Arab Abd Chinese Navigators in Malaysian Waters in About Ad 1500

ARAB ABD CHINESE NAVIGATORS IN MALAYSIAN WATERS IN ABOUT A.D.
1500
Author(s): J. V. MILLS and J. V. G. Mills
Source: Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 47, No. 2 (226)
(1974), pp. 1-82
Published by: Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41492085 .
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Plate 1. Paintingof a ChineseJunk. One of thirteenpaintingsof Chinesejunks
in a scrolldiscoveredby Captain Ian MacRobertin theNational Gallery
of Victoriaat Melbourne. The originalwas probablypaintedin about
A.D. 1700.
Reproduced by Courtesyof theTrusteesof theNationalGalleryof Victoria.

ARAB AND CHINESE NAVIGATORS IN MALAYSIAN WATERS
IN ABOUT A.D. 1500
by
J. V. MILLS
SCOPE OF THE ENQUIRY.

To set out the sailinginstructionscontainedin the Arab and Chinesetexts,to
the
identify places named, and to add appropriatecomments. Also, to enquire
whethertheArab or Chinesetexts,respectively, elucidatedifficultiespresentedbythe
others.
We selectthe date 'about A.D. 1500' because it is approximatelythe periodat
which
(a) the informationon nautical matterscontainedin the Arab and Chinese
texts,and
(b) the informationon maritimeactivitycontainedin the Portuguesebooks
of theearlysixteenth century,1can be compared.
The main importanceof the sailinginstructions lies in the factsthat,first,they
show the methodwherebymerchantshipscould be guided safelyfromone sea-port
to another,and secondly,(exceptforthe Mao K'un map) theyindicatethe tracks
of theprincipaltrade-routes.
EXPLANATIONS.
(1) Nomenclature. The names of countriesare in accordance with English
conventionalusage; forinstance,China.
The names of administrative divisions and places are those adopted by the
supremeauthorityof thestatein whichtheylie; forinstance,Melaka (Malacca).2
For the spellingof Malay place-nameswe have consultedthe maps of 1971 and
1973 publishedby the Directorateof National Mapping, Malaysia, and The Atlas
of South-EastAsia (1964) publishedby Macmillan& Co., as well as the 'Pilots' and
Charts published by the HydrographieDepartmentof the Admiralty:but these
authoritiesare not entirelyconsistent:moreover,it is uncertainhow farthe spelling
of place-nameswill be affectedby the new systemof romanizedspellingadopted by
theGovernments of Malaysia and Indonesiain 1973: thus,sincethespellinghas not
been stabilized,we have to make a choice,and in cases wherea doubt mayarise,we
have added an alternativeplace-namein bracketswherethenamesfirstoccur.
It is worth noting that the Arabs normally- perhaps always- trans-
literatedthe Malay names of places; thus, the Malay 'Angsa' is renderedas
'Hansa'. The Chinese,on the otherhand,mightdenotea place in one of three
ways; (a) theymighttransliterate the Malay name; thus,the Malay 'Melaka
(Malacca)' is rendered as 'Man-la-chia'; (b) theymighttranslatethe Malay

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
name; thus,the Malay 'Pulau Sembilan'is designated'Chiù chou (Nine islets)';

(c) theymightcoin a purelyChinese name; thus,Pulau Tinggiis designated
'Chiang chun mao ('General's Hat')'. A note on Malay place-nameswill be
foundin AddendumD.
(2) Bearings. When the figuresgivenin the textsappear to be incorrector
deficient,it seems reasonable to presume(a) that the authors obtained the best
information available at the time,(b) thatthe figureswereapproximately accurate
underthe conditionsthenprevailing,and (c) thatnavigatorswereexpectedto use,
and did use, theircommonsense,in makinga correctionwhentheyfoundtheywere
offtheircourse.
Whenthetextsdiffer, we have to makea selection.
We have not attemptedto 'correct'the figures,since theymightbe affectedby
severalvariablefactors,especiallyvariationof the compass (about 5°), currents, and
winds. To attempta 'correction'requirestheknowledgeof a nauticalexpert.
In orderto facilitatecomparisons,we have specifieda 'reasonable'course,and
measureddistancesalong it3. This course ordinarilyruns,in the open sea about 5
milesfromthecapes, and in confinedwatersalong themiddleof thefairway. Mea-
surements are made betweenpointswherea land-markis broughtabeam.
For convenience,insteadof writing'kuei ciïou' or '15° -30°', we write'22£°',
and so on.
In Chinesetextsit oftenhappensthatafterthe primarybearinghas been given,
subsequentchangesof courseare omitted.
In this paper a sailing directionis not considered'adequate' unless it states
both (a) thecourseto be steered,and (b) eitherthe distanceto, or thetimetaken
in reaching,the nearestappropriateland-mark.
(3) Stellaraltitudes. In the Tables of this paper, a factorof 3°30' has been
added to the equivalentof the Arab stellaraltitudesin orderto compensateforthe
difference in distanceof thePole StarfromthePole.
(4) Measurements. We retain the Britishnautical mile, being one minute
of latitude,with 6080 feet(the approximatevalue at latitude48°) as the standard
value. The linearvalue of one degreeis approximately 69 statutemilesor 111kilo-
metres. The degree is sub-dividedat the bottom left-handcorner of the maps
accompanyingthispaper. We also retainthefathomof 6 feet.
(5) Transliteration.Chinese words are transliteratedaccording to H. A.
Giles, A Chinese-English Dictionary, subjectto the qualificationthat chüeh, ch'üeh,
hsïieh,yueh, and i are written, forchio,ch4o9hsio,yo,
respectively, and yi.
Arabic words are transliterated accordingto G. R. Tibbetts,Arab Navigation;
but it may be pointedout thatTibbetts'renderings are not alwaysorthodox;thus,
the Malay word pulau, 'island', is rendered'pulau' by Tibbetts,whereasthe first
letteris usuallytakento havethesoundof/,and Ferrandwrites'fulo'.4
(6) Superiornumbersin ordinarytypereferto the notes appearingafterthe
section headed 'Conclusions' in this paper. Superiornumbersin italic type and
superiornumbersin italictypesurroundedby a bracketreferto theArabiclettersand
Chinese characters,respectively, appearingat the end of this paper. The corres-
pondingplace-nameswillbe foundin Tables I, II, IV, VI, VIII, and X.

PARTII, 1974 ARAB& CHINESENAVIGATORS WATERS
IN MALAYSIAN
(7) The presentwritershouldadd thathe has not studiedArabicor navigation,

claimsthereader'sindulgenceifhe has erredin thesetwofields.
and he therefore
SOURCES.
Arab.
(a) Shihab al-Din Ahmad bin Majid (hereaftercalled Ahmad), an Arab of
Julfar,boasted of being a mďallim or 'masterof navigation'.5 For the benefitof
laternavigatorshe wroteover40 works,mostlyin verseofinferior quality.
His earliestwork,which may be called Hawiya, is a long poem dated 1462,
giving'a completeconspectusof navigationaltheory';it includesroutes('roteiros')
across and around the coasts of the Indian Ocean, longitudinaldistancesacross the
Ocean, and thealtitudesof certainstarsat portson theshoresof theOcean.
His longprosework,whichmaybe called Fawďid, finishedin 1490,is 'a kindof
encyclopaediaof navigation'. Interalia, he statesthe altitudeof the Calves (Beta
and Gamma ofUrsa Minor)at variousplacesalongthecoastfromBurmato Sumatra,
and givessailinginstructions fortheroutefromtheButangislandsto Melaka.
These importantworksare marredby manyerrors; scribalmistakesabound;
otherseriousinaccuraciesincludetheconfusionof SumatrawithSri Lanka (Ceylon),
and theincorrect orientationofJavafromnorthto south.
Ahmad must have travelledto Melaka; but he probablydid not go further,
sinceafterMelaka thequalityof thedescriptions deterioratessuddenly.
The Fawďid has been translatedin theoutstanding book of G. R. Tibbetts,Arab
Navigation .
(b) Sulaiman bin Ahmad (hereafter called Sulaiman) an Arab of Shihr,being
a
also mďallim, wrote 5 works.6
His firstbook, whichmaybe called Umda,datesfrom1511and is a prosetreatise
on thenavigator'sscience.
In it he describedall the shoresof the Indian Ocean, adding compass bearings
when the navigatorfollowedthe coast; he listed the altitudesof the Pole Star at
salientpointson thecoasts; also hegavesailinginstructions fora numberof particular
voyages,includingvoyagesalong the west and east coasts of the Malay Peninsula;
and he also treatedof the routealong the coast of Borneo. In a subsequentbook,
whichmaybe called Minhaj,Sulaimansetout a newand more correctlistof compass
bearingsand stellaraltitudesfor the coasts of the Indian Ocean, and gave more
detailsconcerningthelongitudinaldistancesacrosstheOcean.
A laterwork,whichmay be called Tuhfat,containeda conciseaccountof navi-
gationaltheory.
Sulaimanmadethesamemistakeas Ahmadregarding theorientation ofJava.7
(c) Sidi Ali Selebi (hereaftercalled Sidi Ali), of Constantinople,shipwrecked
commanderof the TurkishIndian Ocean fleet,in 1554 produced a Turkishbook
on Indian Ocean navigation,called al-Muhit,'The Ocean'.8
For the most part,the book containsa translationof Sulaiman's Umda,with
quotationsfromotherworksof Ahmad and Sulaiman; to whichSidi Ali adds some
commentsof his own.9
In his firstchapter,Sidi Ali writesan originalsectionon the instruments used

J. Y, MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
formeasuringstellaraltitudes.10
In his fourthchapter,reproducingSulaiman's Umda,Sidi Ali describescertain
coastal voyages,mentioning 'Butangisland','Fulo Pasalar' [BukitJugra],11and 'Bor-
nay islands'.12
In his seventhchapter,Sidi Ali has an interestingsectionon the compilationof
mapsand charts,whichare notmentionedin theearlierArab texts.13
In his ninthchapterSidi Ali givesextremely detaileditineraries
of thirty
voyages,
includingone fromDiu to Melaka (27th voyage) and one fromMelaka to Aden
(29thvoyage).14
Sidi Ali providesa usefultabularstatementof stellaraltitudes,veryimportant
in Arab navigation.15
Sidi Ali, like Ahmad and Sulaiman, wronglyorientatesJava fromnorthto
south; also, he omitsCalicutfromhis table of stellaraltitudes.
Chinese.
(d) The Mao K'un map. This MS cartogramwas reproducedin the book of
Mao Yiian-I, WuPei Chih, 'Records of MilitaryPreparations'(1621). It is usually
consideredto recordthe tracksof Chêng Ho's voyages,and may provisionallybe
regardedas referring to a time'about 1422'.16 It may be describedas a patchwork
of maplets,each havingits own orientationand scale; it specifiesthe coursesto be
followed,the principalland-marks,the timetakenin sailingbetweenthem,mostof
the points along the coasts, and othermatterswhich could be of importanceto
sailors,on lhe voyagesfromChina to Iran (Persia),Arabia,and East Africa.
Beinganonymous,it was probablypreparedin an officialdrawingoffice. Such
maps wereprovidedto thecommandersof shipsin ChêngHo's fleets.
The furthest pointsshownare:-
in the north,Nan Ching[Nanking],and Hormuz,
in theeast,thePescadoresislands,TanjongDatu in westernBorneo,and theeast
coast of Java,
in thesouth,thesouthcoast of Java, and Ma-lin-ti[probablyMozambique] in
east Africa,
in thewest,theeast coast of Africa,and Luhaiyain theRed Sea.
The map does not show the Ryu-kyuislands,or Japan; nor does it show any
part of Borneo east of Tanjong Datu.
It recordsa numberof stellaraltitudes,and sometimestheseprovideveryuseful
information, but some are patentlyincorrect,and none refersto places further east
than Cochin in India.17
The map containsa numberof errors.
This is the only one of the Chinese textswhichmentionsplace-nameson the
Malay Peninsulanorthof Mien hua hsü,'Cottonisland' [BukitJugra].
It would be unsafeto concludethat Chinesetradingshipsvisitedall the places
namedin themap,or followedall thetrackshereshown.18
(e) 'Shun Fêng Hsiang Sung', 'Fair Winds forEscort' (hereafter called 'Shun
Fêng'). This MS nauticalcompendiumrestsin theBodleianLibraryat Oxford.19
Probablywritten about 1620,it refersto conditionsin about 1430.20

