 (a) Packing material replaced? 0 0
5.8.2.4 (a) New packing material as recommended by the pump

manufacturer? 0 0
5.8.2.4 (b) Shaft sleeves checked for scoring under packing? ' 0 0
5·.802.4 (c) Alinement of pump and motor shafts checked? 0 0
5.8.2.4 (d) Piping supports checked and adjusted. I 0 0
•1 . . . . _ ...,.
0- : 4 I • I} ' I L
5-43
ANNUAL
PUMPING FACILITIES
LOCATION/DESIGNATION ............... .......... ... . .. . . . _.............. .
NAME OF OPERATOR . . .. ..... .. .... . . ........... ..... . ..... . .. .... ... .. . .
Check off work completed. Explain any "NO" answers under " Remarks".
CHECK ONE
5.3.4 Pump Performance Check:
5.3.4.1 Performance Satisfactory? 0 0
5.3.4.1 Performance Test Data Sheet properly filled out? 0 0
5.3.4.1 Discharge and pressure_check at two points either side

of normal operating? 0 0
5.3.4.1(a) Accurate flow-meter used to measure discharge? (If

"NO", show method used under "Remarks".) 0 0
5.3.4.1(b) Accurate pressure gage used to measure discharge

pressure? 0 D
5.3.4.1( c) Suction head accurately determined? (State how under
"Remarks".) 0 0
5.3.4.1(e) Voltage, Current, Power Factor determined by electrician?
(Give electrician 's name under "Remarks".) 0 0
.... - -~
5.3.4.2 Computed efficiency of pumping unit at normal operating

conditions? 0 0
5.3.4.3 Computed wire-to-water (overall) efficiency at normal
operating conditions? 0 0
5.8.2 Routine Maintenance: 0 D
Was all routine maintenance carried out during the past

year? 0 0
5-44
REMARKS: ................ . .................... . ..................... .
5-45
SECTION 6: STORAGE FACILITIES
~ .. . -
.
--=:.&..
OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE MANUAL
SECTION 6: STORAGE FACILITIES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
~
SUBJECT PAGE
SUBSECTION
TYPES OF RESERVOIRS 6-1

6.1
RESERVOIR CONSTRUCTION 6-4

6.2
RESERVOIR OPERATION 6-4

6.3
6.4 RESERVOIR MAINTENANCE 6-8

.... .. _ . . .,.
- - ~--------------------------------l·
6.1 TYPES OF RESERVOIRS
The word reservoir, as used in this section applied to storage of water for any
use. Although the emphasis is on storage of water for later consumption by the public,
most of the information that follows can be applied as well to such types of reservoirs
as the following:
* Filter tanks and basins

* Contact tanks
* Sedimentation basins
* Receiving tanks
Reservoirs used for storage of water supplies for later consumption fall into three
general types: (1) Regulating (2) Pure storage, and (3) Regulating/Storage.
6.1 .1 Regulating Reservoirs
Regulating reservoirs serve the following general purposes:
* To even-out demands during the day; filling when demand is low, and
emptying when demand is high.
* To maintain desired pressure in a distribution system.
* To provide a limited en:ergency reserve for fire fighting.
* To prevent interruption of supply during pump outages because of
electric power failure, mechanical breakdown, etc.
* To permit routine scheduling of pump operation.
Regulating reservoirs are usually small ; storing an amount of water
equivalent to only a few hours demand; typically 4-6 hours.
\1\Tben the terrain of the service area is flat , regulating storage is provided in
elevated tanks. When terrain is favorable, regulating sto'tagemay be in the form
of a buried or surface rt:servoir constructed at an appropriate height on a hill.
Regulating reservoirs are not often connected directly to the water source
by a transmission main, but "float" on the distribution system in the following
way:
Water is pumped directly from the source into the distribution system at
a1 more-or-less constant rate. The regulating reservoir is also connected directly
to the distribution system. When demand is below the pump capacity, the
excess water pumped into the system finds its way into the reservoir. 'When
demand is greater than pump capacity, water flows out of the reservoir to
make up the deficit.
Usually the reservpir is completely filled by about midnight, and pumps

are stopped. (On days· of very high demand, however, pumps might operate
24 hours a day) . Duri11g the night, when consumption is very low, all water
6-1
demands are met by gravity flow from the reservoir. Early in the mormng,
say, around 5:00 or 6:00 AM, pumps are again started while demand is still
low, and the reservoir is filled (or nearly filled) by the time demand rises past
the pump capacity. Sometimes, additional pumps are operated during the
parts of the day when consumption is at its peak, in order to avoid completely
emptying the reservoirs.
Water demand patterns in a given service area may change considerably

from season-to-season but are fairly predictable from day to day. Therefore,
pump operation schedules can be established with pumps being started and
stopped at given, fixed times of day. Pumping schedules are adjusted a few (
times each year, as general climatic changes occur. The pumping schedules
for a given service area are determined by water consumption habits of the
population and by tpe regulating storage capacity available. Therefore, pump-
ing schedules must be set up by each utility on the basis of its own experi-
mentation and experience.
';(ypically, some kind of automatic control device is provided to start

and stop pumps. (Control Devices are discussed in detail in Section 10, "Elec-
trical Equipmenf?.)
i.1.2 Pure Stgrage Reservoirs .,~
Pure storage reservoirs are used to store water as it becomes available;

releasing it when water supply sources are not adequate to meet all daily needs.
The most common example is collection and storage of water behind a dam
during rainy periods; then gradual release of water to meet needs during dry
_:periods.
Operation of pure storage reservoirs is normally manual, .w.i.th water

being released at rates which vary slightly from day-to-day. Filling is, of course,
largely uncontrolled since it depends on rainfall. Typically, a dam is located
on a river or stream, and normal stream flow is allowed to overflow when the
reservoir is full.
i.1.3 Regulating/Storage Reservoirs
As the name implies, there are reservoirs that serve both purposes: regula-
tion and storage. One common example is the clear well of a water treatment
plant, where treated water is produced at a steady, round-the-dock rate and
stored until needed. Booster pumps then operate to transfer water into the
distribution system at a higher rate for fixed daily periods, b;ased on demands
and regulating storage reservoir filling requirements.
6 -2
60
55
50 -
(;)
.. ~
A. ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~
~
FR.OM ~
~ r\'~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ 1
45 <(
0 ~ ~ rr~~A~E~
~- ~
_,t<
KD ~ 0-: ~'\r--...'\ ~
~
40 IL.
~'""'""'
r-.."\.."\ [\."\;~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~
~ ~~~ ~~
35
~ ~/ \~PUMP CAPACITY= 36 M3 /HR.
f- PUMPING
1/ TO
~ t/. ~
30
~
0 STORAGE
25 ~ £ DEMAND CURVE ~ ~
20
~
C>
z ~
0..
0 :::E
15 I-- z<( "::>
0..
:::E
10 I - - I.IJ
0
5 - 0
.....
..... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .....
J:
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
- 0 0 8o;t 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 J:
z0 -0
r<> o;t It) It> 1'- <X) C1l 0 t\J r<> It) It> 1'- <X) C1l 0 t\J r<> C>
C> t\J
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - - - - - - - t\J t\J t\J t\J z
-
0
:::E ~
TIME OF DAY
-
EXAMPLE!
AT POINT 0 (
3
PUMP CAPACITY = 36 M /HR.
3
-DEMAND = 20 M /HR.
TO STORAGE = I 6 M3/ HR.
AT POINT 0 PUMP CAPACITY = DEMAND;

THEREFORE NO CHANGE IN STORAGE
AT POINT 0 PUMP CAPACITY = 36 M3 /HR.

3
........ - _...._
-DEMAND = 5<0 M /HR.
FROM STORAGE 3
= 14 M / HR.
AT POINT 8 PUMP CAPACITY = 36 M / HR.

3
3
-DEMAND = 40 M / HR.
3
FROM STORAGE = 4 M / HR.
AT POINT 0 PUMP CAPACITY

3
= 36 M / HR.
3
.,DEMAND = 20 M / HR.
3
TO STORAGE = 16 M / HR
6-3
Regulating/storage also serves two important secondary purposes: (1)
providing chlorine contact time to ensure that all micro-organisms are killed
before water is released to the public, and (2) in the case where wells pump
into the reservoir, allowing time for sand to settle out.
6.2 RESERVOIR CONSTRUCTION
Reservoirs are described according to their position relative to the ground surface,
and also according to their method of construction.
Locations
Buried (roof below ground)
Excavated (roof at ground level)
Surface (bottom at ground level)
Elevated (bottom above ground level)
Method of Construction
Prefabricated steel, bolted riveted or welded
Earth fill
Excavated fill
Combination of the above
Obviously, there are a great number of possible combinations of the above.

However, this section is mainly concerned with only four of these:
* Elevated tanks, steel or concrete

* Surface storage, or standpipes, steel or concrete
* Excavated, usually concrete, with a concrete or steel roof
* Buried, concrete
Since - as pointed out in another section of this manual -corrosion is the number
one enemy of the water utility, emphasis is pl aced on maintenance olsteel reservoirs.
6.3 RESERVOIR OPERATION
6.3.1 Terminology
The operator should be familiar with the following terms, used m any
discussion of reservoir operation:
6.3.1.1 Low Water Level. The elevation of the water surface (relative to sea
level) when the level control device signals the pumps to start.
6.3.1.2 Maximum Water Level.. The highest possible elevation of the water
surface, i.e ., the level of the overflow.
6-4
6.3.1.3 High Water Level. The elevation of the water surface when the level
control device signals the stopping of pumps; usually 15-20 em below
the r:naximum water level.
6.3.1.4 Tide Zone. The area of the reservoir walls lying between the high and
low water levels. Being alternately submerged and exposed to the air
as the water level rises and fails, it is the area of the tank most likely
to become corroded.
6.3.1.5 Effective Capacity. The usable volume of water in the reservoir, ex-
pressed in cubic meter, when full to the high water level.
6.3.2 Operation
Reservoir operation requirements vary from one system to the next

depending on, among other things: reservoir capacity, type of controls, cli-
mate, pumping capacity and demand variation patterns. Therefore, operational
::- practices must be established by each utility, based on its own conditions.
However, certain objectives are essential to efficient use of equipment and
satisfactory water service to the public.
6.3.2.1 Circulation of Water in Storage. It is possible for stagnant water to

accumulate in areas of reservoir ("dead spots") by-passed by normal
inflow and outflow. For example, when demands are low enough
that there is little variation in reservoir levels, inflowing water may
not travel far beyond the inlet/outlet pipe before it flows out again
/
to meet demand. Meanwhile, there may be no movement of water
in the upper part of the reservoir. Another example occurs when the
reservoir has separate inlet/outlet pipes. The flow pattern between
them may be such that water does not circulate in large areas of the
. . --- _......,.
reservoir.
Little can be done to correct poor circulation patterns, short of

stmctural or piping changes. For that reason, it is a good idea to
draw down reservoir levels at least once each month during slack
demand seasons. This is done, not by dratntng water to waste, but
by interrupting pumping long enough to allow consumption to dep-
lete the water in storage to about 25 percent of the reservoir capa-
city at a time when it can be done without running out of water
completely.
6.3.2.2 Maintaining Emerqency Storage. Reservoirs should never be allowed

1
to drain below 25 percent of their effective capacity . This is to ensure
that water will always be available to meet at least short-term emer-
'
gency. demands.
6-5
ELEVATED
STORAGE
FLOATING ON
SYSTEM
STAND PIPE
FLOATING ON SYSTEM
OR CAN SERVE AS
PUMP SUPPLY TO RAISE
PRESSURE IN EMERGENCY
-
LEVEL
/
RESERVOIR ROOF - CONCRETE
--
EXCAVATED STORAGE ._
RESERVOIR
GROUND LEVEL
-~·~~AF
...... ....... ,/ ....... ,/ ,/
ROOF GROUND LEVEL

SUPPORT STORAGE - BURIED
COLUMNS
/
"
I I \. I \__/ \. _/ ~ \. ~
6-6
1- -- - - MAXIMUM LEVEL ; OVER FLO,\A/'-""-"......._...___,._...-r~'----._____
HIGH LEVEL~ STOP PUMPS
UJ
z
0
N
OVERFLOW
UJ
-
0
~
INLET- OUTLET LOW LEVEL; START PUMPS -"--.._,.._.._x....___"-"''"'""'-'"--......t
DRAIN VALVE
ABOVE GROUND STORAGE
6-7
6.3.2.3 Monitoring Night-Time Demands. Abrupt changes in the depletion
of storage at night, when pumps are not running, is a strong indica-
tion of a new major leak in distribution system.
6.4 RESERVOIR MAINTENANCE
6.4.1 General
6.4.1.1 Differential Settlement. Occasionally, a reservoir will settle as the soil

below the foundation compresses. If the soil is softer under one part
of the foundation than under another part, differential settlement,
or tilting of the foundation, may occur. Differential settlement of
only a centimeter or two can cause large stresses in reservoir wall or
in legs of elevated tanks. Differential settlement is rare; but when it
does occur, the services of a soils engineer and special equipment are
required to correct it.
If a reservoir has tilted so much that it is apparent to the eye

from a distance, the reservoir is in immediate danger of rupture or
- collapse. If the operator is always alert, differential settlement

usually takes place slowly; taking months or even years to progress
to the point it is ~bvious.
Following are some of the earliest indications that it is taking

place. If any these conditions are obserVed, the utility management
should be advised and a surveyor called i:rn:inediately to check level-
ness of the foundation. If differential settlement is greater than
1.0 em, the reservoir should be drained.
* Reservoir water surfac~: The water. surface appears to be

tilted because it is not parall~l 'with honz·o~bl wall joints
or the top of the tide zone.
* Flat spot on steel tank wall: Differential settlement stresses
cause one large area of steel tank shell to flatten.
* Stress cracks in concrete roof or walls: Small vertical cracks
on opposite sides of reservoir or across the roof at right
angles to the edges.
There is little that can be done to prevent differential settle-

ment in existing reservoirs but the following precautions may slow or
lessen it.
I
(a) Ensure that surface water drains away from the reservoir.
Do not allow earth to be placed in such a way as to cause water
to stand aro~nd foundation. (For example, left-over soil from
excavation for yard piping repairs.)
6-8
(b) Guard against undermining of the reservoir foundation. For
example, erosion by draining water during rains, or excavations
n~ar the foundation.
6.4.1 .2 Algae Control. Algae is a primitive plant, resembling a greenish or

brownish scum, that grows quickly in a water, giving the water a
musty, or grassy taste and causing operational problems such as
clogging of screens and overloading of filters. It can only grow in
sunlight and is therefore not a problem in covered reservoirs. It
tends to grow slowly at first, then suddenly "blooms" in great
quantities, nearly overnight.
Once algae blooms become apparent, the reservoir must be

drained to waste and thoroughly cleaned; a messy and time-consu-
ming chore. Algae growth can be controlled, if not prevented, by
applications of coppeuulfat~ to the water every three months, as
follows:
Thoroughly dissolve copper sulfate crystals in water, using one

kg. of copper sulfate and 20 liters of water, for each thousand cubic
meters of water in the reservoir. Apply uniformly over the reservoir
water surface by spraying or sprinkling. Alternatively, it can be
applied by injecting at the reservoir inlet pipe during filling opera-
tions. Let sit overnight with no reservoir inflow or outflow.
The copper sulfate itself does not affect the taste, quality or
safety of the water. However, if this treatment is done after a consi-
derable amount of algae is already seen in the water, the algae killed
by the treatment will cause serious taste and odor problems .
•• - . -...ao.
6.4.1.3 Safety and Security. Reservoir in general, and elevated tanks m

particular, tend to attract children. It is the responsibility of the
utility to do all in its power to prevent harm to children who play
around its facilities, unaware of the hazards.
In addition, the utility must protect itself against vandalism,

which can have serious consequences for the public when aimed at
water supply facilities.
Finally, the water utility's employees must not be exposed to

unecessary on-the-job hazards.
6-9
The following paragraphs describe some safety precautions
that must be observed in operation and maintenance of reservoirs.
However, the operator should become safety-minded , being always
alert for potential hazards and taking immediate steps to correct
them.
(a) Lock all gates, access hatches, ladder enclosures and manholes
when not in use. Never leave a reservoir for even a few minutes
without locking all access openings.
{b) If the operator ever finds evidence that a covered reservoir
access hatch or the lock on the gate of a small open reservoir
has been forced open by unauthorized persons, it must be
assumed that the water has been contaminated. Drain the reser-
voir to waste and disinfect as described elsewhere in this section.
(c) Maintain all fencing in good condition. Fill in any large holes
under fences (for example those caused by erosion during
rains). Do not allow any materials to be staked against fences,
which can be used to aid anyone in clin;bing over.
(d) Keep reservoir roofs, ladder and walkways free of dirt, debris or
grease. A particular nuisance is bird dropping which are not
only hazardous, but are also very corrosive to metal surfaces.
(e) Keep ladders and safety cages in good condition, tightening
bolts as required and keeping rungs free of grease and dirt.
{f) NeVtlr enter a closed reservoir alone without someone standing
by to help if you get in trouble.
6.4.2 Day-to-Day Maintenance
The following maintenance measures are not formally scheduled but are
carried out on an as-needed basis, determined by casual inspection as the
operator goes about his regular duties. - ""'
6.4.2.1 Vents and Screens. The main purpose of a reservoir vent is not
to supply fresh air but to expel air as the water level arises, and to
draw in air to prevent formation of a vacuum as the water level
drops. For that reason, a vent screen clogged by dust, bird droppings,
dead insects, and the like, can cause damage to steel tanks and
upset the hydraulics of control system. (For example, compressed
air above the volume of water will cause false pressure reading in
the system.) At the very least, compressed air or vacuum will rupture
the vent screen, allowing the entry of birds, insects, or rodents.
The screen should be wire brushed as often 'as necessary to

ensure free passage of air. In the process, a small amount of dust will
be brushed into the r~servoir. However, this will soon settle to the
bottom without any I].Oticable effect on the quality of the water.
6-10
,_ 6.4.2.2. Ladders and Safety Cages. Check and tighten all bolts, keep rungs
free of dirt or greases and examine protective coatings, touching
up as needed.
6.4.2.3 Beacon Li!1hts. High tanks, particularly elevated tanks, are often
equipped with flashing beacon lights as a protection against low-
flying aircraft. These should be checked daily for burned out bulbs.
Replace bulbs immediately.
6.4.2.4 Hatches. Points of contact between hatch covers and openings

often show wear of protective coatings. Repair coatings frequently .
As previously explained, forced hatches are a strong indication of
malicious contamination and the reservoir should be drained and
disinfected.
6.4.2.5 Floats, Level Indicators, and Controls.
(a) Floats can become water-clogged and lo se their uouyancy if

there is any opening, however small. Observe the position of the
float; if more than half submerged, check for a leak, empty of
water and repair by soldering or brazing as required.
(b) Level indicators arc generally linked to the float by capable-
and-pulley systems. Check to see that counter\'v·eight does not
hang up on target boards. Check that cable runs free. Oil pulley
shafts as required. Check cable for unravelling.
(c) Float controls usually employ switches and pulleys. Oil pulleys
as requirecl. See that switches are not jammed by dust or dirt.
6.4.2.6 Overflow and Drain. These are usually connected at a point down-
stream of the drain valve. At least once each month, open the drain
for a few moments to flush out collected silt. Check valve for leakage
around stem! and adjust or replace packing as required. Overflo·w the
reservoir for a few moments once a month to flush out the overflow
ptpe.
6.4.2. 7 Underdrains. Reinforced concrete reservoirs generally have perfo-

rated pipes installed under floor construction joints. These carry any
leakage out from under the reservoir through a common waste pipe.
The outflo\v from the underdrain system should be checked frequent-
ly. If any significant flow is noted, there is a leak in the reservoir
bottom and the reservoir should be drained and the leak sealed at
the earliest opportunity.
6.4.2.8 Catholic Protection System. Most ca.thodic protection systems

include an 'indicating light to show that electric current is flowing.
If the light. goes out, first replace the bulb. If still unlighted, call the
6-11
.....- ~- -.,..Jr.
,_
CHECKING WEIGHT OF CATHODIC PROTECTION ANODES
6-12
electrician to locate the interruptioa in the circuit. If the system is
of the sacrificial anode type, weigh the anodes at least once a year,
using a spring balance, and compare with their weight when new. If
the system is of the impresseJ voltage type, clean the cast-iron
anodes by wire brushing whenever the tank is drained for any reason.
6.4.2.9 Coatings. Inspect and repair coatings as required. (See Section 12,
"Corrosion Control and Protective Coatings".)
6.4.2.10 Valves. Inlet, outlet and drain valves should be inspected and main-
taineJ as described in Section 7, "Distribution Facilities".
6.4.3 Periodic Maintenance
Periodic maintenance of reservoirs should be carried out at least as often

as indicated in the following paragraphs.
However, observance of this schedule, no matter how carefully, does not

lessen the importance of day-to-day maintenance described earlier.
6.4.3.1 Every Month

(a) Draw down reservoir level to 25 percent of volume (during off-
peak seasons only).
(b) Lubricate float control pulleys.
(c) Inspect float for leaks.
(d) Check level indicator for free operation.
(e) Sweep roof, catwalks and ladder landings.
(f) Inspect tide zone for corrosion (steel tanks only).
6.4.3.2 Every Three Months or More Often, As Required

(a) Treat uncovered reservoirs with copper sulfate for algae control.
6.4.3.3 Every Year --

(a) Drain reservoir (by consumption: not to waste) and shovel out
silt, sweep, and hose down walls and floor.
(b) Carefully inspect and repair coatings, inside and out.
(c) Clean and weigh cathodic protection anodes (if used).
(d) Disinfect as follows:
(1) Mix a solution of 70% calcium hypocholorite (HTH
Powder) dissolved in water, using 75 kg. of calcium hy-
pochlorite for each 1000 cubic meters of storage capacity.
(2) Pour the solutions into the bottom of the reservoir.
(3) Fill the reservoir until it begins to overflow, then shut
off inflow.
(4) Let reservoir sit overnight with all valves closed.
(5) Open drain valve and let reservoir empty completely
(this time, draining to waste). ·
!._ (6) ~lose drain valve and fill reservoir to high 7er level.
/
6-13
(e) Alternative disinfection method:
(1) Mix a solution of 70% calcium hypochlorite. Use 14 gr.
of calcium hypochlorite in 50 liters of clean water to form
a solution containing 200 ppm chlorine.
(2) Use back-pack, hand pump sprayer such as is used for
spraying insecticides though not one that has ever been
used for any chemical except chlorine, to spray the inside
surfaces of the reservoir. The surfaces should be sprayed
to a wet condition.
The personnel who do the spraying should spray the
floor last, starting at the fartherest point away from the
exit and work tqward the exit so that they do not walk
on disinfected surfaces.
The personnel doing the spraying should wear protec-
tive clothing and a cannister type gas _mask for chlorine.
(3) Put 1 kg of 70% calcium hypochlorite powder for each
1000 cubic meters of reservoir capacity and fill the reser-
voir. When full, the water should contain 0.5 to 1.0 ppm
chlorine residual and can be immediately put into service.
(f) If a reservoir is drained for inspection but no maintenance was
done the disinfection procedure is much more simple.
The only contaiminated surfaces are those where the in-
spectors walked on the floor to make the inspection.
In this case put 2.5 kg. of 70% calcium hypochlorite
powder for each 1000 cubic meters of tank capacity when the
inspection has been completed, and fill the tank or reservoir.
The chlorine concentration will be very strong when the
tank first begins to fill thereby disinfecting those surfaces which
might have been contaminated.
When the reservoir is full, the chlorine residual will be 2.0
ppm or less and can be put into service immediately.
.... ·-- _
_......
__,\
'
6-14
MONTHLY
STORAGE FACILITIES
MONTH OF...... . ... . .. . .... . .. . . .. ... .. .. . .. .. . . ........ . 19 . ... . . ... .

LOCATION/DESIGNATION ...... . .. . . .. . ..... ..... ... . . .... . .. . .. .. . ..... . .
NAME OF OPERATOR.. . .... . ......... . ..... DATE . . . . .. . ... . ... . . .. . . .. .
Check off work items completed. Explain "NO" answers under "REMARKS"
CHECK ONE
6 .3.2.1 Reservoir drawn down, at least during the month,

to 25 percent? 0 0
6.3.2 .2 Emergency storage of 25 percent maintained at all

times during the past month? 0 D
6.3.2.3 Has reservoir operation been free of unusual night time

depletion? 0 D
6.4.1.1 Water from uncovered reservoirs examined to deter-

mine types and population of algae? 0 D
6.4.1.4 (a) All gates, access hatches, ladder enclosures and man-
holes kept locked? 0 0
6.4.1.4 (b) Reservoir hatches fr.ce of tampering during the month :

(If "NO", state action taken under "REMARKS"). D 0
6.4.1.4 (c) All fencing in good condition with no h oles under

fences nor anything stacked beside them? 0 0
~---
6.4. 1.4 (d) Roof ladders and walkways kept clean? 0 0
6 .4.1.4 (e) Examined ladders and safety cages for loose bolts? 0 D
6.4.1.4 (f) Always had someone standing by when entering a

closed reservoir? D D
6.4.2.1 Vents and screens kept clean at all times? D D
6.4.2.3 Beacon lights checked eve1yday and burned out

,.. bulbs (if any) replaced? 0 D
~I
6-15
6.4.2.4 Hatch covers inspected for wear of protective
coatings? 0 0
6.4.2.5 Water level indicators operating satisfactorily? 0 0
6.4.2.6 Drain valve opened to flush out drain piping? .0 0
6.4.2.6 Reservoir overflowed once during the month? D 0
6.4.2. 7 Flown from underdrains normal at all times during

the month? 0 0
6.4.3.1 Inspected tide zone for corrosion? 0 D
REMARKS: ....................................... . .... . ........ . ... .. . . .
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • · 1 ~. -. ~.~.. . . . . . . . .
--
I ~
6·16
ANNUAL
STORAGE FACILITIES
LOCATION/DESIGNATION ........... . . . .. . . . ... ... . . ... . ... ..... . ... ... . . .

NAME OF OPERATOR .. . .... . . . ............. DATE .... .. .. .. ... . .. .. . .. . .
Check off work items completed. Explain "NO" answers u nder "REMARKS".
CHECK ONE
6.4.3 .2 Open reservoir treated with Copper Sulfate each

three months during the past year? (Show dates
under "REMARKS".) 0 0
6.4.3.3 (a) Reservoir drained and thoroughly cleaned out? 0 0
6.4.3 .3 (b) Protective coatings inspected inside and outside? 0 0
6.4.3.3 (c) Cathodic protection anodes (if any) cleaned and

weighted? 0 0
6.4.3.3 (d) Reservoir disinfected before placing back in

or service? 0 0
6.4.3.3 (e)
REMARKS : .............................................................. .. -
.. .. . ...... .... ... . . .... . ... ... .. . . ... .. ........... .. . . . ... ... ... .......
~·
6-17
SECTION 7: DISTRIBUTION FACILITIES
-· - ~ _.....
SECTION 7 : DISTRIBUTION FACILITIES
_.. - .. _.,...
/
SECTION 7: DISTRIBUTION FACILITIES
TABLE OF CONTENTS

....
7.2 PIPING MATERIALS 7-1
7.3 INSTALLING PIPE 7-18
7.4 LEAKAGE CONTROL AND REPAIRS 7-36
7.5 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM MAINTENANCE 7-44

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The hydraulics and overall operation and water distribution systems are discussed
in Section 1, "Overview of Water Supply", and Section 3, " Basic Hydraulics". This
Section is concerned only with the operation and maintenance of the physical compo-
nents of distribution pipeline networks. ··
The operator will occasionally be required to install small quantities of pipe to

serve new residential areas as well as to maintain existing pipelines. Therefore, this
section includes procedures for laying pipe on a small scale with limited equipment.
These procedures may or may not be appropriate for large jobs done by contractors,
depending on the types of construction equipment available.
7.2 PIPING MATERIALS
7.2 .1 General
Table 7-1 shows commonly used pipe materials and types of joints.
Table 7-1
Pipe Materials
Pipe Material Size range Type of Joints
Cast iron or 1. Lead Caulked

Ductile iron 100-450 mm 2. Rubber Ring Bell &
Spigot
3_ Flanged
4. Mechanical Joint
Asbestos-Cement 75-400 mm Rubber Ring Couplings
1.-• Rub~er Ring Bell &
Polyvinyl Spigot
Chloride (PVC) 13-200 mm 2. Rubber Ring Coupling
3. Solvent-Welded Coupling
Steel, Galvanized 1. Screwed Couplings
or Black 13-100 mm 2. Welded
Steel, Lined and 1. Flanged
Coated 100-1200 mm 2. Screwed Couplings
3. Butt-Welded
4. Rubber Ring Bell &
Spigot
5. Welded Couplings
Butt Straps)
7-1
Polyethlene or 1. Flared with Copper
Polybutylene Tubing Fittings
-.-
2. Compression Sleeve
7.2.1.1 Compatability of Connection. The various industrialized countries

do not generally manufacture piep fittings and valves to the same
dimensions. More often than not, a water distribution system will
include components manufactured in two or more countries. As a
result, it is usually impossible to directly connect an item manufac-
tured in one country to that of another - say, a French valve to a
Japanese fitting.
In addition, it is often necessary to connect new pipe of one

material to an existing pipe of a different material. Even when
manufactured in the same country, pipes of different materials
usually have different dimensions.
Where pipe and fittings are to be joined to others having diffe-

rent dimensions, it is usually .necessary to modify the ends of one or
the other. The following paragraphs discuss some of the more com-
monly encountered instance of incompatible connections and the
joint modifications required to connect them. In order to simplify
discussion, abbreviations are used, as follows:
PIPE MATERIALS
PVC - PolyvinylChloride
AC - Asbestos-Cement
CI - Cast Iron (or Ductile Iron)
STL- Steel
4 .. --- _ ...;.~r.._
TYPE OF JOINTS
B - Bell (sometimes called "socket" or "hub")

S -Spigot
F - Flanged
S - Screwed
W -Welded
7.2.1.2 Modifying Connections. There are six basic ways of modifying

joints to connect incompatible pipe and fittings. There are sho\\-11
in Table 7-2.
(a) Caulking Couplings. Two pipes are inserted into the ends of
a cast iron coupling an( caulked with lead or cement (dry
packing).
7-2
-
.... -- .. .-~~~
SPIGOT TO FLANGE ADAPTER
7-3
SLEEVE TYPE COUPLING
7-4
STANDARD FLANGE DIMENSI ONS•
( ' .....
n - NUMBER OF BOLTS
D c d- DIAMETER OF BOLT HOLES
t -FLANGE TH I CKNESS
NOM. I SO AWWA J I S
PIPE
DIA.
mm D c t d n D c t d n D c t d n
75/80 200 160 21 19 4 191 152 19 19 4 211 168 19 18 4
100 220 180 22 19 8 229 191 24 19 8 238 195 19 18 4
150 285 240 23 23 8 279 241 25 22 8 290 247 20 18 6
200 310 295 24.5 23 8 343 299 29 22 8 342 299 21 18 8
250 395 350 26 23 12 406 362 30 25 12 410 360 22 21 8
300 445 400 27.5 23 12 483 432 32 25 12 464 414 23 21 10
350 505 460 29 23 16 533 476 35 29 12 530 A:t:2 24 24 10
400 565 515 30 28 16 5~7 540 37 29 16 582 524 25 24 12
500 670 620 33 28 20 699 635 43 32 20 706 639 27 27 12
600 780 725 36 31 20 813 749 48 35 20 810 743 28 27 16
lJf FLAT FACED FLANGES SUITABLE FO~ WORKING PRESSURE OF 7.00 KG./CM2 (100 PSI) EXCEPT AWWA WH ICH
ARE SUITABLE FOR 10.~0 KG/CM (1~0 PSII.
IS 0 - INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ORGANIZATION

AWWA- AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION
J IS - JAPANESE INDUSTRIAL STANDARD
7-5
.J
Table 7-2
JOINT MODIFICATION
CONNECTION MODIFICATIONS
Caulking Milling BxF or SxF Flexible Welding Screwed
Lc:rger 0 .D. Smaller O.D. Couplings Pipe End Adaptors Couplings Flanqe
AC AC X ~ X
AC Cl X X X X
AC PVC X X X
AC STL X X X
Cl Cl X X X
Cl AC X X X
Cl PVC X X
Cl STL X X X X
PVC PVC X X
PVC AC X X
PVC Cl X X
PVC STL X X X
. . . . - _ ....,..._
STL STL X X
STL AC X X X X X
STL Cl X X X X X
STL PVC X X X
7.f3
(b) Milling Pipe Ends. The larger pipe is milled to the same out-
side dimension as the smaller. (Generally used 'only for asbestos-
cement pipe, and only when the difference in outside diameters
is less than 1 em.)
(c) Bell to Flange or Spigot to Flange Adaptors. Used to join
bell and spigot pipe or fittings to flanged. Usually purchased
with blank flange so that the bolt holes can be drilled to match
those of the flange to .which it will be connected at the time of
making the connection.
(d) Flexible Couplings. Rubber ring compression, bolted, flexible
couplings are available for connecting pipe of the same inside
diameter, but with different outside diameters. If the difference
in dimensions is less than 3.5 mm, a straight flexible coupling
may be used. If the difference is 3.5-10 mm, a straight coupling
with one oversized rubber ring may be used.
(e) Welding. Steel pipe is easily modified by welding.
(1) Weld nipple of proper size to end of steel pipe to fit
other pipe either as a bell or spigot, and make a caulk
. connection (lead or cement) to cast iron or asbestos
- cement pipe.
(2) Swage end of larger steel pipe to receive end of smaller
steel pipe, and fillet well all-around.
(3) Butt weld steel pipes of similar diame~ers .
(f) Screwed Flanges. End of steel pie is threaded to receive screwed
blank flange. Bolt holes are drilled to match connecting flange .
7 .2.2. Fittings
7 .2.2.1 Materials
(a) Cast Iron: Used with asbestos-cemen.t, cast iron, ductile Iron
and flanged steel pipe.
(b) Steel: Used only with lined and coated steel pipe.
(c) Malleable Iron : Used with screwed steel pipe. Occasionally
with threaded PVC.
(d) PVC Fittings: Used only with PVC pipe, or when connecting
PVC to screwed steel pipe of the same outside diameter.
(e) Bronze Fittings: Used with copper tubing, polyethlene or
polybutylene. (Requires insulating bushing, usually nylon, when
connecting to steel.)
7 .2 .2 .2 Flanges. Flanges made in different cou11tries are generally or diffe-

rent thicknesses, diameters, bolt sizes and · most importantly - diffe-
rent bolt spacing. When purchasing flanges or flanged fittings for
making co~nections, the flanges should be underilled. Even if of
different thickness and diameter, bolt holes can be drilled to match.
7-7
7.2.2.3 Threads: Pipe threads may be straight or tapered. Even though
manufactured in the same country, threads of the same size used on
pipe, bolts, meter spuds fo fire hydrants are not the same. Threads
of different countries are usually of similar spacing and diameter,
but are also never exactly the same. In screwing two threaded fittings
together, similarity is not good enough; they must match exactly
or t4reads will be damaged.
I
When threaded fittings of different countries or of different
types or sizes are to be connected, an appropriate adapter or bushing
must be used. Adapters can usually be made up in any machine shop
"'\. if the machinist is furnished v.rith a sample of each type of thread.
\ \ushings are usually available in any plumbing supply shop. See page
7-62 for pipe thread dimensions.
7.2.3 Valves
7 .2.3.1 General
Valves may be divided into two categories: isolating or stop

valves, and special purpose or flow control valves.
\ .
Isolating valves are used to divert flow by being closed so that

a section of distribution system is isolated, or by simply stopping
flow in a pipeline.
Gate valves and butterfly valves are used for these purposes.
Gate valves should not be used to throttle or reduce flow. They

~· . - - .....-:.
are either fully open or fully closed.
I'\ote: A good operating practice for all gate valves is that after
being fully opened, the hand wheel is turned toward closed position
to take up the slack in the stem threads, and then one full turn.
If this practice is made a standard operating procedure by all person-
nel it will reduce the possibility of damage to the valve due to trying
to open a valve which is already open.
7-8"
When flow rate is to be reduced or throttled, plug, cone, ball,
or especially designed butterfly valves are used. Butterfly valves lend
themselves to automatic operation of varying flow rates will plug,
or cone type valves are usually set to control flow rates to a more or
less constant depending on pipeline pressure. Butterfly valves used to
control flow rates regardless of pressure varitions should not be
throttled to the point where cavitation occurs. If calculations show
that cavitation might occur under a given set of conditions of valve
size and pressure, the valve size should be reduced to eliminate
cavitations and resulting damage to the disc.
Other special purpose valves are designed to operate automa-

tically under certain specific conditions. These, in tum, may be divi-
ded into two categories: mechanically-operated and pilot-operated
valves. Mechanically-operated valves include:
* Check valves (permit flow only in one direction)

* Air relief valves (exhaust air from high points in pipelines)
* Combination air/vacuum valves (control flow of air into, or
out of, pipelines)
* Pressure relief valves (relieve excessive pipeline pressure)
Pilot-operated valves include:
* Pressure relief valves (prevent excessive pipeline pressure)

* Pressure regulators (maintain constant pressures)
* Rate-of-flow controllers (maintain constant flow)
* Altitude valve (control flow into and/or out of reservoir)
* Pump control valve (prevent pump starting or stopping
surges)
... . . - - ~·
Isolating valves are generally buried, while special purpose

valves are usually installed above ground or in buried vaults.
When buried, isolating valves are operated by means of a turning

nut and long handled value key. They are installed with a covered
value box extending up to the surface. When installed in a vault or
above ground, they are generally equipped with hand wheels.
Valves are available with all the types of ends previosuly des-
cribed in connection with pipe and fittings. However, most above-
ground valves or those installed in vaul~s are flanged. Buried valves
are usually, though not always, equipped with hell ends.
7-9
7 .2.3.2 Gate Valves. Gate valves are the most widely used of the isolating
valves. However, their use is gradually decreasing in favor of butter-
fly valves.
Gate valves are difficult to open if there is pressure only on one

side. Larger valves are sometimes equiped with a bypass valve which
allows pressures to be equalized on both sides before operating.
In poorly maintained distribution systems, gate valves are

seldom operated and suffer from lack of use more than from wear,
stems being immobilized by buildup of mineral deposits and seats
becoming filled by cemented silt. Therefore, it is essential that they
be operated occasionally to keep working parts free and water
passages flushed out. The number of turns should be counted and
recorded each time a valve is operated. If it is found, for example,
that a valve which usually requires 16 turns to close tightly actually
closes in 15 turns, there is probably a stone or a deposit of silt in
the seat, and it is unlikely that flow is stopped completely.
Generally, gate valves should be mounted only in the vertical

position in order to avoid excessive, one-sided wear of slide grooves
and discs. However, there are gate valves available that are specifically
designed for horizontal installation.
7 .2.3.3 Butterfly Valves. Butterfly vales control the flow of water by means
of a circular disc that turns about a central shaft at a right angle to
the direction of flow. In any position_of the disc, pressures are equal
on both halves of the disc. Therefore, the valve can be operated
easily when only one side of the valve is under pressure.
They may be mounted in any position since wear of the -certtraf'

shaft is not affected; however, it is preferred that they be installed
with the shaft horizontal, wherever possible, t o increase the flushing
action at the bottom of the seat and avoid abrasion of the disc
when operating.
7.2.3.4 Plug Valves and Globe Valves. These valves are ideal for throttling
flows but are seldom used in large sizes because they are very expen-
sive compared with gate valves or butterfly valves.
The plug valve uses a revolving ball or cylinder with a hole

through it. In the open position, the hole is aligned with the inlet
and outlet of the valve; when. closed the hole is at right angles to the
direction of flow.
7-10
/
I
/
I
i
/
'
'
SERVICE TRUCK FOR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
7-11
-
OPERATING GATE VALVE WITH VALVE KEY
7-12
GATE TYPE VALVE
7-13
SWING VALVES
SPHERE VALVES
DIAPHRAGM VALVE
BALL VALVE
BUTTERFLY VALVE PLUG VALVE
7-14
7 .2.3.5 Check Valve. This valve allows flow of water in only one direction.
There are two types: the swing-type and the poppet ty-pe.
The swing check valve operates by means of a hinged disc. Flow

in one direction pushes open the disc, allowing water to flow unim-
peded. Flow in the other direction pushe's the disc against the seat,
shutting off all flow. Swing check valves are sometimes equipped
with an exterior counterweight or spring to make them more sensi-
tive to low flows, insure tight closing, and allow a visible check of
operation.
The poppet type check valve uses a spring loaded disc or conical
plug. Flow of water in one direction pushes against the spring(s)
to open the valve. Flow in the opposite direction combines with the
pull of the spring(s) to cause tight closing.
7 .2.3.6 Air Relief Valves. When a well pump is started, there is a large
volume of air inside the column pipe, between the water surface and
the pump discharge head. The rising column of water acts like a
piston, pushing the air ahead. If not expelled from the pump dis-
charge piping, the air will pass into the distribution system. Expelling
of the air is often accomplished by installing an air relief valye at
the pump discharge.
An air relief valve consists of a chamber containing a float,

with an opening to atmosphere. When filled with water, the valve
is kept closed by seating of the float against the outlet opening.
When the chamber is filled with air, the float drops, allowing the air
to exhaust.
7.2.3.7 Combination Air/Vacuum Valve. These valves are mounted at the

high points of a pipeline. They are sim~~r in_ s_?nstruction to an air
relief valve but more sensitive to small quantities of air and parti-
cularly designed to prevent formation of a vacuum in the pipeline,
by admitting air.
7.2.3.8 Mechanical Pressure Relief Valve. The relief valve acts to expel water
when system pressure reaches some predetermined level, to avoid
buildup of excessive pressures in the system. In its simplest form, it
has an adjustable spring which keeps it closed against system pressure.
When pressure rises too high, it overcomes the spring, opening the
valve and releasing water to bleed pressure. When pressure drops, the
spring again closes the valve.
As in the case of combination air/vacuum valves, isolating valves

must not be closed. l
The , main disadvantage of the spring-loaded pressure relief
valve is that it tends to open, exhausting water, every time there is
7-15
momentary surge in pressure. When this is undersirable - say, where
the exhausted water creates a chronic nuisance - a slow-acting, pilot
controlled valve is used (described later in this section).
7 .2.3.9 Pilot Operated Valves
The most common sources of problems in pilot-operated valves

are:
* Clogged control system strainers

* Crimped control system tubing
* Loose tubing connections
* Inadequate attention to lubrication
The following are brief descriptions of the more commonly

used pilot-controlled valves.
(a) Pressure Relief Valves
This valve opens slowly when pressure in the pipeline
-
rises above the level set on the valve controls, exhausting
water to atmosphere until the pressure drops. Because of the
slow reacting time, the valve does not open when momentary
pressure surges occur.
(b) Pressure Regulator
The pressure regulator maintains a constant downstream

pressure by throttling flow.
It most common application IS where there is a great

variation in ground elevations on the distribution system.
In that case, low areas of the system would be subject to high
--
pressures. However, a pressure regulator installed on a pipeline
serving such a low area limits the pressure on the downstream
side to the pressure setting of the valve control system.
The main disadvantage of this type of valve is that, when

it malfunctions, it opens fully, subjecting downstream areas to
sometimes extremely high pressures.
(c) Rate of Flow Controller
This valve includes an internal orifice. The valve maintains

a constant pressure drop across the orifice, thereby maintaining
I
a constant flow rate, regardless of system pressure fluctuations.
7- 16
(d) Altitude Valve
The altitude valve is installed on the inlet-outlet line of an

elevated reservoir. A pressure, equivalent to the head of water
when the tank is full, is exerted against one side of the diaph-
ragm. As long as the tank is not full, this pressure holds the
valve open and water may flow in or out of the reservoir. When
the reservoir is full, however, pressure is equal on both sides
of the diaphragm, and the valve is closed, eliminating the
possibility of overflowing the reservoir.
During night hours as each reservoir becomes filled, inflow

automatically stops while other reservoirs continue filling with
no change in pump operation.
(e) Pump Control Valve
There are basically two types of pump control valve:

one type for well pumps and one for booster pump.
(1) . Booster Pump Discharge Control Valve
These valves are normally motor or hydraulically

controlled.
The valve is closed while the pump is not running.