PARTII, 1974 IN MALAYSIAN
ARAB& CHINESENAVIGATORS WATERS
(i) It treatsof navigationaltheoryand practice,includingmnemonicsand

prayers;
(ii) It gives notes on individualplaces along the sea-routes;in 'Malayan'
waters,theseplaces rangefromPulau TiomanthroughSingaporestrait(Selat Singa-
pura) to BukitJugra,fromtheKarimunislandsto theWaterislandsoffMelaka, and
fromPulau Tenggol(Tunggal)to Kuala Pahang; in 'Bornean' waters,no placeseast
of TanjongDatu are mentionedin thesenotes;
(iii) It includesspecial directionsforenteringthe mouthof the Mekong river,
and also forproceedingbetweencertainplacesin Japan;
(iv) It containsdetailedsailinginstructions forone hundredparticularvoyages.
The furthest pointsmentioned are:-
on thenorth,Japan,and Hormuz,
on theeast,Japan,Ryu-kyuislands,Formosa, Philippineislands,Borneo, and
Timor,
on the south,Timor,
on thewest,Aden.
It lacks any reference to the Moluccas in the east, or to Africaor the Red Sea
in thewest,or to anyplace in theMalay Peninsulanorthof BukitJugra.
The book containsinstructionsfor navigatingalong the coast of the Malay
PeninsulabetweenKelantanand Bukit Jugra,21 and along the coast of Borneo bet-
weenTanjongDatu and Pulau Balambangan.22
It recordscertainstellaraltitudes,but none further east than Pulo Weh in 95°
13' E.23
It containssome errors.24
(f) Lü P'an and Lu Ch'êng-Ên (hereafterreferredto as Lü P'an). These
writers compileda workcalledPing Ch'ieri,'A MilitaryManual', ofwhichtheseventh
and lastfasciculebearsthetitleChihNan ChêngFa , 'The CorrectUse oftheCompass'.
The earliestprefaceis dated 1669,and thecontentsofthebook referto conditions
not laterthanabout 1607.25
This MS workmaybe foundin theBodleian Libraryat Oxford.26 The contents
consist,to someextentat least,ofcopiesfromearlierdocuments.
The datesgivenforrecordedvoyagesindicatethattheymayprobablybe referred
to theperiod 1471- 1588.27
The plan oftheworkforthemostpartagreeswiththatof 'Shun Fêng'.
(i) It treatsof navigationaltheoryand practice.
Four pointsmay be noted:-
(a) It containsa sketchofthemariner'scompasswith24 points.28
(b) It providesa table specifyingthepointsat which9 asterismsrose and
set.29
(c) It mentionsthe'floatinglog' methodof calculatingspeed.30
(d) It gives the theoreticalequation accordingto which a watch of
hoursis reckonedas theequivalentof "about" 60 li [about20.8 miles].31
(ii) It containsnotes on individualplaces on the sea-routefromLiu chia ao
[nearShang Hai] to theGulfof Thailand.32
(iii) It sets out a table namingmany pairs of near-byplaces and statingthe

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
bearingfromthe firstplace to the second; in 13 cases it also statesthe bearingin

thereversedirectionfromthesecondplace to thefirst;in 6 of suchcases thecharac-
tersrepresenting contiguouspointson the compass are writtenin both a clockwise
and an anti-clockwise direction,thusprovingthat,whateverthedirection, theintended
lies
bearing half-way between the named contiguouspoints.33
(iv) It givesdetailedsailinginstructions for53 particularvoyages.
The furthest pointsmentionedare: -
on the north,Japan
on theeast,the Ryu-kyuislands,Formosa,the Philippineislands, Brunei,and
Djakarta,
on the south,Djakarta,
on thewest,Melaka, and Thailand.
The book containsinstructionsfor navigatingalong the coast of the Malay
PeninsulabetweenKelantan and Melaka,34and along the coast of Borneo between
Pulau Balambanganand Brunei.35
It lacks any referenceto places in the Malay Peninsulanorthof Melaka, and it
lacksanyitinerary to places further
to thesouth-eastthanBrunei.36
It recordsno stellaraltitudes. It is notfreefromerror.37
(g) Chang Hsieh, TungHsi Yang K'ao , 'A Studyof the Westernand Eastern
Oceans', 1618.
Partsof thebook referto eventsof an earlierperiod.
For the most part the work consistsof historicaland geographicalnotes on
various countriesin easternAsia, fromJapan in the north,Timor in the east, and
Banten in the south,to Atjeh in the west. The ninthchapter,entitled'A Studyof
theShip's Master',contains(i) noteson navigationalscienceand practice,(ii) notes
on the ship's masterand establishment, (iii) sailing instructions
fromHsia Mên
[Amoy] to various countriesin easternAsia; the furthestplaces mentionedare
Formosa in the north,the Philippineislands,the Molucca islands,and Timorin the
east,Banten and Djakarta ['Kelapa'] in thesouth,and Atjehin thewest.
The instructions treatof the routefromPulau Tenggolto Pahang38and thence
roundthe Malay Peninsulaas faras BukitJugra,39 wheretheroutecrossesto Pulau
Aroa (Aruah islands) and Sumatra;theyalso treatof the routerunningsouthwards
past Pulau Balambanganto Brunei.40
They do not treatof any routealong themainlandnorthof Pahang on the east
coast, or northof BukitJugraon thewestcoast, or southof Bruneion the Bornean
coast.41
Ships sometimessailed straight fromGrandeCondoreto Pulau Tenggol.42 The
book represents thatthe dividingline betweenthe Westernand EasternOceans ran
fromHsia Men [Amoy]to Brunei.43
No stellaraltitudesare recorded.
The book containssome seriouserrors;thus,it statesthatTa-ni [Pattani]was
the ancientP'o-ni [Brunei],44 and that Fei Hsin's Hsi-lan ['Ceylon', Sri Lanka] lay
near the Lampungcountryin southernSumatra.45

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.
The Arabs.
"It is a sound conjecture"wroteHouráni "that Arabs wereplayingsome part
in the seafaringlife of theirtimesfor many centuriesbeforeAlexander[died 323
B.C.]",46 and it is veryprobable thattheyhad been sailingto Malabar fortimber
somecenturiesbeforetheChristianera.47
But thereis no recordof theiradvancingfurther east beforetheseventhcentury
A.D.
Afterthe comingof Islam [A.D. 622] the Arabs grewmore venturesome. In
651 theysenttheirfirstembassyto China.48
Afterthe conquest of Iran in 652 the Arabs began to take over some of the
Persiantradewiththe East, and Arab traderose rapidlyuntil750.49 By theend of
theseventhcentury, Muslimsettlementswereestablishedin Sri Lanka, and theArabs
had begunto penetratetheseas of south-eastAsia.50
In 724 an Arab missionwentto China, probablyfromSumatra,51and it seems
reasonableto supposethattheArab tradersfoundtheirwayto China soon afterthat
date.52
By the middleof the eighthcenturyArab coloniesin Chineseportswerefirmly
established;53theyand the Persiansbecame the principalmiddlemenof the foreign
tradewiththe southand west,and theirshipswerethe chiefmeans of communica-
tion.54
This stateof affairsendedabruptlyin 758 whenArabs and Persians,exasperated
by officialexactions,sackedKuang Chou [Canton],and took theirtradeto Hanoi.55
56
Foreigntraderevivedat Kuang Chou in 792, and by 851 therehad grownup
an extensivesea-traffic betweenChina and the West.57 This commercereachedits
peak in 878, when it was violentlydisruptedby civil war in South China; Kuang
Chou was pillagedand theMuslimtradingpostsdestroyed.58
The Arab tradersthenterminatedtheirvoyagesat Kalah (perhapsKedah) on
thewestcoast of theMalay Peninsula,and the Chinesetradingshipssailed to Kalah
to meetthem.59
But 'the barbarianmerchantsof the sea' returnedto China in 970,60 and from
this date until 1500 the Arabs remainedthe leading tradersand marinersof the
Indian Ocean.61
It may be added thatby the end of the ninthcentury,a largearea of south-east
Asia was knownto theArab traders,and Arab seamenwerewellacquaintedwiththe
coast of the Malay Peninsula; but afterleaving the importanttradingcentreof
Kalah, Arab shipsran straightthroughthe Straitsto waterat Pulau Tioman,and in
A.D. 1000 the Arabs knew the name of only one place on the Peninsula,namely,
'Panhang' [Pahang],peopled by sea-rovers.62
The Chinese.
Navigationon the high seas is firstmentionedin annals of the thirdcentury
B.C.63
Probablybeforethe second centuryB.C. Chinese sailors sailed regularlyalong
thecoast to Tung Ching[Tongking.]64
But progresswas slow; even in the third centuryA.D. Chinese ships were

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
incapable of sailingin the open sea,65and by the end of the sixthcenturythe ships
of the Yiieh, the sailorsof the China coast, probablysailed no further
thantheGulf
of Thailand.66
In the seventhcenturyChinesemaritimeenterprise began to manifestitself;in
607 a large Chinese ship voyagedto Ch'ih ťu (perhaps Phatthalung)in southern
Thailand; thiswas regardedas exceptionally daring.67
At the end of the Sui dynasty(A.D. 618), Chineseshipswerestillinferiorin all
respectsto the K'un-lun (Malaysian) and Indian ships.68 There is no evidence
regarding thefurther extensionofChineseshippinguntiltheendoftheeightcentury.69
In themeantimeArab shipshad arrivedin China.
It was the corruptgovernorWang O, appointedto Ling Nan (Kuang Tung
and Kuang Hsi provinces)in 795,who showedChineseshippersthewayto Malaysian
waters; duringan undetermined periodwhichendedin 801 he despatchedtenheavily-
laden boats to the Nan Hai (South Seas), everyday,the returnjourneytakingone
year.70 By 805 Chineseshipsweresailingas faras thenorthcoast of Sumatraalong
thegreattrade-route fromChina to India,71and by 842 Chinesevesselssailed across
the ocean to Korea and Japan.72
In 879 whenthesack of Kuang Chou caused thewesternmerchants to terminate
theirvoyages at Kalah, Chinese merchantships travelledthereto meet the ships
fromSirafand Oman.73
In 1132 the Sung emperorestablisheda permanentnavy,and about 1150 China
became a 'sea power'.74
Before 1178 Chinese merchantssailed theirships to India, and succeededin
wresting fromtheArabsthemonopolyofthefreight and passengerbusiness.75
By 1250theSungnavycontrolledtheEast China Sea.76
The powerfulfleetsof the Mongol emperors(1280- 1368) controlled theSouth
China Sea, and ensuredthesafetyof sea-travelbetweenChina and WesternEurope.77
By 1286Chinesemerchantshipshad begunto sail as faras Aden.78
Towards the end of the thirteenth centuryChinese shippingto southernIndia
reachedits peak.79
Mongol envoystravelledas faras Mogadiscio in Africa.80
The Yung Lê emperor(1403- 1424) of the Ming dynastydespatcheda seriesof
enormousnaval expeditionsto the'WesternOcean', mostlyunderthe Grand Eunuch
Chêng Ho. Melaka was visitedat least fivetimes,and probablyseven times,by
ChêngHo's fleets.81
Chêng Ho's firstthreeexpeditions(of 1405, of 1497, and of 1409) made their
terminusat Calicut.
On the fourthexpedition(of 1413) a squadron sailed to Bengal, and themain
fleetwentto Hormuzin Iran.
On thefifth expedition(of 1417)themainfleetagain travelledto Hormuz,while
'detached'shipswentto Aden and to Malindiin Africa. In 1421fourChinesefleets
were traversing the Indian Ocean at the same time,one of thembeing Chêng Ho's
sixthexpedition(of 1421)whichterminated at Hormuz.
This yearmarksthezenithofMingnaval expansion.
China was theparamountsea poweroftheOrient.82

Plate 2. Printof Three Chinese ships negotiatingthe Bocca Tigrisor Bogue, in
the estuaryof the Chu Chiang (Pearl River) betweenHsiang Chiang
(Hong Kong) and Ao Men (Macao).
FromtheKuangTungTung Chih, (TopographyofKuang TungProvince')
compiledby Ho Yu-Lin and others. 1731. ch. 3, f.45.
Reproducedby Courtesyof theRoyal AsiaticSociety, London.

PARTII, 1974 ARAB& CHINESENAVIGATORS
IN MALAYSIAN
WATERS
On ChêngHo's seventhand last expedition(orderedby the Hsüan Tê emperor

in 1430),themainfleetvoyagedto Hormuz,'detached'shipstravelledto Aden and to
Giumbo in Africa,and emissariesvisitedMecca.83
After1433theChinesenavywas allowedto disintegrate.84
Followinga periodofquiescence,before1487therestarteda greatefflux ofChinese
tradingjunks fromports in South China to Asia.85
south-east
For about a hundredyears,fromabout the beginningof the fifteenth century
to thebeginningof the sixteenth century,the Chinesecontrolledall thecommercein
thewatersof the Far East.86
Borneo.
The relativeisolationof Borneo was breachedthroughIndian influencein the
fifthcenturyA.D., and in the followingcenturyBorneo traded with the outside
world,probablythe entrepotcentreson the east coast of the Malay Peninsulaor on
theeast coast of Sumatra.87
In theninthcenturyP'o-ni,'Brunei',had becomea tradingcentre,and itspeople
were going to trade in an unascertainedlocality,probablysituatedon the gulfof
Thailand.88
At the beginningof the tenthcenturyChinese were carryingon commercial
exchangesin theSantubongdelta of westernSarawak.89
In 977 a traderbearingthe Arabic name P'u Lu-hsieh[Abu Luhayy?],from
Kuang Chou or Ch'üan Chou, opened relationsbetweenChina and Brunei. The
ruler,namedHsiang-tasentan envoy,P'u A-li ('Abu Ali' ?), withtributeto thecourt
of China.89a
At theend of thetenthcenturyKuang Chou and Ch'üan Chou werecarrying on
directtradewithwesternBorneo.90
In 1082the rulerof Brunei,Hsi-li Ma-jo ('Seri Maharaja'?), sentan envoywith
tributeto China.91
In 1226thesultanof Bruneihad a defenceforceincludingmorethanone hundred
fighting boats.92
In 1350 the Chinese were tradingin P'o-ni (Brunei),Kou-lan (Gelam island),
and Tung-chungKu-la (Tanjong Pura).93
In 1370 theemperorof China sentan envoyto the sultanof Brunei,Ma-ha-mo
sha ('Mahmud Shah'?), and in the followingyear the sultan appointedenvoysto
carrytributeto theChinesecourt.94
In 1405 the emperorsentan envoyto the rulerof P'o-lo on the northcoast of
Borneo; in thefollowingyearan easternrulerand a westernrulerof P'o-lo presented
themselves at court; and P'o-lo sentanotherenvoywithtributein 1407.95
During the period 1405 to 1425 intimaterelationsweremaintainedbetweenthe
courtsof China and Brunei,now also called Wên-lai; the emperorthricesentenvoys
to Bruneibetween 1405 and 1411; and therulersof Bruneidespatchedtentribute-
bearingembassiesbetween1405 and 1425.
In 1405the name of therulerwas Ma-na-jo Chia-na('Maharaja Kala?') accord-
ing to the Ming Shih (Ming Annals), and Ma-na-jo Chia-na-naiaccordingto Li
Hsien.

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
The rulerMa-na-jo Chia-na and in 1408 the rulerHsia-wang('Awang'?) visited

theChineseemperor.96
In 1436theChineseweretradingwithChiao-lanshan (Gelam island)and P'o-ni
(Brunei).97
Duringthefifteenth centuryPhilippinosand Borneansshippedgoods to Melaka,
and Melaka senttradingships to fourBorneanports,includingTanjong Pura and
Lawe (Pontianak?).
These two portsalso tradedwithSunda Kelapa in westernJava.
The Borneanportsdid moretradewithJavathanwithMelaka.
By 1500both Muslimand Chinesemerchants had settledin Borneo.98
NAVIGATION
Ships
The largeArab tradingshipsattaineda lengthof about 110 feet;99thehullwas
composed of planks stitchedtogetherwithpalm fibre;Houráni says thattheywere
likelyto disintegratein heavyweather;100 theshipsweredouble-ended,comingto a
point at bothbow and stern;101theyusuallycarriedone mast,butsometimestwo.102
Such ships could be made to accommodateup to 400 persons. The large Chinese
tradingships probably attaineda length of about 250 feet;103such ships were
strongly constructed,with iron fastenings;104 the ship was rectangular,
and about
110 feetbroad;105 such a ship would carry sixmasts.106 Such shipscould be made
to accommodateup to 800 persons.
Sails
Arab shipshad a triangularlateensail, slungfore-and-aft.107
Chineseshipshad a rectangular balancelug,stiffened withbattens.108
Compendia
Both Arab and Chinese ship-masters were providedwithchartsand books of
sailinginstructions.109
Compass
The Arab compasscardcontaineda design('rose') in whichthecirclewas divided
into32 'rhumbs'or points,beingnorthand southand 15pointsnamedaftertherising
and settingof 15 fixedstars. The northwas namedal~Jah.11Q
In the Chinese compass the circlewas dividedinto 24 pointsnamed afterthe
'branches'and 'stems'of Chinesephilosophy,and by a combinationof 2 contiguous
points,thetotalnumberwas raisedto 48, indicatingequal divisionsof 7-J°.
The Chinesecould also changecourseby an angle of 3|° by travellingforone
halfof the specifiedtimeon one bearingand forthe otherhalfof the specifiedtime
on thecontiguousbearing.
The northwas named tzû.nl
Stellaraltitudes
(To findthe approximatelatitudeof a place, about 3° 30' mustbe added to the
altitudeof Polarisat thatplace in theyear 1500).112
To ascertainthe latitude,the Arabs measuredthe altitudeof various stars,
includingthePole Star,above thehorizon.
The measurement of the angle was made in termsof a finger(isba) of Io 36'
10

Fig.7. - Ros*azimutal*
desMaldives.
Arab compass
Plate 3. Copied by JohnPrinsepat Calcuttaabout 1836 froma practicalworkon

navigation,called Majid Kitab.
The compass lacks accuracysince fewof the prominentstarsselectedrise
or setat thepreciseazimuthnamedfromthem.
The names would seem to pointto a timeanteriorto the inventionof the
magneticcompass,probablyabout A.D. 960.
References. Journalof theAsiaticSocietyof Bengal(1836), p. 784 et sqq.;
G. Ferrand,Instructions nautiqueset routiersarabes et portugaisdes XV
et XVI siecles, vol. III, Paris,1928,pp. 9-12..

Plate 4. CompositeEnglishArab/ChineseCompass. Constructedby the author
forpublicationwiththisarticle. In the Englishcompass
English-Arab-Chinese
Composite compass
In theEnglish compass, thecircumferenceofthecircleis equallydividedat 32 points, the
bearing
names ofthe4 cardinalpointsNorth,South, East,andWest, andvariationsbasedonthosenames.
In theArabcompass, thecircumference ofthecirclewasdivided beingNorth(al-Jah)
at 32 points,
andSouth(qutbsuhail ) and 15pointsat which certainprominentstarsroseand15points at which
theyset: thesepointsdo notrepresentanequaldivisionofthecircumference.
ThestarsoftheArabcompass maybeidentified -
as follows:
al-farqadän,BetaandGammaorUrsaMinor,al-naesh, AlphaorZetaofUrsaMajor,
al-nâqa,AlphaorBetaofCassiopeia,al-caiyûq, Capella, al-wãqi*,Vega, al-simãk,Arcturus,
al-thurayya,Pleides, Altair,al-jauzã,Oridn's
al-Jâ'ir, belt, al-tlr,
Sirius,
al-ikITl,
Beta,Delta,andPi ofScorpio,al-cagrab,Antares,
al-bimãrãn,AlphaandBetaofCentaurus,suhail, Canopus,
aI-sulbär,Achernar.[SeeTibbetts(1),pp.296-297]
In theChinese compass, thecircumferenceof thecirclewasequallydivided named
at 24 points,
afterthe'stems'and'branches'ofChinese philosophy.

IN MALAYSIAN
25", and a zam of one-eigthof a finger,thatis, 12° 03'.113

The instrument used by Ahmad and Sulaimanwas called a khashaba, a formof
wooden tablet,which must have had graduationsof isba; the observertook the
khashabawiththearmextended,in such a way thatthetop of the tabletwas seen to
touch the star and the bottomto touch the horizon.114 The Arabs measuredthe
altitudeofnearly70 starsand star-groups, sevenbeingparticularly important.
Most important was thePole Star(Polaris,Alpha of Ursa Minor).115
The Arabs reckonedthatwhenthe altitudeof Polaris was 1 finger, the altitude
oftheFarqadan or 'Calves' (Beta and Gamma of Ursa Minor)was 8 fingers, and that
whenthealtitudeoftheFarqadan was 1 finger, thatof al-Na'sh (Delta, Eta, and Zeta
of Ursa Major) was 13 fingers.116
Al-murabba'(Alpha of Crux)was particularly useful,risingas Polarisfell,always
by the same amount.117
Presumablyships' captains carriedtables of Pole Star altitudesof important
places.118
The accuracyof themeasurements differedverygreatly.119
The Chinese,too, adoptedthe methodof measuringthe altitudeof certainstars
above thehorizon.
The measurement of the angle was made in termsofa finger (chih) of Io 36' 25",
thesamefigure as thatused by theArabs.
Theydividedthechihinto4 chiieh('fraction')of 24' 06".120
The instrument used by the Chinese was probablysome sort of cross-staff. 121
The mostimportantstarwas Polaris (Pei Ch'ên).
The Chinesereckonedthatwhenthealtitudeof Polariswas 1 finger, thealtitude
of Hua Kai ('ImperialPalanquin', 50 of Cassiopeia) was 8 fingers.122
AfterPolaris,thenextmostimportant starswereHua Kai (mentionedmanytimes
in theMao K'un map) and Têng Lung Ku ('Lamp Frame',Crux) mentionedseveral
timesin 'Shun Fêng'.123
Like the Arab measurements, the Chinese measurementsdifferedgreatlyin
accuracy.124
Time
The Arabs measuredthe 4 three-hour periodsof the twelve-hour tropicalnight
byobservingthepositionsofthestarsin thetailofUrsa Major ( Banatal-Na'sh).125
The Arab unitof timewas a three-hour watchcalled a 6zam' thus 8 zam were
sailed in one day and night.126
The Chineseunitoftimewas a 'watch' of 2.4 hours called a kêng, and 10 kêng
made one day and night.
The durationof a watchwas indicatedby theburningof an incense-stick whose
rateof burningwas alreadyknown; it would be easy to measuretimeapproximately
enoughwithsuch a 'joss-stick'.127
Distance
In Arab theorythe distancetravelledin orderto raise the Pole Star by 1 isba
(thatis, by 1° 36' 25") when sailing due northamountedto 8 zam' hence, 1 zam
measured12.05miles.128
11