When the pump is started, the valve opens slowly allowing
pressure to gradually increase in the pipeline, thereby
avoiding a starting pressure surge or water hammer in the
discharge pipeline.
When the pump is shut down the motor stop switch

first activates the pump discharge valve causing it to close
. ~-
slowly and as it closes completely the motor and pump is
stopped, again, eliminating water hammer in the discharge
pipeline.
(2) Well Pump Control Valve
The pump control valve used with well pumps is

similar to that used for booster pumping. However, it has
a side port open to atmosphere. When the pump is started,
the water discharges to atmosphere through the side port,
along with the air and sand (if any) that would otherwise
be pumped into the system. ~s the valve slowly operates,
the side port slowly closes. The sequence is reversed when
,stopping the pump, using a relay to delay stopping of the
·pump while the valve discharging to atmosphere is opening.
7-17
This type of valve is occasionally used also for booster
pumping applications. In that case, the discharge port is
.connected to the pump suction piping through a bypass
to avoid the loss of water during the starting and stopping
sequence. Also, when used with a well pump, the discharge
from the side port is sometimes piped back to the well.
This is not satisfactory, however, when the well produces
sand.
7.3 INSTALLING PIPE
7 .3.1 General. The following general rules should be followed when installing pipe-
lines.
(a) Avoid causing any safety hazards or inconvenience to the public.

(b) Do not leave trenches open overnight if it can be avoided; otherwise,
pr6vide barricades and warning lights or reflectors.
(c) Keep pipe ends and all other openings sealed when not necessary to be
open, to avoid entry of small animals, birds, insects, dirt and stones
children like to throw into hear it rattle.
(d) Inspect interior of pipe at the beginning of each day, using a mirror to
reflect sunlight into the pipe, to check for obstructions, debris or vanda-
lism.
(e) "Centerload" each length of pipe with backfill material after it is laid and
bedded, to prevent floating of the pipe if the trench becomes flooded.
(f) ~hut down a main only in the presence of a supervisor :and according
to his direction.
7 .3.2 Excavation
.wo• ... - ~
7.3.2.1 General
(a) Excavate trenches with even bottoms, uniform width and

vertical sides.
(b) Never excavate further ahead than pipe can be laid by the end
of the day.
(c) When excavating in sandy soil, use wood shoring to prevent
cave-rns.
(d) When excavating in rock or shale, dig trench 10-15 em below
the desired pipe bottom and backfill with compacted sand to
proper grade.
(e) When laying cast iron, ductile iron or steel pipe, trim trench
bottom and dig bell holes at the location of joints so that the
full length of the pipe will be supported on a uniform bearing.
This is done just before each pipe length is lowered into th~
trench.
7-18
TIGHT SHEETING TRENCH SHORING
IN SOFT GROUND IN HARD GROUND
METHODS OF SHORJNG A TRENCH . --
7-19
.. .. -~
JOINING ASBESTOS CEMENT PIPE
7-20
LOWERING ASBESTOS CEMENT PIPE INTO TRENCH
USING ROPE SECURED FROM IMMOVABLE OBJECT
CLEANING END OF ASBESTOS CEMENT P IPE

BEFORE MAKING UP JOINT
7-21
(f) When laying PVC, asbestos-cement or plastic pipes, place a
uniform 5 em layer of sand in the trench bottom.
(g) Stockpile excavated material ("soil") on side of trench away
from traffic.
7 .3.2.2 Trench Dimensions
Excavate trench to dimensions shown in Table 7-3.
TABLE 7-3
PIPELINE TRENCH DIMENSIONS
Trench Minimum Maximum

Pipe Dia. Depth Width Width
(mm) (em) (em) (em)
13-75 70 35 65
100 85 40 70
150 90 45 75
200 95 50 80
250 100 55 85
300 120 60 90
350 125 65 95
400 130 70 100
450 135 75 105
7.3.2.3 Dewatering
Trenches should be fairly dry when laying pipe, to avoid later

settlement. Water should be removed by pumping, biili.~g"7;r by
digging a channel from the lowest point of the trench to a nearby
drainage ditch or low area where the water will not create a nuisance.
If a muddy trench bottom is unvoidable, dig the trench an extra

15 em deep and fill with compacted sand to the required bottom
grade before laying pipe.
7 .3.3. Laying Pipe
7 .3.3.1 Direction of Pipe Ends
'
(a) On level ground or slight slopes, lay pipe with spigot ends in
direction of flow, if known. If direction of flow· is unknown,
lay bell ends ahead. :
(b) On steep slopes, lay pipe with bell ends uphill.
7-22
7.3.3.2 Lowering Pipe Into Trench
(a) Avoid dropping or bumping.

(b) When using a crane or hoist, lift pipe by cable sling, padded if
necessary to avoid damage to coatings;
(c) PVC pipe or small diameter AC pipe can oe lowered by hand.
(d) If a crane or hoist is not available, lower pipe with ropes.
7 .3.3.3 Joining
(a) Rubber Ring Joints
(1) Use only vegetables-base lubricants as recommended by

the pipe manufacturer.
Never use oil or axle grease.
(2) Use ratchet-chain ("come-a long''), or pry-bar and wood

block, to push joints together.
(3) Check seating of rubber rings with a depth feeler gage.
(4) Do not deflect any cast iron or asbestos-cement pipe joint
more than that recommended by its manufacturer.
( 5) When a length of pipe using a rubber ring is pushed "home"
into a joint (such as a coupling ring used for asbestos
cement pipe or a bell end such as used for cast iron pipe),
lift the free end of the pipe and swing it 2°- 30 (say 3"-4")
on each side of where it will be laid. This will "seal" the
ring without distortion and will remove high spots in
bedding material so pipe is supported equally along its
length. _
.. .. -. .....
(b) Solvent-Welded PVC Pipe Joints
Note: Success in making solvent welded PVC pipe joints

depends on following exactly every instruction of the
solvent manufacturer plus high quality workmanship
on the part of the personnel performing the work.
( 1) Make sure pipe ends and inside of couplings are clean and
free of oil or grease.
(2) Apply weld solvent to both s~rfaces, insert pipe and imme-
diately rotate the coupling or fitting one eigth of a turn,
, to evenly spread the solvent. ·
(3) · Never allow wet solvent to come into contact with chlo-
. rine. This can cause a violent chemical reaction.
7-23
7-24
(4) .Join p ipe above ground alongside trench ; let dry thoroughly;
lower into trench, being careful to avoid abrupt deflec-
tion of joints.
(5) ''Shake" the pipe from side to side in the bottom of the
trench to allow for exp ansion, .contraction or settlement.
7 .3.4 Connection to Existing Water Mains
7 .3.4.1 General. When installing a new pipeline, it is nearly always neces-

sary to connect to an existing main that is already in service. Since
new pipelines are seldom installed on short notice, there is usually
plenty of time to carefully plan the making .of connections in a way
that will result in the least inconvenience to the public.
The only requirement for haste occurs during the time that the
existing main is out of service, when the duration of the interrup-
tion of supply must be held to an absolute minimum.
Inconvenience to the public may be minimized in the following

ways:
(a) Give advance public notice· of interruption of service.

{b) Make connections at niglit when water demand is low.
(c) Install connection fittings and pour concrete thrust blocks
before starting to lay the new pipeline in order to minimize
the time necessary to complete the connection (this will also
allow plenty of time for concrete thrust blocks to cure before
the new pipeline is put in service).
(d) Shut down the main only m the presence of a supervisor.
-1. - -....-:.
7 .3.4.2 Preparation Before Starting Work
(a) Schedule the connection several days in advance of starting the

work determine the locationof isolating valves and the n ames
and addresses of customers who will be affected. Test valves at
this time to assure isolation_
(b) Notify the customer served by the existing main that service
will be interrupted, giving the date, time and expected duration.
(1) If service will be interrupted over a large area, give notice
by radio and/ or newspapers.
(2) If interruption will affect only a few customers (say, less
than 100), enclose a brief n<;>tice when mailing out water
bills. If this is not possible, post printed notices on power
poles in the immediate area or hand-deliver notices to each
I
7-25
(c) Preassemble fittings, valves, etc •• as far as possible and have all
necessary tools and equipment on-site before shutting off the
existing main.
(d) Concrete thrust blocks should be allowed to cure for at least
eight days before the pipe is put under pressure.
(e) A good public relations investments is the purchase of 2"
light weight pipe (aluminum if possible ), each length fitted
with union type couplings so it can quickly be coupled together.
On each length provide a faucet with hose threads. Lay the
pipe above ground along the properties of customers who will
be affected and connect the pipe to a fire hydrant which will
not be isolated. The customers, or the water district can connect
garden hoses from a faucet outlet on the pipe to an outside
faucet on their dwellings so they can get water during the time
of construction. (Hoses should be furnished by the utility if
customer has none.)
7 .3.4.3 Making the Connection
(a) Tapping Sleeve Connection
( 1) Bolt the tapping sleeve around the existing main several

days before shutting off service. Test outlet for pressure
tightness. Pour concrete thrust block at this time (thrust
blocks are discussed later in this section).
(2) Shut off existing main by closing nearest isolating valves
according to predetermined schedule.
(3) Open a hydrant or tap at the lowest point of the isolated
section of the existing main in order to relieve pressure
(leave open until after main is cut, to prevent formation
of a vacuum, then close) .
(4) Drill or cut hole in existing main through tapping valve:
(5) Close tapping valve. Dewater excavation as hole is being
made.
(6) Open hydrant or tap at highest point of the isolated
section of the existing main in order to bleed off air and
for flushing.
(7) Fill, chlorinate and flush the section of existing main as
described for new pipelines later in this section, except
that the chlorine contact time may be reduced to one hour.
(8) Check tapping sleeve for leakage under pressure, and
tighten as necessary.
(9) If a tapping machine is used, steps (2) through (7) may pe
omitted. However, a handful (about 50 gm) of calciJm
hypochlorite 'Should be placed in the valve before attach-
ing the tapping machine.~ Follow manufacturer's instruc-
tions for installing and operating the tapping machine.
7-26
(b) Cut-in Connection
( 1) Shut off existing main by closing nearest isolating valves.

(2) Open a hydrant or tap at the lowest point of the isolated
section of the existing main, in ~rder to relieve line pressure
and dewater pipeline.
(3) Carefully measure the overall lenght of fittings and short
pipe lengths (if any) to be installed, and mark off on
existing main.
(4) Cut out section of existing pipe between markings. (Dewa-
ter excavation as cutting progresses.)
(5) Assemble the connection Uoints modified, if necessary,
as explained earlier in this section).
(6) Pour concrete thrust block if required (see later part of
this section). The new main may not be placed in service
(i.e., the branching valve should not be opened) until
thrust blocks have been allowed to cure for eight days.
{Thrust forces are created when water enters or leaves the
existing mam through the new connection.) However,
- the existing main may be placed back in service imme-
diately.
(7) Open hydrant or tap at highest point of the isolated
section of the existing main in order to bleed off air and
to provide exist for flushing.
(8) Be sure all service connections are closed.
(9) Fill, chlorinate and flush the existing main as described
for new pipelines in a later part of this section, except
that the chlorine contact time may be reduced to one
hour, if no ditch water or soil entered pipe during work.
( 1 0) Open the isolating valves and, after alMUr has been expelled,
<;lose the hydrant or tap.
7 .3.5 Thrust Protection
The water pressure in mains exerts forces, or thrust, against bends, tees,
dead ends and, sometimes, valves. If not restrained, thrust forces will cause
the fittings to move and separate at the joints. Movement of fittings is prevented
by ( 1) pouring concrete blocks behind the fitting to spread the thrust forces
over a large vertical area, or (2) mechanically tying joints together so that they
cannot pull apart, by such means as welding, flanges, clamps or tie rods.
7-27
7.3.5.1 Concrete Thrust Blcoks
(a) Concrete
Concrete should have a compressive strength of at ·least

140 kg/cm 2 28 days after pouring. This can be accomplished
by mixing the following proportions:
* One part portland cement
* 2 1/2 parts clean sand (do not use sea beach sand)
* Five parts crushed stone {1-3 em)
* Enough water to make a workable mix
(b) Excavation
Thrust blocks must be poured against solid, undtaturbed

earth. When excavating behind the fitting, make the bearing
face at a right angle to the direction of thrust. Before pouring
the thrust block, clean out all loose earth, stones and debris.
(c) Forming, Pouring, Curing
( 1) Place polyethlene or oiled paper against the fitting before

pouring concrete. {This will make it possible to break out
the concrete at some later date, without damaging the
fitting.)
(2) Construct forms so that concrete will not get in the
joints.
(3) Pour the thrust blocks as shown on the illustration to the
dimensions shown in Table 7-4.
(4) Immediately after pouring thrust blocks backfill .with..,..
moist earth.
7 .3.5.2 Restrained Joints. When pipelines are laid in very soft clay soil or
through compacted fill, the earth may not provide enough resistance
to prevent movement of thrust blocks. When it is necessary to put
the pipeline into service immediately, joints are restrained by using
clamping harness as shown in the illustration. This prevents pulling
apart at the joints while allowing friction between the pipe and sur-
rounding soil to also help resist the thrust forces . Usually, three or
four restrained joints on each side of the fitting will be enough to
resist all thrust forces. All restraining materials should be galvanized
steel or should be well-coated with a coal tar base material. A con-
crete thrust block should be poured to provide a margin of 1safety
against corrosion of joint restraints, but line can be pressurized im-
mediately. ·
7-28
Table 7-4
ISOMETRY OF
THRUST BLOCK
AREA
L REDUCER*
- OFFSETS
90° ELBOW
a BEND
OR BEND POUR AGAINST
UNDISTURBED
TABLE OF MINIMUM THRUST BLOO< NOTES: SOIL
BEARING AREAS IN SQUARE
METERS FOR PIPE SI ZE' S CD ABOVE AREAS BASED ON AN ASSUME
SOIL BEARING PRESSURE OF 9765
IOOmm. to 600mm. 0 . kg f /sq.m . (20QOps_tJ
PIPE TEE a goo 45° . 221/2° ®REDUCE OR INCREASE AREAS PRO-
SIZE DEAD
BEND BEND BEND PORTIONATELY TO SUIT ACTUAL
mm.{in.) END FIELD CONDITIONS . UPON APPROVAL
11
100(4 0.09 0.12 0.07 0.04 OF ENGINEER.
11
)
GD
CONCRETE FOR THRUST BLOCK
SHALL BE 14 0 . 6 kgf/sq. em. (2000psi.)
150(6 ) 0. 20 0 .28 0 . 15 0.08
200( 8") 0 . 35 0.50 0.27 0 .1 4

@ ALL CONCRETE SHALL BE POURED TO
AVOID INTERFERENCE WITH BOLTED
250(10") 0 .55 0. 77 0.42 0.21 CONNECTIONS .
300(12'1 0. 79 1: II 0.60 0.31 @ WHERE PIPE CONNECTS TO A FITTING

IN A STEEL PIPELINE,THE STEEL
350( 14") I. 07 I. 52 0 .82 0.42
PIPEUNE SHALL BE BLOCKED AS
400(16") 1.40 1.98 1.07 0 .55 SHOWN HEREON .
450 (18") I. 77 2.51 I. 36 0.69 @BEARING AREAS BASED ON INTERNAL

PRESSURE OF 10.55kgf/sq.cm.(l50psi.)
500(2d') 2. 19 3. ro 1.68 0.85
600(24') 3. 15 4.46 2.4~ 1.23 * SEE PLANS FOR BEARING AREAS .
7-29
··'
Table 7-4
TRENCH WIDT
GROUND
"w"
POUR AGAINST
• • .b f rd/2
·' - .. c"
UNDISTURBED 1--~ite
SOIL
CONCRETE
THRUST BLOCK ~ . . .
t> 6 'J _l
..___~'I'Tli"''FIT....J
AREA= Ax B
I. A
.:!
ELEVATION SECTION
- TABLE OF MINIMUM THRUST BLOCK

DfMENSIONS FOR PIPE SIZES IOOmm.
TO 600 mm. f6
PIPE THRUST BLOCK BEARING

SIZE "c" AREAS IN SQ. METERS
mm. (h\.) METERS 45° BEND 22V2° BEND

-- --
•
11
100 (4 0.2e 0.08
)
--
150 (6 ">
11
0.25 0.17 0.09
200(8 ) 0.25 0.30 0.15
250 ( 10")
300 (12 ")
11
350 (14 )
0.25
0.30
0.30
0.46
0.66
0.90
0.24
0.34
0.46
. --
400 (16") 0 .30 1.18 0.60
450 (18") 0.35 1.49 0.76
!500 (20") 0.35 1.84 0.94
11
600(24 ) 0.40 2.65 1.35
* THRUST BLOCK NOT REQUIRED
NOTES: ....,
8 ABOVE AREAS BASED ON AN ASSUMED
OF 9765 Kgf/Sq.m. (2000 ptf)
SOIL BEARING PRESSURE
0 REDUCE OR INCREASE AREAS PROPORTtONATELY TO SUIT ACTUAL

FIELD CONDITIONS UPON APPROVAL OF ENGINEER. ,
CONCRETE FOR THRUST BLOCK SHALL BE 140.6 Kgf/Sq.cm.(2000 pai)
ffi WHERE PIPE CONNECTS TO A FITTING ON A STEEL PIPE LINE
THE STEEL PIPELINE SHALL' BE BLOCKED AS SHOWN HEREON.
® BEARING AREAS BASED ON INTERNAL PRESSURE' OF 10.55 Kgf/Sq.cm.
( 150 pal).
7-30
A- c· PIPE
-
JOINT CLAMPING HARNESS
CAST or DUCTILE IRON PIPE
7-31
As an alternative to the type of restraints shown, flanged or
welded pipe and fittings may be installed in areas of poor soil.
7.3.6 Backfilling
7 .3.6.1 Non-Metallic Pipe (PVC, AC, Plastic)
(a) Place moist sand or granular soil under and beside pipe, and
compact with the feet.
(b) Fill with sand or granular soil to a depth of at least 20 em over
the top of pipe.
(c) Flood with water only if granular soil or sand is used.
(d) Fill remainder of trench with excavated material, in 25 em
"lifts", compacting each lift with a mechanical compactor or
hand stompers. If the excavated material is sand, the trench
may be backfilled almost to the surface and compacted by
flooding the trench. Never compact clay by flooding.
(e) Mound earth over top of trench to about 3 em above ground
level and thoroughly comapct by mechanical compactors or
~ "wheel-rolling" (i.e., driving a truck along the trench with
the wheels of one side over the trench line).
7 .3.6.2 Metallic Pipe (C.I., Ductile or Steel)
(a) Place selected fill, free or rocks, clods, sticks, and vegetation,
under and above the pipe to a depth of about 20 em in 151cm
lifts. Compact by mechanical compactor or, if sandy, by flood-
ing. If soil is corrosive use sand only.
(b) Fill remainder of trench and compact, as explained for non-
metallic pipes (above). .. _. _ _
/1.3.1 Chlorinating, Testing, Flushing
7 .3.7.1 Chlorinating Small Pipe Quantities. If the length of new pipe is less
than about 100 meters, place a small amount of chlorine powder
(say about 15 gm) in each length of pipe it is laid. It is only neces-
sary to slowly fill the pipe with water and let it sit for 24 hours: If at
the end of that time, the chlorine residual is at least 2 5 mg/ 1, proceed
to hydrostatic testing. If not, flush the line and reapply chlorine,
using the method given for large pipe quantities below.
7.3.7.2 Chlorinating to Disinfect Large Pipelines
(a) Calculate the total volume of the pipeline to be disinfected

in cubic meters.
7-32
(b) Each cubic meter will require one gram of pure chlorine. If
70% calcium hypochlorite (HTH) is to be used then each cubic
meter will require ~ 1.43 grams of chemical compound
0.7
for one ppm of pure chlorine.
For example, assume a pipeline with a diameter of 500

mm and a length of 660 meters. This will have a volume of:
500 mm )2 x 3.1416 x 660 meters=
( 1000 mmfrreter 4
(0.5 meter)2 x 0. 7854 x 660 meters= 130m3
The amount of pure chlorine required for each cubic

meter to contain 50 ppm normally used while disinfecting is
50 ppm x 1 gram = 50 grams pure chlorine per m3.

ppm
The entire pipe would require:
130m3 x 50 grams = 6500 grams or 6.5 Kg.

m3
In the case where a chlorine compound such as 70% HTH
is used, the amount for each cubic meter would be 50 ppm
x 1 gram x_l_= 71.5 grams, and for the entire pipeline with
ppm 0.7
3
130cm the amount of chemical would be 9295 grams or 9.3 Kg.
(c) When filling a pipeline to disinfect it the water passes through

a flow meter so that the flow rate can be measured. Knowing
the flow rate and the pipe volume the time to fill can also be
calculated. The flow rate must be-·adjusted to a range which
will permit the chlorine feed equipment used to continuously
inject the proper amount of chlorine into each unit volume of
filling water so that when full the entire length will contain
water with 50 ppm chlorine.
(d) When using a chlorine compound a solution is made of a known
strength and injected at the proper rate into the filling stream.
The capacity of the equipment used to inject the solution will
determine the strength of the solution. The rate of injecting
the chlorine will in tum determine the flow rate of filling
water.
(e) Open a fire hydrant or tap at the high point(s) of the pipeline
1
to expel air when filling the pipe.
(f) Slo~ly fill the pipe with water and chlorine solution.
(g) Close all fire hydrants and taps.
7-33
.. . - _..
.........
PRESSUR6 TESTING A PIPELINE
7-34
(h) Let the chlorinated water sit for 24 hours.
(i) If after 24 hours the chlorine residual is at least 25 mg/1,
proceed to hydrostatic testing. If not, thoroughly flush the
pipeline and repeat steps (a) through (g).
7.3.7.3 Hydrostatic Testing and Flushing. There are two good reasons for
hydrostatic testing, i.e., putting the mains under a higher pressure
than they are likely to encounter while in service at the time they are
installed: (1) any potential leaks due to improperly seated rubber
rings, loose flange or bolts, stripped threads, and the like, will be
revealed while the trench is still open and they can be easily repaired,
and (2) any flaw or weaknesses in the pipe or fittings . For example,
hairline cracks that go unnoticed during installation will result in a
failure when it is most easily corrected; i.e., while the trench is still
open.
(a) Equipment
(1) Pump. A small capacity, gasoline engine driven, positive

displacement pump having a. capacity of about 100 liters
per hour and able to develop a discharge pressure of 15 kg/
em 2. It must be equipped with a valved bypass between
suction and discharge.
(2) A 200-liter oil drum, open at the top.
( 3) A 15 kg/ em 2 pressure gage.
(4) Appropriate hoses, piping, valves, and fittings .
(b) Hydrostatic Test Procedure
(1) Check that main is full of water and that all taps, service
connections and valves are closed. (Note: Asbestos-cement
and cement-mortar lined pipe .• wilL..s.oak up water for
several hours after they are filled.)
(2) With the oil drum full of water, start the pump and gradua-
lly build up to the test pressure (10.5 kg/cm2 or 150 per
cent of maximum operating pressure, whichever is greater.)
(3) When the pressure gage indicated that test pressure has
been achieved, adjust the by-pass valve until reading of
the pressure gage remains constant at the test pressure.
(4) Fill the oil drum to a predetermined mark near the top.
(5) Continue to run the pump for the full duration of th~
test (2 hours). Do not stop the pump during the test.
Visually inspect joints for leakage during this time.
(6) Measure the drop in water lev(H and compute the volume
of water pumped. This is the .amount of leakage. It may
not exceed .077 liters per mm of diameter per kilometer
o.f length per hour. If leakage is excessive, determine the
7-35
cause ·and make repairs; then repeat the pressure test.
(7) If any pipe breaks or any joints are blown apart to the
extent that the test cannot be continued, make the neces-
sary repairs, rechlortnate and retest.
(8) As an alternative to the use of an oi} .drum to measure
leakage, a 13 rom water meter of known accuracy may be
installed ahead of the discharge valve.
(c) Flushing Proc~ure
( 1) After a satisfactory test has been accomplished, open a

valve or tap at the lowest point on the pipeline and flush
the main by opening an isolating valve, to get rid of
strong chlorinated water.
(2) When a strong chlorine taste or odor is no longer present
in water coming out of the tap of hydrant, close it and
put the line fully in service.
7.4 LEAKAGE CONTROL AND REPAIRS
7 .4.1 Mainline Breaks
Occasionally, a pipeline that has been in service for years will suddenly
break, often completely disrupting the distribution system hydraulics and
causing localized flooding or washing out of streets, with widesread disruption
of . water service. Such major outages generally involve a broken pipe, or\parting
of joints due to movement of a fitting. Such failure, no matter what hour of
the day, should be treated as a serious emergency requiring immediate, all-out
effort by all members of the utility staff to get the leakage under control and
the break repaired. "Mainliners" occur from many causes including the follo-
wing:
* Advanced stage of corrosion of steel or cast iron mains
* Unusual surges in pre~sure
* Unusually heavy traffic loads
* Undermining the thrust blocks by nearby excavations
* Settlement of pipe due to changes in drainage of the surrounding
area.
* Earthquakes and floods
There are no short cuts in repairing mainline breaks. The section of a main
must be isolated and pernument repairs made. There is a natural temptation to
to repair a mainline break by pouring concrete around the pipe or fitting. This
almost never works, for two reasons: ( 1) Concrete shrinks as it hardens, opening
I
a pathway for water to leak out between the piep and cdncrete, and (2) Con-
crete is very strong in compression but vey weak in tension. Therefore, the
water pressure will break i~ apart. In the end, the concrete will have to be
removed, and the repairs II\ade properly, prolonging the time the main is out
7-36
of service and requiring a great deal of unnecessary work for the operations and
maintenance personnel.
Another improper method of leak repair is to wrap the pipe with rubber
strips. This may stop the leak but will not be effective if even a slight improve-
ment of pressure occurs, or the leak hole becomes even slightly larger.
7 .4.1.1 Broken Pipe
(a) Isolate the section of mam by closing the nearest isolating

valves.
(b) Excavate around the broken pipe, carrying the excavation
beyond the joints on either side of the break, and thoroughly
dewater the excavation.
(c) Install two short lengths of pipe of the same type and size,
with a flexible coupling. (Note: For a clean break with no
longitudirial cracks, a full-circle repair clamp may be used.)
(d) If the pipe is made of PVC or asbestos-cement, it may be
unc.overed for several lengths on each side of the break, and a
new length worked in by deflection of several joints.
(e) After repair, flush and chlorinate the pipeline as previously
described for new pipe. Hydrostatic testing is not required,
however, the normal working pressure should be applied to
the line before back-filling.
7.4.1.2 Movement of Fitting. Usually the fitting can be placed back into
the correct location without extesnive excavation.
(a) Isolate the section of main by closing the nearest isolating

valves.
(b) Excavate around the fitting and dewater the excavation.
(c) Break 'out and remove the concrete thrust block.
(d) Maneuver the fitting back into the proper position after making
sure that pipe ends have not been damaged. Ensure that the
joint is properly made, with rubber rings, if any, properly
seated in the joint grooves.
(e) If movement was apparently caused by under mining of a
thrust block due to nearby excavation, it may be necessary
to uncover several lengths of pipe on both sides of the fitting
and install joint restraints as previously discussed in this section.
(f) If the cause of movement is not apparent, excavate behind the
fitting, break our the existing thz-vst block and install a larger
one against undisturbed earth.
(g) Afteli the repair is completed, flush and disinfect the entire
pipeline as previously described for new mains.
7-37
7 .4.2 Chronic Leaks
7 .4.2.1 General. The term chronic leak, is applied to those small leaks that
form from day-to-day, tending to go unnoticed and unrepaired. Each
chronic leak may account for only a few liters of water loss each day.
Taken together, however, their combined effect can add up to a
serious loss of water; accounting for as much as half of all water
production in some poorly maintained systems.
The more common types of chronic leaks include:
* Holes in pipe walls due to corrosion.
* Leaking joints.
* Leakage through closed drain or blowoff valves.
* Dripping faucets, hydrants, service connections, etc.
Generally, the conditions that cause one leak in a pipeline will
cause many others in the same area; for example, localized areas of
corrosive soil or where poor workmanship was employed when the
main was originally laid. For that reason, a leak location map should
be mounted on a wall in the utility office. It consists of a map
showing all pipelines in the distribution system; ideally at a scale not
smaller than 1:6000, Whenever a leak is located and repaired, a
colored map pin or a larger colored ink dot (using a different color
for each year) is placed at the location on the map; together with the
date of discovery. Leaky mains can then be spotted and scheduled
for replacement.
7.4.2.2 Locating Leaks. Most leaks are discovered by alert utility employees
who observe and report all visible leaks, or clues to buried leaks, in
the course of their regular daily duties. General areas of excessive
leakage can be determined by periodic leakage surveys discussed later
in this section, but there is no substitute for an observant utility
staff.
(a) Above-Ground Leaks
Above ground leaks are the easiest to spot and, at the same
time, the ones most likely to go unrepaired. The most common
of these include:
* Worn packing at valves stems, or loose bonnet bolts

* Service connection leaks due to corrosion at service
piping threads
* Dripping air/vacuum valves, due to improper seating of
floats
* Dripping hose bids due to worn-out washers
* Leaking hydrants, due to worn-out gaskets
--
7-38
/
,, -- ... ',
.. , .. ..
.....
''
, '
,, 'I
, ..
.. , I
'
I
,,
..
I
.. ..
.. ..
- , ..
..
,
.. ..
,
,,'--- ... ,
I
, ' ' \ , ,
I \ ,
' 'I ,,
I
I
\
I
I ,
, ..
, ,
- ... -----
\ I , ..
',
.....,, ..
\ I ,
' ..... _____ .,

.. "'
LEAK REPAIR CLAMP
-.
7-39
-
{b) Buried leaks
There is no single, fool-proof way of locating small buried

leaks. There are several visible clues to underground leakage,
however, including:
* Standing water or muddy areas in the vicinity of pipe-

lines that cannot be accounted for by recent rains or
-
surface waste-water drainage.
* Water in valve boxes.
* Patches of abnormal grass growth in the vicinity of a
*
pipeline.
Inflow of water to excavation when installing new ser-
vice connections.
-
Often such conditions occur at some distance from the
actual leak location as the water travels along the pipe before
working up toward the surface.
When a buried leak is suspected, a leak detector may be

used to pinpoint its exact location. There are many kinds of
leak detectors available, and the manufacturer's instruction
booklet should be consulted for details of operation. Generally,
-
they are of little use in searching for leaks over large general
areas since they are subject to outside interference such as
traffic noise.
7 .4.2.3 Repairing leaks. Small leaks are usually repaired without interrup-
tion of service. If shutting down the main is necessary, it should be
done only in the presence of the supervisor in charge of maintenance.
It is not necessary to flush and chlorinate a main after repair of leaks
unless the repair involved opening of the pipeline such as when
-
replacing a length of pipe or a fitting.
(a) Above-Ground leaks

-
Most above-ground leaks result from deterioration of
washers, packing or gaskets. When replacing these, make sure
that all seat surfaces are clean and smooth. Tighten only
enough to prevent leakage, without excessive compression. Un-
like packing around pump shafts, valve packing should he tigh-
tened until there is no leakage. Never use leather for making
gaskets or packing, since it provides a good breeding medium
for bacteria.
...,
(b) Holes in Pipe Walls due to Corrosion
( 1) !\lake up repair clamp a shown in the illustration. .--..

(2) Clean the pipe around the leak to provide a smooth,
7-40
j
clean surface.
(3) Assemble the repair clamp loosely around the pipe near,
but not over, the leak.
(4) Slide the clamp over the leak, check gasket seating and
tighten snugly.
(c) Leaking Joints
When repairing leaking joints of pipe or fittings, observe

the following rules:
* Have all required equipment and materials available
at the site before starting work.
* Excavate around the leak.
* Close the nearest isolating valves as directed by the
supervisor.
* Open a hydrant or tap to relieve line pressure.
* After completion of repairs, flush and clorinate as
previously described for new mains, if repair proce-
dure required opening the pipe.
,.r
( 1) Asbestos-Cement Pipe Joints, Milled Pipe Method
(i) Excavate at the joint and for a full pipe length on one
side.
(ii) Dewater the excavation.
(iii) Break and remove the coupling at the leaking joint,
being careful not to damage the pipe ends.
(iv) Inspect pipe ends for damage (when an asbestos-cement
pipe joint has been leaking for some time, the water
leaking out often erodes a groove in the pipe end).
- (v) Remove one pipe length.

(vi) If MOAs are available (i.e., lengths of pipe "Milled-
over-All", or machined throughou~ their length to the
diameter of the joint setting surface), install one full
length or two half length MOA's by sliding collars all
the way into each end, inserting into the line and slid-
ing couplings into final position.
Swabbing the milled, or spigot end of any pipe with
soapy water immediately before making up a rubber
ring joint will permit easier jointing and reduce the
possibility of displacing the rubber ring due to friction.
(vii) If MOAs are not available, remove one pipe length and
mill one end to the diameter at the joint seating surface
at least 30 em back from the pipe end. Then, slide one
collar back on the milled pipe end, insert the pipe length
into the line, and push the collar into position.
(viii) Be sure that collar is centered over the joint and check
the seating of rubber rings using a depth gage.
(2) .Asbestos-Cement Pipe Joints, Deflection Method. Applic-
7-41
1
f {
...
,.
-...J b :J
INSERTING
-lbi
a NEW LENGTH OF PIPE
J 6
.i:.
1\)
INSERTING REPAIR SLEEVES
s J I! J 3
...._
& ]I Q: :J3 3
'
L: lrl : :=bd 6
b --
..,..._
1164 ., -trilL ~
lNSERTING A NEW LENGTH
A.C.PIPE
b Cd D 3
-.1 .J J / . .i ~ ,. , ,I I. j
able only to pipes up to 8 inches.
(i) Excavate a total of three pipe lengths (one length on

one side of the leaking joint and two on the other).
(ii) Remove the center pipe by deflecting the two outer
lengths upward and away from the center length. This
can be accomplished by attaching a rope sling on the
center section and lifting carefully, with a crane or
hoist. If hoisting equipment is not available, pass several
ropes under center section and lift by manpower, being
careful to keep the center section level as it is raised.
Try to avoid pulling apart joints other than the leaking
one.
(iii) Inspect the pipe ends and collar at the leaking joint and
replace pipe length, collar, or rubber ring as required.
(iv) Lower the pipe while guiding the repaired joint into
proper position.
(v) Check seating of rubber rings in all disturbed joints,
using a depth gage.
(3) Ductile or Cast Iron Pipe, Rubber-Ring Joints.
.....- This type of leak usually results from improper seat-

ing of a rubber ring at the time of installation, or excessive
deflection of the joint, resulting in pushing out of the
rubber ring. Check for this with a depth gage and, if found
to be the problem, center the pipe in the bell by the use
a wedge or pry-bar and push the rubber ring into the
groove using a Llunt edged metal bar or hardwood stick.
Never use a screw driver or chisel. If joint deflection is
excessive, excavate along the pipe in both directions, ad-
justing deflections at the other joints. If the leakage
results from damage of pipe ends or rubber rings, it will
be necessary ,to replace a pipe length- or rubber rings by a
prpcedure similar to that used for asbestos-cement pipe
(deflection method).
(4) Ductile or Cast Iron Pipe, Caulked Joints.
(i) Excavate at the leaking joint.
(ii) Place blocks or timber under the pipe on both sides at
the joint to prevent movement.
(iii) If cement caulked, chip out cement using a chisel.
(iv) If lead caulked, and leak is not too big, recaulk the
joint. using lead wool if necessary. If the leak is large,
and the original lead cannot be successfully recaulked it
must all be burned out with an oxygen-acetylene torch
and either repoured full of lead then caulked, or caulked
tight with damp cement.
When melted lead comes into contact with water
'or even damp surfaces such as a wet board it explodes
and flies around. When working with molten lead ex-
7-43
treme caution and all possible protection such as goggles
or a face mask, heavy gloves and covering clothing must
be used.
(5) Screwed Steel Pipe Joints
Leaks at screwed joints, generally result from·corrosion
of pipe at threads. This can be easily corrected by welding
or brazing. If portable welding equipment is not available,
cut the pipe about 30 em from the joint, remove the short
piece from the joint, thread and remaining end, and install
a 30-cm piece threaded at both ends using a union at the
location of the cut.
(d) Leakage Through Closed Valves

-
Closed valves generally leak because of the following:
* Buildup of cemented silt in seats, preventing complete
closure.
* Buildup of rust or mineral deposits on edges of discs.
* Corrosion of discs or seats.
The first two problems can be corrected by opening the
valves fully and thoroughly cleaning the seat and disc with a
wire brush.
When the disc has become corroded to the extent of allow-
ing passage of water, it is necessary to replace it. If leakage
results from ptting of the seat, it may be necessary to replace
the valve.
7.5 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

-
7 .5.1 General
Maintenance of the distribution network must be carried ottt--'On a

continuous, systematic basis.to ensure that every part of the system will receive
the same amount of care as every other part.
This is best accomplished by dividing the utility's service area into con-
veniently sized maintenance districts and concentrating routine maintenance
effort in these, one at a time, on a regularly scheduled basis.
The most convenient size of maintenance district has been found to be
one that includes about 500 houses or 2.5 km. of pipelines; whichever results
in the smallest area.
7.5.2. Distribution System Records
Continuing maintenance records are essential since they show progress of

deterioration of any item, and also aid in scheduling routine maintenance. Dis-
tribution records are discussed in detail later in this section.
7-44
able only to pipes up to 8 inches.
1-
(i) Excavate a total of three pipe lengths (one length on
one side of the leaking joint and two on the other).
(ii) Remove the center pipe by deflecting the two outer
lengths upward and away from the center length. This
can be accomplished by attaching a rope sling on the
center section and lifting carefully, with a crane or
hoist. If hoisting equipment is not available, pass several
ropes under center section and lift by manpower, being
careful to keep the center section level as it is raised.
Try to avoid pulling apart joints other than the leaking
one.
(iii) Inspect the pipe ends and collar at the leaking joint and
replace pipe length, collar, or rubber ring as required.
(iv) Lower the pipe while guiding the repaired joint into
proper position.
(v) Check seating of rubber rings in all disturbed joints,
using a depth gage.
(3) Ductile or Cast Iron Pipe, Rubber-Ring Joints.
-- This type of leak usually results from improper seat-

ing of a rubber ring at the time of installation, or excessive
deflection of the joint, resulting in pushing out of the
rubber ring. Check for this with a depth gage and, if found
to be the problem, center the pipe in the bell by the use
a wedge or pry-bar and push the rubber ring into the
groove using a blunt edged metal bar or hardwood stick.
Never use a screw driver or chisel. If joint deflection is
excessive, excavate along the pipe in both directions, ad-
justing deflections at the other joints. If the leakage
results from damage of pipe ends or rubber rings, it will
be necessary ,to replace a pipe length-or rubber rings by a
pr9cedure similar to that used for asbestos-cement pipe
(deflection method).
(4) Ductile or Cast Iron Pipe, Caulked Joints.
(i) Excavate at the leaking joint.
(ii) Place blocks or timber under the pipe on both sides at
the joint to prevent movement.
(iii) If cement caulked, chip out cement using a chisel.
(iv) If lead caulked, and leak is not too big, recaulk the
joint. using lead wool if necessary. If the leak is large,
and the original lead cannot be successfullv recaulked it
must all be hurned out with an oxygen-acetylene torch
and either repoured full of lead then caulked, or caulked
tight with damp cement.
When melted lead comes into contact with water
'or even damp surfaces such as a wet board it explodes
and flies around. When working with molten lead ex-
7-43
treme caution and all possible protection such as goggles
or a face mask, heavy gloves and covering clothing must
be used.
(5) Screwed Steel Pipe Joints
Leaks at screwed joints, generally result from·corrosion
of pipe at threads. This can be easily corrected by welding
or brazing. If portable welding equipment is not available,
cut the pipe about 30 em from the joint, remove the short
piece from the joint, thread and remaining end, and install
a 30-cm piece threaded at both ends using a union at the
location of the cut.
(d) Leakage Through Closed Valves
Closed valves generally leak because of the following:

* Buildup of cemented silt in seats, preventing complete
closure.
* Buildup of rust or mineral deposits on edges of discs.
* Corrosion of discs or seats.
The first two problems can be corrected by opening the
valves fully and thoroughly cleaning the seat and disc with a
wire brush.
When the disc has become corroded to the extent of allow-
ing passage of water, it is necessary to replace it. If leakage
results from ptting of the seat, it may be necessary to replace
the valve.
7.5 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
7.5.1 General
Maintenance of the distribution network must be carried mrt-(m. a

continuous, systematic basis !O ensure that every part of the system will receive
the same amount of care as every other part.
This is best accomplished by dividing the utility's service area into con-
veniently sized maintenance districts and concentrating routine maintenance
effort in these, one at a time, on a regularly scheduled basis.
The most convenient size of maintenance district has been found to be
one that includes about 500 houses or 2.5 km. of pipelines; whichever results
in the smallest area.
7.5.2. Distribution System Records
Continuing maintenance records are essential since they show progress of

deterioration of any item, and also aid in scheduling routine maintenance. Dis-
tribution records are discussed in detail later in this section.
7-44
INSERTING RUBBER RING INTO
BELL OF STAB-ON CAST IRON
PIPE
CHECKING THAT RUBBER

GASKET IS PROPERLY PLACED
CHAMFERING SPIGOT END OF

PIPE TO ASSURE A GOOD
RUBBER RING JOINT
7-45
...
7 .5.2.1 Maps. The following maps are the minimum required for any distn-
bution system. Utilities which serve more than about 100,000 popu-
lation will often require additional maps; grouping maintenance
districts into sectors, pressure zones or other divisions of the system.
(a) Comprehensive Map (Scale 1 :5000) showing all pipelines, reser-

voirs, pump stations, water sources and maintenance district
boundaries.
(b) Sectional Plats (scale 1:1000) showing locations of mains,
valves, hydrants, services and appurtenances. Each map is de-
signated by a letter or numeral. Limits of the area shown are
outlined on the comprehensive map.
7.5.2.2 Valve and Hydrant Numbering. Each valve and hydrant is given a
number consisting of the sectional plat designation and a number.
For example: a valve numbered 12 and located in Sectional Plat E-5
would be identified as valve No. E-5-12.
7 .5.2.3 Record Cards
(a) Valve Record Card (Gate Sheet)

Prepared for each valve in the system.
(b) Hydrant Record Card
-
7 .5.2.4
Prepared for each fire hydrant in the system.
Leak Report Forms

-
Prepared in duplicate whenever a leak is reported or observed.
One copy filed in a leak file in ·the utility office and one copy placed
in a special box for attention of maintenance supervisor. Bottom
section filled in by the operator when repairs are made, stapled to -
the original copy and placed in the leak file .
_.....
/.
.. .
7 .5.3.1 Flushing Mains. Every main \vith a dead end should be thoroughly
flusht>d at least twice each year to dispose of accumulated silt and
stagnant water. This is accomplished by opening a hydrant or blow-
off at the end of the main and allowing water to flow to waste.
Direct the water to a drainage ditch in order to avoid creating a
public nuisance. (The discharge may be discolored, with a musty
odor. This indicates that flushing should be done more often.) Allow
water to discharge until all discoloration and odor disappears.
Report to the utilit\ management, the estimated quantity of water
chscharged. The amount of water discharged, in liters, is estimated
by noting the time in seconds, and multiplying by the discharge rate
shown in Table 7-6. (The discharge rates shown in the table are an
approximate average. H?wever, this is close enough for estimating
purposes.)
7-46
TABLE 7-6
DISCHARGE FROM HYDRANTS AND BLOWOFFS
Diameter Free
of Opening Discharge
---~Etj __ 'Liters/sec.\
_\..: _____::..1__
50 30
62 '
75
w
70
100 120
150 270
7.5.3.2 Isolating Valves. Establish a schedule of routine maintenance, by

districts, so that every valve in the distribution system receives close
attention at least once each year.
(a) Operate isolating valves in both directions, fully closed and fully
open. Note and show on Valve Record Card, the position of
valve, i.e. open or closed, and the number of turns required to
go from fully-open to fully-closed position.
(b) If the number of turns required to go from fully open to fully
closed is less than the number shown at the top of the Valve
Record Card, silt has probably built up in the seat. In that case
open the valve 3-5 turns and induce flow through it by opening
a nearby hydrant or blowoff.
(c) Check packing or 0-ring for leakage. Tighten or replace, as
required. This may be done under pressure if the valve is tightly
closed. Some valves are so designed that there is n<. pressure on
the packing gland when the valve is fully open.
(d) Check valve box; cleaning, replacirrg, raiS'fug or lowering, as
requir~d. Install new lid if necessary.
(e) Do not leave valve in fully-open or fully-closed position, but
back off 1-2 turns. This serves two purposes: ( 1) Valve stem
will not be left under stress, and (2) the next time it is operated,
it will be easy to determine if the valve is open or closed.
I 7 .5.3.3 Special Purpose Valves. Inspect all special purpose valves at least
once each year, in addition to normal day-to-day observation.
(a) Check for leakage through packing 0-rings or at opening.