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
In practice,the Arabs also attemptedto make oblique measurements129 but

they werebasically at faultwiththeir trigonometry.130
The textsrecordmeasurements of distancealong a numberof routes,especially
betweenplaces lyingon the same latitude.
In or near Malayan waters,the Arab textsgive the followingmeasurements: -
Kedah to Pulau Pinang, 4 zam (in theory,48.2 miles) [Kuala Kedah to Pinang,
actually40 miles],
Pulau Pinangto Pulau Perak,8 zam (in theory,96.4 miles) [actually,75 miles],
Kuala Pasai to Dindings,13 zam (in theory,156.6 miles)[actually217 miles].131
Since the Arabs measuredthisdistance,presumablytheysometimescrossedby
thisroute.
The methodformeasuringdistancesis not known; theymay have been calcu-
latedfromthenumberofwatchestaken.132
In Chinese theorythe kêng or watch of 2.4 hours was consideredto be the
equivalentof 60 li or 8.7 milesor 7.6 sea-miles.133
Chinesechartsand nauticalcompendianeverrecorddistances.
Speed
For Arab shipsa normalspeed was between2 and 4 knots; on one occasion it
mighthave been 5 knotsat least.134
The Chineseequivalentof 60 li to 1 kêngof 2.4 hoursequivalentto 7.6 knots,
could have been attainedonlyin veryfavourableconditions.
It seemsreasonableto supposethaton a longjourneya fairaveragewould have
been attained on the journey fromMale in the Maldives to Mogadiscio in east
Africa; thisvoyageof about 1693 sea-mileswas made in 150 watches,at a speed of
4.7 knots.
The fastestrecordedrun on a long voyagemade by Chêng Ho's shipswas one
fromCalicutto Kuala Pasai, 1491milesin 14 daysor 4.4 knots.
journeyrecordedin theMao K'un map overa shortdistancewas made
The fastest
at 5.7 knots.135 'Shun Fêng' recordsa journey of 74 miles fromPulau Tenggol
(Tunggal) to Kuala Pahang made in 5 watches(12 hours),a speed of 6.1 knots.136
As a rough guide, one mightsay that in the open sea Chinese ships at this time
travelledat about 4 knots,10 milesto a watch,and 100 milesin a day and nightof
10 watches.
Navigationalmethods
For both Arabs and Chinese the most importantmatterwas the navigator's
knowledgeof guides and aids, such as tides,winds,land-marks,et cetera;131and
voyageswere undertakenat timeswhen it was possible to take advantageof the
moonsoonwinds.138
For the Arabs the most importanttechniqueswere (a) the ascertainment of
directionby meansof themagneticcompass; ordinarily thiswas themostimportant
technique;139(b) themeasurement of stellaraltitudesto ascertainlatitude; ordina-
rilythiswas subsidiary;140
(c) the measurement of depthsby means of the plumb-
line; in dangerouswatersthiswas themostimportant technique.141
12

Arab navigatorsordinarilysailed to a convenientpoint eitherdue east or due

westoftheirterminalport,and thentravelledalongtheparalleloflatitude.142
They could change directionby 'tacking'(turningthe bow into thewind),but
normallydid so by 'wearing'(turningthe sternto the wind).143 For the Chinese
the pre-eminently importanttechniquewas the ascertainment of directionby means
of the magneticcompass. The measurementsof stellar altitudeswere unusual.
Soundingsweretakenwhenthenavigatorfeltit necessary.144
The Chineseshowedno predilection for'sailingalong thelatitude',but travelled
readilyin all directions. a
'Bringing mark abeam' was a featureof Chinesenaviga-
tion. They usuallychangeddirectionby tacking.145The Chinese ship could sail
closerto thewindthanan Arab shipof thetime.146
13

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
THE VOYAGES
The westcoast of theMalay Peninsula
1. Northof BukitJugra
TABLE I
Arab Chinese Altitudeof True Modern

name name al-Farqadanand latitude name
corrected
latitude
Butang' Ku-li-yuPu-tungw [8^] f. 5°54'N. c.6°34'N. Butanggroup147
Lakawi2 (2)
Lung-ya-chiao-i 8 f. 5°06'N. c.6°22'N. Pulau Langkawi
KedaJ 8 f. 5°06'N. 6°06'N. Kuala Kedah
Chi-tahavenw 5°40'N. Kuala Merbok
Pualu Pin-langislands 7f f. 4°42'N. c.5°24'N. Pulau Pinang

Pinang*
Kra5 Ц f. 4°42'N. 5°08'N. Pulau Kra
Pan Kura5 4°24'N. False Dindings

(BukitSegari)
Dingding7 Ц f. 4°18'N. c.4°19'N. Dindings

district
Pulau Chiù islets(í) Ц f. 3°54'N. c.4°01'N. Sembilan

Sembilan islands
Malacca4
Pulau Ch'ên Kung islandr«; 3°58'N. Pulau Jarak

Tanburak9
Salang70 7 f. 3°30'N. c.3°20'N. Selangor

(territory)
Balang c.3°15'N. (Near-Sungei

Salang Buloh)
bay"
14

Fig. 1. Map of PeninsulaMalaysia

IN MALAYSIAN
WATERS
Table I (Cont.)
Chi-nagreats 3°14'N. BukitCherakah
mountain
Pulau 3°11'N. Pulau Angsa

Hansa72
Chi-nafiver«; c.3°00'N. Kelang islands

islands
Klang" 7 f. 3°30'N. 3°02'N. Kelang
Chi-linghavenw 3°00'N. SungeiKelang
Pulau
Basalar" Mien hua islands f. 2°42'N. 2°50'N. BukitJugra
See BritishAdmiraltycharts830, 1353,and 1358,and 'Pilot' No. 44 withSupple-

mentNo. 1 - 1972.
Sailingdirections
The Arab textsstatethatthenavigatortravellingsouthalong 'the coast of Siam'
reaches 'the islands of Takwa', the most southerlyof whichis Butang,wherethe
altitudeof the Pole Star is Ц fingers. They thenenumeratethe otherplaces listed
in the above Table.148 They name 14 places, includingButangand Pulau Basalar
[BukitJugra],and theygivea stellaraltitudefor10 of theseplaces.
Sulaiman includesthe followingbearings,(a) fromPulau Butang to 'Pulau
Basalar' [BukitJugra],SSE; (b) from'Pulau Sanbilan Malacca' to 'Pulau Jumar'
[Djemur],S for 6 zam [in theory,72.3 miles]; (c) from'Pulau Jumar'to 'Pulau
Basalar', SE by E, aliterESE; (d) fromPulau Pinangto 'Pulau Sanbilan',SSE.
The directionfromthe Sembilanislands to Djemur is adequate and tells the
navigatorexactlywherehe is; actuallythe bearingis exactly180° and the distance
65 miles.
For the westwardjourney,Sulaiman gives the followingbearings,(a) from
Djemurto theSembilanislands,N; (b) fromtheSembilanislandsto Pulau Butang,
NNW.149
The Arab crossingswereas follows:-
Eastward
(1) Southwardalong thecoasts of Burmaand Thailandas faras Pulau Butang,
thenceto Pulau Sembilanand Djemur.
(2) From Great Nicobar South-by-Eastto thevicinityof Pulau Pinang,thence
to Pulau Sembilanand Djemur.
(3) FromSumatrabywayof Pulau Berhalaand Pulau Pandan to Djemur.
(4) Presumably,fromKuala Pasai to the Dindings.
15

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
Westward
(5) From Djemur to the Sembilanislands and Pulau Butang,thenceto the
Nicobar islands.
(6) From Djemur to the Sembilanislandsand Pulau Pinang,thenceby way of
Pulau Perak to Sumatra.
The Mao K'un map is the only Chinesetextwhichmentionsplaces northof
BukitJugra;it names 10 such places; it givesno compass bearings,no stellaralti-
alongthiscoast,and no otherindication
tudes,and no depths; itgivesno route-tracks
thatChineseshipsevervisitedhere.150
To comparethe texts: the Arabs give certainsailingdirections,of whichsome
are adequate and someinadequate; theyname 14 places,and givethestellaraltitudes
of 10; theChinesegiveno sailingdirections;theyname 10 places,and nothingmore.
Indentifications
Most of theArabicnamesare easilyrecognizable.
Kra denotesPulau Kra betweenPulau Pinangand themainland.
The namePan Kura is a corruptionof 'Pangkor'; buttheplace Pan Kura means
False Dindings(Bukit Segari) whichresemblesPulau Pangkorwhen seen fromthe
north.
Pulau Tanburakwas thenamegivenbytheArabsto Pulau Jarak.
Salang means Selangor.
The name 'Balang Salang' cannot be explained; and the firstword may be a
corruptreduplicationof thesecond; thereis a recessionof theland betweenTanjong
Karang and Jeram,butmoderngeographers do not designatethisa 'bay'.
Pulau Hansa bearsthemodernnamePulau Angsa.
The name 'Klang' speaksforitself.
Pulau Basalar denotes Parcellar Hill, now called Bukit Jugra;151the name
Parcellar may have been givenby Arabs or Indians who saw some topographica
featurewhichremindedthemofBarselor,nowBarkur,on thewestcoastofIndia.
The firstthreeChinese names are transliterations of 'Kulao (Pulao) Butang',
'Langkawi', and 'Kedah', but
respectively; whereas by 'Keda' to
the Arabs referred
the localityof the Kedah river,the Chineseby 'Chi-ta (Kedah) haven' (river)meant
the SungeiMerbok.152
Pin-lang is the usual Chinese transliteration of the Malay 'Pinang'. Chiù
('Nine') isletsare the Sembilan (Malay, 'Nine') islandsnearthe mouthof the Sungei
Perak.
Ch'ên Kung ('Master Chên') islanddenotesPulau Jarak.
Chi-narepresents the Malay name 'Cherakah',BukitCherakahavingonce been
knownas False Parcellar.
Chi-na fiveislandsare the Kelang islands (Pulau Kelang, Pulau Ketam, Pulau
Lumut,etc.) offKuala Kelang.153
Mien hua ('Cotton') island is Bukit Jugra,once known as Parcellar Hill.154
Viewsmaybe seenin 'Pilot' No. 44, pages420 to 424.
16

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2. Djemurto BukitJugra
TABLE II
Arab Chinesename Altitudeof True Modern

name al-Farqadanand latitude name
corrected
latitude
Pulau Chi ku islands di) 6i f. 3°06'N. 2°53'N. Djemur15*

Jumar75
Qafasi76 Mien hua shoals 6J f. 3°06'N. 2°5rN. Amazon Maru

shoal
Pulau
Basalar77 Mien hua islands; 6' f. 2°42'N. 2°50'N. BukitJugra
See BritishAdmiraltychart1358,and 'Pilot', No. 44.
Sailingdirections
The Arab textscontainmorethanone accountof thepassage betweentheNorth
Sands and theSouthSands; thebestaccountis thatofSulaiman.
"When you approach JumarturnSE. by E. for a zam thentake ESE. Now,
due SE. fromthe island of Jumarthereis a bank, over whichthe waves break,but
you continueon your way ESE., the depth decreasinguntilit reaches 18 fathoms
or thereabouts. ContinuingESE., whenJumarappearslevelwiththesurfaceof the
sea, then you should see directlyin frontthe mountainof Pulau Basalar. Still
continueESE, and thedepthwillbe about 16 or 17 fathoms.
If it decreasesto 15, inclineto theright,but ifit increasesto 18 theninclineto the
left; you shouldmakethisa habit. Now bewareof thetide,wheneverit is withyou
and the wind is rough(tricky),thenlet down the anchorlest the currentcarryyou
intoshallowwater. Whenyou are nearPulau Basalar,themainlandwhichis to the
southof it will be visible. Then examinethe shallowsuntilit is 8 fathoms,then7,
then6, and whenthe depthremainsat 9 fathomsor about that,thisis the bank of
Qafasi whichare reefs. When you are on thisroutecontinuein the same direction
whichyou have followedsince Jumar,keepingthe boat beforeyou. Keep taking
the depth,I mean,whenyou are in thisshallowplace withthe depthat about 7 or 8
fathoms. You should continueon the above mentionedcourse, and afterthese
shallowsthedepthwillincreaseto 15 and 20 and 25.
Now you have escaped [fromthis],so turnabout this timeto the land and take a
courseclose to themainlandto the SE."156
And forthejourney westward:-
"... you see Pulau Basalar in the NEE. Then take WNW. and the depthwill
be between35 and 20 fathoms. Continuethus untilthe depthdecreasesto 15 and
thento 7 or 8. You willnow findyourselfovertheabove-mentioned bank. Conti-
17