(b) Remove and clean strainers on diaphragm type valves (altitude,
pump control and pressure relief valves).
(c) Check air/vacuum valves for leakage past float. If necessary,
open valve and clean float and seating surface.
r 7-47
...
7.5.3.4 Fire Hydrants. Lstal>lish a routine maintenance schedule so that

every hydrant is operated and inspected at Least once every six
months.
(a) Check for leaks below ground with a sounding bar.

(b) Open and close, noting any difficulty of operation and checking
for water tight closure.
(c) Check condition of tuming nut, cap, chain and outlet threads.
Repair or replace as required.
(d) If paint is maintained by the utility, touch up or repaint (this is .....,
sometimes the responsibility of the fire department).
(e) Clear off any weeds or high grass around the hydrant, that may
hide it when there is a fire.
(f) Note the date of inspection and repairs, if any, on the Hydrant
7.5.4
Record Card.
Pressure Surveys
-
7.5.4.1 General. Once each year, a survey is carried out to determine svstem
pressures throughout the distribution network. This provides valua-
tion information about the condition of the system, including ·
* Location of any large leaks

* Blocked pipelines
* Undersized mains
* Condition of interior pipe walls
7.5.4.2 Procedure. Survey teams read pressures at many points on the distri-
bution system at two times of day; during late night hours when
demand is at a minimum and during the day when demands are high.
Pressure readings are recorded on a suitable map of the distribu-

tion system and pressure contours drawn for each of the fWt> sets of
readings. Any irregularities in the pressure contour intervals indicate
possible system hydraulics problems.
-
7 .5.4.3 Reading Pressures. Pressures are read at fire hydrants, public faucets
or, when necessary, at faucets on customer's property. The illustra-
tion shows three types of pressure gage assemblies. All three types
should be carried by each survey team.
Pressures are recorded at every street intersection (and at inter-

mediate points, if streets are far apart).
Night pressures are read between the hours of midnight and

4:00A.M. Daytime pressures are read between 8:00A.M. and 6:00
P.M.
(a) Form as many two-man survey teams as possible, each equipped

with pressure gages and copies of sectional plat maps.
7-48
(b) Begin reading pressures at the regulating reservoir(s) or pump
station(s) and work outward. (If the service area is too large to
complete the survey in a single day, concentrate efforts in one
direction away from a reservoir or pump station one day, and in
another direction on the next day.) Show pressures on the
sectional plat as they are read, accurately pinpointing the exact
location. Read pressures to the nearest 1.0 meter or 1-2 psi.
(c) Whenever possible, read pressures on a long pipeline along its
entire length without interruption, proceeding in one direction.
(d) Transfer all pressure readings to a copy of the comprehensive
map. Use two different colored pencils to indicate night and
day pressures.
(e) Pressure recording gages, using 24-hour charts, placed at strate-
gic points in the system will add accuracy and depth to the data
obtained concerning the dynamics and conditions of the
system.
7 .5.4.4 Evaluation of Pressure Survey
(a) Connect all points on the map having the same pressure (say, at
intervals of 0.5 kg/cm2) by a light, colored pencil line. Repeat
for each pressure. Use different colored lines for night pressures
and day pressures.
(b) Squeezing together of two contours may indicate a blockage of
a main or it may simply indicate a false pressure reading.
(c) If several contours are narrowly spaced across a pipeline it indi-
cates one of three things:
( 1) If occuring on both the night and day contours, there is a
very large leak in the main.
(2) If occurring on the day contours only, the pipeline is
undersized (if a steel or cast iron main, the pipe walls may
be badly corroded).
(3) If occurring on night contours· only;-'there are probably
f!lany leaks in the main.
(4) The regulating reservoir level will drop as the day
progresses. This will progressively affect the pressure read-
ings but will not cause the kind of sharp changes that indi-
cate pipeline problems; provided that work progresses
steadily without interruption, in one direction .
7 .5.5 Leakage Surveys
7.5.5.1 General. Leakage surveys are not done on a regular routine basis, but
only when water losses become excessive.
At least once each year, the utility compiles the total amount
of water sold during the previous period. The amount of water lost
through flushing of mains, hydrant flow tests, fire-fighting and drain-
ing of reservoirs is estimated at the time such work is carried out, and
reported ~o the utility management promptly. This public use of
7-49
....,__ _ _ ELEV. STORAGE TANK
100FT. - 70FT. '\n
(43 PSI- 30 PSIV
-.J
u..
0
HIGH PRESSURE 60 PSI

t.OW PRESSURE !56 PSI
\] PRESSURE RECORDING GAGES
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
OBTAINING PRESSURE PROFILES TO DISCOVER PROBLEM AREAS
J J J J J J J J J J
RUBBER STOPPER
WITH SMALL HOLE
PRESSURE GAGE HELD TIGHTLY

AGAINST THE FAUCET OPENING
'
HYDRANT ABQ~ GROUND
HYDRANT BELOW
STREET LEVEL
7-51
water is ca.llerl "Estimate·! Loss". The difference between the total
ann!Jal \\ater production and water metered to users is known as un-
accounted-for-water. The difference between unaccounted-for-water
and T·,stimated Loss is called "Unknown Loss".
Whenever unaccounted-for-water reaches 25 percent of total
production, losses are excessive and should be corrected by a major
leakage su1vcy and repair program.
;'\! onnall y, leakage surve\ s will be done several years apart. They
are cumbersome, time-consuminf; and expensive. Therefore, day-to-
day ouservation and repair \) r leaks should not be neglected, since
neglect will not only hasten the need for a leakage survey but will
also result in unnecessary loss of water and revenue.
7 .5.5.2 Procedure. The leakage survey consists of the fallowing steps:
(a) Surface Reconnaissance. Locating and repairing all visible -

leaks.
(b) Investigation and Repair of Valves. Checking for leakage
through closed valves and making repairs as required.
(c) Preliminary Flow Measurements. The distribution system is
divided into small test districts and flow into each monitored.
Flows are compiled for all test districts, and compared with
each other to locate those districts where the demands are
abnormally high.
(d) Preliminary Search and Repair. Districts having high leakage
are subjected to detailed leak searches, using leak detection
equipment, with repairs being made as required.
(e) Final Flow Measurements. Step (c) is repeated.
(f) Final Search and Repair. Step (d) is repeated.
It should be noted that the reason for repeating steps (c) and
(d) is that large leaks will "drown out" smaller ones during the
first stage.
7.5.5.3 Surface Reconnaissance. A general inspection should be made on

foot over the entire distribution system, with particular attention to
above-ground piping, valves, public standpipes, hydrants, and the like.
Any leak greater than 25 liters/day should be repaired before pro-
ceeding with the flow measurement stage.
7 .5.5.4 Investigation and Repair of Valves. Buried valves should be checked

during the surface reconnaissance phase, closing them one at a time
and listening with a sounding bar to ensure that no water is passing.
Any leaking valves should be excavated and repaired before the flow
measurement stage. Some of the valves will be used to isolate test
districts, and any leakage through these will cause a false picture of
demand in the district.
7-52
~- - - --- -- - - -- -- - -- -- - -
7.5.5.5 Preliminary Flow Measurements
(a) Method
Divide the distribution system into districts. If necessary,
install new valves as required to keep_each test district down to
an area containing no more than 500 houses or 2.5 km of pipe-
lines, whichever will result in the smaller district. Flow into
each district is cltecked at one hour intervals over a period of 72
hours. The inflow during each interval is recorded and later
converted to a percentage of the average hourly flow over the
72-hour duration of the test.
The minimum daily flow rates provide the best indication
of leakage. If the percentage observed during late night hours is
high compared with percentages in other districts, there is pro-
bably excessive leakage unless it can be explained by some
known demand such as an industry working during night hours.
(b) Mapping of System
Wherever the flow measurement survey indicates that leak-
age in a district is excessive, a map or sketch of the district is
prepared showing the locations, lengths and sizes of all water
- mains and valves. (Often a copy of the sectional plat is used.)

This is used in recording the locations of all leaks found during
the detailed leak search.
(c) Measuring Flow
(1) Choose a measuring location of one of the valves isolating
the test district, as near to a fire hydrant in the test district
as possible.
(2) Tap the pipeline on the side of the valve opposite the hy-
drant, and install a 50-mm corporation stop. In rare cases,
two fire hydrants will be available within a short distance
of each other and the pipeline tap wil not be necessary.
(3) Install a 50-75 mm by-pass (with a ~0-mm water meter)
between the tap on the pressure side of the isolating valve
and the fire hydrant on the test district.
(4) With the isolating valve closed, and the by-pass and hy-
drant open all inflow to the test district will pass through
the meter. Record the time and total meter reading at
the beginning and end of the test and every hour between
midnight and 6:00 A.M. for each of the three nights.
(5) At the end of the test period, calculate the following:
Average Hourly Flow, QA = RE - RB
Where RB = Meter reading at beginning of 72-hour

test period
RE = Meter reading at end of test period
T =Duration of test in hours (i.e., 72 hours)
7-53
l
~FIRE HYDRANT
"".,::.c:, ill
11 1
11 1
lj 71111lll,
1io I
I I
I I
50 mm CORPORATION COCK I I
I I
I I
I-\.~
(_ "'
·~,_,
~EASURING FLOW INTO AN ISOLATED

TEST DISTRICT OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
USING A BY-PASS AROUND AN ISOLATING VALVE
J ) 1 }
Hourly Demand, QH
!!~~!¥_!>~~~ QH = Rz - R1
Where Rz =Meter reading at end of hour
R =Meter reading at beginning of hour
1
PMIN = 2MIN_x .1 00%
QAv.
Where PMIN =Lowest hourly flow, expressed as

a percentage of average demand
~IN = Average of lowest hourly demand
recorded on each of the three nights
(6) Repeat steps (1) through (5) for each selected district, and
compile. These may be done one at a time or, if the neces-
sary men and equipment are available, in two or more
districts simultaneously.
- (7) Compare Minimum Flow Percentage of all test districts.

Where the percentage of one district is high in relation to
the others, a detailed leak search should be carried out and
all leaks repaired.
7 .5.5.6 Detailed Leak Search
(a) Select one of the test districts where a high percentage of water
is used during late night hours.
(b) Check to be sure that all valves are open.
(c) Using one of the leak detectors discussed earlier in this section,
search for leaks along each pipeline in ~ district. The leak
search should be carrie~ out during late hours when background
noise will be at a minimum. Notify local residents and police in
advance, in order to avoid creating any undue alarm.
(d) Record the location of all leaks encountered on the leak record
map discussed earlier in this section.
7-55
---~ -- --~- ~--

UNSCHEDULED
INSTALLING PIPE
Check off work items completed. Explain "NO" answers under "REMARKS"
7-56
7.3.3 LAYING PIPE
7.3.3.1 (a) Pipe laid with spigot ends in direction of flow or

with bell ends ahead? 0 0
7.3.3.1 (b) Pipe laid bells uphill? 0 0
7.3.3.2 Pipe protected when lowering into trench? 0 0
7.3.3.3 (a) Vegetable-base lubricants used with rubber

ring joints? 0 0
7.3.3.3 (a) Seating of rubber rings checked with feeler

gage? 0 0
7.3.3.3 (a) Any joints deflected excessively? 0 0
7.3.3.3 (b) PVC pipe ends clean before joining? 0 0
7.3.3.3 (b) PVC pipe (solvent welded) joined above

found? 0 0
7.3.3.3 (b) PVC pipe "snaked" in trench? 0 0
7.3.4 CONNECTIONS TO EXISTING PIPE
7.3.4.1 (b) Connections made at night? 0 0
7.3.4.1 (c) Connections made before !.tarting to lay pipe

line? 0 0
7.3.4.1 (d) Supervisor present when existing mains were

shut down? 0 0
7.3.4.3 (a,b) Concrete thrust blocks poured? 0 0

.... .. .. - ...JI'
7.3.4.3 (a,b) All service connections closed before flushing
and chlorinatin~ existing pipe? 0 0
7.3.4.3 (a,b) All air expelled from existing main before putting
back in service? 0 0
7.3.5 THRUST PROTECTION
7.3.5.1 (a) Concrete for thrust blocks mixed in proper pro-

portions? 0 0
7-57
/
7.3.5. 1 (b) Thrust blocks poured against undisturbed earth? 0 D
7.3.5.1 (c) Concrete kept out of pipe joints when pouring

thrust blocks? D D
7.3.5 .1 (c) Thrust blocks backfilled immediately after

pouring? D D
7.3.6 BACKFILLING
7.3.6.1 (a) Granular soil or sand under and around

non-metallic pipe? D D
7.3.6.1 (c,d) All fill thoroughly compacted? D D
7.3.6.2 (a) Fill free of rocks, large clods, sticks and

vegetation? D D
7.3.7 CHLORINATION, FLUSHING, TESTING
7.3.7.1 Small quantitites of pipe chlorinated by adding

chlorine powder? D D
7.3.7.2 Chlorine solution added continuously while filling

the pipe? D D
7.3.7 (1,2) Chlorinated water allowed to sit for 24 hours? D D
7.3.7 (1,2) Residual of 25 mg/1 after 25 hours? (if "NO",

explain action taken under "REMARKS). D D
7.3.7.3 (a) Suitable positive displacement pump used? D D
7.3.7.3 (b) Test conducted for two full hours? D D
7.3.7.3 (b) Test pressure maintained without inter-

ruption? - 0.... D
7.3.7 .3 (b) Leakage within allowable limits? D D
7.3 .7.3 (b) Leakage measured by volume of water pu mped out

of oil drum? (If "NO" explian method used under
"REMARKS)? D D
7.4.7.3 (c) Main thoroughly flushed after test? D D
7-58
7-59
7.5.4.2 Pressure check at two times of day? 0 0
7.5.4.2 Pressure readings recorded on a suitable map? 0 D
7.5.4.3 (a) Suitable pressure gages available? 0 0
7.5.4.3 (b) Pressure read to nearest 1.0 M? 0 0
7.5.4.3 (c) Pressures checked along the full length of each

pipeline without interruption? 0 0
7.5.4.3 (d) All pressure readings transferred to comprehensive

map in two colors? 0 0
_,. -- _ ,...,~~~:.
7-BO
ANNUAL
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
CHECK ONE
7.5.3 ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
7.5.3.1 Every dead end main flushed during the past

year? 0 0
7.5.3.1 Flushing water disposed of without creating

inconvenience to the public? 0 0
7.5.3.1 Dischar15e free o"f discoloration or odor? 0 0
7.5.3.1 - Quantity of water discharged estimated andre-

ported to the utility management? 0 0
7.5.3.2 (a) Every valve operated at least once during the

past year? · 0 0
7.5.3.2 (b) Number of turns counted and recorded on valve

record card? 0 0
7.5.3.2 (c) Packing or 0-ring checked for leakage? 0 0
7.5.3.2 (d) Valve box checked, cleaned and adjusted? 0 0

.... --- _ .,..-
7.5.3.2 (e) Was valve left at least one half tum from fully
open or fully closed position? 0 0
7.5.3.3 Every special purpose valve checked durin~, the

past year for proper operation, for leakage, wear,
damage or clogged strainers? 0 0
7.5.3.3 Manufacturer's instructions consulted for special

maintenance requirements of each type of special
purpose valve? 0 0
7-61
TABLE 7-10
PIPE THREAD DIMENSIONS
n = THREADS I CM.
TAPER THREADS STRAIGHT THREADS
NOM. ISO/ BSS/ JIS AWWA

PIPE
DIA.
IRITI
n D* p d n o* p d
9.5 7.48 15.806 1.337 0.856 7.48 17.145 1.412 I .073
I 3 5 . 51 19 . 793 1. 814 I .I 62 5.51 21 .336 1.814 1.3 79-
20 5.51 25 . 279 1.814 I .I 62 5 . 51 26.670 1. 814 1.379
25 4. 33 31.770 2 . 309 I . 479 4 . 53 33.401 2.21 0 1.6 8 0
32 4.33 40. 431 2.309 I .479 4. 53 42 . 164 2 . 210 1.680
40 4.33 46. 324 2.309 I . 479 4. 53 48.260 2.210 1.680
50 4.33 58.1 35 2.309 I .479 4.5 3 60.325 2.2 I 0 1.68 0
63 4. 33 73.705 2.309 I .479 3.1 5 73... 025...;. 3 . 1 75 2.4 1 3
75/80 4.3 3 86.405 2.309 I .479 3 . 15 88.900 3 . 1 75 2. 41 3
100 4. 33 Ill. 5 51 2. 309 I . 479 3 . 15 114.300 3. 1 75 2. 41 3
150 4 . 33 162.351 2 . 309 I .479 3. I 5 168. 275 3.175 2.413
I S0 - INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ORGANIZATION

BSS - BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
J IS - JAPANESE INDUSTRIAL STANDARD I
AWWA- AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION
7-62
- ""
SECTION 8: TREATMENT FACILITIES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.1 GENERAL 8-1
8.2 AERATORS 8-1
8.3 FILTERS 8-5
8.4 CHLORINATION EQUIPMENT 8-11
8.5 pH ADJUSTMENT EQUIPMENT 8-33
. .... - _,..,
\
~A
8.1 GENERAL
Large surface water treatment plants employ so many different kinds of

equipment and processes that it would be impossible to give a set of general
instructions for operation and maintenance of every type. Generally, when such a
plant is built, the design engineer or contractor will furnish a detailed operation
and maintenance manual prepared specifically for that plant.
This section describes operation and maintenance procedures only for the
kinds of facilities commonly used for treatment of water from wells and springs.
These include:
* Aerators (for oxidation of iron, and removal of dissolved gases, tastes and
odors)
* Filters (for removal of oxides, lime residue, etc.)
* Chemical mixers (mainly for addition of lime to adjust acidity )
* Chlorinators (for disinfection)
8.2 AERATORS
8.2.1 General
The basic function of an aerator is to break up a volume of water, ex-

posing each particle to air. This serves two important purposes : ( 1)
Oxygen in the air combines with elements in the water- iron, for exam-
ple -- to form solid particle oxides that will settle out, and (2) the mech-
anical agitation of individual water particles, combined with exposure
to air, releases dissolved gases, such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide,
from the water (a good illustration is the carbon dioxide gas that collects
at the top of a bottle of soft drink when it is shaken).
There are many ways of aerating water but the devices most commonly
used are: _ ...
* M4)tiple tray aerator

* Cascade aerator
* Air compressor and diffuser pipes
* Spray nozzles
8.2.2 Multiple Tray Aerators
Several wooden trays with slotted bottoms are stacked, one above the
other, with air spaces between them. Water is introduced at the top of
aerator and trickles down through successive trays, each tray breaking the
water up into small streams as it passes through the slots. Often, each
tray is filled with some irregularly shaped ·particles such as lime stone or
lumps of charcoal (coke), ceramic balls or specially mad e plastic shap es.
These particles, (aerator media) serve to break up the water into thin
sheets as water flows over and around them .
8-1
The velocity of flow onto layers of charcoal media will tend to break
off pieces which will lodge in the slots and restrict flow (this is particular-
ly experienced for the first few weeks after new charcoal is placed in the
trays). It will therefore be necessary to remove th aerator media from time
to time, and clean out the slots. This is most easily accomplished as
follows:
(a) Remove all media from the top tray and placed it in a container.
(Charcoal must not be dropped into the container, but rather placed
by hand; otherwise, individual pieces will be cracked on impact,
hastening the time when the slots will have to be cleaned out again.)
(b) Thoroughly clean the slots, using a thin iron bar, and sweep out the
tray with a stiff brush.
(c) Remove media by hand, piece-by-piece, from the next lower tray and
place it directly in the top tray, discarding all broken fragments.
(d) Clean the tray as in step (b) and repeat the process for successive
trays down to the bottom one.
(e) Place the container full of media removed in step (a) in the bottom
tray, piece-by-piece, discarding broken fragments.
It is suggested that all metal parts such as bolt heads, nuts, washers,
brackets, etc., be wire brushed and painted as needed, each time the
aerator is cleaned out.
8.2.3 Cascade Aerators

-
Aeration may be accomplished by allowing water to flow downward
over a series of steps or baffles.
Maintenance of cascade types consists only of occasional cleaning to

-
remove slime growths, deposited silt and sand. or built up mineral deposits.
8.2.4 Air Compressor and Diffusor Pipes
Diffusion aerators usually consis.t of a concrete tank with perforated

pipes, or diffuser tubes, near the bottom. Compressed air is injected into
the diffusor pipes to produce small bubbles in the water passing through
the basin and create turbulence. The air in the bubbles collects dissolved
gases and exposes water particles to oxygen as the bubbles rise to the sur-
face.
8.2.4.1 Maintenance of the concrete tank, valves nozzles and inlet·out-

let piping is carried out as described in other sections of this
manual. The diffuser pipes may he made of any one of a large
number of materials, shapes and sizes. M.aintenance of these
consists of occasional mechanical cleaning to remove en.crusted
mineral deposits and scale. Care should be exercised to avoid
I enlarging the air holes.
I --
8-2
---
.,
z
0
(f)
::::>
0
LL
LL
0
0:::
<!
0
•
z •
LLI
. : .. . ~ . .
• .
(!)
>- . 0
w
.•.••••
. ·....• •
• • • • • • •
•
•• •
~
••
(f)
(f)
w
•
0::
0....
~
8
Q .
.
z
0
~
0::
w
<(
w
_J
N
N
0
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~
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0....
(f)
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8-3
r
}
I .
INFLUENT MANIFOLD
DISTRIBUTION TRAY
I
I
I
WALKWAY AT
COLLECTOR LEVEL
1 ~--+t-;l:::±:t;- EFFLUENT FROM

AERATOR TO
CONTACT TANK
STEEL SUPPORT
STRUCTURE
A TRAY , TYPE AERATOR
8-4
8.2.5 Spray Nozzle Aerators
One of the most efficient means of aerating water is to spray it upward

into the air. Commonly, this is done using irrigation-type sprinklers.
Maintenance consists only of keeping the nozzle openings clear of built up
scale. ·
8.3 FILTERS
Generally, well or spring water is filtered only when the water is being
aerated for removal of iron, manganese, or large amounts of dissolved gases.
Rapid sand filters may be manufactured as a package unit in the form of a

steel tank with the filter unit in the bottom half and filtered water storage in the
top half. These may be of the gravity type or pressure type. Conventional filter
beds in a concrete basin are used for larger, higher capacity filters.
Operation is basically the same for all types of filters. Water flows down-
ward through layers of sand and some coarser medium such as anthracite coal
chips or gravel. The material being filtered out accumulates at, or just below, the
surface of the filter media and must occasionally be removed by backwashing, or
running water backward through the filter then towaste, to eliminate clogging
effect of eremoved material.
A log of filter operation should be kept at the treatment plant. The length
of filters runs should be noted by the operator. Changes in length of filter runs
may indicate changes in raw water quality, improper backwash rates, or in-
effective pretreatment.
8.3.1 Filtration Cycle
Water enters a typical gravity filter basin above the filter media of
granular material, usually sand. In recent years a combination of sand and
anthracite coal particles have come into use. Such a filter will produce
high quality water at higher filtration rates than_,. with
.. - _.....,_sand alone.
Ideally, the water enters the filter and flows vertically downwards
to the media, through the media, and into the effluent system with as
little cross current as possible.
The water flows down through the media, at a rate of 2 to 4 gal/min/

ft2 of surface area.
As a filter functions the media becomes partially clogged with the

particulate matter suspended in the applied water. This first occurs at or
near the media surface. When the surface is sufficiently clogged it will
crack under the weight of water above the media, and water passing
through the tiny cracks will deposit suspended particles further down into
the media bed.
Eventually, enough material has been deposited in the spaces between

the grains of media that the filter must be back washed in order to con-
tinu~ production of filtered water at the specified rate.
8-5
8.3.2 Backwash Cycle
Correct backwashing is essential to effective, trouble-free operation of

the filter units. When the filter is backwashed properly, the media bed is
fluidized and the grains rub together, dislodging all foreign particles,
which are then carried away by the backwash flow.
If the backwash rate is too great, filter media is carried away with the
wash water flow. If the backwash rate is too low, the bed will not be
completely fluidized and, therefore, will not be cleaned effectively.
The proper backwash rate depends on the type and composition of the
filter media. Generally, the rate will be about right when the surface of
the filter media rises 10-15 em during backwashing. This is accomplished
when the backflow rate is about 10 1/sec per square meter, or when the
backwash water is rising upward at the rate of 60 em per minutes. How-
ever, the exact rate must be determined by trial-and-error.
Disposal of wash water is sometimes a problem. It may be discharged

to a nearby stream or drainage ditch if this will not create a public
nuisance. Sometimes when the amount of raw water available is limited,
the washwater is recycled by discharging it into a large pit, or lagoon
where the heavier particles settle out, and the clarified water (supernatant)
is reintroduced ahead of the filter.
8.3.3 Filter Maintenance
8.3.3.1 Filter Tank-, Concrete and Piping. See section of the manual
dealing with Corrosion Control and Protective Coatings and
Reservoirs.
8.3.3.2 Filter Media. The most common problem with filter media is
clogging caused by improper backwashing wherein the media
is not effectively cleaned due to insufficient backwash rate.
The filter media becomes progressively more clogged until it
is a mass of mud and sand with flow channels through- wfi'ich
water passes without arw filtering action.
(a) Clogged Filters

The first indication of clogged filter media will be
increasingly shorter filtration cycles. The most common
causes of clogged filters are (a) formation of mud balls
due to insufficient backwash rate, and (b) cementing of
sand grains by lime residue, iron oxide, or slime growths.
( 1) Mud Balls
Mud balls are made up of suspended solids that
have been removed from the water and were not
removed during backwashing due to low backwash
I
rate of flow. When newly formed, they are small
and light, and may be found on the surface of the
filter media.' At this point they can be easily removed
by suction :h ose or by mechanically sifting the top
8 -6
RATE OF FLOW AND FILTER BED
LOSS OF HEAD GAGES t WASH TROUGHS
CONCRETE
FILTER TANK
OPERATING FLOOR - -- -----'

cp PRESSURE LINES TO
HYDRAULIC VALVES FROM
~ OPERATING TABLES
PIPE GALLERY FLOOR - - - - - "
INFLUENT TO F ILTERS
EFFLUENT TO CLEAR WELL

•
DRAIN CONTROLLER
BATTERY OF THREE FILTERS
\
FILTER SAND
STRAINERS
UNDERDRAIN PIPES
PRESSURE TYPE FILTER
8-8
_....Boil
E·xpa nded sand level
DIAGRAM OF SAND BOIL IN FILTER BED
_,. ... - __.,..
SKETCH SHOWING TYPICAL SURFACE CRACKS

IN TOP 3 IN. ' OF FILTER BEDS.
8-9
3-5 em of the filter media. This should be done
immediately when they become apparent, and the
backwash rate increased.
As the mud balls capture additional particles, they

grow and become heavier, tending to settle deeper
into the media bed with each backwash. If allowed
to reach this stage, they not only cause more clogging
of the media, but also lodge against strainers, and dis-
rupt the upflow of backwash water by forming chan-
nels in the media bed leaving more and more media
unwashed as the condition advances.
The problem of mud ball formation is easily

avoided by the use of proper backwash rates and
chlorination ahead of the filters to prevent slime
growth. --.
(b) Channeling of Water Through Media

This refers to opening of free water passages through the
filter media, usually starting at the tank walls. The result
of this is jetting of water upward through the sand in
localized areas due to:
* media completely clogged with mud

* excessive backflow rates
* broken underdrain diffusors -,
The only remedy is to remove the filter media, make
necessary repairs, then wash and replace the media.
(c) Temporary Remedies

Most problems with filter media can be alleviated,
if not corrected entirely, by the follow\ng methods.
{1) Rake the upper few centimeters of the filter media

with a garden rake, and start the backwash cycle. ---
Repeat raking and backwashing operation three or
four times.
(2) If problems persist, add a detergent such as caustic
soda (at a rate of 1 kg per square meter of filter
surface area) to the backwash water, making sure that
valves are closed so that detergent cannot back up
into filtered water storage piping. Repeat the back-
wash cycle several times until all traces of detergent
have been removed.
{d) Annual Filter Overhaul

Once each year, the filter units should lJe removed from
service and reconditioned as follows:
(1) Remove filter material, wash in a sand washer. Make

every effort to keep sand segreated from gravel or
anthracite .
..
8-10
I~
(2) Thoroughly wash down all interior surfaces of the
filter tank (see section of this manual on "Re-
servoirs").
(3) Make any necessary repairs to coatings of filter tank
and piping.
(4) Clean openings in distributor pipes and strainers,
removing all scale buildup.
(5) Clean bottom of tank (both bottom plates and under-
drain compartment, if any) with a vaccum cleaner.
This is extremely important because any particles left
in the tank will lodge in the strainers.
(6) Replace the filter media. It is especially important
that each layer of material be carefully levelled before
the next is placed. Under no circumstances should
sand or other material be added that is not identical
to the original material. (This can only be deter-
mined by a laboratory analysis.)
/'8.4 CHLORINATION EQUIPMENT
8.4.1 General
Chlorination is the most widely used means of disinfecting public water

supplies. The aim of disinfection is to kill any disease-causing micro-
organisms that might get into the water supply system.
r- There are two basic ways of introducing chlorine into the water: (1)
Hypochlorination, or the injecting of a chlorine solution, and (2) the
injection of pure chlorine gas.
There are many types of chlorinators, and the operator should refer
to the instruction manuals provided by the manufacturers of the specific
equipment he will operate. It is essential that the operator has a clear
understanding of the basic principles of chlorination and of the basic
operating procedures that are followed, regardless of the type of equip-
ment used. ·• · - - -
Chlorine handling safety is discussed in detail in a later section of this

Manual ("Work Safety"). The operator should be thoroughly acquainted
with the procedures, particularly the first aid measures given there.
( 8.4.2 Terminology of Chlorination
8.4.2.1 Chlorine Demand. There are many compounds in water that

will combine chemically with chlorine (such as ammonia, iron,
,.- manganese and hydrogen sulfide, tu name a few). The amount
of chlorine that reacts with these compounds, or chlorine
demand is not available for disinfection. Once the chlorine
demand of a given water is knoWJ?., the chlorine dosage needed
for disinfection can be established, taking it into account, and
feeding enough more that there· is always a measurable free
chl~rine residual at the farthest points of the distribution
system.
,.- 8-11
----------------------------------------------------------------~~----~----------------------~~----~~
_ _ This difference adjustable
to control flow
- - - - -·----??
(,
I~
'l·_-. : -
,
· ~~~~~·:
If
...~::-::// ~~~b~~bs~~ppers w/
Plastic bowl with r I
stone for weight ·· ·- - •..:v..J .~Y'---- f
.~ I
,/
I"~
\ _ !-'
....:.......__-1~
;.1
, - Flexible Polythelyne
' \r '/
tubino
To feed point---- , =~\\~t=====

· j
[@~-=·~==========:.::.j/
~ !L-Large
I; ~lastic garbage
can w cover
PROCEDURE
I. ADJUST MOVEABLE TUBE IN BOWL TO EMPTY 75% OF TOTAL
VOLUME IN 24 HOURS
2.CALCULATE LBS. OF CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE REQUIRED FOR
24 HRS. OF DOSAGE.
3. EACH DAY AT THE SAME TIME, BRING THE LIQUID LEVEL UP
TO THE SAME FULL MARK AND ADD THE CALCU'l.ATED
AMOUNT OF CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE.
4.1F FLOW RATE IS TOO LOW FOR 24 HRS. USE A 12 HOURS
CYCLE.
8-12
8.4.2.2 Chlorine Residual. The amount of chlorine available for dis-
infection after chlorine demand is satisfied.
8.4.2.3 Contact Time. This is the time required to kill a micro-
organism after chlorine first comes in contact with it. This time
varies from a few seconds to about two hours, depending on the
type of organism and the pH of the water. The term contact
time is also used to describe the time between if\iection of
chlorine and delivery of th chlorinated water to the consumers.
To be safe, at least 20 minutes contact time must be allowed.
8.4.2.4 Dosage. Dosage refers to the amount of chemical applied to the

water expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/1) or parts per
million (ppm). These terms may be used interchangeably, i.e.
1.0 mg/1 = 1.0 ppm.
8.4.2.5 Feed Rate. This is the rate, usually expressed in kg per hour or
kg per day, at which chlorine solution or gas is injected into the
water.
8.4.3 Hypochlorination
8.4.3.1 General. The term hypochlorination, refers to the injection of a

solution of a powdered or a liquid chlorine compound into the
water. (As opposed to the injection of chlorine gas.) This may
be accomplished by use of a hypochlorinator, a machine
designed to feed chlorine solution at constant, controlled rates.
Hypochlorinators may be operated electrically or by water
pressure.
Sometimes, as when there is no electrical power or water

pressure available, chlorine solution is fed into a clear well or
contact tank by gravity flow from a solution tank. In this case,
the feed rate is adjusted by throttling of a drip-feed valve.
No matter how the solution is ft:d, lhe operator will be

requireq to mix the chlorine solution in the proper proportions
to give consistent dosage rates.
8.4.3.2 Hypochlorite Solutions

(a) General. In addtion to chlorine gas, chlorine is commer-
cially available in powdered, granular or tablet form (calcium
hypochlorite) and liquid form (sodium hypochlorite). Of the
two, calcium hypochlorite is preferred. While a solution of
calcium hypochlorite is more difficult to prepare and leaves
a residue of calcium, it has several important advantages over
liquid chlorine solutions (such as household bleach):
(1} Longer Shelf-Life

Sodium hypochlorite solutions tend to lose their
strength, even in tightly closed .containers, within a fairly
short time. Calcium hypochlorite on the other hand,
ke·eps its full strength almost indefinitely as long as it is
kept in a closed cont ainer and dry.
8-13
-
(2) Less Storage Space Required
Calcium hypochlorite contains 70 percent usable (or
"available") chlorine, compared with 5-17 percent for
liquid chlorine. Therefore, liquid chlorine requires more
storage space than that needed for the same amount of
available chlorine in powdered form.
(3) Less Danger in Handling

While all forms of chlorine are dangerous if handled
carelessly, dry chlorine powder is not subject to spills or
splashing, arid therefore entails less danger to the eyes,
skin or clothing.
(b) Mixing Hypochlorite Solutions

( 1) General. Any chlorine solution contains acids and is
therefore very corrosive. The solution container
should be plastic, wood, ceramic or other non-cor-
rosive material.
Hypochlorite solution can damage the eyes or skin

and destroy clothing. Therefore it should be handled
with care. Rubber gloves and a rubber apron should
be worn while mixing.
If chlorine solution is splashed into the eyes or on

the skin, flush immediately with plenty of cold water.
(See section of this Manual on "Work Safety".)
If calcium hypochlorite is used, a 24-hour supply

of chlorine solution is prepared each day for use on
the following day. This allows time for impurities
and insoluble materials to settle out. Sodium hypo-
chlorite solution is preferable used the same day on
which it is mixed.
Follow the hypochlorinator manufacturer's re-

commendations on strength of solution. If none are
given, use a 2 percent solution; i.e., 2 parts available
chlorine per 98 parts water, by weight. (Dosage
calculations are described later in this section.)
(2) Calcium Hypochlorite
(i) Place the required amount of calcium hypo-
chlorite in a suitable container.
(ii) Make a thick paste by slowly adding to 2-3 liters
of water each kilogram of calcium hypochlorite
and stirring with a wood paddle.
(iii) Stir the paste, thoroughly breaking up all lumps
and being sure there are no dry pockets on sides,
bottom or corners of the container.
(iv) Fill the chlorine solution tank with the required
amount of water (taking into account the water
used in making the chlori!te paste), add chlorine
paste and stir with the p~ddle as the tank fills.
8-14
(3) Sodium Hypochlorite
Since this is already in the liquid form , it needs
only to be poured into the solution tank and mix~d
with the required amount of water.
/
(4) Chlorine solutions are normally made not stronger
than 2 percent for two principal reasons, ( 1) chlorine
solutions are corrosive, and (2) chlorine fumes escape
from the solution to the surrounding atmosphere at
a rate dependent, among other factors, on the
strength of solution, its temperature, and exposure
to sunlight. In this case 2 percent solution is sug-
gested because it is strong enough that batches do not
have to be prepared more often than once or twice
per day, yet the fumes can be contained by a simple
plyboard lid on the solution tank. The solution will
be corrosive but can be stored in a concrete tank,
especially if it is cleaned each week and whitewashed
with lime.
(c) Calculating Proportions, Dosage and Feed Rates

This is best explained by numerical examples.
- (1) Suppose it is desired to inject a 2 percent solution of

calcium hypochlorite to a flow of 100 1/s at 4 dosage
rate of 1.0 mg/1. Find the amounts of calcium hypo-
chlorite and water required for a 24-hour supply
and determine the feed rate setting of the
hypochlorinator.
(i) Required amount of available chlorine:
= 1.0 mg/1 x 100 1/s x 3600 sec/hr x 24 hr
= 8~640,QOO Dig~ or ~.64 kg/day ·
(ii) Required amount of calcium hypochlorite :
Since calcium hypochlorite contains only
70 percent available chlorine:
I Required amount of . calciDm hypochlorite =

8.64 kg...;- 0. 70 = 12.34 kg
(iii) Required wat~r = 8~64 kg available chlorine
x 98 kg= 423.4 kg or 423.4 liters.
2
Therefore, it would be necessary to mix"
12.34 kg of calcium hypochlorite in 423.4
liters of water. In practice, these quantities
would be rounded off to 12.5 kg and 450
liters, respectively, resulting in a negligible error
in the dosage rate (1.01 mg/1 vs. 1.00 mg/1).
(iv) Required Feed Rate of solution
Feed Rate = 462.5 kg solution x day =
day , 24 hours
I
19.3 kg/hour
--
8-15
(2) Suppose it is desired to inject a solution of 15 percent
sodium hypochlorite product at a dosage rate of 1.0
mg/1 to a flow of 100 1/s. Find the amounts of liquid
chlorine and water required for a 24-hour supply and
determine the feed rate setting of the hypochlori-
nator.
(i) Required amount of available chlorine
= l.O mg/1 x 100 1/s x 3600 s/hr x 24 hr
= 8,640,000 mg/day = 8.64 kg/day
(ii) Required amount of liquid chlorine: Since the
liquid chlorine contains only 15 percent (in this
example) : Required amount 15% liquid
chlorine product= 8.64 kg x 1

day 0.15
= 57.6 kg/day
= 57.6liters of 15% chlorine product per day
(iii) Required Water:
A 2 percent solution requires 98 kg of water
for each 2 kg of available chlorine. Therefore:
Total water in solution to be fed
8.64 kg available chlorine x 98
-2-
423.4 kg or 423.4 liters
However, the liquid chlorine itself contains

(57 .6 kg - 8.64 = 48.96) kg of water. -.. ~
Therefore, additional water required is: (Total
Water - water in liquid chlorine) or 423.40
liters - 48.96 = 374.44 liters
In practice, 60 liters of liquid chlorine would
be mixed with 380 liters of water (giving a
dosage rate of 1.04 mg/1 vs. 1.00 mg/1). · _ ,.,..
(iv) Required Feed Rate:
Feed Rate = 440 kg of sol./ day= 18.33 kg/hour
24 hrs/day
or liters of 2% soL/hour
8.4.3.3 Maintenance of Hypochlorination Equipment
The most frequent problem encountered in case of hypo-

chlorinators is clogging at points where solution flow is
restricted. This is more likely to be a problem where calcium
hypochlorite is used than where sodium hypochlorite is used,
because there are insoluble particles in calcium hypochlorite
and none in sodium. This problem is especially troublesome if
the water is fairly hard or contains iron.
8-16
' \~~~
s~\, (l~
(a) Daily Maintenance , c' G)J'
( 1) Flush all vital parts with clear water.
(2) R~move strainer, flush and clean with a stiff,
vegetable-fiber brush.
(3) Flush out chlorine solution lines with fresh water.
[ -
(b) Every Six Months
( 1) Take the chlorinator apart for inspection and remove
all buildup deposits by brushing and rinsing. Use a 5
percent solution of muriatic acid or acetic acid, if
necessary, to remove stubborn deposits.
(2) Replace all worn or damaged parts.
(3) Lubricate and reassemble. (See manufacturer's
instruction booklet for amounts and types of lubri-
cants.)
8.4.4 Gas Chlorination

8.4.4.1 General. Chlorine gas is furnished compressed into a liquid
state in pressurized metal cylinders. Therefore, it is possible to
inject chlorine directly into the water supply without using any
chlorination equipment. However, this is seldom done in
practice, because of the difficulty in controlling dosage rates,
and damage to the cylinder if water enters it for any reason.
I
Most gas chlorinators add gas into a small flow of water
pa!>sing through the chlorinator and inject the resulting chlorine
solution into the water supply.
8.4.4.2 Calculating Dosage

Gas chlorinator feed rates are calibrated in kilograms or
pounds per 24 hours. Calculation of feed rate is best explained
by example.
. Suppose it is desired to inject chlorine gas into a flow of 100
1/s so that the dosage will be 1.0 mgii. - Determine the required
feed rate.
Feed Rate= 1.0 mg/1 x 100 1/sec x 86,400 sec./day
= 8~640 1 000 mg., or 8.64 kg/day
Gas chlorinator feed rates are seldom calibrated at intervals
of less than 0.1 kg/day, or 0.25 pounds. Therefore, the feed
rate in the above exampled would be set at 8.6 kg/day with
I 8.4.4.3
little effect on the dosage.
Gas Chlorinator Operation. There are several types of gas

chlorinators in use. One type commonly installed today is the
variable orifice, vacuum type gas feeder. The following in-
formation is largely based on operation of that type; however,
much of it applies regardless of the chlorinator design. In any
case, the operation and maintenance instruction manual
furnished by the manufacturer should be strictly followed.
8-17
'
In addition to the chlorine dispenser itself, installation may

include the following accessories:
* Gas Pressure Reducing Valve
* Gas Heater (In Cool <.:::Iimates)
* Gas Filter
* Leak Detector
* Gas Mask (Approved for Chlorine gas)
* Chlorine cylinder weigh scales
(a) Chlorinator Start-Up

( 1) Make sure electric gas heater is on by feeling it with
the hand.
(2) Open all valves in feeder discharge lines.
(3) Open ejector water supply valve.
(4) Open each cylinder valve 1/2 tum. Make sure each
gas line isolating valve is open 1/2 tum only.
(5) Set feed rate.
(b) Chlorinator Shut-Down

( 1) Close cylinder valves.
(2) Close gas line isolating valves:
(3) Continue to operate dispenser until flow-meter drops
to zero, indicating that gas flow has stopped.
(4) Close water supply valve to ejector.
(c) Gas Withdrawal from Cylinders

Gas cylinders of 70 kg capacity or less deliver chlorine
gas when in an upright position and liquid chlorine when
upside down. Cylinders of 1000 kg capacity are designed
to deliver chlorine gas when lying on their side with the
valves in a vertical line; the upper valve delivering gas and
the lower one, liquid.
When chlorine gas is withdrawn from a cylinder the

cylinder temperature is lowered, especially that section.of
the cylinder containing chlorine u;_ a liquid state. To
produce gas the liquid chlorine requires heat just as heat is
required to change water into steam. The walls of the
cylinder therefore acts as a heat transfer conducting heat
from outside the cylinder to the liquid chlorine inside. To
change one gram of liquid chlorine to a gram of gas
requires 68.7 gram calories - this is equivalent to 123.7
Btu per lb.
If the withdrawal rate is too fast the outside of the

cylinder will form frost from moisture in the surrounding
air. The frost covering tends to further restrict the passage •
of heat through the cylinder wall thereby lowering the
production of gas and the withdra)'Val rate below what is
needed. To avoid this gas should never be withdrawn at a
8-18
I I I
Vapor Pressure
600 Of Liquid Chlorine
Source =Kapoor 8 Martin
/_
500
v
I
I
Curve Data
(.!)
~
400
OF
-29.29
-10
0
PSIG
0
8.29
13.81 v
I
- I
(I)
20
40
27B4
46.58
I
I
L.
::J
(/) 60 70.91
(/)
(I) 80 I 01.76
'-
_ o_ 100 140.20
300 ~
120 '186.95
/
L.
0
a. 140 243.33
0
> 160 310.35
180 389.17
200
200
220
480.97
587.13
v
/
v
/
100 / .. .....
V.
~
~
~
~
0 -~
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Temperature -° F
Vapor Pressure of Liquid Chlorine
8-19
roo 0
~
90 ~ 10
80 ~~ 20
70
\
~\ 30
60 1\ 40
50
20°C
\1 '
t-- 0° c
50
() c-- \ \ ..
0 40
I 60
%
30
,\ 70
20
\~ - .. 80
10
\\ 90
~~
0 100
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II
pH
Distribution of HOC I and OCI-:- in Water

at Indicated pH Levels
8-20
Tank Valve
1--------G-'a-'s-------------~~Point of
Application
Check Valve
Rote Indicator r-r---X------~N,.-.---11..,.~

Ov
Rate Setter
Regutating
Valve Outlet
Water
Supply
Relief Valve
EVOLUTION OF CHLORINE FEEDER
8-21
YOKE AND ADAPTER TYPE CONNECTION
... - .. _......
8-22
.-
6" STEEL CHANNEL

3/4" STEEL PLATE WELDED AND BOLTED
BETWEEN CHANNELS
BOTH SIDES
BOLTS
518" STEEL PL ATE

CUT TO FORM A
HOOK
TON LIQUID CHLORINE CYLINDER
8-23
2500
-- -
G:l 2000
~ FLOW OF GAS CHLORINE
ex:
0 FROM 150 LB CYLINDER
(I')
i5 NO BACK PRESSURE I
CURVE A - AIR CIRCULATED BY FAN

lQ 1500 BLOWING AGAINST CYLINDER -
:z: '
::r CURVE B - NO AIR CIRCULATION
~
"'
5
......
~ 1000
Q
a::
\
~ \
~ I
z: 1\
A
~ 500
' ""
1\.. r--.
200~ ~B
100 """"
0 I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
ELAPSED TIME - HOURS
FtG. 1
150
v l,...ooo io'
~ ~
140
v ~ io' -
130 ~ 1--"
V' ~
.......
120 V' 1---'
A
v .,. ~
110 L L. !-"""
v , v - ....
_
100 I ·B """'
~c-o-,
v
90 / v
I I/
Q
LLJ 80
'( v
c:>
a::
ex: / L
::t:
u 70 IJ v
(I')
i5 J v FLOW OF GAS CHLORINE

FROM 150 LB CYLINDER ~ . --
~ 60 II L
z: ./
NO BACK PRESSURE
::::>
~50 J _/ CURVE A- AIR CIRCULATED BY FAN
I I BLOWING AGAINST CYLI NDER
--r- --; - -- f-- - !----- -
40 CURVE B- NO AIR CIRCULATION
I -f-
30
20
'
I
f- r- r-- -~
1- - -
t- -
- - -
-
~
- j--
--
10
0 -
z:. ~ -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
ELAPSEDTIME - HOURS
FiG. 2
8-24
1
·u~~~
~ .~:1
::N, CHLORINATOR
~VENT
i I I SAFETY CHAIN r-aJ:WIFI
c0 CHLORINE CYLYNOER -----,..+--
11-o Ill CHLORINE GAS

VACUUM TUBING
00
1\J
01
BOOSTER PUMP
l
FEEDING CHLORINE GAS
FROM CYLINDER OF LIQUID CHLORINE
....,
LEAD GASKET
I'
I
o I
CHLORINE CYLINDER
CHLORINE CYLINDER VALVE
8-26
rate greater than the following:
Container Withdrawal
Capacity Rate
(Kg) Kg per 24 hrs
50 20
70 25
1000 200
If more gas is needed, use more cylinders.
(d) Monitoring Chlorine Feed Rate

The cylinders are mounted on the weigh scale while
connected to the dispenser. The amount of gas remain-
ing in the cylinders can be known at any time by checking
the weight (weigh scales are usually adjustable so that they
show zero when the cylinders on the scale are empty.)
Also the feed rate can be checked against the setting of the
dispenser by checking the difference in weight over a given
time.
8.4.4.4 Routine Gas Chlorinator Maintenance

(a) Water Strainer
Clean the strainer in the ejector water supply line
periodically. (Frequency will depend on water quality,
but at least once each month.)
(b) Flexible Connectors
Each time that the gas cylinders are changed, the
flexible connectors should be carefully arranged in a
smooth spiral without crimping or bending, to prevent
damage to the gas tubing. Coru.1ectors should be pitched
back slightly toward the gas cylinders to prevent
condensed gas from entering the gas header piping. In
order to maintain a gas-tight seal, ..the .gaiket must be re-
newed each time a connector union is broken.
(c) O-Rings
In order to provide perfect sealing, 0-rings must be soft,
pliable and properly sealed. 0-rings showing the first sign
of damage or brittleness should be replaced. Faulty 0-
rings result in vacuum leakage, which shows up on the
dispenser vacuum gage; therefore, 0-rings need not be
routinely inspected. Of course, they should be carefully
t- inspected whenever the opportunity presents itself in the

course of repairs or maintenance of other parts.
(d) Heater
Check the heater daily to make sure it is warm, by feel-
ing the heater housing. If not warm to the touch, notify
the electrician.
8-27
(e) Gas Filter
The gas filter should be removed and cleaned monthly.
Frequency of cleaning may be adjusted by experience
depending on the arrangement and capacity of the gas
supply system, and the quality of the chlorine supply.
(f) Vacuum Regulator Valve
Clean the vacuum regulator valve at least once a year.
•---;
(g) Flowmeter
The flowmeter must be kept clean and free of
accumulated deposits for accurate indication. Flowmete1
tube and float should be inspected at least once each week
and cleaned as required. If the flow meter tube must be
cleaned frequently, perhaps the gas filter should be cleaned
more often.
(h) Rate Valve
The rate valve must be kept clean and free of accumula-
ted deposits for accurate control of the gas flow rate. It
should be inspected frequently and cleaned as required.
(i) Ejector
Clean the ejector nozzle and throat once a year. The
need for cleaning may be indicated by insufticient ejector
vacuum, resulting in lowered maximum capacity of feeder.
U) Hose Lines
Inspect all hose lines at least weekly for cracks or weak
spots that may develop with aging. Faulty lines should be
replaced. Always use hose supplied by manufacturer of
chlorine equipment. Never use ordinary rubber hose ex-
cept for very short periods in an emergency situation.
Rubber used for chlorine service is a special type.
(k) Chlorine Leak Detector
The chlorine leak detector continually monitors the
atmosphere in the chlorine room. These usually contain
a liquid or chemical strip that reacts chemkally-tvith
chlorine gas, and. triggers an alarm. The chemical must be
replaced periodically. Refer to Manufacturer's instructions.
8.4.5 General Dosage Calculations

•
Regardless of the method used to add chlorine, the following formulas
may be used.
8.4.5.1 To solve for amount of chlorine compound to apply:
109-x weight of water to be
trreated x required mg/1 = Weight of chlorine
1,000,000 x % of concentration compound to apply
8.4.5.2 To Solve for Dosage
Weight of chlorine compound applied
x 1,000,000 x %of concentration = mg/1
100 x weight of water treated
8-28
FIGURE 8-1
CHLORINE SOLUTION RECORD
LOCATION - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Quantity
Date Solution Type of
Mixed Tank No. Hypochlorite Hypochlorite
. . . ... _....
- ----------
1
8-29
FIGURE 8-2
CHLORINE GAS RECORD
Date Date
Cylinder Date on off Date
No. Recieved Scale Scale Returned
8-30
8.4.6 Chlorination Records
Chlorine records serve to provide an accurate, up-to-date record of

1 - chlorine consumption, allowing new supplied to be budgeted and ordered
well in advance of need.
Figures S-1 and 8-2 show typical chlorine consumption cards for
hypochlorination and gas chlorination, respectively.
8.4.7 Control of Chlorination

8.4.7.1 Chlorine demand is defined as the difference between the
amount of chlorine applied and the amount of free, combined,
or total available chlorine remaining after a specified contact
period.
8.4.7.2 In general, chlorine reacts with fewer materials as the pH is
increased.
8.4.7 .3 Reactions that do occur generally are more rapid as the tempe-
rature is increased.
8.4.7.4 Even under optimum pH and temperature conditions the oxida-
tion of some materials occur only slowly - sometimes requiring
appreciable time for completion.
8.4.7 .5 Effective chlorination control necessitates adjustments in feed
rates not only in relation to variation in flow but also to varia-
tions in water quality.
8.4.7.6 Principal materials which consume chlorine before dismtection
takes place are inorganic reducing substances, such as hydrogen
sulfide or dissolved iron, ammonia, amino acids, proteins and
carbonaceous material.
8.4.7.7 Reactions with inorganic reducing material is very rapid. With
organic materials it is usually slow and extent depends on excess
concentration of chlorine present.
8.4.7.8 In general to accomplish "break-point" chlorination the free
available chlorine residual should be '70-80~ of total chlorine
residuaJ.
8.4.7.9 Initial "break-point" chlorination residuals will produce tastes
and odors in distribution system.
(a) Flush mains before starting. Begin at point of application.
(b) Build free chlorine residuals slowly in increment of 0.2
mg/liter at weekly intervals.
(c) Time required before entire system is filled with free
chlorine residuals may be one to six months.
(d) Time can be shortened by flushing mains.
8.4.8 Laboratory Control of Chlorination
Most commonly used method of determining chlorine residuals on a

routine basis is the basic orthotolidin test.
(a) Sufficient orthotolidin is added to sample to adjust pH of sample to
1.3.
8 -31
(b) A yellow color whose intensity is proportional to the chlorine resi-
dual.
(c) The color intensity developed in 5 seconds will be the measure of
free chlorine residual.
(d) The color intensity developed in 5 minutes will be the measure of
free plus combined, or total chlorine residual.
(e) Obviously, the combined chlorine residual is equal to the total less
the free residual.
8.4.8.1 Precaution: The basic orthotolidin test described is inaccurate
if manganese, iron or nitrites are present.
(a} The orthotolidin-arsenic test will reduce or eliminate these
errors.
{b) OT-A test performed each month or more often if neces-
sary due to water quality changes.
(c) First, the total chlorine residual is determined.
(d) Second, another test made on a new sample by adding
sample to OT and within 5 seconds adding sodium arse-
pite. The color intensity will be a measure of free chlorine.
(e) Third, to check for interferences, a new sample is tested by
adding sample to sodium arsenite, then the arthotolidin.
The color produced will be the measure of error in the free
and combined chlorine rc!sidual tests using only
orthotolidin.
(f) The sampling cells should be rinsed thoroughly before use
in each test with the sample water to be tested.
(g) Hold comparator at least 12 inches from eye.
(h) Testing should be performed at time and place of collect-
ing sample.
(i) Orthotolidin reagent should never be exposed to sunlight.
Should be kept in a dark brown bottle.
U) The comparator must be kept clean.
8.4.8.2 Other Test Methods
(a) Amperometric titration will give more accurate results but
requires the use of mor~ expensive equipment. Follow
instructions of equipment manufacturer exactly. Basically
it is an automatic titration machine which will add a --.
reducing agent to the sample to an accurate end point
when all the oxidant ( ci2 ) has been reduced. This method
is not suitable for field use.
(b) Starch - iodide test depends on the oxidizing power of
chlorine to convert iodide to free iodine. In the presence
of starch the free iodine will produce a blue color whose
intensity indicates the chlorine content.
Chlorine residuals less than about 1 mg/liter are difticult
to measure. (See Standard Methods.)
8-32
- /
8.4.9 Drop dilution method of testing for chlorine residuals is used where the
residual is above about 10 mg/liter, or the range of the color standards.
Depending on water quality, the reaction of orthotolidin and the
chlorine will produce a precipitate and a false indeterminant color.
The procedure requires a color comparator, orthotolidin, distilled
water, and a medicine dropper which will dispense 20 drops per milliliter.
(a) Determine the capacity of the comparator tube, 5, 10, 15 ml or 30
mi.
(b) Add 1.5 ml orthotolidin to a 30 ml tube, or 10 to 15 drops for small,
10-15 ml tubes.
(c) Fill to mark of the tube with distilled water, and mix.
(d) Add one drop of chlorinated water and mix.
(e) Compare color intensity.
(f) If no color is apparent, discard and rinse tube with distilled water
and begin again with step (b), this time:: adding two dops of
chlorinated water.
(g) When a measurable color is produced use the following calculation
to determine chlorine residual.
(h) Cap. of tube (ml) x measured residual x 20
Number of drops sample
- (i) Assume tube capacity of distilled water and orthotolidin is 30 ml,

and that 4 drops of chlorinated water produced a residual reading of
0.6 ppm in the comprator, then 30 x 0.6 x 20 = 90 ppm residual
4
chlorine in the chlorinated sample.
8.5 pH ADJUSTMENT EQUIPMENT
8.5.1 General. Often, water supplies will be acidic and therefore corrosive to
metal. The acidity of water is expressed in terms of its pH value ("pH" is
scientific shorthand for the concentration of hydwsen ions in the water).
When the pH value of water is about 7 .0, the water is said to be neutral.
When below that number, it is acidic; when above it, th.! water is alkaline.
Slightly acidic or slightly alkaline water causes no problems in water
supply. However, strongly acidic water must be treated in order to pre-
vent corrosion of metallic pipe, valves, steel tanks and customer plumbing.
This is done by adding caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) or hydrated lime
(calcium hydroxide) to the water to raise the pH. Of the two, caustic soda
is preferred because it is less messy, easier to mix and entails less main-
tenance of mixing equipment, on the other hand it is much more expen-
sive to use.
(a) Lime Mixing
Lime is added to the water either by mixing a solution of hydrated
lime and injecting it into the water main by means of a chemical feed
pump, or by direct feeding of slaked lime paste (i.e., quick lime, or
calcium oxide, that is hydrated as it is fed) into the pipeline leading
to the clear well, contact tank or aerator.
8-33
...
(b) Caustic Soda Mtxmg

Caustic soda may be fed by preparing and injecting a solution, as
in the case of lime mixing, or it may be purchased in high-strength
liquid form and fed directly by means of a volumetric feeder or
metering pump.
The minimum allowable pH of a given water depends on tempera-
ture and chemical make-up of the water, and is determined in the
laboratory before the equipment is installed.
(c) Measuring pH
Accurate measurement of pii can be accomplished only in a water
quality laboratory. However, the following field testing methods are
accurate enough for dosing of lime or caustic soda:
* Portable electronic pH meters
* Visual colorimetric comparators
In each case, the manufacturer's instruction should be consulted
for specific details of their use.
8.5.2 Lime Solution Feeding .....,

8.5.2.1 General. Lime is purchased in the form of a white powder. It
can severely damage the eyes or skin if improperly handled. See
Section 13 "Work Safety" for details of handling and first aid
measur~s for chemical bum•
8.5.2.2 Hydrated lime Solution Feeding

(a) General
Typically, lime solution is mixed in a small steel or con-
crete tank of, say, 4-6 cubic meters capacity. It is then
pumped through plastic tubing into the water main, or it
may be allowed to flow through an open trough to the
clearwell or contact tank.
Lime contains insoluble materials which settles out of
solution quickly, and therefore must be stirred cmrtinU'Otts-
ly while feeding. The insoluble material must be cleaned
out of the batch tank each time a new batch is made.
(b) Mixing
(1) Open the fresh water inlet valve at the solution tank.
Make sure the bypass and outlet valves are closed.
(2) When the tank is about half full, turn on the mixer
and slowly dump the hydrated lime into the churning
water.
(3) When the solution tank is full, shut off the fresh
water inlet valve.
(4) Open solution tank outlet valve.
(5) Start the pump (after first checking feed rate setting).
(c) Maintenance
{1) Flushing Solution lines (Daily)
Lime scale' deposits tend to form m the solution
piping, wate~ passages and pump. Therefore, the
8-34
~
CORROSION CONTROL CORROSION CONTROL
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALKALINITY, HYDROGEN-ION RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALKALINITY, CARBON DIOXIDE

CONCENTRATION, CALCIUM CARBONATE STABILITY AND IRON STAINING CONTENT AND THE CORROSIVENESS OF WATER
pH
35
10 I
1- .. I I
I I
I I
-
Treatment to produce a coating of ea C03
30
l • , I I I I
9
I
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Co co3 aolubohty eauili broum
- Q. 25
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"......,_ ······ .......

,_ ...... ... - :2 20
-
<.T1 1- >< SERIOUS CORROSION
~
0
7
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.... 0
15
~~ ., ~
1- Treatment to prevent oron stoon• f0
i 0
10
••
6
1- ~
5
& I I I I
0 50 100 150 200 250 ~00 350
Alkalln•ty (p.p.ml as Co C03 d I
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 17!5 200
Alkalinity <p.p.m. l as Co co 3
>-
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piping system should be flushed with clear water each
time the pump is stopped.
(i) Shortly before the well pump or booster pump
is stopped, open the solution pump fresh water
inlet valve.
(ii) Close the solution tank outlet valve.
(iii) Stop the mixer.
(iv) Allow the solution pump to continue operating
for 3 or 4 minutes. If the solution line is flexi-
ble plastic, flex it along its entire length, begin-
ning at the downstream and working back to the
solution tank. If of rigid plastic, tap lightly
along the pipe with a piece of soft-wood.
(v) Stop the solution pump.
(vi) Close the solution tank bypass valve.
(2) M onthly Cleaning
In spite of the flushing after each period of pump-
ing, it will be necessary to thoroughly clean the lime
feeding system once a month, or oftener if necessary.
(This will be indicated by heating or cutting out of
the pump as a result of pumping against clogged
lines.) If the pump is allowed to continue running
when lines are clogged, the pump diaphragm can be
ruptured.
(i) During night hours, while pumping to fill the
reservoir(s), allow the solution tank to empty
completely.
(ii) Stop the solution pump.
(iii) Open the solution tank inlet valve.
(iv) Allow about 2 cubic meters of water to run
into the solution tan. Then shut the inlet
valve.
(v) Pour one kg of sodium hexametaphosphate
(sold in the Philippines under the brand name,
"Calgon") into the solution tank.
(vi) Turn on the mixer and allow to run for a minute
or two.
(vii) Turn off the mixer.
(viii) Scrub the interior walls of the mixing tank with
the calgon solution, using a long-handled brush.
(ix) Open the tank outlet valve.
(x) Set the solution pump to maximum feed rate
and start. (The calgon solution will be pumped
into the water supply. This is not harmful and
does not noticeably affect the water quality.)
(xi) When the solution tank is empty, stop the solu-
tion pump and close solution tank outlet valve.
(xii) Remove remaining caked-on lime from mixer
8-37
shaft, propellers, and tank walls, using a wire
brush and/or scraper. Neuer use a hammer or
chipping tool.
(xiii) Perform maintenance measures on mixer motor
as recommended by the manufacturer.
(xiv) Remove all grit and lime scrapings from bottom
of solution tank and discard; it has no treat-
ment value.
(xv) Rinse out inside of solution tank, adding 0.5 kg
of HTH to the rinsed water, and drain to waste.
(xvi) Make a new batch of lime solution. (A newly
cleaned lime solution tank should not be left
empty because the interiors of these tanks are
never coated and will flash rust.)
(3) Operating Precautions
(i) See lime handling precautions m Section 12,
"Work Safety".
(ii) Adjust solution feeder per manufacturer's
instruction.
(iii) Neuer adjust mixer position while it is running. l
(iv) Before entering the mixing tank, turn off the
mixer and hang a "Don't Start" sign or. ~he
switch.
8 .5 .2.3 Quick Lime Slaking/Feeding

(a) General
Quick lime (calcium oxide) is loaded into a hopper
mounted above a feeder/slaker. The lime passes into the
feeder by gravity. The required feed rate is set by opera-
tion of a control on the feeder. The feeder then measures
out the correct amount of lime and passes it into the mix-
ing compartment of the slaker, where it is mixed with
water to form a thick paste and is thoroughly slaked. The
paste flows into a second _slaker compartment, where it is
diluted and product impurities called "grit" is removed.
The finished solution then passes through an effluent
pipe to the point of application.
(b) Maintenance
(1) General
Refer to manur turer's instruction booklet for
details of operation and maintenance of feeder and
slaker.
(2) Daily Inspect ion
(i) Clean dust removal equipment.
(ii) Clean vapor removal equipment, if any.
(iii) Remove grit from slaker grit storage chamber,
if any.
(3) Monthly Inspection and Maintenance
(i) Stop feeder ~d allow slaker to empty. Empty
8-38
'1.
1-- - HOPPER
QUICK
LIME
.t·.. ~
1--- - FEEDER
WATER
WATfR r1f!fflffi :~ ;) •' .·.
~~----~~~------~
. SLAKiNG
HEAT
(X) EXCHANGER _ _...___ _-----..~
w
(0
HYDRATED LIME
SOLUTION
-.-.
~
I
~
FEEDING QUICK LIME

hopper of lime. Hose out hopper, feeder and
slaker with high velocity jet.
(ii) Remove caked on lime from interior parts of
slaker and feeder using a wire brush or scraper,
with particular attention given to edges of
openings, mixer shaft, mixer blades, helical
transporters and grit chamber.
(iii) Examine heat exchangers for leakage and cir-
culation.
(iv) Check electrical wiring for frayed ~nsulation and
loose connections.
(v) Check all bolts and nuts, tightening as required.
(4) Sem i-Annual Maintenance
(i) Carry out monthly and semi-annual maintenance
measures.
(ii) Thoroughly check all moving parts for wear or
damage.
(iii) After cleaning off lime deposits, check slaker
and feeder for leakage, repairing as necessary.
(iv) Clean all floats and controls, and test their
8 .5 .3
-
Caustic Soda Feeding
(v)
operation.
Check thermometer accuracy.
Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) is available either in the form of dry

flakes or liquid. Caustic soda flakes may be fed in the form of a solution,
mixed and injected exactly as described earlier for lime solutions.
In the liquid form, it may be injected directly into a channel, aerator,
clear well or contact tank using a volumetric feeder, or it may be injected
directly into a pipeline under pressure using a metering pump similar to a
hypochlorinator.
A number of manufacturers supply self-contained metering pumps and

volumetric feeders. Refer to manufacturer's instruction booklets for
details of operation and maintenance.
Caustic soda is dangerous. If a liquid solution is splashed onto the skin

or in the eyes immediately flush with copious quantities of water until
burning sensation is alleviated. When handling dry flake product protect
face and eyes with a mask and wear gloves.
8-40
MONTHLY
TREATMENT FACILITIES
MONTH OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 ....... .
NAME OF OPERATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DATE . ..... . ...... . .. .
Check off work items completed. Explain any "No" answers under "Remarks".
If any item of equipment is not used, leave both squares blank.
Check One:
8.2 AERATORS:
8.2 Aerators checked daily for clogged water passages, slime

growths and buildup of silt on horizontal surfaces? 0 0
8.3 FILTERS:
8.3 Filter log kept up to date at all time!>? 0 0

8.3.2 Does filter bed rise 10-15 em when backwashing? 0 0
8.3.2 Is backwash rate low enough to prevent loss of filter

media materials? 0 0
8.3.2 Is wash water disposed of without creating a public
nuisance? 0 0
8.3.3.1 Is concrete maintained according to Section 6, "Storage

Facilities". -- 0 0
8.3.3.2 Was the top 3-5 'em of the filter sand sifted or cleaned by
suction hose to remove mud balls? 0 0
8.4 CHLORINATION EQUIPMENT:
8.4.3 Hypochlorination:
8.4.5 Chlorination record up to date? 0 0
8.4.3.2 Calcium hypochlorite kept dry in storage? 0 0
8.4.3.2(b) Hypochlorite solution always mixed in non-metallic

container? 0 0
8.4.3.2(b} Rubber gloves and apron always worn while mixing

hypochlorite solutions? 0 0
8-41
8.4.3.2(b) Calcium hypochlorite mixed day before used? 0 0
8.4.3.2(b) Sodium hypochlorite mixed same day used? 0 0
8.4.3.3(a) All vital parts of hypochlorinators flushed with

clear water daily? D D
8.4.3.3(a) Strainer cleaned daily? 0 D
8.4.3.3(~) Chlorine solution lines flushed with fresh water

daily? 0 0
8.4.4 Gas Chlorination:
8.4.5 Chlorine consumption record up to date? D 0

8.4.4.4(a) Ejector strainers cleaned? 0 0
8.4.4.4(b) Flexible connectors pitched back toward

cylinders? D 0
8.4.4.4(b) Gasket renewed each time connector union was
broken? D 0
8.4.4.4(d) Heater checked with hand daily? 0 0
l
8.4.4.4(e) Gas rllter cleaned? 0 0
8.4.4.4(g) Inspected flow meter tube and float? D 0 l

8.4.4.4(j) Hose lines inspected at 'least weekly for crack or
weak spots? 0 0
-
8.4.4 Gas mask in place and undamaged? 0 0
-
8.4.4 Chlorine leak detector checked for operation
according to manufacturer's instructions? 0 0
8.5 pH ADJUSTMENT EQUIPMENT:

... . . _ ...._
8.5.2 L1me Solution Feeding Equipment:
8.5.2.2 Lime Solution mixed Continuously while

feeding? D 0
8.5.2.2 Lime Solution lines flushed daily? 0 0
8.5.2.2 Lime mixing/feeding system thoroughly cleaned

this month? 0 D
8.5.2.2 Lime feed pump and motor maintained according to

manufacturer's instructions? 0 D -,
8·42
8.5.2.3 Lime Slaking/Feeding Equipment:
8.5.2.3 Dust removal equipment cleaned daily? 0 0
8.5.2.3 Vapor removal equipment cleaned daily? 0 0
8.5.2.3 Removed grit from slaker grit chamber? 0 0
8.5.2.3 Slaker and feeder inspected and cleaned each week? 0 0
8.5.2.3 Vapor removal system checked each week? 0 0
8.5.2.3 Lime slurry channels cleaned each week? 0 0
8.5.2.3 Hopper, feeder and slaker thoroughly cleaned

this month? 0 0
8.5.2.3 Examined heat exchanger for proper operation? 0 0

8.5.2.3 Checked electrical wiring? 0 0
8.5.2.3 Checked and tightened all bolts and nuts? 0 0
REMARKS: ............................ . ..............................
..
. ..................................... . ... . ........ • '• .................. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-43
ANNUAL
TREATMENT FACILITIES
WCATION/DESIGNATION ................ . ............................... .
NAME OF OPERATOR ................ . ............. DATE ................ .
Check off work items completed. Explain "No" answers under "Remarks". If
equipment not used, leave squares blank.
Check One:
8.2 AERATORS: 0 0
8.2 Aerators given general inspection and cleaning? 0 0
8.3 FILTERS:
8.3.3.2 Filter media removed and washed? 0 0

8.3.3.2 All interior surfaces of filter tank washed down
and inspected? 0 0
8.3.3.2 Scale removed from opernings in distributor
pipes and strainers? 0 0
8.3.3.2 Filter tank bottom cleaned with vacuum cleaner? 0 0
8.3.3.2 New filter sand certified by laboratory to be same
as existing? 0 0
8.3.3.2 Each layer of filter media carefulllevelled when ..,
placed? 0 0
8.4 CHLORINATION EQUIPMENT:
8.4.3 Hypochlorination:
8.4.3.3 Chlorinators cleaned of all built-up scale each six

months? 0 0
8.4.3.3 Chlorinators lubricated, and damaged parts replaced

each six months? 0 0
8.4.4 Gas Chlorination:
8.4.4.4 Vacuum regulator valve cleaned 0

8.5.2.2 lime Slaker/ Feeder:
8.5.2.2 General Inspection, cleaning and repair carried out? 0 0

8.5.2.2 Thermometer accuracy checked? 0 0
I
8.5.2.2 Floats and Controls checked for proper operations? 0 0
8-44
-
SECTION 9- MISCELLANEOUS MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
·~ .... - .-..:..
SECTION 9- MISCELLANEOUS MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.2 VEHICLES 9-4
9.3 ENGINES 9-8
9 .4 AIR COMPRESSORS 9-8
9.5 CRANES AND HOISTING EQUIPMENT 9-10
9.6 PORTABLE ELECTRIC TOOLS 9-15

. .. . ---
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.1.1 General
This section covers the kinds of equipment that are not directly em-
ployed in production, treatment, pumping, storage or distribution of
water but are used in the maintenance, repair and logistics of water
supply.
9.1.2 Manufacturers' Instruction
Every manufacturer of equipment has his own ideas about designing for
convenience of operation, efficiency and durability, and then builds these
ideas into his product. Therefore, no two pieces of equipment of different
manufacture are exactly alike. Each manufacturer knows the limitations
and weaknesses of his own product and furnishes written instruction for
installation, operation and maintenance that will ensure satisfactory ser·
vice and the longest possible life. Therefore, maintenance or repair of a
piece of equipment should never be undertaken without first consulting
the manufacturer's instruction booklet. When a new piece of equipment is
installed, the operator should study the printed instructions while exam-
ining the equipment to be sure that he thoroughly understands its prin-
ciples of operation and its construction.
9.1.3 Cleanliness
Aside from appearances, there are good, practical reasons for keeping
equipment clean. Studies have shown that repair and maintenance of
equipment covered with dust, dirt and old grease requires about 20 per·
cent more time than clean equipment.
When dissipation of heat is a factor, build up of grease and dirt acts as a
heat insulator. Dirt on the outside of an engine _(indsit.s way into the car-
burator and oil sump .
Cleanliness is important in work safety. When surfaces are coated with
oily dirt, hand tools slip, resulting in cracked knuckles, and particles fall
in the eyes of the man working under the equipment.
Finally, lubrication fittings covered up by grease and dirt often get
missed during routine lubrication.
Cleaning is most easily accomplished on most mechanical equipment
using an emulsion cleaner. (Typically, this is a dark brown paste, pur·
chased in any automotive supply store, which is then thinned with kero-
sene). The solution is applied with an old paint brush, allowed to sit a
short while, then hosed off. Of course, care must be exercised to avoid
getting water into electrical connections, air vents and other parts where
it could cause damage.
If no such emulsion cleaner is available, the equipment can be cleaned
by applying kerosene then using a high pressure compressed air hose and
nozzle to blow off the softened dirt and lubricant. It may be necessary to
9·1
repeat this 2 or 3 times if equipment is very dirty or where heat has burn-
ed the grease or oil.
9.1.4 Lubricants
The purpose of any lubricant is to provide a film between moving parts

in order to avoid metallic contact. Many pieces of equipment are factory
lubricated and require additional lubrication only when disassembled for
repairs or maintenance. Some items, particularly engines and some electric
motors, lose oil which must be replaced as needed to maintain proper oil
reservoir levels.
Too much lubricant can be nearly as harmful as too little. When too
l
much is added, the excess escapes from the lubrication system and can
damage other parts of the equipment such as motor windings. At best it
will leak out of the equipment and must be cleaned up by the operator.
Automotive motor oil should never be used for lubricating any equip-
ment other than combustion engines. Because of its tendency to become l
contaminated by impurities in the engine fuel, it is not made to have a
long life and breaks down chemically after a relatively short time.
Detergent oils should never be used except where specifically approved
by the equipment manufacturer.
It is important that only the proper lubricant be used, in order to avoid
excessive wear. Manufacturers' instruction should be strictly followed in
this respect.
9.1.5 Hand Tools
The operator should develop good habits in the use and care of hand
tools. He should get in the habit of always returning a tool to the same
place after each use. In the shop, it is a good idea to mount a plywood
board on the wall with hooks for each tool. It is helpful to trace the out-
line of each tool on the board at its proper location, then fill iri the out-
line with white paint.
Sorting through a cluttered tool box each time a different tool is need-
ed not only wastes a great deal of time, but also distracts the operator's
mind from the job at hand. Also an edged tool may be damaged in a tool
box with other tools. Moreover, difficulty in locating the right tool when
needed encourages the operator to grab any tool that seems like it will
do, such as a pair of pliers instead of the proper wrench. This usually re-
sults in extra work for the operator when he has to go back and do it
right.
Proper care of tools is important, since even the simplest tools are ex-
pensive. Also, a tool with a grease-covered handle most ensures skinned
knuckles. Following are a few examples of proper tool handling do's and
don'ts.
* Do wipe all oil and grease off a tool after use.
* Do replace tool in its proper location after use.
9-2
FIGURE. 9-2
EQUIPl1ENT MAINTENANCE SUMMARY CARD

DESCRIPTION: (Type, Size, Manufacturer, etc.) ___________________________
DATE INSTALLED:
'WRK
DATE DESCRIPTION OF WORK PER~ORMED
DOt\E BY
.
... --
9-3
* Don't bang on wrench handle with a hammer to loosen a stubborn
bolt.
* Don't use pliers or pipe wrenches to tum a bolt or nut; use a wrench
of the proper type and size.
* Don't hammer on the end of a screw driver for any reason; use a
chisel or punch as required.
* Don't put your weight on a drill; if it doesn't drill under light pres-
sure, sharpen it.
* Do grind down mushroomed ends of chisels and punches.
* Do keep all edged tool sharp, they are less dangerous to use than dull
tools.
9.1.6 Maintenance Records
A good, orderly system of record keeping will ensure that every piece
of equipment will receive proper care at the proper time. Where there are
inadequate or poorly handled records, it usually happens that some items
of equipment receive more care than they actually need, while others get
no attention until they break down.
Figure 9-2 is a typical Maintenance Summary Card. This card is used for
all types of equipment, serving only to show when they were worked on
and what was done. Other record cards for specific items of maintenance
show specific details including parts replaced, adjustments, etc. Each
piece of equipment is given an item number. Maintenance record cards are .......,
filed in the work shop or utility office by item number.
9.2 VEHICLES
9.2.1 Operation
There are two main concerns in operation of a motor vehicle: (1} the
safety of the operator, his passengers and the public, and (2) _operation in
such a way as to avoid the need for repairs any more often than neces-
sary. .
Vehicle safety is a complex subject that need not be discussed here,
since it is presumed that every vehicle will be operated only by licensed
drivers familiar with traffic laws and good safety habits.
There are several common habits, some of them practiced by otherwise
excellent drivers, which lead to untimely repairs that should not be neces- .......
sary. These include:

(a) Driving with foot lightly on clutch
Even though it does not seem that any pressure is exerted, the
clutch plates will slip so slightly as to be unnoticed. This will cause
the clutch to wear out much sooner than it otherwise would.
(b) Quick Starts
Bums much fuel and stresses clutch linings.
(c) Starting in Wrong Gear
9-4
When accidentally starting in the wrong gear, don't lug the engine
and damage the clutch; shift down to a lower gear.
(d) Slowing and stopping with clutch disengaged
Leave the clutch out while slowing, until almost completely stop-
ped, the compression of the engine will help slow the vehicle, saving
wear on brake linings.
(e) Frequent accelerating and decelarating
Drive at a steady soeed to use less fuel. Most engine wear occurs
during acceleration.
(f) Over revving when starting
When starting, keep the foot off the accelerator. Over-rewing in
neutral causes burning of valves and build-up of carbon.
(g) Revving engine lust before switching off ignition
This flushes oil out of the cylinders so that excessive wear of
piston rings occurs each time the vehicle is started.
9.2.2 Maintenance
9.2.2.1 Tires. Keep the tires inflated to the pressure recommended by the
tire manufacturer. If under-inflated or over-inflated, the weight of
the vehicle will not bear evenly, resulting in wear at the outer
- edges or center.
Have wheel alignment checked every three months to avoid ex-
cessive wear.
9.2.2.2 Battery. Do not overfill the battery, for two reasons: (1) Battery
acid will splash out, leaving behind a weaker electrolyte, and (2)
when battery water gets on top of the battery, it evaporates and
leaves a residue that is a good conductor of electricity. This is
often a cause of batteries running down between operating periods,
as electric current flows out of the positive terminal, across the
top of the bat~ery, to the ground terminal.
Do not allow battery terminals to become corroded. The
corrosion residue will work down the batkPy' posts and cable
clamp, ca~sing a weak electrical connection with hard starting and
inadequate charging while running. Periodically, mix a paste of
caustic or baking soda and water, and brush onto the terminals
and top of battery (being careful to avoid getting any into the
battery cells) followed by flushing with clear water.
9.2.2.3 Paint. Roadway dust and grime contain acids that oxidize paint,
causing it to become dull and faded. Brush off dust daily, using a
soft brush. (Do not use a cloth; this will drag grit particles across
the paints, making tiny scratches that will do as much damage
in the long run as the dirt would.)
Wash the vehicle at least once a week with clear water (no soap
or detergent). Once every three months, wash the vehicle surface
with detergent and water, then apply a coat of paste wax.
9 .2.2.4 Periodic Maintenance
(a) Daily check by driver at beginning of work day.
(. 1) Radiator water level
9-5
/;l ~
rmr
)
l.uw
>
>
1
~ .~
'-.1 '.L !J
EXCESSIVE WEAR
,.. ·I
EVEN WEAR
UNDER-INFLATED OVER-INFLATED PROPERLY INFLATED
--
9-6
( 2) Crank case oil level
( 3) Fuel tank level
( 4) Tire pressures
( 5) Lights, tum signals, hom, mirrors
( 6) Brake fluid reservoir level
( 7) Battery waterlevels
( 8) Clean windshield and check wipers
( 9) Instrument panel gauges and lights
(10) Dust paint with soft brush and clean interior
(b) Weekly check by driver or service station
(1) Fan belt wear and proper tension
(2) Radiator hose and hose connections
(3) Battery connections
(4) Brake master cylinder fluid level
( 5) Wash exterior with clean water
(6) Spark plug connections
(7) Air filter
(8) Loose connections and fittings
(c) 3000 km check by mechanic
- ( 1) Engine tune-up
(i) Adjust carburator mixture and idling speed
(ii) Clean and gap ignition points
tiii) Clean and gap spark plugs
(iv) Gap overhead valve lifters (if any)
(v) Check ignition timing
( 2) Clean air filter; replac~ element if necessary
( 3) Change oil filter
( 4) Check brake and clutch pedals for adjustments
( 5) Check hand brake
( 6) Check brake cylinders for cracks
( 7) Check brake linings for wear or slippage
( 8) Replace crank case oil -·
( 9) Lubricate chassis, universal joints, transmission and
rear end
(10) Check wheel bearing grease cups
( 11) Check differential oil level
(12) Check tire wear for signs of faulty front end align-
ment. Realign if reqcired.
( 13) Check for frayed wiring or battery cables.
(d) 15000 km check by mechanic
( 1) Major engine tune-up
(i) Overhaul carburator
(ii) Replace spark plugs, points, condenser
(iii) Replace air, oil filter elements
(iv) Clean fuel sediment bowl
(v) Adjust valves
(vi) Check and adjust ignition timing
(2) Repair body dents and touch up paints
9-7
\
(3) Check headlights for correct alignment