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
nue straightahead in the same directionuntilthedepthincreasesagain to about 15,

and thengo on tillyou sightPulau Jumarwhenthedepthwillbe about 30-40 fathoms.
Now is thetimeto turndue northuntilyou cometo theislandsofPulau Sanbilan".157
Ahmadadds thatthewateron Qafasi bank was discoloured.158
ThreeChinesetextsgivedirectionsforthejourney:
(1) "Chi ku islands [Pulau Aroa]; steer 112^°; 3 watches; make Mien hua
island [BukitJugra]";159
[In thistextit seemslikelythatthe authorhas omittedto mentiona stageof 3
watchesbetweenthe shoals and BukitJugra].
(2) "AftermakingChi ku islands,steerexactly120° and [then]112^°; after3
watchesthe ship is level withMien hua shoal [Amazon Maru shoal]. Steer 112^°
and [then]exactly120°; after3 watchesthe ship is level withMien hua shoal [read
"Mien hua island",[BukitJugra]".160
And forthewestwardvoyage:-
(3) "Mien hua island [Bukit Jugra];steer 292^°; cross the sea; 4 watches;
pass theshallows; make Chi ku islands[Pulau Aroa]".161
Bearings
NorthSands and South Sands are dangerousshoals witha channel4 mileswide
betweenthem.
Both the Arab and the Chinesedirectionsmay be consideredadequate. When
the course recommendedby Sulaiman is laid down on the modernchart,a change
of bearingfrom180° to 112^° will take the navigatorthroughthe middle of the
channelif he changescourse when 6 miles northof Djemur; and he will clear the
shoals ifhe changescoursewhennot morethan8 and not less than4 milesnorthof
Djemur. Chineseshipscame down on a bearingof 127^° fromthe Brothers(3°26'
N., 99°46' E.), and presumablychangedcourse whentheybroughtDjemur abeam.
For shipschangingcourseto 112J°,as in text(1), thesamefigures applyas to theArab
ships; shipschangingcourse to 120° and then112^°, as in text (2), will pass through
the middleof the channelif theychangecourse when 7 miles distant fromDjemur,
and willclearthe shoals ifthechangeis made whenthe ship is not morethan9 and
notlessthan5 milesfromDjemur. This maybe consideredsatisfactory.
If they were off course, presumablythe sight of 'discolouredwater' would
enablethenavigatorto rectifytheposition.
It is worthnotingthat in this dangerouscrossingthe Arabs took soundings
constantly, but theChinesenotat all.162
Chinese ships westwardbound must have changed course when Bukit Jugra
bore 21° (about NEE.), 12 milesdistant.
This routevia Pulau Aroa is the onlyeast-westcrossingrecordedin the Chinese
texts. The Arabs, as above stated, sailed westwardfrom Pulau Butang to the
Nicobars, and fromPulau Pinang to Sumatra,and eastwardfromGreat Nicobar
to Pulau Pinang,fromPulau Pandan to Djemur,and presumablyfromKuala Pasai
to Dindings.163
In moderntimesthe'Pilot' givesthefollowingdirections :-
"A vessel approachingfromnorth-westward should sightDjemur light-house
18

IN MALAYSIAN
WATERS
and thencesteerto make One Fathom Bank lighthousebearingabout 112°,passing

about 2 milessouth-westward ofit,takingcare to avoid Amazon Maru shoal; thence
she should steeras necessaryto pass about 6 miles offTanjong Kling [near Mela-
ka]".164
A 'reasonable'coursefora junk or dhow when5 milesnorthof Djemur would
be to bear 109° to pass throughthemiddleof thechannelbetweenNorthand South
Sands, and thenbear 155° to a pointwhereBukitJugrais broughtabeam, 12miles
away.
Identifications
Djemur speaksforitself.
The Arab name Qafasi or Kafasi is a transliteration of the Cham kapah or
Malay or Hindustani kapas, 'cotton'; the Portuguese called it Capasia, Capaçia, ór
Capacia; the or
Italians,Capasa, Capaçia, Capacia; the French, Capacias, or Capa-
ciar.
The Chineseput the matterbeyonddoubt by translating the name 'Mien hua',
'cotton', and by applying the same name 'Mien hua' to Pulau Kapas offthe coast
of Trengganu.By 'Qafasi', the Arabs meantthe southernend of the North Sands
and the northernend of the South Sands and thechannelbetweenthem.165 Pulau
Basalar is generallyagreed to be ParcellarHill or Bukit Jugra.166 The Chinese
associatethe hillwiththeshoalsby callingthemboth'Mien hua', 'cotton'.
The threeMalay names Pulau Sembilan,Djemur, and Pulau Angsa sufficeto
prove the positionof Qafasi; and additionalproofis suppliedby the bearingsor
approximatepositionof Pulau Berhala (Arab, Pulau Berhala; Chinese,Tan hsü,
'Singleisland'), The Brothers(Arab, Pulau Pandan; Chinese,Shuang hsü, 'Double
islands'), and Kelang (Arab, Klang; Chinese,Chi-ling). So, too, the Chinese Chi
ku hsü,'ChickenBone islands',are shownto be Pulau Aroa.167
Views of BukitJugramay be seen in 'Pilot' No. 44, page 424, and in Wheatley,
p. 236.
Djemurto BukitJugra
TABLE Ш
Arab Chinese 'Reasonable' Time Approximate Speed
course course course (watches distance (knots)
& hours) (miles)
Djemurto 112^°; or 109° 3 / 7.2 25 3.4
Amazon Maru 112^° 120°,then
shoal 112^°
Amazon Maru 112^° 112^°, 115° 3 / 7.2 23 3.1
shoal to then
BukitJugra 120°
(abeam)
6 / 14.4 48
Average 3.3
19

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
3. BukitJugrato theKarimunislands.
TABLE IV.
Arab name Chinesename Altitudeof True Modern

al-Farqadan latitude name
and corrected
latitude
Pulau Basalar77 Mien hua islands; 6^ f.2°42'N. 2°50'N. BukitJugra
Sanya Usang7* 6£f.2°18'N. c.2°43'N. SungeiUjong
Wên lu ku(14) 2°35'N. Lukut
Cape Madura79 Chia Wu islands(is) 2°24'N. Cape Rachado
Pulau Ubi20 2°12'N. Pulau Upeh
Malacca27 Man-la-chiar/б; 6 f.l°54'N. 2°12'N. Melaka
Pulau Malacca22 2°11'N. Pulau Jawa
Pulau Sabta2* 2°09'N. Pulau Panjang?
Wu islands^ c.2°03'N. Waterislands
Shê chien
mountains w 1°48'N. BukitBanang
Pulau Pisang2* P'i-sungisland(W 1°28'N. Pulau Pisang
P'ing islets(20) 1°12'N. The Brothers

(Pulau Iju)
Karimun25 Chi-li-mên(^J 5¿f.l°30'N. c.l°08'N. Karimunislands

See BritishAdmiralty
chart1358,and 'Pilot',No. 44, withSupplementNo. 1-1972.
Sailingdirections
Arab
Ahmad writes: -
(1) "When you are over Qafasi and when you come out fromit, the water
increasesto 12 and you take waterat 24 forfearof banks betweenit and MaPaqa.
Thereare two banks,one 2 zam beyondQafasi and one betweenQafasi and Mal'aqa
and theyare all of them8 zam [in length].
20

IN MALAYSIAN
Whenyou haveleftthembehindyou,travelnearly6 zam, fourintothe mainland

and therest[parallelto it]untilyou see thefourislands,Pulau Mal'aqa, Pulau Sabta,
and theirfellows. The one nearestthe shore should be to yourleftand the other
threeto your rightand you sometimessee the houses. Then cast (anchor) in the
harbour".168
Sulaimanwrites:-
(2) "Then fromPulau Basalar to Malacca it is SE., and fromMalacca to
Singapur,and thisis theend of Siam to theSouthand theretheGuardians [Betaand
Gamma of Ursa Minor]are 5° [fingers ] [above thehorizon]".169
"
(3) you see the mountainof Pulau Basalar in the NE. Then sound the
waterand take 24 fathoms,takingcare here of a bank connectedto the mainland.
Go ahead in 24 fathomsuntilyou see Mount Pulau Basalar to the NNE., and this
timenearerto theland,thenfollowthemainlandto Malacca".170
(4) [Afterleaving 'the bank of Qafasi'] "Now you have escaped [fromthis],
so turnabout thistimeto theland and take a courseclose to themainlandto theSE.
The depthwill be about 25 fathoms,and in an hour 30 fathoms,then 25, and in
anotherhour 20 fathoms,increasingand decreasingat everysoundingby about 5
or 6 fathoms. Notice that the sea bottom rises and falls. Keep on this course
and whenthetideturnsback upon you and thewindis rough,thendropanchor. So
continueuntilyou come to Malacca. In frontof it you will see the islands Pulau
Sanba (?) and the island of Ubi (?). Boats will then come out to you. Prepare
yourselfforenteringtheharbour."171
And in the oppositedirection:-
(5) "When you leave Malacca you followtheland to MountPulau Basalar,and
bewareof the bank mentionedbefore. When you see Mount Pulau Basalar in the
directionE by S. you turnNW by W. untilyou see Pulau Jumara shortdistanceoff.
Whenyou have leftit behindyou,turndue northuntilyou sighttheislandsof Pulau
Sanbilan,and whenyou cometo theseyou turnNNW. fora little[?] to Pulau Batagh;
and fromthereyou travelW byN. to theislandsofNaja Bara [Nicobars]".172
(6) [FromMelaka] "When you leave the harbourride straightout to sea until
thedepthis 20 or 25 fathoms,forthisis thebestand easiestmethod. Then take the
directionNW. and thedepth25 fathomsor thereaboutsuntilyou see Pulau Basalar
in the NNE. Then take WNW. and the depthwill be between35 and 20 fathoms.
Continuethusuntilthedepthdecreasesto 15 and thento 7 or 8. You willnow find
yourself overtheabove-mentioned bank."173
Chinese
The Chinesedirectionsare as follows:-
(7) [From Bukit Jugra]"Steer 127^°; after10 watchesthe ship is level with
Man-la-chia [Melaka]. The ship starts from Man-la-chia; steer 127^°; after 5
watchesthe ship is level with Shê chien mountain[Bukit Banang]. Steer 127^°;
after3 watchesthe ship is level withP'i-sungisland [Pulau Pisang]. Steerexactly
135°,and make Chi-li[read Chi-li-mên , Karimunislands]".174
(8) [From Melaka] "Set sail from Wu islands [Water islands] strait; steer
5
127^°; watches; the ship is abreast of Shê chien mountain; take a sounding,19
21

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
fathoms;steer127-J-0; 5 watches; the ship makes K'un-sung[readРЧ-sung], island;

take a sounding,12 fathoms- exactly135°; 3 watches; make Chi-li-mênmoun-
tain".175
(9) "Put to sea at Wu islands; 142^°; 5 watches; the ship makes Shê Chien
mountain;exactly 135°; 5 watches; make K'un-sung [read P'i-sung] island - ;
steer127^°; 5 watches; make Chi-li-mênmountain".176
(10) "Mien hua island[BukitJugra]; 24 fathomsofwater- 127^°; 5 watches;
makeChia Wu islands[Cape Rachado]; proceedand enter."177
(11) [From Melaka] "Set sail; steer 127£°; 5 watches; make Shê Chien
mountain;take a sounding, 20 fathoms;127^°; 3 watches; make K'un-sung
[read РЧ-sung]island - take a sounding,4-5 fathoms;142^° and [then]exactly
150°; 5 watches; make Chi-li-wênmountain[on thewestside]".178
(12) [From Melaka] "Start the journey; steer 127^°; 5 watches; make Shê
chien island; steer 127^°; 3 watches; make K'un-sung[read P'i-sung]island; take
a sounding,13 fathoms- steer142^°; 3 watches; makeChi-li-wên."179
And forthe westwardjourney:-
(13) "Chi-li-mênmountain; steer 322^°; 5 watches; the ship is abreast of
K'un-sung [read РЧ-sung]island; exactly330°; 5 watches; the ship makes Chien
island; 315°; 5 watches;make Wu islands; followthemountainsand navigate;make
Mo-liu-chia."180
(14) "Chi-li-mênmountain;322%°; 3 watches;make K'un-sung[readРЧ-sung]
island; take a sounding,25 fathoms;exactly315°; 5 watches;make Shê chienmoun-
tain; 307-£°;5 watches;make Wu islands; take a sounding,25 fathoms;go forward
to themainland;1 watch;approachMo-liu-chiaharbour."181
(15) "Set sail fromWu islands; exactly315° and [then]307^°; 5 watches;make
Chia Wu islands; exactly315°; 5 watches;make Mien hua island."182
(16) [From the west side of Karimunislands] "Chi-li-wênmountain; exactly
330°; 4 watches; make K'un-sung [read P'i-sung]island; - take a sounding,4-5
fathoms;exactly330° [and then]322£°;make Greatand LittleShê chienmountains;
exactly315°; 5 watches;make Wu islands."183
(17) "Chi-li-wên;again exactly315°; 3 watches; make K'un-sung [read РЧ-
sung]island; take a sounding,13 fathoms;steerexactly330°; 5 watches;make Great
and LittleShê chien islands; steer322^°; 5 watches; make Wu islands; followthe
mountainsand navigate;[here]is Ma-liu-chia."184
(18) "Chi-li-wênmountain;take a sounding,27 fathoms;- steer322^°; 3
watches; make K'un-sung[readРЧ-sung]island. K'un-sung[readРЧ-sung ] island;
take a sounding,25 fathoms;steerexactly330°; 5 watches; make Chien island.
Chienisland; takea sounding,34 fathoms;steer307^°; 5 watches;makeWu islands.
Wu islands; in formertimesa chiefestablisheda marketon these[islands]; among
these[islands]thereare the Chên Wu islands[True Five islands']and the Chia Wu
islands ['False Five Islands']; follow the mountainsand enter; [here]is Ma-liu-
chia."185
Bearings
The Arab directionsare inadequate because theymake no attemptto name
land-marks. The Arab navigatoris directedto proceed towardsBukit Jugraon a
22