(4) Rotate tires, rebalance wheels and check front-end
alignment
(5) Check battery electrolyte
(6) Steam clean engine compartment and under carriage
(7) Lubricate, change oil and carry out other checks same
as for 3000 km
9.3 ENGINES
9.3.1 General
Internal combustion engines are used to provide power for several kinds
of equipment, including:
* Vehicle (trucks, automobiles, jeeps)
* Centifugal pumps
* Power cranes
* Electrical generators
* Air compressors
Those engines are of two types: (a) electric spark igniting (i.e. gasoline
or natural gas) and (b) self-igniting (diesel). There is little difference in
operation and maintenance of these, the principal differences being that
diesel engines have neither a carburator nor continuous electrical ignition
system.
9.3.2 Operation
The following operating practices will help to prolong the useful life
and minimize repairs of any engine, whether driven by diesel fuel, gaso-
line or natural gas:
(a) Run the engine until it is warm before putting it under load.
(b) Before shutting down a hot engine, let it run under no-load for a
minute or two so that it cools down gradually.
(c) Operate at moderate speeds and do not overload the engine.
(d) Avoid unnecessary starts and stops. Most wear of engine& •ccurs
while starting because parts being moving before lubricants get
thinned by the engine's heat and work their way into all moving
surfaces. (Contrary to popular belief, an engine in good condition
does not need to "rest". An engine which is started and stopped
several times a day will wear out long before one that runs conti-
nously, 24 hours a day.)
(e) Avoid letting the engine idle for long periods of time. Cooling
systems are designed to operate best at higher speeds; therefore,
engines tend to overheat when idling. (This is not true, however,
when they have an external heat exchange or piped cooling water,
instead of a radiator.)
9.4 AIR COMPRESSORS
9.4.1 General. Air compressors may be driven by an electric motor or a com-

bustion engine. Operation and maintenance of motors and engines are
described elsewhere in this maimal.
9-8
Never force belts over sheaves ___ they Never put new belts m worn grooves.
are sure to break . Always slack off Replace sheaves when worn.
take up.
Never mount belts some with slack on Never replace part of a set of belts . New
one side and some with slack on other. belts are shorter and will cary the load.
... -- _......
\.. ./
- l.L. ---
-u ---
.---'
_1 L
~ - ~. ... .... ~
Both shafts must be parallel so each belt Both sheaves must be in alignment. Miss-
can pull its share of load. alignment wears both sheaves and belts.
9-9
\
9.4.2 Maintenance
9.4.2.1 Air Cleaner
Every compressor is equipped with an air cleaner. The air
cleaner must be located such that it can take in only clean
air. {A common failing is installation of a diesel or gasoline
engine-driven compressor in a confined space so that the engine
exhaust is sucked into the comrpessor.)
(a) Check the filter element at least weekly, and clean or
replace as required.
(b) If located in an enclosed room, make sure that the room
is well ventilated and that ventilators are not blocked.
9.4.2.2 Air Receiver
The air receiver is a tank at the discharge side of the com-
pressor cylinder. It absorbs pulsations, enabling compressed
air to be delivered at a constant pressure. It also acts as a com-
pressed air storage reservoir, allowing momentary demands
above the compressor capacity. Finally it acts as a moisture
trap collecting moisture that is "squeezed" out of the air by the
compression.
A safety valve mounted atop the receiver prevents buildup of
pressure to dangerous levels. Never tamper with this valve so as
to induce pressure greater than the design pressure of the com-
pressor unit or the compressed air tank.
Drain accumulated water from the receiver daily, through the
drain valve at the bottom.
9.4.2.3 Cleaning
All outside surfaces of compressors must be kept clean be-
cause accumulated dirt and oil act as a heat insulator, prevent-
ing dissipation of heat to atmosphere, with resultant low effi-
ciency of operation.
9 .4.2.4 Lubrication
Keep the compressor well lubricated, checking the atl--tevel at
least once in every .24 hours of operation. Use only lubricants
recommended by the comrpessor manufacturer. Oil should
have a low sulfur and carbon content and should have an oxida-
tion inhibiter.
9.4.2.5 Major Maintenance
At least once in every 200 hours of operation, the com-
pressor should be disassembled for complete inspection and oil
change, following the instructions given in the manufacturer's
operation and maintenance manual. Particular attention should
be given to valves and packing at this time.
9.5 CRANES AND HOISTING EQUIPMENT
9.5 .1 Power Cranes

9 .5.1 .1 General. Power cranes used by a utility may be truck-mounted
units used in the .field for setting pumps, valves, etc., or over-
9-10
head monorail units such as are found in chlorine rooms (for
handling chlorine cylinders) or work shops. The truck mounted
crane may be powered by a hydraulic cylinder using the truck's
engine to drive a pump for hydraulic pressure, or it may have a
tripod and winch arrangement powered by the truck engine
drive.
The monorail type is generally powered by an electrical
motor.
9.5.1.2 Operation
(a) Smoothness of Operation
A good crane operator starts all motions slowly and
gradually increases speed. He likewise stops the crane
gradually.
After the crane is shut off, it will drift a little. With
experience, the operator can learn to anticipate the drift
and stop the crane a little early.
(b) Overloading
Operating a crane at loads greater than it is designed for
is dangerous not only to the crane itself but to the equip-
ment being handled and to the operator himself.
(c) Positioning
(1) When not in use, position the crane out of the way of
other work.
(2) When lifting, make sure the crane cable is directly
over the object being lifted.
(3) Never leave a crane loaded, even temporarily. If
other work must be done between lifting and lower-
ing of a load into its final position, lower the load in a
convenient location while the work is done, then lift
it again, maneuver it to fmal position and lower into
place.
9.5.1.3 Maintenance
The two most common crane pn:5blems.-.a re frayed cables and
lack Qf lubrication (or too much of it).
(a) Daily Inspection
( 1) Inspect the crane every day before starting work,
carefully examining the cable for frayed strands or
loose connectors, and checking to see that all bolts
and nuts are tight.
(2) If hydraulic cylinder operated, check hydraulic
tubing and casings for leaks.
(3) When lifting the first heavy load of the day, lift first
to a position about 10 em above the floor and hold
for about one minute, then check to see if there has
been any slippage.
(b) Monthly Inspections
Once each month, thoroughly clean, inspect and lubri-
·cate the crane, following the manufacturer's instruction
9-11
head monorail units such as are found in chlorine rooms (for
handling chlorine cylinders) or work shops. The truck mounted
crane may be powered by a hydraulic cylinder using the truck's
engine to drive a pump for hydraulic pressure, or it may have a
tripod and winch arrangement powered by the truck engine
drive.
The monorail type is generally powered by an electrical
motor.
9.5.1.2 Operation
(a) Smoothness of Operation
A good crane operator starts all motions slowly and
gradually increases speed. He likewise stops the crane
gradually.
After the crane is shut off, it will drift a little. With
experience, the operator can learn to anticipate the drift
and stop the crane a little early.
(b) Overloading
Operating a crane at loads greater than it is designed for
is dangerous not only to the crane itself but to the equip·
ment being handled and to the operator himself.
(c) Positioning
(1) When not in use, position the crane out of the way of
other work.
(2) When lifting, make sure the crane cable is directly
over the object being lifted.
(3) Never leave a crane loaded, even temporarily. If
other work must be done between lifting and lower-
ing of a load into its final position, lower the load in a
convenient location while the work is done, then lift
it again, maneuver it to fmal position and lower into
place.
9.5.1.3 Maintenance
The two most common crane problemsare frayed cables and
lack of lubrication (or too much of it).
(a) Daily Inspection
(1) Inspect the crane every day before starting work,
carefully examining the cable for frayed strands or
loose connectors, and checking to see that all bolts
and nuts are tight.
(2) If hydraulic cylinder operated, check hydraulic
tubing and casings for leaks.
( 3) When lifting the first heavy load of the day, lift first
to a position about 10 em above the floor and hold
for about one minute, then check to see if there has
been any slippage.
(b) Monthly Inspections
Once each month, thoroughly clean, inspect and lubri-
·cate the crane, following the manufacturer's instruction
9-11
for types and amounts of lubricants.
Particular attention should be given to the following:
(1} Hydraulic cylinder tubing, valves, vacuum hoses.
(2) Trolley: (Overhead monorail)
(i) Wheels, axles and wheel bearings
(ii) Driver and pinion gears
(iii) Trolley motors and motor pinions
(iv) Gear shaft bearings
(v) Mechanical load brake bands
(vi) Motor brake wheel, linings, and bushings
(3) Hoisting Cable
(4) Cable drum shaft, bearings, guides
(5) Hoisting Motor (Overhead monorail)
(i) Refer to Section of this Man11al on "Electrical
Equipment"
(ii) Limit switch
(iii) Limit switch contactor
(iv) Electric brake coil
(v) Controller contacts, brushes, return spring
(vi) Strain insulators
(vii) Power Cable
9.5.2 Manual Chain Hoists

9.5.2.1 General .. Manually operated chain hoists; sometimes referred to
as "Chain falls", are commonly used where loads are moderate
(less than about 1000 kg). Geared models are available, \how-
ever, which can be used to lift loads as high as 40,000 kg.
The simplest type, consisting of two pulleys in tandem requires
about 48 kg pull in order to lift a 500 kg load. (Said to have a
mechanical advantage of 500/48, or 10.4). When the hoist is
equipped with a screw gear, a pull of 48 kg. can lift 1100 kg.
Chain hoists may be mounted as ar overhead monorail when
used to transport heavy loads; for example in pump ro.oms~-;
for chlorine cylinder handling. Often, a steel tripod is mounted
over the item to be lifted and the chain hoist suspended from it.
9.5.2.2 Operation
The chain hoist is extremely rugged and is not likely to be
damaged by improper operation (for example it could hardly be
overloaded because of the limitations on the strength of the
operator).
The main problem is one of safety. Operators can, and often
do, injure themselves by improper use. Also equipment lif+ed
can be damaged. Following are some important rules of chain
hoist operation:
*Always lift the load vertically, mounting the hoist over the
point where the load is being moved from and not the point
where it is being moved to.
*Keep all persons clear of load being lifted.
9·12
*Never overload beyond rated capacity of hoist.
*Lift with load on throat, not point, of the hook.
*Never wrap load chain around load.
*Avoid lowering chain into any liquid.
*Make sure that load chains are not twisted or kinked.
*After lowering, make certain that the load will not roll or
fall when unhooked.
9.5.2.3 Maintenance
(a) Monthly Maintenance
(1) Hoist
Operate without load, checking for smooth, free
operation.
(2) Chains and Wheels
(i) Clean chains and wheel pocket with solvent, and
inspect for worn, bent or stretched links. If bad-
ly worn, replace chain. If worn in only one
spot, the chain may be reversed, allowing a diffe-
rent section to take wear.
(ii) Lubricate the chains by wiping down with pene-
trating oil and graphite. Remove excess with a
dry rag.
(iii) Inspect wheel pockets for excessive wear and/or
encrustation of grease, dirt, etc., and clean or
replace as required.
(iv) Never put new chain in wheel with worn pockets,
or new wheel with worn chain.
(3) Upper Hook
,..
(i) Inspect for stretch, wear or damage, and for free
swiveling.
(ii) Check to see that bearings, nuts, pins and collars
are in good condition and securely in place; re-
pairing or replacing as necessary.
(iii) Lubricate swivel witn mecfrum grease.
· (4) Lower Hook
(i) Inspect for stretch, wear or damage and for free
swiveling.
(ii) Check to see that bearings, nuts, pins and collars
are good condition and securely in place, repair-
ing or replacing as necessary.
(iii) If double reeved (i.e., two wheels) disassemble
hook block and examine sheave pockets for
wear or built up grease and dirt deposits.
(5) Load Brake
Most load brakes use metal or fiber friction disc
and do not require lubrication. Some hoist models
are ratchet and disc arrangements that do require
lubrication, so consult the manufacturer's instruction
booklet to be sure.
- SWIVEL
LOAD BRAKE - - --.....,
- .. _,.,..
SWIVEL
LOWER HOOK
DIFFERENTIAL CHAIN HOIST
9-14
Test brake under load for free operation and
holding.
(6) Housing and Covers
(i) Inspect for loose bolts, nuts and screws, and for
cracks or other damage.
(ii) If geared, check gaskets for leakage of lubricant.
(b) Annual Maintenance (Load Brake Only)
( 1) Disassemble load brake and thoroughly examine
ratchet teeth and pawl for excessive wear, replacing
as necessary.
(2) Examine friction surfaces of ratchet, handwheel and
friction hub for signs of wear or damage. If any score
marks are noted, replace.
(3) Examine friction discs for wear, score marks, or
buildup of grease and dirt. Clean off builtup foreign
matter, using steel wool or emery cloth. Replace
worn or scored discs.
9.5.3 Hooks and Chain Slings
Hooks and chain slings must be kept in top condition because of the
extreme danger of injury or damage if they break under load.
(a) Always arrange slings so that the ~oad is carried on the arc of the
hook, and not on the tip.
(b) Examine hooks often for cracks.
(c) Do not allow the chains of a sling to make an angle of less than 45
degrees from the horizontal, for a given sling, the farther apart the
ends, the smaller the load it can safely carry.
(d) When not in use, store slings on a rack, off of the ground.
(e) Thoroughly examine slings and hooks monthly for the following,
and replace if necessary: -· ... _.,.,.
(1) Spreading of hooks
(2) Bent, worn or elongated chain links
(3) Stiff sections of chain
(4) Gouges and. nicks on chain links
(5) Lengthening of sling because of slight elongation of each link.
9.6 PORTABLE ELECTRIC TOOLS
The types of portable electric tools most commonly used in water supply
maintenance include:
* Drills
*Grinders
* Impact Wrenches
9-15
9.6.1 Operation
The following rules should be observed when operating hand tools:

(a) When shutting off an electric hand tool, hold it in both hands until
it stops completely. Probably the most common injury in using such
tools results from an operator dropping his arm to his side while the
tool is still running down; and grinding, sawing on drilling his own
leg.
(b) Never stand in water or on a wet floor while operating an electric
tool because of the danger of electrocution.
(c) Wear goggles while grinding or wire brushing.
(d) Don't overload tools by bearing down to force them to cut faster.
This is especially common where dull drills are being used.
(e) When buffing or drilling a small item, hold it with a pair of vise-
grips or in a bench vise. Otherwise, it will spin in the hand if the
tool hangs up.
9.6.2 Maintenance
9.6.2.1 Bearings. Portable electric tool bearings may be of the ball,
roller, needle or sleeve type. While proper lubrication is essen-
tial, too much lubricant can be as just as harmful as too little.
Ball bearings are usually factory-lubricated and require no
further lubrication.
Roller, needle and sleeve bearings require continuous lubri-
cation. These are often located in a grease-packed chamber.
9.6.2.2 Gears. The types of gears most often used in portable electric
tools are spur, spiral, worm, bevel and helical. These are usually
housed in a grease-or oil-ftlled gear box.
Gear lubricants should be replaced once each year, or more
often, depending on the amount of use. When this is done, the
gears should be removed from the gear housing; the gears and
chamber cleaned with solvent, then reassembled and packe~
with fresh grease or oil ~s recommended by the manufacturer.
9.6.2.3 Electric Cord. Electric cords should be kept clean and free of
oil or grease which tend to deteriorate rubber insulation. When
storing electric tools, be sure the cord is not kinked and has no
sharp bends.
Cracked or worn electric cords are dangerous to the operator
and should be replaced, preferably with a cord set purchased
from the tool manufacturer.
9.6.2.4 Motor
Several types of electric motors are used in portable electric
tools. It is suggested that they be returned to the manufacturer
for any repairs or, if not possible, that they be repaired by a
competent electrical appliance repair shop.
9-16
DAILY
VEHICLES
DATE .................................................................. .
MILEAGE: BEGINNINGOFDAY ....................... ENDOFDAY ....... .
LICENSE/DESIGNATION ...... . ......... . ................................. .
NAME OF OPERATOR .................................................... . "
Check off work items completed. Explain any "NO" answers under "Remarks". Show gas,
oil, etc., under "Remarks".
CHECK ONE
9.2.2.4 Check the following today:
1. Radiator water levels? 0 0

2. Crank case oil level? 0 0
3. Fuel tank level? 0 0
4. Tire pressures? 0 0
5. Lights, tum signals, hom, mirrors? 0 0
6. Brake fluid reservoir levels? 0 0
7. Battery water level? 0 0
8. Cleaned windshield and checked wipers? 0 0
9. Instrument panel gauges and lights? 0 0
10. Dusted paint with soft brush and cleaned .• __ _ . . .,_
interior? 0 0
REMARKS:
....... ..... ..... ..... ...... ... ............ .. .... '· .... ..... ............... . I
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • I • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
9-17
200 HOUR
COMPRESSORS
LOCATION/DESIGNATION . .. ................... ........ ..... .. .. . . .. ... .. .

PERIOD OF ............................................................. .
(Give week ending, month, year, or no. of operating hours)
NAME OF OPERATOR .. ..... . .............. .... .... . . DATE .............. .
Check off items covered by this check. Explain any "NO" answers under "Remarks".
CHECK ONE
9.4.1 Motor or engine maintained as recommended

by the manufacturer? 0 0
9.4.2 Air cleaner element checked and cleaned weekly? 0 0
9.4.2.1 Compressor room ventilators clear? 0 0
9.4.2.2 Receiver drained daily? 0 0
9.4.2.3 All outside surfaces of compressor kept clean? 0 0
9.4.2.4 Oil level checked at least every 24 hours? 0 0
9.4 .2.4 All oil added had low sulfur and low carbon
content, and oxidation inhibiter? 0 0
9.4.2.5 Compressor disassembled for complete inspection
and oil change after 200 hours of operation? 0 0
REMARKS :
...... - -....Ji~
9-18
l
15000 KM
VEHICLES
LICENSE/DESIGNATION .................................................. .
NAME OF OPERATOR ......... ..... .................. DATE .............. .
NAME OF MECHANIC .. .. . . .......................... DATE .............. .
The following work items should be carried out by a qualified mechanic and checked off by
the operator. Explain any "NO" answers under "Remarks". Show parts replaced and
quantities of lubricants under "Remarks".
CHECK ONE
9.2.2.4(d) Were the following work item completed:

1. Major engine tune-up?
1. Major engine tune-up? D D
D D
-
(i) Overhaul carburator?
(ii) Replace spark plugs, points, condensers? D D
(iii) Replace air, oil, fuel, filter elements? D D
(iv) Clean fuel sediment bowl? D D
(v) Adjust valves? D D
(vi) Check and adjust ignition timing? D D
(vii) Check compression in each cylinder? D 0
2. Repair body, dents and touch up paint? D D
3. Check headlight alignment? D 0
4. Rotate tires? ... - _
... ......... 0 D
5. Check battt:ry electrolyte? D D
6. Steam clean engine compartment and under-
carriage? D 0
7. Lubrication, oil, change, etc., as for 3000
km. check? D D
REMARKS: .......................................... . ....... .. ......... .
9-19
WEEKLY
VEHICLES
WEEK ENDING ...... .... ................................ .. .............. .

MILEAGE AT END OF WEEK: ............ .... ... ........ .... ............... .
LICENSE/ DESIGNATION . . ........ ........ ......... ...... ........ . ....... .
NAME OF OPERATOR ................................ DATE .............. .
Check off work items completed. Explain any "NO" answers under "REMARKS"
CHECK ONE
9.2.2.4 Were the following checked during the past week:
1. Fan belt wear and proper tension? 0 0

2. Radiator hose and hose connections? 0 0
3. Battery connections? 0 0
4. Brake master cylinder fluid level? 0 0
5. Spark plug connections? 0 0
6. Air Filter? 0 0
7. Loose connections and fittings? 0 0
8. Exterior washed with clear water? 0 0
REMARKS:
................................. . ................................ -~ .. . ...... .
9-20
MONTHLY
CRANES AND HOISTS
i;
' MONTH OF ...... . ... .. .. . ....... . . .. ... . ... . ..... . . 19 . . . . .... . . .. .. . .. .
LOCATION/DESIGNATION . . ... . .. . .. ... . . . ... .... .. .. .. ........ .. ... .. . .. .
Check all work items completed. Explain any "NO" answers under "Remarks".
CHECK ONE
9.5.1.2 Crane always out of the way when not in use? 0 0

9.5.1.2 Crane carefully inspected every day for frayed
cables and loose connectors, nuts or bolts? 0 0
9.5.1.2 Hydraulic tubing and casings checked daily for
leaks? 0 0
9.5.1.2
·-
9.5.1.2
Crane checked for slippage each day?
Monthly inspection and cleaning carried out?
0
0
0
0
(i) Hydraulic cylinder tubing, valves, hoses? 0 0
(ii) Trolley? 0 0
(iii) Hoisting cable? 0 0
(iv) Hoisting motor? 0 0
9.5.2.3 Chain hoists checked monthly? 0 0
1. Operated without load? 0 0
2. Cleaned and inspected chains and wheel
pockets? ..... ~ - _...,..... 0 0
3. Lubricated chains? 0 0
4. Inspected hose? 0 0
5. Checked bearings, nuts, pins and collars? 0 0
REMARKS: .. . . . . ... . .... . .. . .. . .. .. . ..... . ... .. . ........ ....... . .... . .. .
9-21
; I-
ANNUAL
CRANES AND HOISTS
NAME OF OPERATOR.~ .............. .......... ...... DATE .......... .... .
Check off work items completed. Explain any "NO" answers under "Remarks".
,- CHECK ONE
SUBSECTION WORK ITEMS YES NO
9.5.2.3 Manual Hoist Load Brake:
1. Load break disassembled and cleaned? 0 0

2. Examined ratchet teeth and pawl? D 0
3. Examined friction surfaces of ratchet, hand-
- wheel and friction hub?
4. Examined friction discs for wear, scoring, or
D D
buildup of grease and dirt? 0 0

5. Lubricated load brake as recommended by the
manufacturer? 0 D
6. Lubricated swivels? 0 0
7. Disassembled hook block and inspected sheave
pockets? D 0
8. Tested load brake? D 0
_., ·-- _...,.
9.5.2.3 Inspected housings and covers? 0 D
9.5.2.3 Checked gaskets for leakage? D D
9.5.3 Slings stored off the ground when not in use? 0 D
9.5.3 Slings and hooks closely examined? D D
REMARKS: ...............................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I ..................... .
~
........ . .. .................. ...... ............... ..... .. ....... ........

I
~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-23
_.,.
SECTION 10- ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
~· . - _..........
SECTION 10- ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
10.2 ELECTRICAL TfRMS 10-1
10.3 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS 10-5
10.4 POWER SUPPLY 10-5
10.5 ELECTRIC MOTORS 10-8
10.6 ENGINE GENERATORS _,. ~ - _

......... 10- 12
10.7 AUTOMATIC EQUIPMENT CONTROLS 10-13
10.8 ELECTRICAL FIRES 10-16
10.9 MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST 10-19

10.1 INTRODUCTION
The installation and repair (and much of the maintenance) of electrical

equipment should be done only by a skilled electrician. However, if the water-
works operator has an understanding of some basic principles of electricity, pms
a clear understanding of the equipment under his control, he will be able to
--
/
operate electrical equipment in such a way as to minimize electrical problems

and prevent excessive damage when malfunctions do occur. Therefore, the
purpose of this section is to familiarize the operator with the basic theory of
electricity and the principles of operation of electrical equipment; and to point
out the more common electrical problems and ways to prevent them.
The first duty of the operator in regard to maintenance of electrical equip-
ment is to be always alert to potential problems. Any loose connections, frayed
wires or other signs of physical deterioration should be brought to the attention
of an electrician without delay.
Keep it clean. Keep it dry. Keep·it tight. Keep it friction free.
The operator will be around the electrical equipment much more of the time
than anyone else. For that reason, he will be able to notice abnormal conditions
such as changes in the sound, temperature, and vibrations of equipment, that
might go unnoticed · even by a skilled electrician. When such an abnormality is
..noticed, the operator should immediately shut off the equipment and call an
electrician. He should never try to correct any electrical problem himself unless
it is minor and he is absolutely sure of the proper steps (for example changing a
light bulb, pushing a reset button or replacing a fuse).
10.2 ELECTRICAL TERMS
There are a great number of electrical terms. Many of them are of little or
no interest to the waterworks operator. However, the following terms are basic to
an understanding of electricity and should be known and thoroughly understood
by the operator.
.... -·- _ . . . ._
10.2.1 A conductor is any material that electricity will flow though easily. The
word conductor is most often used as another word for wire, but can be
applied to water, most metals, or even the waterworks operator's body.
10.2.2 An insulator is any material that electricity will not flow through, such
as ceramic, rubber or plastic.
10.2.3 Current is the energy that flows through a conductor. The unit of current
is the Ampere or "Amp." There are two types of current: Direct
Current (D.C.) and Alternating Current (A.C.). Direct current flows in
one direction like water in a pipe. The most common use of D.C. is in the
battery system of an automobile. Alternating current repeatedly reverses
direction at a frequency _determined by the design of the power
company's generator. (In the Philippines this frequency is 60 times per
second.) A.C. and D.C. current is used for 'lighting and to power pump
motors, for example.
I
10.2.4 Voltage is the force that pushes current through a conductor. The unit of
voltage is the "Volt".
10-1
10.2.5 Resistance is a characteristic of every conductor that makes it resist the
flow of current through it. The unit of resistance is the "Ohm". The
resistance of a conductor depends on the material it is made of, its length,
and its cross sectional area. For example, a steel wire has a higher
resistance than a copper wire of the same length and diameter. · Also, a
piece of wire one meter long has a lower resistance than a piece of the
same wire that is two meters long.
10.2.6 Ohm's Law is the most basic principie of electricity. It is given by the
formula:
E= Ix R
,w here E =Voltage (volts)
I = Current {Amps)
R =Resistance {Ohms)
1 0.2.7 Power is the combined quantity of voltage and current required to operate
a piece of equipment. It is expressed in "watts" or "volt-amps" . A piece
of equipment that requires a high voltage and a low current may use the
same power as one that requires a low voltage and high current.
Since the number of watts is usually quite large, power is usually ex-
pressed in "Kilowatts" (KW) or "Kilovolt-amps" (KVA). The prefix, Kilo,
comes fro~ the Latin word for thousand. Therefore, 1.0 kilowatt = 1000
watts. (See also the terms "Apparent Power" and "Real Power", below.)
10.2.8 Power Factor is a factor used in computing electrical power. It takes into
account the difference in current with respect to the voltage sine curve.
The current to an induction motor lags behind the voltage on the curve
more than for a syncronous motor for example. The greater the degree
of lag the less efficient is the motor performance. Power Factor is usually
less than one.
10.2.9 Apparent Power is computed by multiplying voltage times current, or
PA= V x I, and is expressed in "Kilovolt-amps" (KVA).
10.2.10 Real power is apparent power multiplied by the power factor qr PR =
P. F. x PA• and is expressed in "Kilowatts" (KW). .•.. - --
10.2.11 Horsepower is a unit of mechanical power. One H.P. is equivalent to
0.746 kilowatt. The size of an electric motor is stated in terms of the
amount of mechanical power it can deliver. Therefore, a 1.0 H.P. motor
can deliver 1.0 horsepower and requires about 0. 7 46 KW of electric power
input {the reason that input is said to be " about 0. 746 KW" is that some
additional electric power must be put into the motor to make up for
power lost by friction within the motor itself).
10.2.12 Kilowatt Hour is used to express the quantity of electric power consumed
in an hour, day, week, month or year. If a piece of equipment requiring
an input of one kilowatt is operated for one hour, it consumed one kilo-
watt hour {1.0 KWH). Electric power companies charge the customer at
some fixed cost per KWH.
10.2.13 Rate Voltage and Current. Every piece of electric equipment is' designed
to operate at a specific voltage and current. These are called "Rated
Voltage" and "Rated Current", and are usually shown on a nameplate
fastened to the equipment. If the operating voltage and current are very
10-2
CUSTOMER
POWER HOUSE
POWER SUPPLY
10-3
TIGHTLY WRAP WITH ELECTRICAL TAPE
ELECTRICAL
TAPE
h CONDUCT
-PULLING TAPE OR CABLE
... . _ ....,.-
10-4
/
different from the manufacturer's rating, the equipment will probably

be damaged if allowed to continue running. Often, the equipment name-
plate shows a "SeiVice Factor", which is the percentage that current and
voltage may safely vary from the manufacturer's rating. If no seiVice
factor 'is shown, it means that neither voltage nor current may exceed
manufacturer's rating.
10.2.14 Ground. When electric current is allowed to flow into the earth, the cir-
cuit is said to be "grounded". Often, a piece of electrical equipment is
grounded in such a way that if a short circuit develops, the current will
travel into the ground directly ir).stead of through the metal parts of the
housing. This is mainly a safety measure to prevent the operator (or
others) from receiving a shock when touching the equipment. It is usually
accomplished by burying an electrode in the ground, attached by a wire
with the piece of equipment.
10.3 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Electric current must always .flow, sooner or later, either into the earth or
back to its source. It may pass through a complicated circuit panel and a
piece of equipment, but finally it must pass into the ground or back to
where it came from. If for any reason it cannot do so, it will not flow. The
route that the current follows from its source (i.e., the power company's
generator) to the ground (or back to its source) is known as a circuit.
If a wire is cut or a switch opened, the circuit is broken and current
cannot flow. If, at some point in the circuit, the current is accidentally
allowed to flow into the ground (for example, if a bare spot on a wire
touches the metal frame of a building and flows t hrough it into the ground)
the circuit is "shorted" to form a " short circuit. Nearly every electrical
probl~m results, directly or indirectly, from either a "broken" or "shorted"
circuit. Generally when the circuit is broken, the only result is that the
equipment will not function. Short circuits, on the other hand, nearly
always cause damage to equipment or wiring. -· . - ---·
10.4 POWER SUPPLY
The electric power company has the responsibility for delivering the required
amount of electric power, at the voltage specified by the customer, up to the
main seiVice panel located within the customer's property. While the water
supply operator has no responsbility for maintaining the power company's equip-
ment, he should be aware of the process by which electric power is delivered to
the facilities under his control.
10.4.1 Electric Power Generation. There are basically four types of electric
generators presently in use by electric utility companies:
(a) Hydroelectric Generators use water power to tum turbines. Typical-
ly a dam is constructed on a large river and the normal river flow is
routed through the turbine chamber.
(b) Steam Turbine Generators. Water is heated, using coal, fuel oil, or
natural ga,s, to make high pressure steam which, in tum, is used to
10-5
\
tum large turbine geneators. In some rare cases, volcanic act1v1ty

creates large amounts of steam below the ground. These natural
sources of steam are harnessed to generate so-called goethermal
power.
(c) Diesel Generators. A diesel engine is used to mechanically tum a
generator. It is not practical to generate large quantities of electric
power by this means because of the limitations of the size of diesel
engines. However, some small towns use diesel engine generators.
(d) Gasoline Engine Generators. These are only used to generate power
on a very small scale. Typically, they are privately owned and
operated by farms, businesses or small factories where commercial
electric power is unavailable or where a reliable power supply is
essential (for example, a hospital} .
Water utilities often use small diesel or gasoline engine generators
for standby power sources and for welding. These are discussed in
detail later in this section.
10.4.2 Power Distribution
Power is equal to voltage multiplied by current. Therefore, the larger
the voltage, the smaller the current for a given amount of power. Also,
large currents, require large conductors. Therefore, the higher the trans-
mission line voltage, the smaller the wires. For that reason, power is gene-
rated at very high voltages (sometimes in excess of 100,000 volts), for
long-distance transmission. Substations located in the city are used to
" step" voltage down to more convenient levels (usually 220 or 440 volts) .
Power is fed from the substation into the primary distribution grid.
Usually, even the reduced voltage is too high for individual customers.
Therefore, transformers are used to further step-down voltage t o meet
the requirements of small residential areas or individual customers who
have large power requirement. When one transformer is used for several
customers, the wires serving them are part of a secondary distribution
grid.
10.4.3 Connection to the Power Supply - ....
The electric power customer provides a main power supply panel, or
service panel, at some convenient location on his property. The power
company installs wires from the secondary distribution lines (or from
the service transformer)' to the customer's main power supply panel,
passing through a watthour meter located near (or sometimes inside of)
the service panel.
Although the customer buys and installs the main power supply panel,
the power company imposes requirements on its design and location ; the
most important requirement being that it must include fuses or circuit
breakers of a certain size.
(a) Overloads. The term overload means that a conductor is carrying
more current ("load") than it was designed to carry. When con-
ductors are overloaded, they become hot; the greater the overload,
the greater the heat. One common cause of overlo,ading. is when a
piece of equipment "siezes'/ and the motor tries to overcome the -
friction by applying more 'power. Another is when line voltage_
10-6
drops and current increases. If no overload protection is provided,
conductors can become hot enough to melt. Overload protection
is provided in the form of circuit breakers or fuses. Both serve the
same purpose (to break the circuit when an overload develops, before
other parts of the circuit are damaged by heat) but are designed on
the basis of different principles.
(b) Fuses. A fuse is simply a small wire designed to melt when current
increases to a given level. Thus, "opening", or "breaking" the cir-
cuit, this fuse rating, or the current at which it will melt, is greater
than the operating current but below the current that will cause
heating of other parts of the circuit. In other words, it is an inten-
tional weak link in a circuit, designed to fail before any damage
can result in other parts of the circuit.
The fuse wire is generally enclosed in a glass, porcelain, or fiber
tube with copper or brass fittings at each end. This is for con-
venience in handling and to contain the heat in the wire.
Each time an overload occurs, the fuse is destroyed and must be
replaced. The new fuse must never be of a different rating from the
one replaced. If it is lower, it will fail when harmless minor power
fluctuations occur. If higher, it will not melt before damage occurs
elsewhere in the circuit.
{c) Circuit Breakers . The circuit brr.aker is a more modern invention
than the fuse and is becoming more widely used. There are thermal
and magnetic types, and a combination of the two.
The thermal type is based on the bimetal principle. The element
consists of two small strips of different metals bonded together.
Since different metals expand at different rates when heated, the
element bends when current flowing through it is high enough to
generate heat. It is designed to bend far enough to break contact
when current is excessive.
Another thermal type uses a low melting point metal. An induc-
tion coil generates sufficient heat to melt the metal on overload con-
ditions allowing a captive pin to rotate and reiease contacts. Upon
cooling the pin is captive again and the contacts may be reset.
The magnetic circuit breaker uses the principle that when current
flows through an electric coil, a magnetic field is created around the
coil; the higher the current, the stronger the magnetic field. In effect,
the coil surrounds a movable contact which magnetically repels the
other contact when current rises above the safe level.
10.4.4 Reading the Watthour Meter. The monthly bill is based on readings of
power consumption shown on the watthour meter.
The meter has a visible disc that turns at a speed proportional to the
power being consumed. The turning of the disc is transmitted through
a gear train to the register dials. There are usually four register dials, each
graduated from 0 to 9. The dials should be ;read from right to left to get
a four digit number. This number is not the amount of power consumed.
The previous tnonth's reading must be subtracted from the present
reading, th ~-:: ~he difference multiplied by the disc constant, K, (printed
10-7
\
on the meter face) to arrive at power consumed during the month.

The amount of power (in kilowatts) being supplied at a given moment
may be determined in the following manner:
(a) Use a stop watch to record the time T, in seconds, required for five
revolutions of the disc.
(b) Check the disc constant K, shown on the face of the meter.
(c) Check the Transformer Ratio, R, shown on the edge of the disc.
(If none is shown, R = 1 ).
(d) The input power = K x R x 5
T
10.5 ELECTRIC MOTORS
The electric motor operates on the principle that when an electric current
passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is set up surrounding it. Stationary
electrical wires inside the motor case are wound in such a way that as electric
current flows through them, a rotating magnetic field is formed. A central core,
made of iron and free to rotate, continuously tries to align itself with the moving
magnetic field, and therefore rotates at the same speed as the magnetic field.
The amount of power that can be delivered by an electric motor is deter-
mined by the strength of the magnetic field inside the motor. The strength of
the magnetic--field is, in turn, determined by the amount of electric power put
into the motor. At a given voltage, this means that mechanical power output
depends on the amount of electric current flowing through the windings. Since
large currents require large wires, it follows that the higher the horsepower of the
motor, the larger the wires and, therefore, the larger the motor.
10.5.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Motor. This is the most commonly used motor
in waterworks installations. It gets its name from the construction of its
rutor (the rotating core of the motor) which resembles an animal cage.
Its construction is the simplest of any of the large motors, and requires
the least complicated controls.
10.5.2 Ventilation . Every motor puts out less energy than is put iJ:I.to it)?.,t:cause
some of the electrical energy is converted to heat. The amount of heat
generated in a motor is very large.
All motors are designed to operate within a given temperature range
above an air temperature of 40°C. The design temperature rise (usually
shown on the motor nameplate) varies from 40°C to 80°C, depending
on the type of insulation covering the windings.
If temperature rises far above the design temperature, insulation will
begin to melt, resulting in a short circuit and "burning out" of the motor
windings. Therefore heat must be removed from the motor as fast as it is
generated. All motors are equipped with ventilation ports to allow hot air
to exhaust and to draw in cool air. If the ventilation ports become
clogged, the motor will almost certainly bum up. Also, since motors are
designed to operate at a given rise above 40°C, it follows that the air
surrounding the motor should not be allowed to rise above that level. If
the motor is inside a building 1 the room must be well ventilated to prevent
10-8
buildup of heat in the air. Motors have been destroyed because of fur-
niture, boards or boxes being placed in a pump room in such a way as to
block the ventilator openings.
The operator should periodically check the operating temperature of
all motors (large motors normally operate with temperatures of 30° -
65°C on the outside of the motor <>ase. Therefore, the motor may be
running at a normal temperature even though the operator cannot hold
his hand against the case.) This is done by taping a centigrade thermo-
meter against the motor case (out of direct sun) midway between the in-
take and exhaust vents. The temperature reading should not exceed the
following:
Class A* insulation: 90°C
Class B* insulation: ll0°C
Class H* insulation: 150°C
*The insulation class is usually shown on the motor nameplate. It will
usually be class B on large motors.
10.5.3 Motor Starting . Much more power is required to start a motor than to
keep it running; sometimes 5-10 times as much. The motor starter,
located in the main control panel, allows the initial surge of power to start
the motor for a short period of time. Because the high stresses and
current overload exist at start-up, it is very desirable to minimize stopping
and starting.
10.5.4 Periodic Maintenance
1 0.5.4.1 General. The following maintenance program is intended for
large motors such as are used for driving well pumps, booster
pumps and, sometimes, air compressors. For those, or any
other type of motor, the most important item of maintenance
is cleanliness and use.
Except for bearing wear, the best maintenance for any
electric equipment is to use it, to keep it warm and dry.
Moisture is an enemy of insulation along with oil and dust.
Every motor should be operated for at least 5-6 hours every
-~ - - -~
few days or at least every week. The longest useful life of a

motor· is obtained from a unit which is never shut down and
cooled off, especially in a humid climate.
1 0.5.4.2 Scheduled Maintenance
(a) Daily
(1} Check temperature of motor housing with hand.
(Experience will enable the operator to judge whether
it is running unusually hot.)
Remember, it is easy to feel the difference between
70° and 80°F, more difficult between ll0° and
120°, and impossible between 150° and 160°.
(2) Check lubrication reservoir level.
(3) Check air vents for blockage.
(4) Check external wiring fo! frayed insulation or loose
connections.
10-9
(5) Check bearing temperatures and level of oil reservoirs
if any.
(b) Monthly
(1) Check motor housing temperature with thermometer
as previously explained.
(2) Check voltage and current at each leg of three phase.
(3) Check shaft alignment.
(c) Annually
(1) Drain lubricant, flush out oil reservoirs with kerosene,
and replace with factmy-approvecllubricant.
(2) Check sleeve bearings for wear (clearance should not
exceed 0.06 mm).
(d) Every Three Years
(1) Vaccum all dust out of windings and motor case.
(2) Examine winding insulation for damage.
(3) Bake windings to drive out moisture (in an oven at 40
degrees C or by using infra-red lamps in an enclosed
space).
(4) Clean all connectors and contact points with fine
emery cloth~
(5) Inspect shaft and bearings for scour, wear or damage.
- (6) Reassemble and reinstall.
(7) Check input horsepower under load.
10.5.5 Trouble Shooting

The following trouble shooting chart shows some of the most common
electric motor problems and their causes.
SYMPTOM PROBABLE CAUSE ANALYSIS
Motor fails Defective power

to start Supply
~· .... _...,
Blown or defective . Check voltage across all phases
secondary fuses above disconnect switch.
Blown or defective Check voltage below fuses (all

secondary fuses phases) with disconnect closed.
Open Control Circuit

Overload trips are Push reset button.
open
Defective holding Push start button and allow
coil in magnetic sufficient time for operation
switch of relay, if used, then check
I
voltage across 1nagnetic holding
coil. If correct voltage is measured,
coil is defective. If no voltage is
measured, control circuit is open.
10-10
Loose or poor con- Make visual inspection of all con-
nections in control nections control circuit.
circuit.
Magnetic switch Open manual disconnect switch,

closes but poor close magnetic switch by hand and
switch contact examine contactors and springs.
Open circuit in Check voltage at Tl-T2-T3.

control panel (T =terminal)
Leads improperly Check lead numbers and con-

connected nections.
Motor fails Low or incorrect Check voltage at Tl-T2-T3 in

to come up voltage control panel and at motor leads
to speed. in outlet box.
Incorrect connection Check for proper lead connections

· at motor at motor, compare with connection
diagram on motor.
Overload Check impeller setting. Check for

Mechanical a locked or tight shaft.
Overload Hydraulic Check impeller setting. Check GPM

against pump capacity and head.
Motor runs Inadequate ventila- Assure adequate supply of fresh air.

hot tion Check air blast through motor by
feeling air discharge at bottom of
motor. ...., ~ -- -~
Overload Check load with ammeter.
Unbalanced supply Check supply voltage with volt-

voltage meter.
Motor Headshaft misaligned Remove top drive coupling and

vibrates check alignment of motor to pump.
Worn lineshaft Disconnect motor from pump and

bearings or bent run motor only to determine source
line shaft of vibration.
Hy draulic disturbance Check isolation joint in discharge

iA. discharge piping piping near p ump head.
,_
10-11
\.
Motor Worn thrust bearing Remove dust cover, rotate rotor by

noisy hand and make visual examination
of balls and races. (Bearing noise is
usually accompanied by a high fre-
quency vibration.)
Electrical noise Most motors are electrically noisy

during the starting period. This
noise should diminish as motor
reaches full speed.
10.6 ENGINE GENERATORS

10.6.1 General
Standby electric power generators are often installed at water treatment
plants in order to provide minimum power requirements during power
outages. These units are normally diesel or gas engine driven with automa-
tic controls for starting immediately when the commercial power supply
is interrupted.
In addition, many utilities are equipped with trailer mounted, engine
generators for welding and operation of power tools in the field.
Operation and maintenance of engines are discussed in detail in Section
9, "Miscellaneous Mechanical Equipment".
10.6.2 Generator Maintenance
10.6.2.1 General. Being driven by combustion engines, generators are
subject to a great deal of vibration. Therefore, it is essential
that electrical connections be checked frequently for tightness.
10.6.2.2 Periodic Maintenance
(a) Daily Check by Operator
( 1) Check dials for abnormal operation.
(2) Examine wiring for insulation that is frayed, cracked
or discolored.
(3) Check lubricant reservoir levels (if any).
(4) Check for unusual noise or vibration.
(5) Feel housing with hand for unusual heating.
(b) Weekly Maintenance by Operator
(1) Clean exterior with soft cloth to remove dust, grime,
etc.
(2) Check connections for tightness.
(3) Check air vents for blockage, dust, etc.
(c) Annual Maintenance by Operator
( 1) Clean all connectors with emery cloth.
(2) Replace grease in bearings.
(3) Wash down housing with solvent. Be certain solvent
is dry before operating.
(4) Clean air vents with vacuum cleaner.
(d) Every Five Years (By Factory Representativ~)
( 1) Disassemble and inspect all parts for wear, scoring or
10-12
-- -
damage.
(2) Replace brushes.
(3) Clean bearings and lubricant reservoirs with solvent
and replace lubricants.
(4) Replace external wires and connectors.
( 5) Clean dial faces and glass ·covers, replacing as neces-
sary.
(6) Carry out performance test.
10.7 AUTOMATIC EQUIPMENT CONTROLS
It is sometimes impractical for the operator to manually start and stop

equipment every time it is required to operate, for example, starting pumps
when reservoir levels are lowered or stopping them when reservoirs are full.
Usually, the reservoir is too remote from the pump for the operator to see if
the tank is full or empty. For that reason, most water treatment plants and
pumping stations are provided with automatic controls.
Automatic controls can be very complex, and sometimes are. However,
in most cases they are very simple.
Automatic co:n,trol systems nearly always include provisions for manual
control of equipment to allow the operator to "override" the automatic controls
in the event of unusual conditions. Most equipment swtiches have three posi-
tions: "Hand", "Off" and "Auto". Equipment can be started or stopped at any
time by switching to the "Hand" or "Off' position. When the swtich is turned to
the "Auto" position, the equipment will start or stop according to the automatic
control device reaction.
Automatic control systems consist of two components: (a) the devices that
sense the conditions requiring operation of equipment; and (b) the switching
devices, located in the control panel, that complete or break the flow of electric
current to the signal from the sensing devise.
10.7.1 Control Devices. The most commonly used control devices fall into five
categories:
.. .,
~- - -~
*Pressure Switches
*Float Controls
*Probes
*Flow Meter Controls ,
*Timers 1
(a) Pressure Switches are similar in operation to the simple pressure
gauge. However, instead of a graduated face, the pressure switch
makes or breaks electrical contact when water pressure reaches some
pre-set level. They are usually mounted on the pump discharge
piping.
There are several variations of pressure swtich operation. Some of
them have two sets of contacts to provide for starting pumps at low
pressure and stopping them at high pressure. Others respond to a
difference in pressure between two pipes; for example, on the
suction a~d discharge of booster pumps·.
10-13
----------~ ~- - -- ---
Pressure switches are adjustable by simple operation of adjusting
nuts or screws.
(b) Float Controls are usually located in a storage reservoir. A hollow
metal globe, or float, floats on the water surface. A metal rod or
chain connects the float with a switch located on the reservoir roof.
When the water level reaches the desired level the rod or cham trips
the switch, completing or breaking the control circuit, as required.
Float control may be double acting. For example, closing the
switch to start the pump when the rese1voir level is low, and opening
it when the reservoir is full to stop the pump.
(c) Probes take advantage of the fact that water is an electrical
conductor. A pair of weighted electrodes are suspended in a reser-
voir at a given level, say the maximum water level. Each electrode
is connected to a wire of the control circuit. When the water level
rises to the electrodes, electric current flows between them, through
the water, completing the circuit.
Another common application of probes is in a water well. They
are set at the maximum drawdown depth. When the pumping level
in the well falls below the electrodes, electrical contact is broken
since there is no water between them to act as a conductor. and the
pump shuts off.
(d) Flow Meter Controls are usually more complicated than the control
devices described above. Often, several pumps of different sizes are
controlled in various combinations to produce different flow rates,
according to system water demand.
In its simplest form, flow meter control uses a pair of control
wires connected to a flow meter in such a way that contact is made
whenever the flow through the meter rises above or drops below
some desired flow rate.
(e) Timers. There are many types of timers. However, their function is
nearly always the same; to operate a piece of equipment at a given
time or after a specific elapsed time. The most common application
in waterwork~ installation is the time delay relay. This delays ~
starting or stopping of a piece of equipment after the switch is
operated. For example, water lubricated pumps require that, before
starting, water is applied to the part of the pump shaft that is not
submerged, in order to lubricate the rubber bearings. The pump
prelubrication system is connected to the pump switch. When the
switch is turned on, water begins to run onto the pump shaft, while
a time delay relay delays starting of the pump until the prelubrica-
tion is completed. Time delay relays may be designed to delay for
a fixed time or they may be adjustable.
10.7 .2 Control Panels. The control panel is the nerve center of the water treat-
ment plant or pumping station. Housed within it are the control circuits
that trigger automatic operation of equipment, devices to protect equip-
ment against overloads, motor starters, and other items of electrical equip-
ment. Lights and dials mounted on the face of the panel give a visual
display of the operational status ~ of equipment, system pressure, flow
10-14
SCHEMATIC OF RELAY PRINCIPLE
POWER CIRCUIT
CONTROL CIRCUIT
Coil
-~~-Contacts
When control circuit is completed by control device ( i.e. float, pressure

switch, ek:. ) current flows through coil and sets up magnetic field
around it. Magnetic field closes contacts, completing power circuit
and allowing current to flow to equipment.
Float switch
Control circuit wires
FLOAT CONTROL
ELECTRICAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
10-15
----..1
\
rates and the like. Often, an alarm bell inside the panel is coupled with
lights on the face of the panel to give warning of any abnormal operation
of equipment.
(a) Control Circuits. There are two types of circuits inside the control
panel. One is the power circuit which carries electrical power to the
various pieces of electrical equipment: motors, chlorinators, motor-
operated valves, and the like. The other type - the control circuit -
controls the opening and closing of these power circuits.
Control circuits operate at low current and voltage to minimize
the risk of injuries or damage. Power for the control circuits origi-
nates from the main panel, passes through the control transformer
to reduce voltage, and is sometimes converted to direct current in a
rectifier.
(b) Relays. The relay is the basic iink between the control circuit and
the power circuit. The relay takes advantage of the fact that when
current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is set up around
the conductor. This allows the flow of current in one circuit (the
control circuit) to magnetically operate a pair of movable contacts
in a second circuit (the power circuit).
Relays may be "No-r mally-Open" or "Normally-Closed".
Normally open relays will close when the control circuit is energized,
normally-closed relays will open when the circuit is energized.
10.8 ELECTRICAL FIRES
If smoke is seen coming from a motor or electric panel, or if wire insulation

is seen to be burning the operator's first reaction should be to shut off all power
to the unit. Any effort to put out the fire while the power is still on is dangerous
to the operator and will probably result in unnecessary damage to the equipment.
Once the power is off, the maximum damage will have already been done to the
equipment, and putting out the fire is largely a matter of preventing-the sp'i'ead of
the fire to combustible non-electric materials.
Under no circumstances should. water be used to put out an electrical fire.
Even though power is turned off, capacitors in the control circuits retain a large
enough electric charge to electrocute the operator who throws water on them.
Also water could cause short cricuiting of nearby equipment that would not
otherwise be damaged.
It is likely that, as soon as power is turned off, the fire will limit itself to
the electrical unit in which it started. However, if the fire is in danger of spread-
ing or if combustible materials have become involved, it can be safely put out by
throwing sand on it or by using a special fire extinguisher often found near
electrical equipment.
10.9 SOME DO'S AND DON'TS FOR THE OPERATOR
The most important DO is: ?O USE common sense when operating or

maintaining electrical equipment, n~ver forgetting that electricity can kill you.
10-16
Most electrical accidents happen as a result of thoughtless, casual actions, not
from calculated riks.
The following list of Do's and Don'ts are based on the more common causes
of accidents and electrical failures in the past:
* Do check to make sure that nobody is working on a piece of equipment
before turning it on.
* Do check exposed wiring for loose connection or frayed insulation.
* Do check the kilowatt input frequently with all the equipment operating
for increasing loads that might indicate that a piece of equipment is dete-
riorating, or that there is a short circuit somewhere.
* Do check electric motor temperatures often.
* Do call the electrician in the event of any electrical malfunction or ab-
normal operation.
* Do keep spaces around electrical equipment uncluttered, clean and dry.
* Do check electrical fire extinguishers periodically to see that they are full
and operable.
* Don't open any control panel unless requested by the engineer of 1 elec-
trician.
* Don't try to make electrical repairs yourself; call the electrician.
* Don't make adjustments in control settings, even if you know how.
- * Don't rapidly operate any switch ON-OFF-ON.
* Don't replace a burned fuse with one of a different rating.
* Don't repeatedly try to reset a tripped circuit breaker. If it won't reset on
the first push of the reset button, wait for a few minutes before trying
again.
* Don't check a bare wire or connection with your hand to see if it's hot.
* Don 't block ventilator openings of equipment or equipment rooms.
* Don't use soap and water (or even a damp cloth) to clean any equipment
or control panel face; use a non-combustile solvent .
..... . - _..........
10-17
00
00 u 0 0
II
1
DON T USE WATER ON
ELECT~ICAL FIRES/
10-18
MONTHLY
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
MONTH OF 19 ......... .
LOCATION/DESIGNATION ............................................... .
NAME OF OPERATOR . ....................... DATE . .............. .. .. .. . .
Check off work items completed. Explain any "NO" answers under "Remarks". If any
item of equipment is not used, leave both squares blank.
CHECK ONE
10.5 ELECTRIC WORKS
10.5.4.2.(a) Were the following work items done everyday this

month:
1. Check temperature of motor housing with the hand? 0 0

....
2. Check lubricant reservoir level? 0 0
3. Check air vents for blockage? 0 0
4. Check external wiring?. 0 0
10.5 4.2 (b) Were the following done at leastonce this month?
1. Check motor housing temperature with a

thermometer? 0 0
~
2. Check voltage and current at each leg of 3-ph_~~e- _...,.._
motors? 0 0
3. Check bearing temperatures and lubrication? 0 0
10.6 GENERATORS
10.6. 2.1 (a) Were the following work items done everyday this month:
1. Check dials for abnormal operation? 0 0
2. Examine wiring? 0 0
3. Check lubricant reservoir levels? 0 0
4. Check for unusual noise or vibration? 0 0
5. Check housing temperature with hand? 0 0

I
10-19
10.6.2.1 (b) Were the following work items done at least once each
week:
1. Clean exterior of generator set? 0 0
2. Check connections for tightness? 0 0
3. Check air-vents for blockage? 0 0
10.8 Are spaces around electrical equipment uncluttered,

clean and dry? 0 0
10.8 Are electrical fire extinguishers available near all

electrical equipment? 0 0
10.8 Are fire extinguishers full and operable? 0 0
10.8 Are all control settings the same as last month? 0 D
10.8 Are ventilators of equipment room open and un-

blocked? 0 0
REMARKS:
-
. ... .. _....,.
-
~
10-20
ANNUAL
LOCATION/DESIGNATION ....... .. ........ .. ................... . . ........ .

NAME OF OPERATOR . ....................... DATE ....... . . ............. .
CHECK ONE
10.5 ELECTRICAL MOTORS
10.5.4.2 (c) Were the following work items done during the past year:
1. Flush lubricant reservoirs and change lubricant? 0 0
2. Check sleeve bearing wear? 0 0
10.6 GENERATORS
10.6.2.1 (c) 1. All connectors cleaned with emery cloth? 0 0
2. Bearing grease replaced? 0 0
3. Housing washed down with solvent? 0 0
4. Air vents cleaned with vacuum? 0 0
REMARKS.
__._
10-21
ANNUAL
LOCATION/DESIGNATION ............. .... .. .. . .......... .. .. . ........ .. . .

NAME OF OPERATOR .... ..... ...... . ........ DATE . ... .. . .. ............. .
CHECK ONE
10.5 ELECTRICAL MOTORS
10.5.4.2 (c) Were the following work items done during the past year:
1. Flush lubricant reservoirs and change lubricant? 0 0
2. Check sleeve bearing wear? 0 0
10.6 GENERATORS
10.6.2.1 (c) 1. All connectors cleaned with emery cloth? 0 0
2. Bearing grease replaced? 0 0
3. Housing washed down with solvent? 0 0
4. Air vents cleaned with vacuum? 0 0
REMARKS .
......... -~
... .... ...... ...... .. .. .. .... ............. .. ... .. .. .. . ......... . ..... ,. ..
. ... . .. .. ... ... .. ..... .. . .. .................... .. l ....... . ............. .
10-21
· LOCAL WATER UTILITIES ADMINISTRATION
SECTION 11 : WATER METERS AND SERVICE CONNECTIONS
... . ~ _ ..,..
SECTION 11 : WATER METERS AND SERVICE CONNECTIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
11.2 SELECTION OF METERS 11-1
11.3 SERVICING OF METERS PRIOR TO TESTING 11-7
11.4 TESTING METERS 11-10
11.5 METER RECORDS 11-15
11 .6 SPARE PARTS INVENTORY 11-15

... - _ ...,.._._
11.7 INSTALLING NEW SERVICE CONNECTIONS 11 -19
CUSTOMER SERVICE METER
TAILPIECE (FOR DIRECT COUPLING

TO SERVICE PIPE l
BOTH ENDS
SPUD
'----.---~
I. d
.I
METER SIZE* a b c
Mo/hr MM IN NOM. BORE I. D. ANSI THREADO.D. ANSI THREAD 0. D. AWWA METER DESIGNATION d
11 11 11
3 15 5/8 5/8 11
3/4 11
1/2 5/8 X 1/2 7 1/2"
3 15 5/8 5/8 11 I" 3/4 11 5/8 11 X 3/411 7 1/2"
5 20 3/4 3/4 11 I" 3/4 11 3/4 11 9"
I ~4
11
I" 3!411
7 25 I I" I"
I 10
~· ..... _...,.
* METER SIZES AS DESIGNATED ARE ACCEPTED MFG. PRACTICE DEPENDING ON LOCALE AND
DO NOT EQUATE IN ALL CHARACTERISTICS .
NOTE: SIZES ARE NOMINAL AND THE SAME FOR BOTH INLET AND OUTLET.
1t "d" DIMENSIONS ARE AWWA AND ARE MEASURED FROM OUTSIDE FACE TO OUTSIDE FACE
OF METER SPUDS .
11-3
that of the two meters. However, pressure loss is greater than
that of either of the two meters because of the additional loss
through the valve.
11.2.1 .4 Venturi Meter
The venturi meter (sometimes called a pressure differen-

tial meter) operates on a complex principle of hydraulics. It
consists of a tube with a constriction near the center. As water
passes through the constriction (or throat), velocity increases
and hydrostatic pressure dorps. Two sensing lines - one at the
throat and one slightly upstream - transmit the two pressures
to the recorder which is calibrated to convert pressure differen-
tials to flow readings.
Venturi meters are used only to measure very large flows
and are almost never used for measuring customer consumption.
There are no moving parts in the venturi meter, and there-
fore little for the operator to worry about in terms of main-
tenance, except for the read-out system.
11.2.2 Selection of Meter Size

.....
The ideal way of establishing the proper meter sizes for a particular
service connection would be to compute the maximum amount of water
that could possibly be used at one time if every water fixture on the cus-
tomer's property were wide open. This could then be compared with the
amount of water that could be passed through various sizes of meters
without an excessive loss of pressure. Unfortunately, the amount of water
that can be drawn from a fixture (or through a meter) depends on the
pressure available, which is subject to wide variation.
The effect of pressure can be ignored entirely when sizing meters if
the capacities of fixtures (and of the meter) are expressed in te_~~ ..91
equivalent numbers of single taps, or fixture units. For example, a bath
tub draws twice the amount of water that can be drawn through a single
tap, or 1/25 the water that can be drawn through a 15 mm water meter,
given the same pressure. Therefore, one bathtub is counted as two fixture
units and a 15 mm meter has a capacity of fifty fixture units; the relation-
ship being constant, whatever the pressure may be.
In that way, the selection of a meter size is reduced to counting the
total number of fixture units to be served through the meter, and
choosing a meter that has a capaci~y at least equal to that number of
fixture units.
Table ll-1 shows fixture units for various types of fixtures, and
Table 11-2 shows the fixture -unit capacity of various sizes of water
meters. I
I
Where meters are undersized, pressure losses will be excessi_ve, with

the result that pressure within the, customer's plumbing system may be
too low, prompting complaints to the utility. Also meter parts will move
11 -4
faster, causing abnormal wear. On the other hand, meters are least accu-
rate at low flows, and oversizing of meters will result in under-registration
of consumption, with loss of revenues.
The maximum size of service meters is often limited to 50 mm in
order to standardize repair and testing procedures. When a customer's
requirements exceed the capacity of a 50 mm meter, multiple meters are
installed in a manifold arrangement.
SERVICE TO CUSTOMER
VALVE
METER
IN
BATTERY OF SMALL METERS

TO MEASURE LARGE FLOW
11-5
Table ll-1
FIXTURE UNITS FOR VARIOUS PLUMBING FIXTURES
No. of Fixture Units

---- --------
Private Public
Use Use
- - -- ----
Bathtub 2 4
Shower (separate from tub) 2 4
Lavatory or small sink 1 2
Toilet (tank type) 3 5
Toilet (flush valve type) 6 10
Sink, dual faucet 2 4
Hose bib 3 5
Drinking Fountain 1
Urinal (tank type) 3
Urinal ( fl_llsh vavle type) 5
Other, 9.5 mm size 1 2
Other, 13 mm size 1 4
Other, 20 mm size 3 6
Other, 2 5 mm size 6 10
Table ll-2
MINIMUM CAPACITIES OF WATER METERS
Meter Size No. of Fixture Units
15 mm 50
20mm 100
25mm 225
40mm 625
50mm 1250
11.3 SERVICING OF METERS PRIOR TO TESTING
The following instructions apply mainly to small meters. H?wever, much of

the information applies to large mete,rs, as well. Manufacturers of large meters gene-
rally provide detailed instruction manuals on operation and maintenance with each
meter. These should be studied before starting work, since some of the procedures
11-6
given in this section that are perfectly safe for small service meters might damage
meters of other types or materials. If there is any conflict between a particular
manufacturer's instructions and the procedures given in this manual, the manufac-
turer's instructions should be followed.
The main aim of meter servicing is to eliminate the .mechanical friction that
causes most meter registration errors. This is done by replacing worn parts and re-
moving built-up deposits of mud, silt and minerals that are collected from the water
and deposited on bearing surfaces.
11.3.1 Sequence of Servicing Operations
Meters are put through the following steps after they are brought
to the meter shop:
(a) Tested at intermediate flow rate
(b) Rough cleaning
(c) Dismantling and cleaning
(d) Examination and replacement of worn or damaged parts
(e) Reassembly
(f) Testing
If testing · reveals that accuracy of a meter is still below acceptable
- limits, it is put through the entire process again, with particular attention
given to the examination stage.
The most efficient way to service large number of meters is to set up
a routine sequence of steps that will result in restoring the dirtiest, most
worn-out meter to satisfactory condition, then putting every meter
through the same process, whether all steps are needed or not. This spares
the operator from making several decisions for every meter, and eliminates
the possibility of a needed step being overlooked. The time consumed in
unnecessary steps is more than offset by the reduced percentage of meters
that have to be reworked and retested.
11.3.2 Dismantling
. . -- - ~L
No two brands of water meter are exactly alike in construction and

therefore specific step-by-step instructions cannot be given here for dis-
mantling them. In any case, anyone with an average amount of mecha-
nical aptitude can usually dismantle and reassemble a meter, with no par-
ticular instruction. However, it is a good idea for the operator to dis-
mantle and reassemble a new meter a few times before working on one of
the same type that ·has been in service for a number of years. A new
meter lacking deposits of minerals in threads and internal parts can be
taken apart with no great exertion of force. In that way, the operator
cannot only learn how to reassemble the meter quickly and properly, but
can also observe where greater force can be used in clismantling an old,
encrusted meter, and where a gentle touch i& needed to avoid damage.
Some general rules that apply to all meters are:
(a) When open}ng the meter case, never put' a length of pipe on a tool
handle to get additional leverage or hit the tool handle with a ham-
mer. If it cannot be turned with a standard tool, apply penetrating
11-7
oil or kerosene to the threads and let it sit for a few minutes; then
try again.
{b) Never use pliers to grip plastic or nylon parts.
(c) If the measuring chamber cannot be removed from the casing with
the fingers, do not try to pry it out with a screwdriver or: knife. Tap
the outside of the casing around its circumference with a lead or
wood mallet to break up mineral deposits between the chamber and
casing. It is convenient to have a lead plate about 30 em x 30 em x 1
em thick on the disassembly table. Then meters with stubborn
chambers can be tapped on the plate while rotating the meter. The
lead plate will absorb the shocks and will not scar the casing.
{d) When gripping a meter in a vise, do not tighten the vise so much that
the casing will be distorted.
(e) When opening the chamber of a nutating disc meter, use the special
spreading tool provided by the meter manufacturer.
11.3.3 Cleaning
When meters are brought into the shop, they should be immediately
disassembled, if possible, and all parts cleaned and examined for obvious
wear or damage. If meters cannot be disassembled immediately, it is im-
portant that built-up mineral deposits be prevented from hardening, which
would otherwise cause difficulty in disassembly and cleaning. This is done
by filling the meter with water, capping the ends and storing it in an
upside-down position.
Cleaning of meters is done by various combinations of the following:
* Hosing (to remove caked on mud)
* Soap and water with a bristle brush
* Alkaline solutions (removal of oil and grease)
* Acid solutions (removal of lime deposits, rust and scale)
* Sandblasting (removal of mineral deposits)
* Wire brushing (removal of mineral deposits) .., . - _......_
11.3.3.1 Precautions
(a) Alkaline solutions are used at temperature at around 70°C

(160°F). This can damage rubber parts. Therefore the
operator should be very careful to avoid accidentally dip-
ping rubber parts in the alkali bath tank. Also, some
petroleum-base chemicals can damage rubber. In general,
rubber parts should be cleaned only with soap and water.
(b) Acid fumes are very dangerous, and therefore the meter
shop must be well ventilated. Also, acid can seriously bum
the eyes, skin and clothing; so great care is necessary to
avoid splashing. ,
I
(c) Meter parts must be as clean as possible before being
dipped in acid. Otherwise, the acid becomes quickly neu-
'
tralized by deposits of mud and mineral deposits that
could easily be .removed by other means, requiring
11-8
frequent replacement of acid.
(d) If metal meter parts are left in acid too long, loss of metal
will result, causing loose fit of parts.
(e) All traces of acid must be removed by flushing with clean
water to avoid later corrosion problems.
11.3.3.2 Cleaning Procedure
(a) Place parts from each meter (except register assemblies)

in to an individual stainless steel wire or plastic basket (do
not mix parts from different meters).
(b) Agitate basket in soapy water vat and use vegetable fiber
brush to remove deposits of mud and silt.
(c) Rinse thoroughly under cold water faucet and allow excess
water to drain off for a short while.
(d) Remove all rubber parts and inspect for cracking, distor-
tion or loss of elasticity. Dispose of defective pieces, and
sort remainder into separate containers for later transfer
to spare parts bins.
(e) Dip basket in alkaline solution, made up of 300 gram of
caustic soda or trisodium phosphate dissolved in 10 liters
of hot water (70°C), to remove any oil or grease. Allow
to soak for at least three minutes; then rinse thoroughly in
cold water.*
(f) Dip basket in vat of acid solution consisting of 50% hydro-
chloric (muriatic) acid and 50% water, until all corrosion
and scale is removed (the acid solution should be in a stone
crock, glass tank, or plastic vat), then rinse thoroughly in
cold water.
(g) Examine metal parts and wire brush any remaining mineral
deposits. Do not scrape or use wire brush on any plastic
parts. .. . - _ ....._
(h) Move meters to reassembly bench.
*Step (e) may-be omitted if oil and grease are seldom encoutered.
11.3.4 Examination and Repair
After cleaning, all parts are closely examined for wear or damage.
Any damaged or worn part should be discarded, no matter how slight the
defect, except where specific corrective measures are described in the
following paragraphs. The ccst of replacement parts is very slight com-
pared to the cost of repairing and testing the meter.
It is a good idea to keep a completely dismantled new meter of each
type and size used by the utility at a convenient location in the meter
shop, for comparing thicknesses, clearances and the like. Each one should
be kept in a shallow wooden box, pan or tray, ~o avoid mixing the parts
with those of meters being repaired.
11-9
11.4 TESTING METERS
The three basic elements of a meter test are:

(a) The number of different rates of flow over the operating range of a meter re-
quired to determine the overall meter efficiency.
(b) The quantities of water necessary at the various test rates to provide reasonable
determination of meter registration.
(c) Accuracy limits that meters must meet on the different rates to be acceptable
for use.
11.4.1 Test Rates
Three rates of flow are necessary to test water meters - maximum,

intermediate, and minimum.
Registration curves of water meters show that meters in good ope-
rating condition follow a general pattern of registration. Above the very
low flows that the meter will not register there is an intermediate point of
maximum registration. Above and below this point, lower registration is
obtained. The maximum point of registration depends on meter design
but is usually about 10% of rated meter capacity. At rates above that of
maximum registration, the accuracy curve is fairly flat so that there is
little difference in accuracy over a wide range of flows. Hence, selection
of the maximum rate of flow at which meters are tested is not of major
importance.
Maximum rate test flows of approximately three fourths of rated
capacity are practical, particularly because meters are seldom operated at
rated capacity.
The intermediate rate of flow should be at or near the high point of
registrat:on to ensure against over-registration on any rate of flow, and
therefore should approximately be 10% of rated capacity.
The minimum rate of flow test does more to reveal operational
ability and proficiency of meter repair than either tl]..e_rp~,g,mum or inter-
mediate flow tests. All three, however, are necessary to evaluate overall
meter accuracy.
Obviously, accuracy limits are established to ensure that water
meters record as accurately as commercially feasible. Meters have an in-
herent variation of 1-3 percent in registratiqn over the entire range of
flows except very low flow just above those that the meter will not regis-
ter. As an example, a 15 -mm meter in good conditions will register with-
in the following limits: 95% or higher at 1 liter per minute, a rise to
101.5% at 8 liters per minute, (usually 10% of rated meter capacity) and
then a falling off on a flat curve to not less than 98.5% at 80 liters per
m.inute which is the rated meter capacity for a 15-mm water meter.
11.4.2 Testing Meters
Generally, meters in sizes up to 50 mm are removed from service

and taken to the meter shop where they are tested on the meter test
bench. Meters larger than 50 mm are tested in three different ways: (1)
11-10
11.4 TESTING METERS
The three basic elements of a meter test are:

(a) The number of different rates of flow over the operating range of a meter re-
quired to determine the overall meter efficiency.
(b) The quantities of water necessary at the various test rates to provide reasonable
determination of meter registration.
(c) Accuracy limits that meters must meet on the different rates to be acceptable
for use.
11.4.1 Test Rates
Three rates of flow are necessary to test water meters - maximum,

intermediate, and minimum.
Registration curves of water meters show that meters in good ope-
rating condition follow a general pattern of registration. Above the very
low flows that the meter will not register there is an intermediate point of
maximum registration. Above and below this point, lower registration is
obtained. The maximum point of registration depends on meter design
but is usually about 10% of rated meter capacity. At rates above that of
-maximum registration, the accuracy curve is fairly flat so that there is

little difference in accuracy over a wide range of flows. Hence, selection
of the maximum rate of flow at which meters are tested is not of major
importance.
Maximum rate test flows of approximately three fourths of rated
capacity are practical, particularly because meters are seldom operated at
rated capacity.
The intermediate rate of flow should be at or near the high point of
registrat:on to ensure against over-registration on any rate of flow, and
therefore should approximately be 10% of rated capacity.
The minimum rate of flow test does more to reveal operational
ability and proficiency of meter repair than either tl}~_ l'!la.~um or inter-
mediate flow tests. All three, however, are necessary to evaluate overall
meter accuracy.
Obviously, accuracy limits are established to ensure that water
meters record as accurately as commercially feasible. Meters have an in-
herent variation of 1-3 percent in registratiqn over the entire range of
flows except very low flow just above those that the meter will not regis-
ter. As an example, a 15 -rom meter in good conditions will register with-
in the following limits: 95% or higher at 1 liter per minute, a rise to
101.5% at 8 liters per minute, (usually 10% of rated meter capacity) and
then a falling off on a flat curve to not less than 98.5% at 80 liters per
minute which is the rated meter capacity for a 15-mm water meter.
11.4.2 Testing Meters
Generally, meters in sizes up to 50 mm are removed from service

and taken to the meter shop where they are tested on the meter test
bench. Meters larger than 50 mm are tested in three different ways: {1)
11-10
If located such that flow into a reservoir can be metered, they are checked
in place by measuring volume changes in the reservoir; (2) Testing in place
by connecting a 50 mm calibrated test meter to the test ports provided for
th.at purpose and discharging to waste, or (3) If tests ports are not pro-
vided, the meter is removed and connected to a fire hydrant in tandem
with a calibrated test meter, discharging water to waste during the test.
11.4.2.1 Testing Small Meters (up to 50 mm)
Small meters are tested on a test bench connected to two

calibrated tanks of different sizes. Water is passed through the
meters at controlled flow rates and checked against the volume
of the measuring tanks. Meters may be tested singly or in
groups.
Flow rates are controlled by a test rate indicator and throt-
tling valve on the water suppiy to the bench. After testing,
drain valves on the tanks are opened to drain them for the next
test.
Mounting Meters on Test Bench

(a) Position meters in test bench, connect loosely.
(b) If some meter mounting positions are not used, install
blank spacer pipes.
(c) After all meters (and blanks, if used) are mounted,
but before tightening, open drain valves on tanks and
run enough water to force all air out of the meters,
flow gauges and piping. (Any air in the line while
testing will cause false. accuracy readings.)
(d) Tighten all connections with water still running, and
check each meter for leaks at casing joints and
registers.
(e) Stop water flow, close drain ·vahr.e on test tank when
empty and set meters to zero (if possible). Record all
meter readings on test form.
(f) Run the maximum test flow rate through the meters,
controlling the rate by operation of the throttling
valve and test rate indicators, until the large test tank
is exactly full (usually one cubic meter). If more
than one size of meters are being tested at the same
time, use the proper rate for the smallest meters.
(g) Record all meter readings on the test form.
(h) Repeat steps (f) and (g) using the intermediate flow
rate, and flowing into the small tank instead of the
large one.
(i) Drain the small tank and repeat step (h) with flow
at the minimum rate.
~U) Calculate and record the accuracy at the three test
flow rates for each meter as follows:
11 ·11
I
Metered Volume
Accuracy = - - -- - - - - - - x 100%
Tank Volume
(k) If meter accuracy is outside the acceptable limits send .

the meter in question back to the meter servicing area
for additional cleaning and repair.
11.4.2.2 Testing Large Meters (Over 50 mm)
The test tanks in the meter shop are not large enough to
measure the quantities of water required for testing large
meters. For that reason, meters over 50 mm in size are general-
ly tested in the field - preferably in-place.
The accuracy of certain large meters - particularly the cur-
rent meter - is seriously affected by fittings, valves or obstruc-
tions near the meter inlet. Therefore, a straight run of pipe,
having a length of at least ten times the meter diameter, should
be installed directly ahead of the meter.
When testing any meter, the valve that is throttled to
control test rates should be after the meter (i.e., downstream).
Throttling ahead of the meter creates turbulence that will cause
false readings.
When any meter is equipped with a test port, it should be
tested in-place, diverting flow out of the port and through a
positive-displacement, calibrated test meter. This should be
done even though another means is available; for example, when
the meter is located on a reservoir inlet line. (It is difficult to
get exact measurements of reservoir levels; mainly because of
wave action inside the reservoir.)
11.4.2 .3 Testing with Calibrated Test Meter .... -- _

_.
(a) Equipment
( 1) Test Cart. It is convenient to prepare a sturdy four-
wheeled cart for testing meters in the field. It should
be large enough to accommodate the test meter, tool
box and a selection of pipe fittings. Mounting
brackets should be provided to allow bolting of the
test meter to the cart. Carried to the work location
on the service truck, it not only aids in transporting
materials from the truck to the meter, but serves as a
base for the calibrated meter during the test.
(2) Hoses. Two heavy-duty, rubber, 50 mm hoses, each
about five meters long, should be available for the
test. Each hose should have standard pipe threads on
the end fittings, and a , union on one or both ends of
each hose. One hose is installed between the test
meter and the test port of the meter being tested. The
11 -12
other is used to carry test water to a ditch, gutter or
drain.
In addition, a length of fire hose five meters in
length is required when a meter is removed and tested
from a fire. hydrant. The fire hose should have a
standard, female fire hose fitting on one end and a
standard threaded pipe fitting on the other.
(3) Test Meter. The test meter can be any 50 mm meter
of known accuracy; however a new or nearly new dis-
placement-type meter is preferred.
(4) Fittings
The following fittings should be available for
making necessary connections:
Size ~~~_g_ Q~E!i!Y
50mm Pipe Couplings or unions 2

63 X 50 Reducer, Screwed 1
75 X 50 Screwed Flange* 2
50 mm Elbows, screwed 4
50 mm Plug, Globe or Gate Valve 1
50 mm Short Nipples 6
*Needed only when the utility has flanged meters
in the same size.
(b) Procedure. Use of a calibrated test meter restricts the
maximum flow rate at which the larger meter can be tested.
In general, the maximum test flow rate will be that speci-
fied for the test n:eter, but the intermediate and minimum
test flow rates will be that sp.ecifi_eg for the meter being
tested. The reason for this is that the accuracy of the test
·meter is not known above its maximum test rate, and
therefore the accuracy of the larger meter cannot be deter-
mined.
(1) Testing In-Place
(i) Position the test cart in a convenient location near
the meter to be tested.
(ii) Close the curb stop or valve ahead of the large
meter.
(iii) Remove the pipe plug from the meter's test port,
located on the outlet side of the meter, and install
the piping arrangement shown in the illustration.
(iv) Record the reading of both meters.
(v) Slowly open the valve until the maximum test rate
for the test meter is achieved.
(vi) After the quantity of water specified for the meter
11-13
being tested (Table 11-3) has passed, close the
valve and record the readings of both meters.
(vii) Repeat the procedure at the intermediate and
minimum test rates for the meter being tested.
(viii) Calculate the accuracy of the meter being tested
for each flow rate, as follows:
Difference in test meter reading

Actual water =
Passed Known test meter accuracy at
flow rate during test
Difference in meter readings x

Accuracy of= 100%
Meter
Actual Water Passed
(2) Testing Through Fire Hydrant

(i) Remove the meter to be tested and transport to a
convenient fire hydrant.
(ii) Position the test cart in a convenient location near
- the meter to be tested. (Usually, the test cart and
meter being tested can be left in the truck during
the test.)
(iii) Install the piping arrangement shown in the
illustration.
(iv) Follow steps (iv) through (viii) given for testing
in-place (see preceding paragraphs).
11.4.2.4 Volumetric Testing
This is used only if the meter to be tested does not have

test ports, and only if the meter is located on a reservoir inlet ·· ·
line with no leaks or uncontroll~d outlets. The result is only
--
approximate since it cannot take reservoir leakage into account.
(a) Close all reservoir outlet valves and a valve between the
meter and reservoir.
(b) Measure the reservoir level.
(c) Open the downstream valve slowly until flow through the
meter is at the specified intermediate rate ( 10% maximum
rate). (It will not be possible to test at the maximum test
rate.)
(d) After a sufficient quantity of water to permit accurate
calculations and readings has passed through the meter and
into the reservoir, close the valve.
(e) Record the reservoir level and compute volume change in
the reservoir.
(f) Repeat steps (c), (d) and (e) with flow at the minimum
rate.
11-14
other is used to carry test water to a ditch, gutter or
drain.
In addition, a length of fire hose five meters in
length is required when a meter is removed and tested
from a fire.. hydrant. The fire hose should have a
standard, female fire hose fitting on one end and a
standard threaded pipe fitting on the other.
(3) Test Meter. The test meter can be any 50 mm meter
of known accuracy; however a new or nearly new dis-
placement-type meter is preferred.
(4) Fittings
The following fittings should be available for
making necessary connections:
Size ~!!~g_ Q~EE!Y
50mm Pipe Couplings or unions 2

63 X 50 Reducer, Screwed 1
50 mm Elbows, screwed 4
50 mm Plug, Globe or Gate Valve 1
50 mm Short Nipples 6
*Needed only when the utility has flanged meters
in the same size.
(b) Procedure. Use of a calibrated test meter restricts the
maximum flow rate at which the larger meter can be tested_
In general, the maximum test flow rate will be that speci-
fied for the test meter, but the intermediate and minimum
test flow rates will be that SP.~~if~d_ for the meter being
tested. The reason for this is that the accuracy of the test
meter is not known above its maximum test rate, and
therefore the accuracy of the larger meter cannot be deter-
mined.
(1) Testing In-Place
(i) Position the test cart in a convenient location near
the meter to be tested.
(ii) Close the curb stop or valve ahead of the large
meter.
(iii) Remove the pipe plug from the meter's test port,
located on the outlet side of the meter, and install
the piping arrangement shown in the illustration.
(iv) Record the reading of both meters.
(v) Slowly open the valv~ until the maximum test rate
for the test meter is achieved.
(vi) After the quantity of water specified for the meter
11-13
being tested (Table 11-3) has passed, close the
valve and record the readings of both meters.
(vii) Repeat the procedure at the intermediate and
minimum test rates for the meter being tested.
(viii) Calculate the accuracy of the meter being tested .
for each flow rate, as follows:
Difference in test meter reading

Actual water= - - - --- ------------
Passed Known test meter accuracy at
flow rate during test
Difference in meter readings x

Accuracy of= 100%
Meter
Actual Water Passed
(2) Testing Through Fire Hydrant

(i) Remove the meter to be tested and transport to a
convenient fire hy~rant.
(ii) Position the test cart in a convenient location near
- the meter to be tested. (Usually, the test cart and
meter being tested can be left in the truck during
the test.)
(iii) Install the piping arrangement shown in the
illustration.
(iv) Follow steps (iv) through (viii) given for testing
in-place (see preceding paragraphs).
11.4.2.4 Volumetric Testing
This is used only if the meter to be tested does not have

test ports, and only if the meter is located on a reservoir inlet ~.. - - _ _.,
line with no leaks or uncontroll~d outlets. The result is only
approximate since it cannot take reservoir leakage into account.
(a) Close all reservoir outlet valves and a valve between the
meter and reservoir.
(b) Measure the reservoir level.
(c) Open the downstream valve slowly until flow through the
meter is at the specified intermediate rate ( 10% maximum
rate). (It will not be possible to test at the maximum test
rate.)
(d) After a sufficient quantity of water to permit accurate
calculations and readings has passed through the meter and
into the reservoir, close the valve.
(e) Record the reservoir level and compute volume change in
the reservoir.
(f) Repeat steps (c), (d) and (e) with flow at the minimum
rate.
11-14
(g) Compute accuracy at each test rate as explained in Section
11.4.1.1
11 .5 METER RECORDS
It is the duty of the meter shop staff to keep track of scheduled routine repair
and testing of meters, replacing meters in service and bringing them to the meter
shop as servicing becomes due. To do this, it is necessary to always know the loca-
tion of every meter and the date when it was last installed.
11.5.1 Meter History Card
The simplest and most effective way of keeping track of the location
and status of meters is through the use of Meter History Cards. These are
printed forms on sturdy, heavy card stock, with the following informa-
tion to be filled in:
* Manufacturer and type of meter
* Manufacturer's serial number
* Size of meter
* Date Purchased
* Purchase Price
* Installation History
* Repair and Testing History
Information on dates of purchase and prices .are furnished to the
meter shop by the utility's commercial section. The remainder of the
information on the card is filled in by the meter shop staff as work is
completed.
A sample Meter History Card is shown on the following page. The
meter history cards are kept in the meter shop files in numerical order
and segregated by brand name, using the manufacturer's serial number
for reference. Also, each time a meter is serviced, the last two digits of
the year are printed in the top right-hand corner of the card in pencil
(so that it can be erased the next time the ~~t~i~ serviced, and the
year of that servicing printed in its place).
On a scheduled basis, all meters should be periodically removed,

examined, repaired if necessary and tested. Meters 25 rom and smaller
should be done at least each 10 years. Meters over 25 mm should be
done at least each 5 years.
11.6 SPARE PARTS INVENTORY
During the first four years after a system is changed from unmetered to
metered service, the meters are not routinely tested and .therefore only enough spare
parts are required for ser:vicing as requested by customers and for occasional mal-
functions.
11-15
METER HISTORY CARD
REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
MFG. DATE RECEIVED CONNECTION

SERIAL N o . - - - - -
TH'D. FIG
SIZE DISPOSITION DATE-------.________._______ · _
TYPE __________ FINAL DISPOSITION - - - - -- - - - -- -
INSTALLATION RECORD
INSTALLED REMOVED CHECKED
METER ADDRESS BY
DATE RDG DATE RDG
--
...
TEST AND REPAIR RECORD
DATE WORK PERFORMED/ TEST RESULT PARTS USE D REMARKS
.. - . _ ....._
11-16
Beginning in the fourth year, routine servicing is begun and a larger percentage
of spare parts will be required. Table 11-4 shows recommended spare parts inven-
tories for two types of meters. Meters of other makes have different spare parts
lists but requirements will be similar. These quantities of spare parts are based on
fairly bad conditions and can be adjusted with experience. ·
Table 11-4
SPARE PARTS INVENTORY
(per 1000 Meters in Service)
KENT, 13-25 MM OSCILLATING PISTON ~~~~E_!~~~~_!:.!~~~_Q~-~~~~_!!