IN MALAYSIAN
WATERS
bearingof 112^° untilhe sees BukitJugrain the NNE., and thenhe is to bearSE.
untilhe reachesMelaka; underpresentconditionsthiswould take himtoo faraway
fromthe mainland- about 16 milesfromTanjong Keling; but he would avoid this
byfollowingthedirectionto "followthemainlandto Malacca."
So, too, if he passed 5 milesfromthe Waterislandswhenbound forSingapore
strait,thebearingof 135° would take himto thewestside,insteadof to theeast side,
of the Karimunislands.
Tibbettshas noted that beyond Melaka the quality of the Arab descriptions
deterioratessuddenly;186on the other hand the Chinese textsgive verydetailed
instructionsforthis stage of the voyage.187 The Chinesefigureof 127^° is nearer
the markthanthe Arab figureof 135°; but the Chinesetextsgive no detailsforthe
voyage fromTanjong Keling or the Water islands to Melaka beyond the vague
directionto "followthe mountains".
A 'reasonable' course runs from2°39' N.,101°20'E. (where Bukit Jugra is
abeam) on a bearingof 125° to a point whereCape Rachado is broughtabeam 5
miles away; thenon a bearingof 121° to a point whereTanjong Kelingis brought
abeam 5 milesaway; thenon a bearingof 71° to Melaka; thenfromMelaka on a
bearingof 170°to a pointwherePulau Undan (in theWaterislands)bears 37°, being
5 milesaway; thenon a bearingof 117-£° to a pointwhereBukitBanang is brought
abeam 10 milesaway; thenon a bearingof 132° to a point wherePulau Pisang is
broughtabeam 6 milesaway; thenon a bearingof 123° to a point (l°l3' N., 103°
26' E.) whereLittleKarimunis broughtabeam 4 milesaway.
Identifications
The namesof Malacca, Pulau Pisang,and Karimunneedno explanation. Sanya
Usang representsthe 'Sanghyanghujung' ('Holy Head') of the Nagarakrtagama,
corruptedintothemodern'Sungei Ujong'.188
Wên lu ku mustbe the present-day Lukut,althoughthe firstsyllablecannotbe
explained;perhapsthe name originallytook some such formas 'Melukuť or 'Ber-
lukut'.189 Cape Madura is statedin an Arab textto be called 'Sima in the lan-
guage of India', and is placed in the 24 milesbetween'Sanya Usang' and Melaka;
Tibbettsidentifies it withCape Rachado.190
Chia Wu islands, 'False Five Islands', was the name givenby the Chinese to
Cape Rachado (Tanjong Tuan) presumablybecause at a distancethegeneral aspect
of the localitywas consideredto bear some resemblanceto Five Islands, the old
Chinesename forMelaka.191
Pulau Ubi is Pulau Upeh; it is statedto be 'to yourleft'and 'nearestthe shore'
of the fourislands 'Pulau Mal'aqa, Pulau Sabta and theirfellows'whichtheArab
navigatorsaw when approachingMelaka fromthe north. Pulau Mal'aqa is the
modernPulau Jawa, and we provisionallyidentifyPulau Sabta with the modern
Pulau Panjang.192 See AddendumA. Wu islands,'Five Islands', were the Water
islands.193
Shê chienmountain('Shoot arrowsmountain'),is shownbythesailingdirections
to be somewhatmore than half way fromMelaka to Pulau Pisang, and may with
reasonablecertainty withBukitBanang,1407feet,thehighestmountain
be identified
in thispartof thecoast; it is sometimescalled Greatand LittleShê chienmountains,
23

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
and sometimesmerelyChienisland.194
P'ingislets,'Equal islets',werethesimilarisletsnamedPulau Iju Besarand Pulau
Iju Kechil,2' milesnorth-west of LittleKarimun;each is 146 feethigh.195
Viewsmay be seen in 'Pilot' No. 44, pages 424 to 426.
BukitJugrato LittleKarimun
TABLE У
Arab Chinese 'Reasonable' Time Approximate Speed

course course course (watches distance (knots)
& hours) (miles)
BukitJugrato 135° 127*°, 125°, 10 / 24 62 2.5

Melaka then121°,
then71°
Melaka to Water - - 170° 2 / 4.8 13 2.7

islands [estimated]
Waterislandsto 135° 127£° 117*° 5 / 12 40 3.3

BukitBanàng
BukitBanang to 135° 127£° 132° 3 / 7.2 25 3.4

Pulau Pisang
Pulau Pisangto 135° 127*° 123° 3 / 7.2 19 2.6

LittleKarimun - - -
23 / 55.2 159
Average 2.8
SingaporeStrait
TABLE VI
Arab Chinese Altitudeof True Modernname

name name al-Farqadan latitude
& corrected
latitude
Karimun25 Chi-li-mênf2i; 5| f. 1°30'N. c.l°08'N. Karimunislands
Tan-ma-hsistraits c.l°14'N. Selat Sinki
Sha-t'angshoalsr^; 1°09'N. Pulau Nipa
Ch'ang yao islands 1°09'N. Pulau Saturnu
24

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IN MALAYSIAN
WATERS
[TABLE VI (Continued)]
Arab Chinese Altitudeof True Modernname

name name al-Farqadan latitude
& corrected
latitude
Lung ya straits; c.l°09'N. Singapore Main

strait
Liang san islands; 1°05'N. Pulau Labon
Niu shihTock(27j 1°09'N. Buffalorock
P'i p'a islands; c.l°13'N. Pulau Sakijang Pe-

lepah
Kuan islands 1°13'N. Pulau Tembakul
P'a nao islands; 1°10'N. Pulau Anak Sambo
Singapur Tan-ma-hsifi/; 5f. 0°18'N. c.l°17'N. Singapore

[Singafur]26 [Singapura]
Kaling27 5± f. 2°42'N. 1°18'N. Kalang
Ta-na ch'i islands 1°22'N. BukitPengerang
Wu-tingChiao-linw; 1°22'N. Johor (Tanjong

Datok)
Lo han islandsrW c.l°21'N. Lima islands
Pai сЫаогзд 1°20'N. Pedra Branca
Ma an mountains 1°04'N. BintanGreat Hill
charts3833 and 2403,and 'Pilot',No. 44.
Sailingdirections
Arab.
The Arab textsgive no sailingdirectionsfor Singaporestrait. They mention
onlythreenames,Kaling, Singapur,and Lakanji (or Lagandji); we ignorethe last,
takingit to referto Lagundi (Lagudri) on the island of Nias oíf the west coast of
Sumatra.
25

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
Chinese.
For the eastwardjourney:-
(1) "[From] Chi-li-mên[Karimunislands],for 5 watchesthe shipsteers112^°
and [then]exactly120°, makes Ch'ang yao island, and goes out throughLung ya
strait. From Lung ya strait,steering82^° for5 watches,the ship makes Pai chiao
[PedraBranca]".196
" - Chi-li-mên
(2) mountain;followthemountainsand proceed; on the north
side[thereis]a tailofland,be on yourguard [againstit]; [steer]exactly120° and [then]
112^°; after2 watchesyou make Ch'ang yao island; you cannottravel[on the]south
[side]; be apprehensiveabout foulingLiang san rock and Sha ťang shoals; go out
[through]Lung ya strait- steerexactly90°; make Kuan island; avoid the north
4
[read south'] side and Niu shihrock; steer82^°; after5 watchesthe ship makes Pai
chiao [Pedra Branca]; navigatethe ship past the northside [ofit]; take a sounding,
15 fathoms;that is the correctroute; avoid, on the northside, the Lo han islands
[Lima islands] where thereare rocks; take a sounding,6-7 fathoms;that is the
correctroute;you mustavoid therocksand shallows;thengo out throughthestrait;
whenyou have leftPai chiao farbehind, steer22^°, [and after]10 watchesthe ship
is levelwithCh'u-p'an mountain[Pulau Tioman]."197
" - Chi-li-mênmountain- steer
(3) 112^°; after3 watchesmake Tan-ma-hsi
straitand [then]Ch'ang yao island; avoid the south side [and] Liang san rock and
Sha ťang shoals; go out [through]Lung ya strait;on the southside you have Niu
shihrock - steer112^°; after5 watchesyou make Lo han islands; [on the south?]
side you have Pai chiao; you can pass throughthemiddleof thestrait;avoid, on the
north,a tail of land and shallows;take a sounding,8-9 fathoms;[thatis the]correct
route; [steer]1'° and exactly15°; after3 watchesyou make Huo shao mountain
[Pulau Lima Besar?] and Chiangchünmao [Pulau Tinggi]."198
(4) [FromWu-tingChiao-lin,Johor]"Leave theharbour;steer112^°; navigate
out to theLo han islandson theirnorthside; steerexactly15° and [then]22^°; after
11 watchesmake Ch'u-p'an mountain."199
" - make Chi-li-wên. In fronton the northside
(5) [is] a tail of land which
must be avoided. Steer exactly120° and [then]112^°; after3 watchesyou make
Ch'ang yao island. Carefullyavoid passingalongthesouthside [ofthestrait]. You
should travelon the northside [of the strait]as the ship passes [through]. Take a
sounding,14 fathoms. Again,avoid thenorthside [and]Lo han islands;on thenorth
side thereare rocks. Take a sounding,17-18 fathoms;[thatis the] correctroute;
takea soundingand go out throughthestrait;you mustavoid Pai Chiao island."200
For thewestwardjourney:-
(6) [Noteon Pai chiao] "See Ch'ang yao island. On theinsidepass Tan-ma-hsi
strait. [Here] again thereis an anchorageover againstthe rocks. [And here]you
make a changeof ship."201
(7) [Note on Tan-ma-hsistrait] "Take a sounding,30 fathoms. You cannot
navigatethe shipat night."201
(8) [Noteon Ch'angyao island] "Take a sounding,30 fathoms. [In] Lung ya
straitavoid thesouthside [and]Liang san rock; itis thenorthsidewhichis thecorrect
route. [Sounding,]20 fathoms."201
26