TATI_N_G_:QI_s_G_
Q~9"iP_!i~n Q_~t_i!y_ _!?~~~i9E 2~~E!Y_
Plastic lid 30 Register box wflid 10

Hinge pin 30 Sr. Center Hand register 20
Register and gear assembly Register change gear 20
with gasks:t 20 Train change gear 20
Register assembly gasket 10 Lower drive assembly (with
Ramp assembly 10 retaining ring) 10
Top plate assembly complete 10 Disc chamber screw 5
Top plate only 10 Top plate 10
Piston 20 Disc interior assembly 10
Shutter 20 Diaphragm 10
Working Chamber 20 Disc piston w/spindle 10
Location pin 10 Strainer 10
Strainer, plastic Case gasket 10
Circlip 10
Working chamber 0-ring 10 ..... · - - - .;...It'...
Seal wires 100

Lead seal blanks "100
11.6.1 LAYOUT OF METER SHOP
The ideal meter shop layout is one where meters move in a smooth, continuous
path through successive steps in the repair and testing process with no wasted
motion. A typical layout is shown in the illustration. The path of the meters
through the shop is indicated by arrows.
11-17
LOADING DOCK
rr====~====~==~~
PAINT _J METER STORAGE 1/ I
I
SPRAY
I
I
I
0 '00
\
\
\
~
LL
C5 ~
:I:
0
z
lU
m
z
/ ~
0
/ ~
/ i30:
I ID
I \
REPAIR \
SINK
- BENCHES
/
/
/
/
/
REB\IR /
METER PARTS BENCH ---
STORAGE
--
~~ TAN~,\~----.-.::~\,....._
0 LARGE METER
. ..___ _....:..T....:..ES.;;_T;.__~
LAYOUT OF MEDIUM SIZE: METER REPAIR SHOP

11-18
11.7 INSTALLING NEW SERVICE CONNECTIONS
11.7.1 General. The following rules should be observed when installing service
connections:
* Do not install connections to the water main in a straight horizontal
line on the same length of pipe.
* Connections to the main should never be closer together than 25 em.
* The service connection piping should never be smaller than 20 mm
diameter.
* Service piping earth cover should be at least 45 em.
* Service piping should have a continuous upgrade with no high or low
points (to prevent accumulation of air or silt).
* Flush out piping thoroughly before connecting to meter, to remove all
metal cuttings, oil or dirt.
* Do not lay a service line within 1.0 m of any utility pole or cable.
* Do not lay a service line within 1.5 m of any tree.
* Install connections between 45- and 90-degrees from the top of pipe.
* Snake plastic service line tubing from side to side in the trench to allow
for expansion, contraction and settlement.
U.7.2 Connection to Water Main. The means of connecting to a main depends on

the water main material and on whether the main will be under pressure at
the time of installation.
The connection may, or may not include a corporation stop at the
point of connection to the main. Generally, a corporation stop is installed
when connection is made under pressure, to 'lrlto"w water to be shut off while
the service piping is installed and the meter set. When cold tapping (i.e., no
pressure in the main}, the service piping may be connected directly to the
main without a corporation stop provided a shutoff valve is installed at the
meter inlet.
11.7.2.1 Saddle (Service Clamp) ConnectiQ!,l, _ A....Illetal clamp is bolted

around the main. It has a threaded hole into which the cor-
ponition stop can be screwed. A hole is drilled into the main
through the corporation stop.
(a) Procedure
( 1) Remove coating, if any, by chipping, scraping and
wire brushing. If there is no pipe coating, clean the
pipe of dirt or clay.
(2) Bolt the saddle loosely in place at the ~pproximate
location of the connection.
(3) Tighten bolts snugly but not overtight (over-tighten-
ing can damage the pipe).
(4) If a corporation stop is not used:
(i) Drill a hole in the pipe wall through the saddle
opening. The ho.l e should be slightly smaller
than the opening.
(5) If a corporation stop is used:
(i) Apply pipe dope and screw the corporation stop
11-19
_____________
,._ --- - ----
USING A FLARING TOOL FOR POLYBUTYLENE
AND/OR POLYTHYLENE PLASTIC TUBING
11 -20
firmly into the saddle.
(ii) Open the corporation stop and drill the hole in
the pipe wall through the corporation stop. (If
the main is under pressure, a drilling machine is
screwed onto the corporation stop; allowing the
drill to be withdrawn after drilling, and the cor-
poration stop closed, without leakage of water.)
(6) Repair coating (if any).
11.7.2.2 Direct Threaded Connection. A hole is drilled directly into

the pipe wall and tapped to receive the corporation stop or
tubing fitting.
Tapping machines are available that will allow drilling,
tapping and insertion of service connection without leakage
from the main. If a tapping machine is not available, an
ordinary carbide tipped drill and tapered threading die may
be used; provided that the main is first taken out of service
and pressure relieved by opening a hydrant or tap. The hole
_should be located at least 45 degrees but not more than 90
degrees below the top of the pipe.
11.7.2.3 Welded Coupling Connection
(a) Procedure
(1) Remove coating and clean pipe in the area o f the
connection.
{2) Weld a standard threaded steel half-coupling onto
the wall of the main, pointing upward at an angle
not more than 45 degrees from the horiz ontal
center line.
(3) If the connection is to ~.e. I?~<k under pressure:
(i) Screw an insulating bushing into the coupling.
(Do uot use pipe dope on insulating bushings.)
(ii) Screw a corporation stop into the insulating
bushing and tighten the entire assembly, snugly
but not so tight as to damage the insulating
bushing.
(iii) Mount the tapping machine on the o-p aned cor-
poration stop and drill the hole.
(iv) Withdraw the drill and close the corporation
stop.
(v) Remove the tapping machine.
(vi) Check the connection for leakage at the threads
and around the weld. Correct if necessa~y.
(4) If the connection is no~ made under pressure:
(i) Drill the pipe wall, through the coupling, using a
drill slightly smaller than the inside diar.'eter of
the coupling.
11-21
(ii) Screw an insulating bushing into the steel
coupling. (Do not use pipe dope.)
(5) Chip off any burnt pipe coating material, wire
brush and coat the exterior of the steel . coupling
and surrounding area of the pipe wall with a coal
tar based coating material or cement mortar, as
appropriate. (Apply coating even if the main is
galvanized:)
11.7.3 Tapping Machines
There are several types of drilling and tapping machines available,

with operation varying from one manufacturer to the next. Consult the
manufacturer's instruction booklet for details.
11.7.4 Installing Service Line. Service line materials vary according to size, as
follows:
* 20-50 mm: High molecular weight polyethylene or polybutylene
tubing with flared bronze or copper fittings.
* h.arger than 50 mm: Same as water main connections (see Section
7, "Connection to Existing Water Mains").
11.7.4.1 Flaring Plastic Tubing
(a) Slip a tubing nut onto the tubing, threads toward the
end to be joined.
(b) Mount the flaring tool.
(c) Crank the handle briskly for about six turns, which
forces the end of tubing to flare out against top part
of the tool being turned downward.
(d) Remov<. the flaring tool. .. . -~
11.7.4.2 Setting the Meter.Water utilities usually adopt various

methods of mounting meters based on local conditions.
11-22
~------------------------ -- -
. --
/' (
SECTION 12 - CORROSION CONTROL
_.,. --- _ . . . . .,
SECTION 12- CORROSION CONTROL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
~
12.2 HOW CORROSION WORKS 12-1
12.3 CATHODIC PROTECTION 12-2
12.4 PROTECTIVE COATINGS 12-6

.....
12.5 SOME DO'S AND DON'TS FOR THE OPERATOR 12·-17
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The waterworks operator h as two persistent enemies: friction and corrosion.

l<'riction causes moving parts to wear out, electric motors to get hot, and electric
bills to be higher than they would be otherwise. Fortunately, careful attention to
lubrication can minimize friction. Corrosion, on.the other hand, eats holes in metal
pipe and storage tanks, and freezes up valves. Like friction, it can be minimized -
by applying good protection coatings.
Corrosion is a gradual process that often goes unnoticed until great damage has
already been done. Sometimes a small streak of rust on a painted surface will be the
only indication that the metal beneath the paint is being consumed by corrosion.
12.2 HOW CORROSION WORKS
Corrosion is a complex electro-chemical process. Stripped of all the details, it

may be described as follows:
When two different metals are connected by a liquid conductor (an
"electrolyte"), a small electric current is created and flows from one to the
other as a result of a chemical reaction between them. In the process, small
metal particles (iqns) of one metal will be carried to the other by the current.
This is the principle used in electro-plating. For example, if a piece of iron is
suspended in one end of a small tank containing a mixture of acid and water (acid is
a very strong conductor) and a piece of zinc in the other, the iron will eventually be-
come zinc-plated and the piece of zinc will be gradually corroded away. If an out-
side electric current is applied to the zinc, and the iron is grounded, the process will
be greatly speeded up. Therefore, electroplating is simply controlled corrosion.
Every metal will react with every other metal in this way to some degree. All
metals are classed according to the strength of their reaction with other metals, in
what is known as EMF (electromotive-force) series. In the EMF series, show below,
the reaction between metals is stronger when they are far apart in the series, and
weaker when they are close together. A strong reaction, for example, would develop
between magnesiur 1 and iron. A weak one would develop between copper and brass
; ,.. or steel and iro"l. Metal particles would flow from a matertal"'higher on the list to
one below it.
EMF Series
Magnesium
Zinc
Aluminum
Steel
Iron
Lead
Tin
Nickel
Brass
Copper
Since no metal is absolutely uniform chemically,' one spot on a metal pipe can
react with another where the chemical composition is slightly different. The point
where electric current I~aves the metal is called the Anode, and the point where it
enters is the Cathode.
12-1
Ordinary water or even moist soil is a good enough conductor to sustain the
corrosion process. If salt or acid is added to the water, it becomes a much stronger
conductor. (This explains why metals corrode much faster in sea water.) The
ability of an electrolyte, such as water or moist earth, to conduct electric current is
known as conductivity. The higher the conductivity, the more rap.i dly corrosion will
take place.
12.3 CATHODIC PROTECTION
_.. The most important protection against corrosion consists of good, well-main-
tained protective coatings. Sometimes, however, additional protection is provided in
the form of cathodic protection. Since it is difficult to apply a perfect coating -
even a pin hole in the coating is enough to allow corrosion to proceed beneath the
surrounding paint - cathodic protection is used to prevent corrosion at points of
imperfections in the coating.
There are two kinds of cathodic protection. One type requires an outside
source of electric current to "overpower" corrosion currents in the metal being pro-
tected (Impressed Current Cathodic Protection). The other uses corrosion to fight
corrosion. A strong anode such as one made of zinc or magnesium is placed so as to
create a corrosion current between itself and the steel to be protected, overpower-
ing the weaker corrosion currents within the steel. (Sacrificial Anode Cathodic
Protection)
12.3.1 Impressed Voltage
Impressed Voltage Cathodic Protection consists of placing a cast iron

electrode in the vicinity of the steel to be protected, with a small d.c.
voltage applied to the electrode from an outside power source. The im-
pressed voltage is large enough to suppress the natural corrosion currents
in the steel. (The maximum corrosion current voltage between adjacent
spots on a steel surface is about 0.6 volts.)
When cathodic protection is used in a steel tank, several electrodes
are suspended in the tank in a pattern that will insure ;; ~n:;~um voltage
of 0,6 volt at the tank wall.
When buried steel pipelines are to be protected, steel or cast iron
electrodes are buried in the ground at intervals along the pipeline. The
spacing of electrodes is such that the minimum voltage between electrodes
will be 0.6 volt at the pipe wall.
12.3.2 Sacrificial Anode
Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection consists of placing anodes

made of a material that is a stronger anode than any point on the surface
of the steel. Usually these are made of zinc or magnesium. This type of
anode does not require an outside source of electric power but uses
natural current flow from itself to the steel surface t~ suppress corrosion
currents in the steel. Io time, the anode is completely corroded away and
must be replaced. Under average conditions, a sacrificial anode lasts about
12-2
RUST TUBERCULES
CATHODIC
AREA
IRON IONS PITTED AREA (ANODIC)
CORROSION OF STEEL
........ _
.........
12-3
r--
_);
-
- -t
~r- - ZINC I
z (ANODE)
- 0
lD
- -
-IONS-
- a::
~~
<(
(.)
-
CCATHODE) _.... IONS -
- - -
-
EC"ECTROLY IE I
('0) BATTERY ACTION ( b) IONS IN MOTION START

(c) CORROSION PROCEEDS WITH
CORROSION
PITTING 8 TUBERCULATION
PRINCIPLES OF GALVANIC CORROSION
STEEL PIPE
{a) (b)
CORROSION CAUSED BY DISSIMILAR ME I ALS
...... - _...
12-4
CORROSION CON TROL CORROSION <:ONTROL
RELATION SHIP BETWEEN ALKALINITY, HYDROGEN-ION RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALKALINITY, CARBON DIOXIDE
CONCENTRATION, CALCIUM CARBONATE STABILITY AND IRON STAINING CONTENT AND THE CORROSIVENESS OF WATER
prl
10
' 3~r---~---r---.----~---r--~----~~
I
30
9
e<i. 25
..... <i.
8
I I I I
1\.)
u, ~ 20 ,zoNE ,oF I 1~
'i< SERIOUS CORROSION
0
7
0
!i 111 I I I I .,a
.c
...0
6 ~ 10 I I I /
~
lL
sl I I J' ."t.,."" I I I I
I)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Alkollnoty (p.p.m l oa Co C03 0 ~--L---~---L--~--~~--L---J-~
0 25 50 71) 100 125 150 175 200
Alkalinity ( p. p.m. l a• Co co 3
I
~ -
five years. The method of placing sacrificial anodes is similar to that of
the impressed voltage anodes. Since the flow of current from anode to
steel surface is at about 1.0 volt, a small light, drawing its power from the
corrosion-generated current can be installed in the circuit to give a visual
indication that the system is working.
12.4 PROTECTIVE COATINGS
The main purpose of protective coatings is to prevent corrosion of metal. How-

ever, they are also used to seal porous surfaces (i.e . wood, concrete or plaster)
against moisture, and to provide an attractive appearance.
The type of coating used depends on the physical makeup of the surface and
the expected degree of corrosion.
The soundness of protective coatings is the most important factor in the length
of useful life of metal structures. A small chip of missing paint may provide a path
for moisture to reach the metal, allowing corrosion to go beneath the surrounding
paint. For this reason, corrosion should not be allowed to gain a toe-hold. The
operator should develop the habit of closely examining paint surfaces continuously
in the course of his regular duties. At the first sign of a spot of rust on any metal
surface, it should be wire-brushed and touched up. A small quantity of each type
and color of paint originally used should be stored in a convenient location for that
purpose.
As a general rule, coatings should be touched-up using only a coating of the
same type. Some coatings react chemically with others to produce peeling, cracking
or bulging.
Paints used on non-metallic surfaces are usually applied mainly for the sake
of appearance, and do not carry the same urgency of repair as metal coatings. How-
ever, deterioration of appearance tends to get out of hand if painted surfaces are not
repaired promptly from day-to-day.
The most critical area inside a steel tank is the so-called tide-zone. This is the
area that is alternately submerged and exposed as the water level in the tank rises
and falls. A fihn of hydrogen forms on submerged tank walls as a Qy;product of
corrosion, and tends to stop or slow the corrosion process. This hydrogen film is
removed when exposed to air, allowing a new round of corrosion the next time the
surface is submerged. The operator should occasionally examine the tide zone when
the tank level is low. The most severe corrosion will occur just below the high water
level. Tanks should be drained and inspected annually, or more often if examination
of the tide zone reveals serious corrosion effects such as rust or tuberculation
(bumps in the coating surface caused by formation of rush pockets beneath). Total
recoating of tank interiors is expensive and requires the tank to be taken out of
service for several days. Therefore, coating damage should never be allowed to get
beyond the wire-brush-and-daub stage.
12.4.1 Types of Coatings
There are basically three types of coatings used in waterworks faci-

lities: paint, molten m~tal and dielectric coating compounds. Their uses
depend mainly on the atmosphere that the coated surface will be exposed
to. However, where thei"e are various coatings suitable for a given surface,
12-6
appearance will also be a factor in the selection.
(a) Paint consists of two components: the pigment that gives the paint
its color, and the vehicle, or liquid that carries the pigments. The
vehicle itself consists of a solvent and binder. The solvent gives paint
its liquid form. Paint dries mainly because the solvent evaporates,
leaving behind a film consisting of the bi:ri.der with pigements spread
uniformly through it.
Paints are classified according to the composition of their
vehicle binders. Some of the more commonly used types include :
* Oil (usually linseed oil, but also castor oil, soya bean oil and
others)
* Alkyd (synthethic resin)
* Resin-Emulsion (Latex)
* Chlorinated Rubber
* Vinyl Resin (synthetic resiP..)
* Phenolic Resin (synthetic resin)
* Varnish (Natural resin from tree sap)
In addition, there are some combinations of these: the most
common being Alkyd-Vinyl which is sometimes used for coating
exterior _steel surfaces.
There are hundreds of types of pigments, but the most com-
mon ones used in waterworks facilities are:
* Chemical compounds of zinc, lead and titanium
* Flaked aluminum
* Zinc dust
* Carbon or Charcoal
* Graphite
(1} Paints for Metal Surfaces Exposed to Weather
The following types of paint are used for exteriors of steel
tanks, above-ground piping, outside hardware and pump
casings:
(i) Alkyd. Suitable for repairing most old painted surfaces.
(ii) Vinyl. Not suitable for rep<riring--tJld painted surfaces
~xcept those of the same type, i.e., vinyl.
(2) Paints for Metal Surfaces in Water
The following types of paint are used for interiors of steel
tanks. Lead based paints are poisonous and must never be used.
(i) Aluminum Phenolic. Not suitable for repairing old paint.
(ii) Vinyl. Not suitable for repairing old painted surfaces ex-
cept those originally coated with vinyl paint.
(iii) Zinc Phenolic. Not suitable for repairing old paint.
(iv) High Solids Vinyl. Not suitable for repairing old paint.
(3) Paints for Masonry and Concrete Surfaces
(i) Vinyl
(ii) Resin Emulsion (Latex) ,
(b) Molten Metal Coatings are not suitable for repairing painted surfaces.
Careful attention to surface preparation is necessary . These coatings
are applie~ by spraying with a special gun that melts the metal as it is
applied, or by dipping small items in a vat of molten metal.
12-7
MAGNESIUM ANODES
INDICATING LIGHT_/
NOTE :
ARROWS INDICATE DIRECTION-
OF FLOW OF CURRENT .
SACRIFICIAL ANODE
t
TRANSFORMER
IMPRESSED
I
VOLTAGE
12-8
CHECKING WEIGHT OF CATHODIC PROTECTION
SYSTEM ANODES
12-9
( 1) Metallic Aluminum
(2) Metallic Zinc (Galvanizing)
(c) Dielectric Coating Compounds are thick compounds that are highly
resistant to the flow of electric current (i.e., having high dielectric
strength). They are generally used to coat steel tank interio-rs. How-
ever, they are often used to coat interiors and exteriors of steel pipe,
as well.
(1) Hot Coal-Tar Enamel
(2) Cold Applied Coal-Tar (not suitable for underwater use since it
gives offensive taste and odor to water).
(3) Cold Applied Tasteless and Odorless Tank Solution (suitable for
repairing any old coating having a coal-tar base).
(4) Asphalt is mainly used for coating buried steel, particularly ex-
teriors of steel pipe.
(5) Cement Mortar is mainly used for coating interiors and exteriors
of buried steel pipe. Not suitable for above ground metal sur-
faces because expansion and contraction due to temperature
changes will crack the mortar coating.
12.4.2 Surface Preparation
From time to time, the operator will be required to repaint

structures where the small size of the job will not justify hiring a painting
contractor. When a large job is done by a contractor, such as repainting
a storage reservoir, the best preparation is sandblasting. For small jobs,
however, the use of sandblasting is not practical.
The main purpose of all surface preparation is to clean off all impuri-
ties that will keep the paint from adhering to the surface, such as rust,
mill scale, dirt, oil and grease.
In general, the surface will have been previously painted and it will
not be necessary to remove all the old paint. Sometimes, however, newly
installed metal brackets, conduits and the like, will be painted for:.the .fiPst
time.
Painting of galvanized metal Is particularly troublesome, since paint
will not ordinarily stick to a galvanized surface unless it is first specially
treated.
In all cases, surfaces should be painted immediately after prepara-
tion. If allowed to sit overnight, wood and concrete surfaces will absorb
moisture from the air and the paint will not stick. Metal surfaces will
develep a light film of nearly invisible rust that will keep paint from stick-
ing properly.
No painting job ~ould be undertaken when humidity is extremely
high or in rainy weather, and no surface preparation should be done if it
seems likely that such conditions will set in before painting is completed.
Where a paint repairing job is expected to take several hburs, it is
advisable that instead of completing all surface preparation before starting
to paint, small areas be prepared and painted in one continuous operation.
12-10
(a) Old Painted Metal Surfaces
(1} Mechanical Cleaning
(i) Wash with solvent to remove oil and greasy dirt. (If not
done, the wire brush or sandpaper will slide over rust and
chalk without loosening it.) Solvent should be of a type
that will not leave a residue (for example, never use gaso-
line or kerosene). A commercial cleaning solvent is best
but paint thinner may be used.
(ii) Wire-brush the surface to remove all loose rust and flaking
paint. A hand wire brush can be used for very small areas
but a power-driven rotary-wire brush is preferred for large
areas.
(iii) Wash again with solvent to remove all loosened paint dust
rust.
(2) Flame Cleaning (Used to remove paint completely).
(i) Heat and scrape small area. A kerosene blow-torch or oxy-
acetylene torch is held in the left hand and a scraper in the
right. Holding the torch about 10 em from the surface,
heat a small area, say 20 em in diameter, until the paint be-
gins to bubble. Immediately scrape with the scraper
- before the paint cools. Repeat if necessary.

(ii) Use sandpaper to remove burned rust and particles missed
by scraper. Use a coarse sandpaper or emery cloth.
(iii) Featheredge adjacent paint. The edges of paint not re-
moved will show through the new paint (and may also
hold loose particles of dust). Use sandpaper to taper the
paint surface to the bare metal.
(iv) Wash with solvent to remove all loosened paint dust, rust
and residue ( a kerosene blow torch will leave an oily resi-
due).
(b) New Bare Metal Surfaces. New metal angles, brackets and the like
will nearly always be rusty when installed. In addition, new metal
usually has deposits of mill scale that are ruificult to r~move but
which will loosen when painted over.
(1} Flame Cleaning is the preferred method to clean small new
metal areas. The heat will loosen mill scale, and will bum the
rust which can be removed easily with a hand wire brush.
(i) Heat Surface, holding the torch about 10 em from the sur-
face until all rust turns black. It is advisable to heat about
one square meter at a time.
(ii) Wire brush (with hand brush} to remove burned rust and
loosened mill scale.
(iii) Wash with solvent to remove dust and residue.
(2) Mechanical Cleaning. Same as for old painted surfaces.
(c) Galvanized Surfaces
Newly galvanized surfaces will h~ve a slick, shiny appet'lrance.
It is necessary to remove the shine before painting. This cannot be
done by wire brushing, sanding or flame cleaning unless all galvaniz-
ing is to' be removed. Galvanized surfaces that have weathered to a
dull finish can be painted after merely washing with solvent (unless
12-11
there are rust spots; in which case they must be trea ... u rne same as
old painted metal).
(1) Pickling
(i) Wash with acid solution. Dilute one part of acid (hypo-
chloric, phosporic or acetic) in 20 parts of water. Tho-
roughly wet the surface using an old paint brush, and allow
to dry thoroughly.
(ii) Wash with clear water to remove all acid solution and zinc
dust. Dry with cloth as completely as possible. Allow to
dry further in air to remove all remaining moisture.
(2) Pretreatment. There are treating agents available in paint or
hardware stores. These are usually special coatings, designed to
adhere to galvanizing, which can then be painted over. When
using these, follow the manufacturer's instructions printed on
the container.
(d) Concrete and Masonry Surfaces
Concrete and masonry surfaces must be clean and dry at the
time of paintinJ,!;. Ideally, concrete is not painted until about one
year after it is poured because lime at the surface will react chemical-
ly with the paint. After about one year, lime will become
carbonated and will no longer r~act. If necessary to paint sooner,
chemical pretreatment is necessary to avoid discoloration or loosen-
ing of paint._
(1) Old Painted Concrete or Plaster
(i) Wash down with clear water. (Do not use soap because it will
leave a slick residue that will keep paint from sticking.)
(ii) Brush with stiff vegetable fiber brush to remove loose, flaking
paint. Do not use a wire brush since it will leave metal stains
that may show through the paint.
(iii) Rinse with clear water and allow to dry thoroughly .
(2) Old Unpainted Concrete (more than one year old)
(i) Hose down with clear water to remove dust and dirth.
(ii) Brush dirt spots as required , using vegetable fiber brush, while
hosing down with clear water. .• ___ _.,._
(iii) Allow to dry thoroughly before painting.
(3) New Concrete or Plaster (less than one year old)
Pretreatment Method
(i) Hose down with clear water to remove loose dirt and rust, and
allow to dry thoroughly.
(ii) Mix pretreatment solution consisting of one kilogram of zinc
sulfate dissolved in four liters of water.
(iii) Apply pretreatment solution with long handled brush, being
sure to wet the surface thoroughly.
(iv) Allow to dry. Do not rinse.
Seal Coat Method
(i) Remove efflorescence (white chalky areas caused by concen -
trations of lime at the concrete surface). Mix solution consisting
of one part hydrochloric acid ?Jld four parts clear water. Apply
to areas of efflorescence, wetting them thoroughly . Wear
rubber gloves.
12-12
(ii) Hose down with clear water to remove all acid solution, dust
and dirt. Allow to dry thoroughly .
12.4.3 Application of Coatings
The application of protective coatings is largely a matter of common

sense, once surfaces have been prepared. However, certain precautions are
necessary to insure that coatings and repairs will last.
(a) Thinning and Mixing. When paint is allowed to stand, the pigments
generally settle to the bottom of the liquid, usually in the form of a
soft paste. The settled pigments must be worked up and uniformly
distribu ted throughout the vehicle before the paint is applied.
Most ready-lllixed paints are designed to be ready for applica-
tion without thinning. Additional thinning will result in coatings
being spread too thin and will increase the tendency to run.
Occasionally, opening and closing of paint cans as painting work
progresses will allow some of the thinner to evaporate, causing the
paint to thicken. Paint which is too thick will be difficult to apply
uniformly. If applied by brushing, it will show brush marks. If
applied by sprayi~g, it will tend to clog the nozzle of the spray gun.
Before t hinning, the paint sh ould be mixed to a uniform consis-
tency. It is advisable to avoid thinning a large amount of paint at
one time. It is better to thin a convenient quantity in the painter's
bucket each t ime it is filled from a larger container. This will allow
the proper amount of thinner to be determined by trial and error.
The ratio of thinner to paint should never exceed 1 :8. Following are
the proper steps in mixing paint:
(1) Remove the top of the container and pour off the clear liquid
at the top into another clean container.
(2) Stir the remaining paste with a clean, flat paddle or power
stirrer until a uniform consistency is obtained.
(3) Return the liquid that was originally po.ur~ff, a little at a time
continually stirring until the paint has been recombined to a
smooth, even con sistency.
(4) "Box" the paint by pouring back and forth several times from
one container to the other.
(5) Pour a convenient quantity from the container into the
painter's bucket (i.e., the small handled bucket that the painter
holds while brushing) or spray gun. Then tightly cover the con-
tainer.
(6) If paint does not brush on smoothly or clogs the spray gun, mix
a small amount of thinner with the paint in the paint bucket
(the type of thinner must be compatible with the type of paint,
as shown in Table 12-1 ). If still too thick, add a little more
I
thinner. Repeat until a proper consistency is achieved. Note
the total amount of thinner used to achieve good results, and
use the same amounts in following buckets-full.
12-13
(b) Conditions for Painting. The following conditions are absolutely
necessary for a satisfactory paint job:
(1) Surfaces must be properly prepared to remove all dust, dirt,
grease , chalk, mill scale and rust.
(2) Surface must be dry.
(3) Surfaces should not be in direct, hot sun while painting. (Paint-
ing should be scheduled so that areas getting full noon-day sun
are painted first thing in the morning, with painting proceeding
in the shade as much as possible during the day. This is not
only best for application of the paint, but for the operator's
comfort as well.)
(4) Painting should not be done on rainy days, even if the surface is
sheltered. The high humidity will prevent proper drying of
paint.
(5) Paint used for repairing existing coatings must be compatible
with paint originally used.
(c) Compatibility of Paints. In general, paints used for repairing existing
coatings should be of the same type as the existing. Some coating
materials such as those based on coal tar, vinyl and chlorinated
rubber should never be applied over other types of coatings. Lacquer
should not be applied over oil-base paint. Aluminum paint with a
varnish vehicle may be applied over red-lead, oil-base primer. Lin-
seed oil paints may be used over varnish-base or lacquer-base paints.
Alkyd paints can be applied over many other types. However, before
using alkyd paint for repairs it should be tried out on a small area,
allowed to dry thoroughly, then examined for satisfactory bonding
and signs of chemical reaction.
(d) Methods of Application. The method of application depends on the
consistency of the coating material, th~ importance of appearance
and, of course, the availability of equipment. In most cases, the
operator will be doing small jobs, and brushing will be the most prac·
tical means of applying paint.
Some safety precautions are necessary when applying coatings:
(1) Keep all paint materials and fumes away from open flame; (2) Be
sure that the area where painting is being done is well ventilated. This
insures that paint w:ill dry properly but, more importantly, will mini-
mize the dnager of the operator being overcome by the fumes; (3)
When applying coal tar base coatings in enclosed spaces, _wear goggles
and a respirator and cover every part of the body since coal tar fumes
can bum the eyes, lungs and skin; (4) No spray painting should be
done in the presence of open flames. Sometimes, the spray can
literally explode; (5) Avoid getting any kind of paint on the skin.
Many types are capable of causing chemical bums.
( 1) Brushing
(i) Brushes. Good quality brushes will minimize the problem
of loose bristles being stuck in the paint. Moreover, t.h e
more expensive brushes generally have softer bri!>tles which
allows them to hold more paint than brushes of inferio r
12-14
quality, and reduces bmsh marks. The length of bristles
should be at least equal to the width of the brush. The
size of the brush depends on the sizt> of the area to be
-, painted. Generally, the largest possible brushes should be
used, but not larger than the narrowest area to be painted
(i.e., the full width of the brush should always be done on
the surface being painted).
(ii) Application. The paint should first be laid on with the
brush strokes in one direction, using overlapping parallel
strokes, followed by light brushing at an angle. When
painting wood surfaces, the lighter strokes should be
parallel to the grain of the wood.
When painting is interrupted for any reason (say,
when going to lunch), before leaving, the edge of the last
area painted should be brushed without adding paint, to
avoid a thick edge that will show through when painting is
resumed.
Brushing has two main advantages over spraying: (1)
it tends to flll in cracks and open pores , while spraying
tends to lay a fUm over them. and (2) any small amount
of dust that accumulates on the surface, between prepara-
tion and application, can be worked into the paint without
affecting the bond, while spraying merely covers the dust.
(2) Spraying. Every type of coating can be sprayed, given the
proper equipment. Spraying has two main advantages over
brushing: (1) it is faster; (2) it gives a more attractive ap-
pearance.
The main disadvantages of spray painting, in addition to
those already mentioned, are that (1) the likelihood of runs and
sags is greater (resulting whenever the spray gun is passed over
an area too slowly,) (2) because of lapping marks and irregulari-
ties, it is difficult to see areas misse.d (or.holida;ys), and (3) pro-
per thinning is much more important than in brushing. If
paint is too thick, it will clog the spray nozzles; and if too thin,
evaporation may cause paint particles to partially dry before
reaching the surface so that it will not stick.
When spraying, the gun should be moved at uniform speed
in parallel, overlapping strokes. It should never be slowed down
or held in one place, since an excessive amount of paint will be
applied, resulting in runs or sags.
For small jobs where appearance is important, a piston
type fly spray can be used as a makeshift spray gun if care is
excrcis!!d to avoid overvigorom. pumping. Also, certain types of
- , paint are commercially available in aerosol spray cans.
Spraying should never be done in windy weather, and
extreme care is required even whe~ there is a slight breeze. Paint
-, particles can carry over for great distances, depositing them on
automobiles, houses and people in the vicinity.
12-15
-· - .. _......_
APPLYING PROTECTIVE COATING

WI'TH A PAINT BRUSH
12-16
A gauze mask should be worn over the nose and mouth
when spray painting, to avoid inhaling fumes and paint particles.
Also, it is recommended that goggles be worn to protect the
eyes.
(3) Rolling. Paint rollers are faster and provide more uniform
coatings than brushes. Different types of roller surfaces are
available, depending on the texture of the surface to be coated.
Their main disadvantage is that they pass over low spots
without coating them and cannot be used to paint angles or
comers. Often it is necessary to paint comers, angles and low
spots with a brush before rolling is started.
When applying paint with a roller, it should be rolled in
parallel overlapping strokes. The tendency to make long strokes
should be avoided since the amount of paint transferred
decreases toward the end of each stroke, and a non-uniform
coating will result.
(e) Painting Defects. Table 12-2 summanzes the most common
types of coating defects and their causes.
12.5 SOME DO'S AND DON'TS
* Do examine painted surfaces continually as you go about your other duties,

and touch up any damaged spots as you find them.
* Do examine the tide zones of steel tanks for deterioration of coatings and
corrosion as often as possible.
* Do drain and inspect tank interiors at least once a year.
* Do paint immediately after surface preparation is completed.
* Do break large painting jobs up, preparing the surface and painting in one
continuous operation, a little at a time.
* Do taper the pa'int thickness at the edges when interrupting work, so that
edges won't show through when painting is resumed.
* Do make sure that there is adequate ventilation· wnffi painting enclosed
spaces.
* Do keep all paint materials and fumes away from open flames .
* Do wear goggles, gloves and a respirator when applying coal tar coatings in
enclosed spaces, and cover all parts of the body .
* Do avoid getting paint on the skin.
* Do wear a gauze mask and goggles when spray painting.
* Don't change spacing of cathodic protection anodes.
* Don't touch up paint with a different type unless you are sure that they are
compatible.
* Don't let coating damage get beyond the wire brush-and-daub stage.
* Don't paint when humidity is extremely high or in rainy weather.
* Don't use kerosene or gasoline for cleaning surfaaes prior to painting.
* Don't add thinner to ready mixed paints unless absolutely necessary.
* Don't thin large quantities of paint all at once.
* Don't paint surfac~s in hot, direct sun.
12-17
TABLE 12-2
COMMON COATING DEFECTS
..
SYMPTOM HOW TO RECOGNIZE IT CAUSE
LOOKS LIKE AN ALLIGATOR ( BAYAWAK) HARD COATING APPLIED OVER
ALLIGATORING HIDE. ( CRACKS MAY OR MAY NOT REACH A SOFT ONE
DOWN TO BASE SURFACE$ l
UNSIGHTLY BLISTERS THAT BREAK (I ) SURFACE NOT THOROUGHLY
OPEN AND FALL OFF DRY BEFORE PAINTING
BLISTERING (2) SOMETIMES DRYING IS TOO
RAPID
(3) INCOMPATIBLE COATING
BUBBLES ON PAINT SURFACE MOISTURE OR SAP RISES TO
BUBBLING (USUALLY WOOD) SURFACE AND COLLECTS
UNDER PAINTS
PREMATURE DULL CHALKY APPEARANCE (I) PAINT IS POORLY FORMULA-
(ALL PAINT CHALKS MILDLY WITH TED
CHALKING AGEl (2) PAINT APPLIED OVER POR-
OUS SURFACE WHICH AB-
SORB OIL OUT OF PAINT
CRACKS IN PAINT SURFACE SHRINKAGE OF FILM AND BREAK-
lNG AT WEAK SPOTS; DUE TO:
(I) UNEVEN COATING AND POOR
CHECKING -u BONDING BETWEEN COATS,
OR
(2) IMPROPER COMPOUNDIN G
OF PAINT
PAINT FILM BREAKS AWAY IN SMALL PAINT FILIV' LACKS ADHESION
PIECES DUE TO:
( i) METAL AND PAINT EXPAND
OR SHRINK AT DIFFERENT
CHIPPING (FLAKING)
RATES WHEN TEM PERATURE
CHANGE S
(2) POOR SURFACE PREPARA -
TION
CHECKING IN A GRID- LIKE SAME CAUSE AS CHECKING
CRAZING
PATTERN
OFF- SHADE OR DARK SPOTS (I) IMPURITIES> SUCH AS RUST
. OR OIL, UNDER PAINT FILM
(2) EXTERIOR ATTACK FROM
DISCOLORATION FUMES OR GAS
(3) TOO MUCH ACTI V E LIME IN
PLA STER OR CEMENT
(4) RESIN OR SAP IN WOOD-
WORK
WRINKLES IN PAINT SURFACE (I) IMPROPER DRYING OF
PAINT
(2) COATING TOO THICK
WRINKLING (3) CHANGE IN AIR HUMIDITY
OR EXTREME DAMP ATMOS-
PHERE DURING PAINTING
(4) INCOMPATIBLE COATINGS
PAINT SURFACE SAGGING TOO MUCH PAINT APPLIED IN
SAGGING
OrNE AREA
PAINT DROPS RUN DOWN WHILE TOO MUCH PAtNT APPLIED IN
RUNNING
PAINT IS WET, ONE SPOT
HOLIDAYS THIN SPOT IN PAINT; METAL SHOWS MISSED BY SPRAY, OR SPRAY

THROUGH GUN MOVED TOO QUICKLY
12-18
i
COATING APPLICATION
SURFACE COATING APPLICATION

AREA OF APPLICATION PREPARATION THINNER ~,..NO. TH ICKNESS
p,OJm MATERIALS EACH COAT
EXTERIORS OF STEEL TANKS MECHANICAL MINERAL SPIRITS! 2 RED LEAD, LINSEED OIL PRIMER 0 .025mm.
STEEL STRUCTURES AND ABOVE - (WIRE BRUSH TURPENTINE,
GROUND STEEL PIPING. OR SCRAPER) LINSEED OIL. 2 ALKYD PAINT 0.040mm.
MECHANICAL MINERAL SPIRITS! 2 RED LEAD, IRON OXIDE ALKYD PRJ - I0.025mm.
I
TURPENTINE , MER
LINSEED OIL. I 2 ALKYD PAINT 0.040mm.
MINERAL SPIRITS! I I VINYL WASH COAT PRETREATMENT IO.OIO mm.
_.
MECHANICAL + I TURPENTINE 2 I VINYL RED LEAD PRIMER 0.025mm.
~
_. WASH COAT LINSEED OIL 2 I VINYL PAINT OR VINYL- ALKYD PAINT I0.040mm.
(.0
STEEL SURFACES EXPOSED TO CORROSIVE I SANDBLASTING NONE I 199.9°/o PURE MOLTEN METALLIC ALUM. 10.150 mm.
ATMOSPHERE (SUCH AS CHLORINE ROOMS). I ZINC CHROMATE WASH COAT 0.010 mm.
I I ZINC CHROMATE PRIMER 0.025mm.
I I ALUMINUM VINYL PAINT 0.030mm.
I
~
BURIED STEEL SURFACES I MECHANICAL NONE 99.9% PURE , MOLTEN METALLIC ZINC I0.250 mm.
(SEE ALSO SUBMERGED STEEL SURFACES l (DIPPED OR SPRAYED IN iWO PASSES).
MECHANICAL NONE COAL -TAR PRIMER O.OIOmm.
COAL - TAR PAINT 0 .800 mm.

THINNER
AREA OF APPLICATION PREPARATION MATERIALS ITHICKNESS
EACH COtrr
BURIED STEEL SURFACES ( CONT'D) MECHANICAL I NONE 2 HOT ASPHALT 6 200 - 230 °C I0 .40 mm.
INTERIOR SURFACES OF CAST IRON MECHANICAL I WATER I CEMENT MORTAR ( 3 SAND : I CEMENT)
AND STEEL PIPE AND FITTINGS. 100 - 250 mm. DIA. 6 .5
30'0- 550 mm. 8.0
600-900 mm. 9 .5
OVER 900mm . 13.0
.....
"'
"-'
0 EXTERIOR SURFACES OF BURIED MECHANICAL WATER CEMENT MORTAR ( 3 1/2 : I )
STEEL PIPE. 100 - 300 mm. OIA. 13.0
350- 450 16.0
OVER 500 20.0
METAL . SURFACES SUBMERGED IN SANDBLAST! NG NONE I I COAL- TAR PRIMER 0.010

WATER. I HOT COAL - TAR ENAMEL 2 .500
I
~
MECHANICAL NONE 3 I COLD - APPLIED TASTELESS AND

ODORLESS TANK SOLUTION 0 .200
(
SECTION 13- WORK SAFETY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
13.1 GENERAL 13-1
13.2 CHEMICAL HANDLING INJURIES 13-1
13.3 FALLS 13-13
13.4 INJURIES FROM ROTATING MACHINERY 13-13
13.5 ELECTRICAL SHOCKS 13-14

AREA OF APPLICATION THINNER '
PREPARATION NO.
MATERIALS
THICKNESS'
~ATI EACH COAT
METAL SURFACES SUBMERGED IN MECHANICAL AS RECOMMENDEC I VINYL RED-LEAD. IRON OXIDE PRIMER 0.04mm.
WATER ( CONT'D) BY MANUFACTURER 3 VINYL RES IN PAINT 0.05
CONCRETE WALLS EXPOSED TO WASHING a AS RECOMMENDED 2 VINYL RESIN PAINT 100%

WEATHER PRETREATMENT BY MANUFACTURER COVER
WASHING a WATER 2 CONCRETE MASONRY PAINT 100%

_.
N PRETREATMENT COVER
N
_.
WOOD SURFACES EXPOSED TO MECHANICAL MINERAL SPIRITS I EXTERIOR WOOD PRIMER 100%
WEATHER TURPENTINE, 2 EXTERIOR LATEX PAINT COVER
LINSEED OIL
INTERIOR WOOD SURFACES MECHANICAL MINERAL SPIRITS 2 ENAMEL UNDERCOATER 100%

COVER
TURPENTINE
LINSEED OIL I INTERIOR SEMI -GLOSS ENAMEL 100%
COVER
!.
SECTION 13 - WORK SAFETY
l
OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE MANUAL
SECTION 14- MATHEMATICS FOR WATER WORKS OPERATORS

SECTION 14 - MATHEMATICS FOR WATER WORKS OPERATORS
I -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
14.1 FORMULA 14-1
14.2 SAMPLE PROBLEMS 14·4
14.3 CONVERSIONS 14-9 -
14.4 TEMPERATURE TABLE 14-13

13.1 GENERAL
Experience has shown that certain kinds of personal injuries occur more fre-
quently than others. These fall into four broad categories:
(1) Chemical handling injuries
(2) Falls
(3) Injuries from rotating machinery
(4) Electrical shock and bums
The following sections discuss these individually. Where unusual first aid
measures are required, they are discussed in detail; otherwise, it is suggested that
reference be made to a good first aid manual kept in the utility office.
13.2 CHEMICAL HANDLING INJURIES
The following are the types of chemicals commonly used in waterworks opera-
tion:
*
Chlorine
*
Hydrated lime or Caustic Soda
*
Liquified petroleum gas (Butane or Propane)
* Various solvents and lubricants
Of these, chlorine presents the most severe hazard, not only to the operator but
to persons living in the vicinity, as well. Therefore, this subject is discussed in great
detail compared with other chemical hazards.
13.2.1 Chlorine
The operator must develop good working practices in order to mini-

mize the chance of accidental chlorine release. It is not enough to know
what to do; the operator must familiarize himself with all aspects of pre-
ventive-maintenance procedures. The protective equipment issued to him
must be thoroughly familiar to him, and he must keep such equipment
ready for use. The following procedures should be followed :
(a) The chlorine exhaust fan must be turned on at all times when enter-
ing the chlorine room, whether for a routine check or for servicing or
repairing leaking equipment, even while wearing a mask. Always
check the exhaust for possible blockage.
(b) In all cases when the concentration of the chlorine gas in the air is
unknown, a self-contained gas mask approved for chlorine must be
worn. The location for storage of the gas mask must not be in t he
same room as the chlorine container. Keep it in a special, protective
enclosure outside of, but near the chlorine storage or feeder room.
(c) Start-up of o peration of a chlorinator or opening of a chlorine cy-
linder must not commence unless gas masks are on hand nearby outside.
(d) A gas mask must be worn when it is necessary to locate and stop
small leaks in the piping or when making any repairs or adjustments
on leaking equipment. The cylinder valve(s) must be closed before
starting repairs.
(e) Water must never be applied to a chlorine leak because of t he added
corrosive action created by the water-chlorine mixture which will
13-1
rapidly enlarge the leak of gas or liquid chlorine.
(f) Plastic-coated gloves must be wom when changing cylinders.
(g) Whenever possible, two men should be present when changing
chlorine cylinders.
(h) When. connecting the piping from the cylinders to the chlorine
or whenever it is necessary to break a connection and recouple it,
a new lead or fiber washer must be used each time. The yoke
type clamp that attaches to the chlorine cylinder should be soaked
in an evaporative solvent and cleansed with a wire brush. The slide
and threaded adjustment screw should be lightly coated with
petrolatum (vaseline).
(i) Fittings must be inspected for rounded or wom threads, or burrs that
might contribute to leaks. There should be "play" in the flexible
tubing to minimize the chance of fracture if struck. Use a flexible
tube which is long enough that a loop 6"-8" in diameter can be
formed above the tubing alignment. Flexible metal chlorine gas
piping must be replaced immediately if kinked during cylinder
change over. No attempt should be made to clean and reuse them.
All black-iron pipes used as header pipes for gas or liquid must be
replaced after 5 years of service.
(j) A green slime may form where a leak · was repaired. A dry cloth
should be used to wipe away slime. (Do not use a wet cloth as its
dampness would combine with the slime, possibly creating another
leak.) If this green slime has dried to a dust, do not blow it or wipe
it away unless the area is completely ventilated. Avoid breathing this
dust. Even minute particles are dangerous.
(k) When using chlorinated powder or chloride of lime a proper type of
eye shield and gloves must be worn.
13.2.1.1 Leaks. Chlorine is a potential killer. Its danger lies in the fact
that chlorine -handling equipment, although well designed , can
develop defects, and people can be careless. Even when all re-
gulations are observed, safety practices followed, and well-
trained crew employed, there is still that small chance that an
accident - a leak- will occur.
There are two types of leaks : liquid and gaesous.
Although any leak is to be avoided, by far the more to be feared
is the liquid leak. When liquid chlorine evaporates, it expands
to 450 times its liquid volume. Obviously a liquid leak of the
same rate as a gas leak will release considerably more chlorine
into the atmosphere. Moreover, a chlorine gas leak tends to
stifle itself, because, as chlorine vapor escapes, the vapor re-
maining in the t ank expands, cooling the tank and lowering the
vapor pressure causing the gas emission. Chlorine may be ab-
sorbed in a solution of caustic soda, soda ash, or hy drated lime.
Chlorine cylinders less than one ton in size should always
be stored in an upright position. A leaking cylinder lying on its
side can leak liquid chlorine, while one in an upright position
can (unless the cylinder itself is damaged) leak only vapor.
13-2
~- - ---- -
A RESULT OF BAD HOUSEKEEPING
13-3
Therefore, if a cylinder is knocked over and damaged, it should
be immediately stood upright to minimize the hazard.
(a) If a leak occurs:
(1) Shut off the cylinders. Since the room will be full of
gas, no tests can be made on the equipment to deter-
mine the bcation of the leak until the room has been
cleared.
Do not undertake a repair alone. If the operator
is alone, he should enlist the aid of the operator
relieving him to stand by to render assistance or
summon help, while he checks out the equipment,
repairs the leak, and restores the equipment to opera-
tional order before leaving.
(2) Notify the supervisor immediately.
(b) To test for leaks after the room has been cleared of
chlorine:
(1) Use a bottle of concentrated ammonia; hold open
bottle below all joints, piping , or suspect valves.
White fumes of ammonium chloride indicate a
chlorine leak.
(2) Crack open cylinder farthest from chlorinator unt il
gage indicates approximately 2.5 kgfcm2 .
(3) Shut off cylinder and test system to locate leak(s).
It may be necessary to repeat this action several times
to locate all leakage.
(c) When location of a leak has been found:
( 1) Mark it off clearly.
(2) Shut off gas supply and keep supply shut off until
the leak has been repaired .
(3) Use proper tools fen repair, do n ot handle equipment
with unnecessary roughness, thereby risking another
accident .
(4) After completion of repair o f the leak, check for
additional leak(s).
(d) If leak is not repaired before shifc changes:
( 1) Advise next operator of what has happen ed .
(2) Advise him of procedures t o follow:
There are several places on or in th e vicinity
of the chlorine cylinder from which a leak may
occur . Each usually can be corrected by th e
following set procedures.
(e) Leak at Valve Packing. This sort of leak can be caused b y
drie d-out packing. In this case, chlo rine will b e emitted
around the valve stem and cannot b e stopped by t ightening
the packing gland nut. Su ch a leak should only occur
when the valve is opened .
If the leak is very slight , hook up the cylinder and
start drawing chlorine a t maximum rate. This should
quickly reduce the pressure and p robably stop the leak. If
13 -4
the leak is of major proportions and does not respond to
this treatment, shut off the valve, set the cylinder outdoors
in the shade, and call the supplier to pick up the cylinder
or to replace the packing.
(f) Leak at Fusible Plug
The fuse plug on a liquid chlorine cylinder is designed
to melt at about 160°F or 71°C. In the event the cylinder
is exposed to high temperatures the fuse plug will melt and
permit internal pressure to escape before the cylinder rup-
tures. The vapor, or gas pressure of chlorine increases
rapidly as the temperature increases.
:!:~~~~!._~~ Pressure
- ---
OF oc E_Si_ !Sgf~:_
-30 -34.5 0 0
-10 -23 8.3 0.58
0 -17.7 13.8 0.97
20 -6 .6 27.8 1.95
40 4.4 46.6 3.28
60 15.5 70.9 4.98
80 26.6 101.8 7.2
100 37.8 140.2 9.8
120 48.9 186.9 13.1
140 60.0 243.3 17.1
160 71 310.4 21.8
180 82 389.2 27.3
200 93 480.9 33.8
220 104 587.1 41.3
(g) Valve Stiffness
Cylinder valves are carefully checked before leaving
the manufacturer's plant, but occasionally a valve may be
stiff to tum or difficult to shu t off tightly (i.e., a small
amount of chlorine may be getting by the valve). This
leak may be caused by a small piece o f scale or other
foreign matter in the valve seat. Sometimes the valve
can be freed by opening and shutting a few times (with the
outlet cap in place and by lightly tapping the body of the
valve). Actually, once the cylinder is hooked up, inability
to shut the valve completely is normally not important and
the contents can be withdrawn until empty. Once the cy-
linder has been discharged (and only gas remains in it), the
outlet cap and good fiber gasket will effectively stop
chlorine from escaping.
A chlorine cylinder valve should be opened only 1 !2
turn .
(h) Valve Defect - Turning Spindle
The most troublesome type of leaking valve defect
13-5
(although fortunately not the most common) is known as
"turning-spindle". This is a situation where the brass
threading on the valve body has been stripped by the
harder monel metal of the valve stem.
If this condition develops after the cylinder is hooked
up for chlorination, the simplest and safest way to deal
with it is to continue withdrawing chlorine until the
cylinder is empty. However, if the cylinder has not been
hooked up, then an emergency device is required.
As a last resort, contact the chlorine distributor. A
leak may often be easily corrected by the operator after a
phone discussion with the chlorine distributor. If the leak
is too difficult for the operator to correct, the distribu-
tor's technical personnel can be called upon to bring the
appropriate emergency equipment.
(i) Emergency Plan
Assume there is a major leak from a cylinder, which
cannot be stopped or repaired; e.g., a leaking fusible plug,
damaged cylinder valve, or a hole in the cylinder body.
The following steps are recommended:
( 1) The operator must protect himself at all times during
the emergency to be sure that he will not be over-
come by the leaking gas. A gas mask should be used
when he is in the vicinity of the leaking cylinder.
(2) The operator should contact his supervisor imme-
diately and advise him of the problem.
(3) If he cannot contact hj ~ supervisor, the operator
should telephone the police to tell them the problem.
He should advise the police of the wind direction (if
any) so they can alert the residents who may be in
the path of the gas and who may have to be evacuat ·
ed from the area. The police or operator should also
contact the fire department which, in turn, should
have someone with an auxiliary gas mask go to the
leak area. This person (or persons) could then stand
by while the operator further attempts to· stop the
leak. Other persons and organizations whose pro-
vince of responsibilities encompasses dangers from
chlorine (such as the health department and district
engineer should also be informed).
(4) The supplier or manufacturer of the chlorine should
be contacted.
(5) If there is a wind, residents in the path of the gas
musr be evacuated first . All events occuring during
the emergency period should be recorded in the
operator's log.
13.2.1. 2 First Aid . Although frequency rates can be minimized, accidents

cannot be entirely eliminated. When one occurs, there is the
13-6
possibility that someone will succumb to the effects of chlorine.
Inevitably, the afflicted person should be taken to a hospital for
professional medical treatment, but the water plant operator
should know the emergency first-aid procedures to follow in
order to reduce the effect s of chlorine or, possibly, to save the
life of the victim. Use of any of the first-aid suggestions
reported here should be followed up with t reatment by a quali-
fied physician, in every case.
In the case of most chlorine poisonings, the operator
should:
(a) Remove victim from chlorine-contaminated area and have
someone call 'i physician immediately. If breathing has
apparently ceased, immediately start artificial respiration
using oral resuscitation or the Revised Sylvester method
(both described later). Do not exceed eighteen movements
per minute. If possible, assist respiration with an inhalator
or respirator.
(b) When the eyes have been irritated, wash rep eatedly with
water and then with 1 percent boric acid solution. Castor-
oil or olive-oil drops may be used. In severe cases of eye
contamination from chlorine, use a bubble fountain, hose,
or eye cup. Irrigate for 15 minutes. A routine of 5-minute
irrigation and 10-minute rest should then be followed for
1-hour. Prompt action is absolutely essential to protect
eyesight.
(c) Promptly remove clothing contaminated with liquid
chlorine or chlorine solution. Areas of the skin that have
been splashed with liquid chlorine or strong chlorine solu-
tion should be immediately and repeatedly washed with
water. After thorough washing, any burned area should be
covered with a sterile dressing and bandages unless blisters
are present; then, bandage loosely. The victim should be
kept in a warm room (about 70°F) . Supply blankets if
necessary. Also, keep victim quiet; rest is an essential part
of the treatment.
(d) Place victim on back. Place a folded coat, blanket, or
other bulk under his shoulders so that his head falls well
back. This maintains a clear air passage to victim's lungs.
(e) A carbon dioxide and oxygen mixture, with carbon dio-
xide not exceeding 7 percent, may be administered to the
v1ctrm. This mixture, ready-prepared and sold with the
necessary apparatus, can be inhaled intermittently (for
periods of 2 minutes followed by 2-minute rest periods
over a total period not to exceed 30 minutes). Instruc-
tions provided by the gas apparatus supplier should be
followed carefully. If the carbon dioxide-oxy gen mixt ure
is not readily available, then pure oxygen may be substi-
tuted.
(f) Milk may be given t o relieve mild throat irrit ation. It is
13-7
w
ct:
w
I
0..
(f)
0
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~
~
z
(.!)
z
(}_
<{
u
m
'.{1
(9
w
z
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13-8
PROFESSIONAL MEDICAL ASSISTANCE
- ...
13-9
generally recommended t hat patients be removed to a
hospital as soon as possible , even though recovery from
chlorine exposure seems to be prompt if the exposure was
mild.
(g) Oral Resuscitation. Start at once. Delay can be fatal.
(1) Clear mouth of obstructions.
(2) Lay casualty victim on his back.
(3) Place a folded coat or blanket under victim's
shoulders so his head falls well back. This maintains
a clear air passage to lungs of victim.
(4) Kneel beside victim's head.
(5) Pinch victim's nose and open your mouth wide and
blow into victim's mouth strongly enough to cause
the victim's chest to rise.
(6) Remove your mouth . Victim's chest should fall.
(7) Repeat cycle 12-15 times per minute until doctor
arrives and says to stop, or normal breathing is
restored.
(h) Revised Sylvester Method of Artificial Respiration. (Alter-
native to oral resuscitation) Lose no time in starting.
Delay can be fatal. Follow instructions 1-3 as for oral
resuscitation, then:
(1) Place victim's head between your knees and grasp his
arins at the wrist.
(2) Cross victim's arms over the lower half of his breast-
bone and, rocking forward, press firmly downward
(about 20 lb . force), pressuring air from lungs.
(3) Release the pressure by rocking back and pulling
victim's arms upward, outward and backward. This
extends the chest walls and draws air into the lungs.
(4) Repeat cycle 12-15 times per minute until doctor
arrives and says to stop or until normal breathing is
restored.
13 .2.2 Hydrated Lime and Caustic Soda
Extreme care must be exercised in handling lime or caustic soda. In

normal dry powdered form , these seem harmless. This often encourages
operators to handle them carelessly . When combined with moisture, they
become extremely irrit ating to skin, eyes, etc. Therefore, when exposed
to damp skin they can cause serious deep burns. A small amount of lime
or caustic soda in the eyes will mix with eye fluids and cause serious
damage to the cornea of the eyeball, and possibly blindness. Inhalation
of powdered lime can cause death by searing of the interior of the lungs.
The following chemical handling measures may appear extreme to
the inexperienced operator but if they are not followed conscientiously,
there is a 100 percent chance that the operator will, sooner or later, find
himself in a hospital with serious bums of the skin, eyes or lungs.
(a) Always wear goggles when handling lime or caustic soda.
13-10
(b) Wear long-sleeved shirts, buttoned at the necks and wrists.
(c) Wear rubber or plastic gloves.
(d) Wear shoes and socks.
(e). Wrap the lower part of the face with a cloth coarse enough to permit
breathing but not so coarse as to allow entry of dust to the mouth
and nostrills.
(f) Wear a hat or wrap a cloth bandana around the head, being careful to
cover the forehead completely.
In short, cover the body, particularly the face, as much as possible.
13.2.2.1 First Aid. The severity of chemical bums is directly propor-

tional to the time that the chemical is in contact with moisture,
since the reaction will continue until all lime or caustic soda has
been hydrolized or removed. Therefore, the most important
first aid measure is : FLUSH WITH COPIOUS QUANTITIES
OF CLEAR WATER!
(a) Burns on Skin
Immediately flush with water. Continue flushing,
even after all chemical residue appears to have been
washed away. Do not wrap the bum with cloth as this
will stick to the wound. Seek medical attention if there is
blistering or an opening in the skin (burns are particularly
susceptible to infecti9n). Under ?_O ~ircumstance~ ~pply
butter, salt, grease or other home remedies to a burn. The
most effective first aid measure is cold clean water.
(b) Eye Burns
As with burns of the skin, the first remedy should be
flushing with copious quantities of water to dilute the
chemical. The most effective way to accomplish this is to
fill the wash basin with water and have the victim immerse
the top of his head and eyes, then open and close the eyes
repeatedly, holding open the injured eye with the fingers
if necessary, for two or three minutes. The eye should
then be covered with a clean bandage and the victim
rushed to the hospital.
(c) Inhalation of Lime or Caustic Soda Dust
There is little that can be done by way of first aid. If
the victim is conscious, have him swallow a good quantity
of water to minimize damage to throat and mouth.
NEVER TRY TO POUR WATER DOWN THE THROAT
OF AN UNCONSCIOUS PERSON. Rush the victim to
hospital. Do not wait to see if he improves; lime bum does
not act that way.
13.2.3 Liquified Petroleum Gas
The principal danger in LPG handling is that of explosion andfor fire.

The gas is poisonous and prolonged breathing could be fatal. In the event
13-11
MOUTH TO MOUTH RESUSCITATION
13-12
of someone being overcome by gas, the most important step is to get the
victim into the fresh air. If the victim does not revive immediately , follow
the procedures for chlorine poisoning. Generally, the gas is dispersed al-
most immediately in open air; hence, there is no danger of asphyxiation of
persons living nearby.
13.2.4 Cleaning Solvents
Most petroleum-base cleaning solvents are both toxic and flammable.

Toxic effects are generally quick, with little or no warning before the
victim collapses. Often, a single deep breath is enough to cause dizziness
and a gasping for breath, which results in further intake of gas, followed
by unconsciousness. First aid measures are the same as for chlorine or
LPG inhalation; the most important requirement being to get the victim
into the open air and apply artificial respiration if needed.
Although some solvents are not flammable (e.g., carbon tetrachloride,
ammonia), others such as paint thinner, are extremely so and can be
ignited from a distance. Therefore, there should be no smoking or open
fire of any type in a room where solvents are being used.
13.3 FALLS
As a general rule, the operator should never climb aerator structures, ground
storage tanks, or elevated tanks without another person standing by to render
assistance in the event of a fall.
Aside from the obvious danger of falls from high structures, the operator must
be on the alert for potential hazards in and around the plant including oil spots,
loose objects and open excavations. Most falls resulting in injuries are caused by
slipping or stumbling.
When oil is spilled on a concrete surface, it should be wiped up and sprinkled
with a solvent such as paint thinner or kerosene, if available, followed by sprinkling
with sand. The sand soaks up the solvent and oil, and after drying, can be swept up.
This not only removes the hazard of a slick spot on the floor, but prevents unsightly
staining of the concrete, as well.
13.4 INJURIES FROM ROTATING MACHINERY
The most common cause of this type of injury is loose clothing or long hair be-
coming entangled in rotating parts. Another very common type of injury occurs
where the victim yields to the temptation to touch a rotating shaft.
Usually, nothing h appens but, occasionally a burr or set-screw on the shaft,
invisible at high speed, will give a severe cut. If the victim happens to be wearing
gloves, the fiber will be caught on the projection and pulled into the shaft.
Finally, when repairing, working or maintaining any piece of machinery, the opera-
tor should have the equipment turned off, with an appropriate sign hung over the
switch to ensure that a second person will not unknowingly switch the equipment
on. If possible, pull the fuses.
13-13
13.5 ELECTRICAL SHOCKS
13.5.1 General
Electricity is dangerous at all voltages (there are cases on record of

victims being electrocuted by 12-volt automobile battery current). How-
ever, the most dangerous voltage, surprisingly, is 220 volts. This is prob-
ably true because extreme caution is exercised by most persons when
handling 440 volts or more, while shocks at low voltages are not ordi-
narily fatal.
There are two dangers assoicated with electrical shocks: (1) Shocks
to central nervous sytem and (2) bums. Be careful when moving a person
who has been shocked by electricity, he may still be in contact and touch-
ing him will shock the person trying to help.
Electrical bums are deceptive. A small burned point on the skin at
the point of contact may be underlain by extensive damage deep inside
the flesh . For that reason no electrical bum, however slight in appearance,
should be taken lightly. Take the victim to hospital for examination.
13.5.2 First Aid
The danger of electric shock lies in its effect on the central nervous
system. Someone who has received an electric shock and lost consciou~
ness is in an extremely critical state. The victim may have stopped breath-
ing and the heart may have stopped. If either one (or both) of the latter
conditions exist , the victim is in immediate danger of dying. Both artificial
respiration (see "Chlorine Handling") and external cardiac massage should
be started immediately (see following). At the same time, send for medic-
al help or rush the victim to a hospital. Continue resuscitative measures,
i.e ., artificial respiration, until: (a) arrival of medical help, (b) restoration
of normal breathing, or (c) there is no doubt that death has taken place as
evidenced by setting in of rigor mortis. There are cases on record of
victims reviving after two or three hours of artificial respiration and heart
massage.
Often, a severe shock will be followed by fluttering of the heart .
(Do not confuse this with a fast heart beat .) In this condition, the heart is
fibrillating and no blood is being pumped to the body. If fibrillation
(fluttering) continues for more than a second or two and no qualified
medical practitioner is available at the scene, roll the victim on to his side
and strike him sharply once between the shoulder blades with the heel of
the hand; then check heart beat and repeat, if necessary.
13.5.2.1 External Cardiac Massage. This procedure is used only when

the victim's heart has actually stopped, and only if a doctor is
not present.
The procedure is itself liable to cause injuries to the ribs
and lungs of the victim; so it must not be used unless death is
otherwise certain to result. Moreover, it is used only in combi-
13- 14
UNGUARDED MECHANJCAL EQUIPMENT
13-15
' ..
ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION
13-16
nation with oral (mouth to mouth) artificial respiration.
(a) Place the victim on his back on a firm rigid surface.
(b) Have the person who is handling respiratory resuscitation,
breathe three times into the victim's mouth.
(c) Kneel at the victim's side facing his chest . Hit his chest
once (the upper left side) with the closed fist. This may
start the heart beat. Do this only once, then check the
pulse . If the heart beat has not started immediately, do
not repeat this step but proceed to start the massage.
(d) Place the heel of your right hand on the lower part of the
victim's breastbone (the bone at the center of the chest,
below the collarbone). Put your left hand across your
right hand .
(e) Lean forward and let your weight press down on the
victim's chest, keeping the elbows straight. (This com-
presses the heart between the breastbone and backbone,
with the h:!rd surface beneath the victim supporting the
backbone, forcing blood out of the heart into the arteries:)
Release pressure immediately, keeping the hand lightly on
the chest and in position for the next cycle.
(f) Continue the procedure at a regular rate of about once a
second (seconds can be counted by saying "one thousand" ,
"two thousand", "three thousand", etc.) . Stop the
massage frequently to see if the victim's heart beat is
resuming on its own. Do not have someone check the
pulse while the massage is being done, because an artificial
pulse is being created as blood is forced from the heart
with each cycle.
(g) Do not stop the cardiac massage until (1) the victim's
breathing has resumed, (2) a trained medical practitioner
has arrived , or (3) until there is no doubt that brain death
has taken place as evidenced by the setting-in of rigor
mortis.
13-17
- ::c.-
14.1 FORMULA
Mathematical calculations for the water works operator involves the use of
areas, volumes, rates of flow, chemical dosages, pipe line velocities, and pressures.
If all units of measure were identical, it would be relatively easy to reduce the ele-
ments of water works mathematics to a relatively simple form. Since all units of
measure are not identical, then factors must be applied to convert from the given
unit to that required. Problems may appear complex but if taken in steps, you will
find they are made up of simple equations.
In solving problems, care should be taken to be sure that all units of measure
are the same. If they are not, then the proper conversion factor should be applied
before proceeding with the solution of the problem. In the following, the various
parts of the mathematics required in water works calculation will be presented
separately and then examples will be given to illustrate their use.
AREA
Rectangle- Square:
h h
b b
Area= b x h
Example: b = 8 meters h = 5 meters
Area (sq. meters) = 8 (meters) x 5 (meters) = 40 sq. meters
Circle:
-..,.
--
Area = 3 .1416 x r2 and it may be written
Area= 0.785 x d2
14-1
Triangle:
b = length of base
h = vertical height from base
to top of triangle
l...
Area= 1/2bh = bh
2
Trapezoid: A plane figure with four sides, two of which must be parallel.
I '
Area = a + b x h
2
Parallelogram: A plane figure with opposite siaes equal and parallel.

NOTE: Comers need not be
square.
b = length along base line

h = vertical height from base to
opposite side
Area= bh
VOLUME
By volume is meant the amount of space or bulk contained within a body. Common
unit of measure is cubic meters.
14-2
·.,
b = length along the base

h =height of prism
I
I w =width of prism
I
, ,--------
I
,,' b
Volume = b x h x w = bhw
Example: b = 5 meters h = 3 meters w = 3 meters
Calculation: Volume (cu. meters) =5 x 3 x 3 = 45 cu. meters
Cylinder:
,-
, .... ---- .... ,
'"
Volume
Example : d = 4 meters 1 = 5 meters
Calculation: Volume (cu. meters) 3 .1416 X (2)2 X 5 62 .83 cu. meters
or
Volume (cu. meters) = 0 .785 x (4) 2 x 5 = 62.83 cu. meters
Example : What is the volume of a tank 10 meters in diameter by 15 meters

high? Give answer in cu. meters and liters.
Calculation: Vol. (Cu. meters) = 0.785 x (10)2 x 15 = 1,177 .5 cu. meters
Vol. (liters) = 1,177.5 x (10)3 = 1,177,500 liters
14-3
Hemisphere: A hemisphere is half of a ball.
Volume = 1 rr x (diameter)3 = 3.1416 X d3 = 0.262 d3

12 12
Example: How many cubic meters are there in a hemisphere with a 3 meter
diameter?
Calculation: Vol. (cu. meter) 0.262 X (3) 3 7.07 cubic meter
Cone: A funnel would described a cone.
Volume = 1/3 rr r2h = 3.1416 r2h = 1.047 r2h or

3
Volume = 0.262 d2h
Example: d = 4 meter h = 5 meter
Calculation: Vol. (cu. meters) 1.047 X (2)2 X 5 = 20 .94 cubic meters
or
Vol. (cu. meters) = 0.262 X (4)2 X 5 20 .94 cubic meters
14.2 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
14.2.1 Fractions
It is difficult to handle fractions in a calculation. If a fraction is en-

countered, it should be converted to decimals. This is done by dividing
the denominator into the numerator as:
0.5
112 = g /t.o = 0.5
If a fraction is associated with a whole number, as 3-1/2, only the

fraction is converted and it is then added to the whole number as:
3-1/2 = 3 + 1/2 = 3 + 0.5 = 3.5
14.2.2 Rates of Flow
For expressing pumping capacity and plant output, the most com-
monly used flow rates are cubic meters per minute, cubic meters per se-
cond, and liters per second.
Since a day consists of 24 x 60 = 1,440 minutes, a cubic meter per
minute is equivalent to 1,440 cubic meters per day.
14-4
1 000
A thousand cubic meters per day = • = 0.694 m3 /min.
1,440
One cubic meter per second (c.m.s) equals 60 x 60 x 24 = 86.400
cubic meters per day. Converted to liters per day it would equal86,400
x 103 = 86.4 x 106 liters per day.
1,000 m 3 /day = 0.694 m3fmin or 1,000 m 3 / day = 11.59 liters/sec
a) Filtration Rate:
Filtration rate is expressed in cubic meters per square met~r

per minute or, per day . The backwash rate (up flow cleaning) is
measured in meters of vertical rise per minute, which is the vertical
movement of a water particle during a time interval of one minute.
Filtration Rate (m 3fsq. meterfmin.) =
Total volume of filtered water (m3)

Area of filter (sq. meters) x time (min)
Backwash Rate (cubic meters/min. = Rise rate (metersfmin.)

x Area of filter (sq . meters)
Example: A rapid sand filter, whose surface measures 5 .0 m by 7.0

m delivers an average of 4,250 m 3/day. What is the filter
rating in cu. meters/sq. meter/min.?
How many cubic meters per minute of backwash water

must be supplied to produce a vertical rise of 0.650 meters
per minute?
Calculation: Area of filter (sq. meters) 5.0 m x 7.0 m

= 35.0 sq. meters
Filter rate 4,250

------
= 0.0844 m 3;m2fmin
35 .0 X 24 X 60
Required backwash rate (cubic meters/min.)

. 0.65 mfmin x 35.0 m2 = 22.75 m 3 fmin.
14.2.3 Chemical Dosage
In chemical treatment the most commonly used concentration units

are: parts per million (p.p.m), milligrams per liter, grams per cubic meter,
and kilograms per thousand cubic meters. These are equivalent to:
1 p.p.m . = 1.0 mgfliter = 1.0 gjm 3 = 1.0 kg/1,000 m 3
14-5
I
I·
Example: In treating 3,000 m 3 of water, 65 kilograms of a certain
chemical was used. How many kilograms per million cubic
meters were used and what was the dosage in p .p .m .?
Calculation: Dosage (kg/thousand m 3 ) = kg of chemical used x
1,0 00 ,000
total cubic meters treated
Dosage = 65.0 kg x 1,000,000 21 ,650 kg/1 ,000,000 m3

3,000
Dosage (p .p .m.) 21,650 kg/1,000,000 m3 =

1.0 kg/1,000 m
21.65 p .p.m.
Example: A plant produces 7,000 cubic meters per day and it is desired to
feed a chemical at the rate of 18 p.p.m. How many kilograms of
the chemical are required per day?
Calculation: Chemical feed (kgfday) =
cubic meters of water x required dosage (p .p.rrt.)

1,000
= 7,000m3 x 18
= 126 kg/day
1,000
Example: A pump produces 1.90 m 3jmin and chlorine is to be fed to the

pump discharge at dosage of 5 p.p .m. How much ~hlorine will be
required per day?
Calculation: Use formula above.
Cubic meters produced per day =
1.90 m 3 fmin x 1,440 (minfday) = 2,735 m 3Jday
Dosage (kg/day) = 2,735 x 5 = 13 . 67 kgfday

1,000
In chemical treatment where only a part of the chemical is available for use, the
total quantity of memical to be used to get the required amount must be calculated.
--
14-6
To illustrate, a compound used in chlorination is calcium hypochlorite (HTH, Per-
chlom, etc.) and it contains 70 per cent available chlorine. To determine the
amount of the basic chemical to be used to give (say 1 kilogram of chlorine) divide
the amount of chlorine required by the percent of available chlorine to give the
amount of chemicai to be used.
Total wt. of basic chemical = kilogram of chlorine required

% available chlorine
1
1.43 kilograms
0.70
Example: A newly completed main 1.50 meters in diameter and 350 meters
long is to be sterilized by applying 50 ppm of chlorine and allow-
ing it to stand in the line for 24 hours before flushing it to waste.
How many kilograms of dry hypochlorite of 70% available
chlorine is required?
Calculation: Hypochlorite dosage required 50 = 71.4 ppm
.70
kgfl,OOO m 3 = 71.4 kg/1,000 m3

Vol. of pipe = 0.785 X (1.50)2 X 350
= 618 .5 m 3 or 620m3
Hypochlorite dosage (kg) =

70.4 kgfl,OOO m 3 x 620m 3 = 44.25 kilograms
When chlorine is applied to water, a small amount is used up and cannot be

measured. This is known as chlorine demand.
Example : A water has a chlorine demand of 0.4 ppm. It is desired to chlo-

rinate this supply to a chlorine residual of. 1.0 pSm. What would
be the daily chlorine feed for a flow of 11,500 m fday?
Calculation: Chemical dosage (kg/day) = total chemical required (ppm) x

total flow (~ 3 /day)
Required chlorine feed = 1.0 + 0.4 = 1.4 ppm
Chlorine feed (kg/day) = __1_.4_k_g-:;;.:- x

1,000 m 3
11,500 m 3 16.1 kg/day

day
14-7
-- ·
Pressure is expressed in two forms. It may be expressed as the total

force pushing against a given area (total pressure - kg) or it may be ex-
pressed as the pressure exerted against a unit area, such as kilograms per '
square centimeter.
Example: A square vat 1.0 meter on a side is filled with fresh water
that weighs 1,000 kg/m 3 . What is the water pressure per
square centimeter on the bottom of the vat?
Calculation: Area of vat bottom = 100 em x 100 em = 10,000 cm2
Kilograms per square centimeter =
1,000 kgfcm2 = 0.10 kgfcm2

10,000 cm2jm2
Example: A 5 -inch diameter stand pipe is filled with water to a depth

of 25.0 meters . What are the kgfcm2 and total pressure at
the bottom of the pipe?
Calculation: Pressure (kgfcm2) = 1,000 kgjm 3 x 25 m

10,000 cm2/m2
Total pressure area of pipe x 0.1 kgfcm2

x height of water column (meters)
0.785 X (5.0 X 2 .54)2 X
0.10 kgfcm2 x 25.0 m
316.2 kg
14.2.5 Flow Velocity
Water flowing in a pipe is said to have a certain velocity in meters per

second (mfsec) . This may be formulated as
Velocity (mfsec) = Flow Rate (m 3 jsec)

Area (square meters)
Example: Water is flowing through a 12-inch diameter p ipe at the rate

of 0.0852 m 3 jsec. What is the velocity of the water?
Calculation: Velocity (metersjsecond) =
(12 .0 in x 2.54 cmfin)2

0.785 X -- - - - - - - -
( 100 cmfm )
1.16 mfsec.
14-8
14.3 TABLEOFCONVERS~NS
Multiply By Conversion Factor To Obtain
Lengths -
inches X 0.0833 = feet
" X 25.40 millimeters
" X 2.54 centimeters
" X 0.0254 meters
feet X 304.8 millimeters ~
" X 30.48 centimeters
0 .3048 = meters
,"
X
X 0.333 yards
miles X 1.609 X 105 centimeters
" X 5,280 feet
" X 1.609 = kilometers
centimeters X 0 .3937 inches
" X 0.01 meters
meters X 100 centimeters
" X 3 .281 = feet
" X 39.37 = inches
" X 1.094 yards
kilometers X 3,281 = feet

" X 0.6214 miles
" X 1,094 = yards
Areas
square inch X 6.452 = square centimeters
, 6 .944 10·3 square feet
" X X
, 645.2 square millimeters
" X
square feet X 929.0 = square centimeters

, , X 144.0 square inches
" " X 0.0929 = square meters
square miles X 640 acres

" " X 27 .88 X 10 6 square feet
, 2.590 square kilometers
" X
acre X 43,560 = square feet

" X 4,047 square meters
·" X 1.562 X 10·3 square miles
'- .
square centimeters X 0 .1550 = square inches

", " X 1.076 X 10· 3 square feet
" X 10-4 square meters
14-9
\ /
square meters X 10.76 square feet

" " X 3.861 X 10· 7 square miles
square kilometers X 10.76 X 10 6 square feet

" " X 0.3861 square miles
hectare X 2.471 acres ~-
" X 1.076 X 105 square feet
Volume
J
cubic inch X 16.39 cubic meters
" " X 1.639 x Io-2 liters
" " X 1.639 x 1o·5 = cubic meters
" " X 5.787 X 10·4 cubic feet
cubic feet X 2.832 X 104 cubic centimeters

" " X 1,728 cubic inches
" " X 0.02832 cubic meters
" " X 7.48052 gallons
cubic centimeters X 3.531 x 1o·5 cubic feet

" " X 6.102 X 10-2 cubic inches
10-6
,," "
"
X
2.642 x 1o·4
cubic meters
X gallons
cubic meters X 103 liters

" " X 106 cubic centimeters
" " X 35.31 cubic feet
" " X 264.2 gallons
cubic meters X 103 liters

" " X 106 = cubic meters
" " X 35.31 cubic feet
" " X 264.2 ( gallons
" " X 1.308 = cubic yards
.gallon X 3.785 liters

" X 3.785 X 10·3 cubic meters
" X 0.1337 cubic feet
" X 3,785 cubic centimeters
liters X 103 cubic centimeters

" X 0.26418 gallons
Weight
ounce X 0.0625 pounds
14-10
pounds X 16.0 ounces
" X 453.5924 grams
, tons (short)
X 0.0005
" X 0.45359 kilograms
Tons (short) X 2,000 = pounds

" X 907.18486 kilograms
grams X 0.001 kilograms

" X 1,000 milligrams
" X 0 .03527 .ounces
" X 2.205 X 10-3 pounds
kilograms X 2.205 pounds

" X 0.001 ton (metric)
Velocity
feetfsec X 30.48 = cmfsec
" X 0.3048 mfsec
cmfsec X 1.969 - ft/min

" X 0.03281 ftjsec
" X 0.036 kilometers/hour
Flow
cubic meterjsec X 15,852.0 gallons/min
,,
" " X 60 X 10 3 liters/min
U.S. gal/min X 2.228 x 10-3 cubic feet/sec

" " " X 0.06308 liters/sec
" " " X 63.08 x 1o-6 cubic metersfsec
cubic feetfsec X 0.02832 = cubic meters/sec

" " " X 2,446".85 cubic meters/day
literfsec X 0.2642 = gallons/sec

" " X 15.8~ gallons/min
" " X 2,282 gallons/day
cubic metersjsec X 35.3145 = cubic feetfsec

" " " X 15,850.8 gallons/min
" " " X 22.825 million gallonsfday
" " " X 264.2 gallons/sec
Density
poundfcubic feet X 16.018 = kilogramfcubic meter
" " " X 0.5787 X 10·3 = pounds/ cubic inch
14-11
\ --
kilogram/cubic meter X 0.06243 = pounds/ cubic foot
gram/cubic centimeter X 0.03613 pounds/cubic inch
Pressure
inches of water X 0.07355 inches of mercury
, ,
"
,
X 25.40 = kilograms/ square meter
,
" X 5.202 = pounds/square foot
pound/square inch X 0 .0703066 kilograms/ square em

,
" " X 703.066 = kilograms/square meter
kilograms/ em2 X 14.223 pounds/ square inch
kilograms/square ft X 2.205 pounds/square foot
pounds/square foot X 4.883 = kilograms/square meter
Dosages
parts/million X 0.0584 grains/U.S. gal.
" " X 8.345 = pounds/million gal
,
" X 1.000 = milligrams/liter
, 1.000 grams/ cubic meter
" X
" " X 1.000 = kilograms/ 1,000 cu.m.
grains/gallon X 142.8 pounds/million gallons

, 17.12 = parts/million
" X
14-12
14.4 TEMPERATURE TABLE:
DEGREES DEGREES DEGREES DEGREES

f8!:::!.BENt!_~II _G._~.§llL~ FAHRENHEIT
- ------ - .f&_!.SIU_§_
I
- 32°F o oc 125°F 51.7°C
35 1.7 130 54.5

~~
40 4.4 135 57.2
45 7.2 140 60.0
50 10.0 145 62.8
55 12.8 150 65.6

,--
\ 60 15.6 155 68.3
65 18.3 160 71.1
70 21.1 165 73.9
75 23.9 170 76.7
80 26.7 175 79.5
85 29.5 180 82.2
90 32.2 185 85 .0
95 35.0 190 87.8
100 37.8 195 90.6

I t""""'
105 40.6 200 93.3
110 43.3 205 96.1
115 46.1 210 98.9
120°F 48.9 212°F 100°
14-13

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Republic ot the Philippines ·

LOCAL WATER UTILITIES ADMINISTRATION

of Operation and Maintenance

LOCAL WATER UTILITIES ADMINISTRATION

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE MANUAL

SECTION 8: TREATMENT FACILITIES

No operation and maintenance manual should ever be consider.ed~mplete. As new

Republic of the Philippines

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE MANUAL

1. OVERVIEWOF WATER SUPPLY

SECTION 1: OVERVIEW OF WATER SUPPLY

1.1 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE WATER UTILITY 1-1

1.2 POPULATION AND WATER NEEDS 1-2

1.3 WATER SOURCES 1-7

1.4 THE WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 1-10

1.5 METERING OF WATER PRODUCTION AND

1.6 RECORD KEEPING 1-16

LOCAL WATER UTILITIES ADMINISTRATION

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE MANUAL

SECTION 1: OVERVIEW OF WATER SUPPLY

1. 1.3 Water Costs

Most people expect water to be cheap; probably because it is so plentiful

1.1.4 Planning for the Future

The utility management must anticipate population growth and changing

1.2 POPULATION AND WATER NEEDS

1.2.1..•. Population Growth

There are few areas of the world where population is constant or

The usual approach m estimating future population is to plot a

In long-range water supply planning, it is necessary not only to estimate

There are also predictable relationships between the locations of commer-

Water distribution systems are, by their nature, extremely flc::~g~l~J.'his is

1.2.3 Water Demands

The amount of water required each year by a person, a commercial estab-

(a) Demand Fluctuations

Every water distribution system supplies a quantity of water that

A distribution system that IS m good condition, with no excessive

(c) Fire Flows

Excess capacity is often provided in pumps, reservoirs and pipelines

The spacing of hydrants and excess delivery capacity are determined

en '{ !. :-\~;)·:~.:; . ;\.f/}~:~~: :_:~::..} ~:::~.: :~.:·~ -~ ;\

~~~~J~!~]~li~@~>I ,_,. .... .. ._

1.3.1 Ground Water

1.3.2 Surface Water

Approximately 3/4 of the world's population relies on surface water

1.3.3 Other Sources

The other potential source of water is reclamation of waste water. Although

1.4 THE WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM __......

A regulating reservoir is connected to the distribution network, with its

Frequently , a reservoir function includes both storage and regulation; for

1.4.2 Distribution Network

- The two principal types of distribution networks are the reticulated or

The herringbone network consists of large ··diameter mains, or feeders,

As may be expected, the network that is entirely looped or entirely

1.4.3 Pumping Equipment

The operation of pumps is a complex subject, discussed in detail in other

TYPICAL DAILY VARIATION OF SYSTEM DEMAND

Pumps may be operated manually by the operator or they may be started

1.5 METERING OF WATER PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

*Annual payments on loans previously taken out to finance new construction.

If the utility is to remain solvent financially, it must maintain accurate records

l\.1etering of production and consumption serves important functions as described

1.5.1 Control of Revenues

Whenever a utility changes over from unmetered to metered service,

Where preventive maintenance requires measurements to be ~---