(9) [Note on Lung ya strait] "In the middlethereare 30 fathoms. You see
Ch'ang sha shoal. On the northside, 20 fathoms;on the south side, 8 or 9 fa-
thoms."201
(10) [Noteon Niu shihrock] "Carefullyenterthe strait. You see Ch'ang yao
island. More than20 fathomsof water. Avoid thesouthside."201
(11) [Note on Liang san rock]"On the northside is the correctroute. Take
a sounding,29 fathoms."201
(12) "The ship makes Pai chiao and Pei and Nan An [BintanLittleHill and
BintanGreatHill] and Lo han islands;theshippasses withPai chiao on thesail-spread
side [port]; steerexactly270°; after5 watchestheshipmakesLung ya straitavoid
the southside [where]you have Niu shihrock; you pass [through] the strait;[when]
levelwithCh'ang yao island,avoid the southside [wherethereare] sandyshoals and
Liang san rock. Steer292^°; after3 watchesthe ship makes Chi-li-mênmountain.
Steer322^°; after5 watchestheshipis levelwithK'un-sung[readРЧ-sung] island."202
(13) "See Tung Hsi Chu [Pulau Aur] and Chiang chün mao [Pulau Tinggi]
and Hua shao mountain[Pulau Lima Besar?] and Chu mu mountain[Pulau Lima
Kechil?],all on the outside; [steer]172^°; after7 watchesyou make Lo han islands;
thereare shallows; take care; on the shallowstake a sounding,8-9 fathoms;going
and coming,you mustlook out forPai chiao as a guidingmark;take a sounding,15
fathoms; thereare rockson the sail-spreadside [port]; on the horse-doorside [star-
board],too, you cannotcome close to theisland; avoid theshallows;takea sounding,
8-9fathoms;[thatis the]correctroute;steer262^°; after5 watchesyou enterLung ya
strait- afteryou have emergedfromthe straityou again pass Tan-ma-hsistrait.
Steering262^° and [then]292^°, after3 watchesyou make Chi-li-mênmountain."203
(14) "Chiang chünmao - steerexactly195° - navigateto the Lo han islands
- close in to Wu-tingChiao-linon thenorthside."204
(15) "Make Pai chiao and Ma an mountain[BintanGreat hill] and Lo han
islands. Pass by Pai chiao [leavingit] on the outside; steerexactly270°; after5
watchesyou make Lung ya strait- be sureto avoid the southside [where]you have
Panch'uang [Niushihl]rock.205 [Here]is Ch'ang yao island; [here]also avoid the
south side [where]you have Sha fang [shoals]and Liang san rock. Steer 292^°;
after3 watches[youreach]Chi-li-wên."206
(16) "Lo han islands. Going and comingseek Pai chiao as a leading mark.
Going to Man-la-chiafollow the northside for your ship to pass. Steer 262%°;
after5 watchesyou enterLungya strait.
Lung ya strait. Nowadays,at night,the people in thepo shipsdo not dare to
travel[here]because of the multitudeof robbers. And on the south thereis the
Liang san rock. In themiddletakea sounding,30 fathoms; on thenorth,20 fathoms;
on the south, 8 or 9 fathoms. Again, you pass Tan-ma-hsistrait. Steer 262-|°
and [then]292J°;after3 watchesyou make Chi-li-wênmountain."207
Bearings
If we presumethattheChineseshipson theeastwardjourneypassed at an equal
distancefromPulau Pisang and the Karimunislands,and thattheychangedcourse
whenabeam of LittleKarimun,thenthe point of the changewould be 1°10'12"N.,
103°26'24"E.
27

J. V. MILLS JMBRAS.
VOL. 47
Thencetheysteered120° and then112-^°,thatis, southof due east,208to Ch'ang

yao island and Lung ya strait. They reachedCh'ang yao island aftera voyageof
from2 to 5 watches. In the immediatevicinityof Ch'ang yao island theypassed
throughLungya straitand changedcourseto 90°; at Kuan islandtheychangedcourse
to 82£°and passed out throughSingaporestraitbetweenthe Lo han islands [Lima
islands]on the northand Pai chião [Pedra Branca] on the south,aftera voyageof
5 watchesto a pointabout tymilesnorthofPai chiao,thatis, 1°19'48"N.,104°24'20"E.
On the westwardjourney,shipsfromPai chiao steered270° or 262-£°to Lung
ya strait;and fromLungya straittheysteered262^° and then292^°, or fromCh'ang
yao islandtheysteered292-J°, to theKarimunislands.
Underpresent-day conditionsthecoursesspecifiedin theChinesetextswouldbe
unsatisfactory because theywould take the ship too farto the south; on the course
fromthe Karimunislandsto Lung ya straitthe ship would foulPulau Nipa, and on
thecoursefromLungya straititwouldfoulBatu Berhantiand Pulau Anak Sambo.
So, too, in the oppositedirection;on a course of 262^° froma point Ц miles
northof Pedra Branca theshipwould travelto a pointnorthof St Johnislands,and
on a courseof 262^° froma pointhalfa milesouthof Pulau Saturnuthe shipwould
foulPulau Nipa.
Presumablythehelmsmanwas expectedto see the dangers,and, in thewordsof
the'Pilot',to pass them"at a prudentdistance".
In moderntimes ships traveldown the middle of the fairwaybetweenLittle
Karimun and Tanjong Piai,209that is, to about 1°13'N., 103°26'E., and thencea
'reasonable' course is 102° to a point halfa mile south of Pulau Saturnu,then65°
to a pointhalfa milesouthof Pulau SakijangBandera,then75° to a point Ц miles
northof Pedra Branca.
.
Identifications
Therecan be no doubtabout theterminiin Singaporestrait;at thewesternend
it was enterednear Chi-limên,the Karimunislands,and at the easternend near Pai
chiao, 'WhiteRock', Pedra Branca,Horsbrughlight. The routeran close to Ch'ang
yao, 'Long Waist',island,and throughLung ya, 'Dragon Tooth', strait.
On theevidence,onlytwo routesare reasonablypossible,namely,
(a) a routethroughKeppel Harbour,runningallegedlynorthof Ch'ang yao
island; and
(b) a routerunningsouthof Pulau Saturnu,Raffleslight.
In considering thesetworoutes,thepresentwriterformedtheconclusionthatthe
formerroutewas impossibleforthefollowingsixreasons:-
(1) Text(10) above represents thatCh'angyao islandwas sightedat themoment
when,or at sometimeafter,theshipenteredLung ya strait,whereasifLung ya strait
had been Keppel Harbour bounded on the south by Ch'ang yao island, allegedly
Pulau BelakangMati, it would have been readilyvisibleforat least one hourbefore
the ship enteredLung ya strait,since Mount Serapong,at the north-eastern end of
Pulau BlakangMati, is 292 feethigh;
(2) In severalChinesetextsthe navigatoris instructed to sail on thenorthside
of the fairwaythroughLung ya strait,whereasin proceedingeast throughKeppel
Harbour the navigatorhad to sail firston the southside of the passage,thenin the
28

middleor nearerto thenorthside,and finallyturnto thesouth-east;210

(3) SeveralChinesetextsrepresentthatthe requiredcourselay southof Ch'ang
yao island,whereasifLung ya straithad been Keppel Harbourboundedon thesouth
by Ch'ang yao island,thecoursewouldlie northof Ch'ang yao island;
(4) Two Chinesetextsrepresentthat on the northside of the course through
Lung ya straittherelay anotherstraitcalled Tan-ma-hsi[Singapore]strait,whereas
if Lung ya straitwere Keppel Harbour,no reasonablypossible straitexistsin this
vicinity;
(5) The drawingon the Mao K'un map211and text(2) show thaton the north
side ofthecoursefromLung ya straitto Pedra Brancatherelay an islandcalled Kuan
island,whereasif Lung ya straitwereKeppel Harbour,no islandexistson thenorth
side of thecourse;
(6) It is impossibleto contemplatethatthe coursetakenby Chinesemerchant
shipswould ordinarily lie throughKeppel Harbour,whichwas a narrowland-locked
passage infestedby pirates.212
The presentwriteralso formedthe conclusionthat the Keppel Harbour route
was improbableforthetwo followingreasons:-
( i) It is unlikelythat Keppel Harbour containeda depth of 30 fathomsas
mentionedin the Chinesetexts;interalia, in 1637 Weddellfoundonly4£ fathomsa
ship'slengthfromhim;213
(ii) The figuresforthe coursesto be steeredare somewhatless favourableto
theidentification of Lung ya straitwithKeppelHarbour214;interalia, ifthenavigator
on emergingfromLung ya strait,allegedlyKeppel Harbour, had steered 292^°
as directedin text(15), he wouldhavegroundedhisshipon Singaporeisland.
If theroutethroughKeppel Harbourhas to be rejected,it shouldlogicallyfollow
thattheroutesouthof Pulau Saturnuwas theroutespecifiedin theChinesetexts.
It is possible to draw confirmatory or additional conclusionsfromthe facts
statedin thetexts;thus,
(a) sinceeast-boundand west-boundshipschangedto a morenortherly course
at Ch'ang yao island,thisislandmusthave been themostsoutherly islandwhichthey
made;
(b) sinceLiang san island (or rock) lay to the southof both Ch'ang yao island
and Lungya strait,thisstraitand islandmusthavebeenfairlyclosetogether;
(c) sinceCh'ang yao islandwas not one of thedangerson thesouthside of the
coursethroughLungya strait,it musthavelain on thenorthside ofthecourse;
(d) since the times of travellingfromand to Karimun islands are normally
givento and fromCh'ang yao island,and sincethe timesof travellingfromand to
PedraBrancaarealwaysgivento and fromLung ya strait,thisstraitin all probability
extendedfurther to theeast thanCh'ang yao island;
(e) sincethe timetakenin travellingbetweenKarimunislandsand Ch'ang yao
island averaged3J watchesand the timetakenin travellingbetweenLung ya strait
and Pedra Branca was 5 watches,Ch'ang yao island in all probabilitylay west of
Lung ya strait;
(f) sincethe dangersto the south of Ch'ang yao island were Sha fang shoals
and Liang san island (or rock),and the dangersto the southof Lung ya straitwere
29

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
Liang san islandand Niu shihrock,and sincetheentranceto Lungya straitprobably

lay further east thanCh'ang yao island,Niu shihrockprobablylay further east than
Liang san island;
(g) manytextswarn the navigatoragainst dangerslyingto the south of the
course in the vicinityof Ch'ang yao island and Lung ya strait,and instructhim to
keep to thenorthside of Lung ya strait;
(h) sincethetimetakenin travelling fromKuan islandto Pedra Branca was 5
watches, and the time takenin between
travelling Lung ya straitand Pedra Branca
was also 5 watches,Kuan islandmusthavelain notfarfromLungya strait;
(i) one end of Tan-ma-hsistraitlay to the northof the course betweenPai
chião [Pedra Branca]and Ch'ang yao island,and the otherend of Taa-ma-hsistrait
was passed by a ship proceedingfromCh'ang yao island to Chi-li-mên[Karimun
islands];
(j) at the easternend of Singaporestrait,the courselay in mid-channelon the
northside of Pai chião [PedraBranca]and on thesouthside of Lo han islands[Lima
islands];
(k) Wu-tingChiao-linwas situatedto thenorth-west of Lo han islands;
(1) Ma an mountain,together with Pai chião [PedraBranca]and Lo han islands
[Lima islands] was reachedby shipenteringSingaporestraitfromtheeast.
a
The nauticalmanualsdo not mentionTan-ma-hsi,P'i p'a island,Pa-nao island,
or Ta-na-ch'iisland.
The sketchof thestraitin theMao K'un map showsthecourseand theapproxi-
mate position of the various places.215 Here it is representedthat afterthe ship
enteredSingaporestraitfromthe Karimunislandsit firstpassed Sha fang shoals on
thesouthside of theship,thensailedbetweenCh'ang yao islandon thenorthside of
the ship and Liang san island and Niu shihrock on the southside of the ship,then
travelledbetweenPa-nao islandon thesouthside of theshipand P'i p'a islandon the
northside of the ship,withTan-ma-hsi[Singapore]due northof P'i p'a island,then
passed betweenMa an mountainon thesouthside oftheshipand Kuan islandon the
northside of the ship, withTa-na-ch'iisland furthernorthon the mainland,and
finallyemergedfromthestraitnorthof Pai chião [PedraBranca].
The Mao K'un map does notmentionTan-ma-hsistrait,Kaling,Wu-tingChiao-
lin, or Lo han islands,and it writesthe name 'Lung ya mên' on an island about
half-waybetweenPedra Branca and Bangka, probablyowingto a confusionwith
Linggaisland.
Suppliedwiththe above information, one may attemptthe identification of the
places namedin thetexts.
Chi-li-mên, 'Karimun',is presumablythe highestisland of the Karimungroup,
thatis, LittleKarimun,whichrisesto 1,237feet.
One end of Tan-ma-hsistraitwas passed as the ship travelledbetweenLung ya
straitand theKarimunislands,and theotherendofTan-ma-hsistraitlayon the north
side ofthecourseas theshiptravelledbetweenPedra Brancaand Lungya strait. We
therefore identify thewesternportionof Tan-ma-hsistraitwithSelat Sinki,whilethe
easternportion of Tan-ma-hsistraitmay be eitherthe passage throughKeppel
Harbour northof Pulau BelakangMati, or the passage immediately southof Pulau
30

BelakangMati.
Sha ťang shoals,'Granulatedsugarshoals', beingthefirstdangeron the south
side ofthecoursefromtheKarimunislands,mustbe Pulau Nipa reef.
Ch'ang yao island lay on the northside of the course,havingLiang san island
and Niu shihrockon the southside of thecourse: Liang san island,'Parasol island',
is Pulau Labon (LittleGanymede)on the southside of SingaporeMain strait;it has
a bareconicalhill,95 feethigh,and theChinesein moderntimescall it Parasol island:
Niu shihchiao, 'BuffaloDung rock',is Buffalorock,in moderntimescalled by the
ChineseBuffaloDung rock and by the Malays Batu Kerbau, 'Buffalorock',or Batu
Hitam,'Black rock': therefore, Ch'ang yao islandis Pulau Saturnuon the northside
of SingaporeMain strait.216
Lung ya strait,'Dragon teethstrait',was enteredfromtheeast betweenBuffalo
rockand Pulau Saturnu,Raffleslight;the straitlay betweenPulau Saturnuon the
northside and the dangerson the southside, namely,Buffalorock, Pulau Pemping
Besar,Pulau Labon, Pulau Pelampong,and Pulau Nipa.217
P'i p'a island lay nearlydue southof Tan-ma-hsi[Singapore]and westof Kuan
island: Kuan island,called 'Officialisland' probablybecause an officer of the Shah-
bandaror PortOfficer was stationedthere,was 5 watches'sailingfromPedra Branca;
shipsproceedingeastwardweresaid to changecourseherefrom90° to 82^°, and the
textsrepresent thatit was thefirstdangerencounteredby shipsproceedingwestward;
hence we identifyit withPulau Tembakul,87 feethigh,whichis the firstdanger
encounteredby ships proceedingwestwardfromthe channel north-west of Pedra
Brancaon a bearingof 255°.
P'i p'a island,lyingon thewestof Kuan island,we identify withPulau Sakijang
Pelepah,lyingon thewestside of Pulau Tembakul;theChinesename'P'i p'a' maybe
a corruptionof the Malay 'Pelepah'. P'a nao island was not regardedas a danger
and therefore musthave lain some distancefromthe course; it is the most easterly
oftheislandsmarkedin thispartofthestrait;we identify it withPulau Anak Sambo,
themostnortherly, themosteasterly,and thehighest(100 feet)of theislandsnearest
to thecourseon thesouthside; thename mustbe a transliteration of a Malay word,
perhapsperahu( prao, etc.).
Tan-ma-hsiundoubtedly represents'Tamasek',theold Malay and Javanesename
forSingapore;it so appearsin the Nagarakrtagamaof 1365 and also in the Sejarah
Melayuofabout 1536,buttheArab name 'Singapur'showsthat'Singapura'was used
by 1490.
Kaling, whichthe Arab textlocates at some 12 miles northof Singapore,we
identify withKalang, about 1 milefurther norththenthe mouthof Singaporeriver;
Kalang basin, being protectedfromthe sea by Tanjong Rhu, is nowadays much
frequented bylocal shipping,and probablywas so in 1500.
Ta-na-ch'iisland is placed on the mainlandin the Mao K'un map; Ta-na is an
abbreviationof the Malay name 'Ujong Tanah', 'Land's end', applied to Johor,and
'Ta-na riverisland' thus denotes 'Johorriverisland'; we identifythis with Bukit
Pengerangor Johorhill, a conspicuoushill half a mile fromthe easternshore of
Sungei Johor. Wu-tingChiao-lin perhaps representsanotherChinese attemptto
transliterate the Malay name 'Ujong Tanah'; the place was situateda shortdistance
31

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
west-north-west fromthe Lo han islands; theseislandslay on the northside of the

courserunningout of Singaporestraiton the northside of Pedra Branca; we there-
foreidentify themwiththeLima islands: sinceChineseshipssailedfroma havenon a
bearing 112^° to the northside of the Lima islands,this haven musthave been
of
situatednear Tanjong Datok, 1°22'N.
Pai chiao, 'Whiterock',undoubtedlysignifiesthe rockcalled by the Portuguese
and bymoderngeographers 'Pedra Branca',lyingin themiddleoftheeasternentrance
to Singaporestrait,and carryingHorsburghlight.218
Ma an mountain,'Horse saddle mountain',is statedto be a land-mark,together
withthe Lima islandsand Pedra Branca,forshipsapproachingthe easternentrance
of Singaporestrait;it was also a land-markforships runningnorthfromDjakarta
to China;219we therefore identify it withBintanGreat Hill, whichfromnorthward
showsa saddle-shapedsummit:one textrefersto 'Pei and Nan An', 'Northand South
Saddles', thatis, BintanLittleHill and BintanGreatHill.
Since,apartfroma fewobviouserrors,theChinesetextsare fairlyconsistenton
essentialpoints,thepresentwriterhas considereditincumbent on himto followthem.
Those who identify Lung ya strait with Keppel Harbour in rejectthe Chinese
effect
evidencein at least threerespects;(1) theydenythatCh'ang yao island lay on the
northside of Lung ya strait,(2) theydenythatit was advisableto travelalong the
northside of Lungya strait,(3) theydenythaton thenorthside ofthecoursebetween
Lung ya straitand Pedra Brancatherelay two islandscalled P'i p'a islandand Kuan
island.220
Views may be seen in 'Pilot', No. 44, pages 426-427.
Karimunislandsto Pedra Branca
TABLE VII
Chinese 'Reason- Time Approx- Speed

course able' (watches imate (knots)
course & hours) distance
(miles)
Karimunislandsto 112^°,then 102° 3/7.2 16 2.2

Lung ya strait 120°
Lung ya straitto 90°, then 65°, then 5 / 12.0 41 3.4

Pedra Branca 82^° 75° - - -
8 / 19.2 57
Average 2.9
32

The east coast of theMalay Peninsula
TABLE VIII
Arabname Chinesename Altitudeof True Modernname

al-Farqadan latitude
& corrected
latitude
Mien-tanrw 1°04'N. BintanGreatHill
Pai chiao(35) 1°19'N. Pedra Branca
Hai mountains; 2°13/N. Pulau Sibu?
Huo shao mountains; 2°13'N. Pulau Lima Besar?
Chu mu(40) 2°13'N. Pulau Lima Kechil?
Tinggi25 Chiangchünmao(4i) 5 f. 0°18'N. 2°18'N. Pulau Tinggi
Tung Hsi Chu 2°26'N. Pulau Aur

mountains(42)
Shihrockw; 2°41'N. Pulau Sribuat [Seri

Buat]
Shih tao mountains c.2°43/N. [onPulau Tioman]
Ch'u-mamountains; 2°46'N. Pulau Tioman
Pang Patik29P'êng-hanghavener 7 f. 3°30'N. 3°31'N. SungeiPahang estuary
T'ieh chênislands; 4°03'N. Pulau Ular?
Ta tsao ch'uan 4°06/N. BukitPanjang?

mountain(48)
Tou islander 4°49'N. Pulau Tenggol[Tung-

gal]
Mien hua island(so) 5°12'N. Pulau Kapas
Ting-chia-lur5i; 5°20'N. Terengganu
Chüeh yüanr52; 5°37'N. Pulau BidongLaut
33

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
[TABLE VIII (Continued)]
Arab name Chinesename Altitudeof True Modernname

al-Farqadan latitude
& corrected
latitude
Shih ylianislands; 5°41'N. Pulau Chipu
Yang islands; 5°48'N. Pulau Lang Tengah
Shih mountains; 5°49'N. Pulau Rhu
San chüehislands 5°53'N. Pulau Perhentian

Besar
Yen tunislandf57; 5°57'N. Pulau Susu Dara
Kalandan50 Chi-lan-tanhavens; 8 f. 5°06'N. 6°11'N. Sungei Kelantan es-

tuary
charts3543,2660A,and 2414,and 'Pilot',No. 30.

Sailingdirections
Arab.
The Arab textsgive only one bearing,namely,fromSingapur[Singapore]to
Banagh as 348°45'221. At Banagh the altitudeof Polaris was 4 fingers222 [corrected
equivalent9°55'N.]; we provisionally identify it withKo Phangan,9°43'N.
Apart fromthat,theygive only 3 place-nameswithcorresponding altitudesof
al-Farqadan,namely,Tinggi[Pulau Tinggi]with5 fingers, Pang Patik [Pahang]with
7 fingers,
and Kalandan [Kelantan]with8 fingers.223
Chinese.
(1) "AfterpassingPai chião [Pedra Branca] steer22^° and [then]exactly15°.
After5 watchesthe ship is level withTung Chu mountain[Pulau Aur],and passes
outside it. Afterpassing Tung Chu mountain,steer 1'° [reading" 0°-15°" for
"0°-50°"] and [then]exactly15°; theshipmakesK'un lunmountain[GrandeCondore]
and passes outsideit".224
(2) [Noteon Chiangchïinmao, Pulau Tinggi ]
"On the southis the "Hat band", thatis, Huo shao island mountain[Pulau Lima
Besar?] and Hai mountain[Pulau Sibu ?]".225
(3) [Noteon Huo shao mountain , Pulau Lima Besar ?]
"Chu mu mountain[Pulau Lima Kechil ?] is connectedwithit".225
(4) [Noteon Tou island, Pulau Tenggol]
"The ship passes on the east side; 5 watches'sailing; [here]is P'êng-fang[Pahang]
harbour".226
(5) [Noteon T4eh chênisland, Pulau Ular ?]
"Tou island [Pulau Tenggol]is in sight".226
34

IN MALAYSIAN
WATERS
(6) [Noteon Ta tsao cKuan mountain , BukitPanjang ?]

"T'ieh chênisland[Pulau Ular ?] is oppositeto thismountain".226
(7) [Noteon Pêng-hêng [Pahang] harbour ]
"In an area on thesouth-eastside is Ch'u-p'an mountain[Pulau Tioman]".226
"
(8) - K'un-lun mountain[Grande Condore]; pass outside it; steer 232^°
and [then]262J°; 30 watches;theshipmakesChi-lan-tan[Kelantan]harbour. Steer
exactly240°; 7 watches;the ship [makes]Liu-k'un [Ligor,Nahkon]- Ta-ni [Pata-
ni]".22?
[But thereturn journeywas made directfromPattanito GrandeCondorewithout
touching Kelantan ]
" - K'un-lun
(9) [Grande Condore] mountain; steer 217^°; 40 watches; the
ship makes P'êng-fang[Pahang]harbour".228
(10) "Pêng-fang[Pahang] harbour- steer52|°; 6 watches; the ship makes
Mien hua island[Pulau Kapas]; steerexactly45°; 7 watches;again steer45° and [then]
37^° ; 6 watches; theshipsteersexactly30° and [then]22}° ; 20 watches; theshipmakes
K'un-lunmountain[GrandeCondore]".229
"
(11) - K'un-lunmountain[GrandeCondore]; - steer202^°; 20 watches;the
ship steersexactly210°; 25 watches; the ship makes Ch'u-p'an mountain[Pulau
Tioman] and Tung Hsi Chu [Pulau Aur] [and] Chiang chün mao [Pulau Tinggi];
in the distance,inside Chiang chün mao, you see Huo shao mountain[Pulau Lima
Besar ?] also; [steer]202^°; 15 watches;theshipmakesPai chião [PedraBranca],[and]
Pei and Nan An [BintanLittleHill and BintanGreat Hill] and the Lo han islands
[Lima islands];theshippasses Pai chiao on thesail-spreadside [port]".230
"
(12) - Pai chiao [PedraBranca]; theshiptravelspast it on thenorthside; take
a sounding,15 fathoms,[thatis] the correctroute; avoid, on the northside, the Lo
han islands [Lima islands],[where]thereare rocks; take a sounding,6-7 fathoms;
[thatis] the correctroute; it is importantto avoid the rocks and shallows; then
pass out fromthe strait;whenyou have leftPai chiao [Pedra Branca]at a distance,
steer22|°; 10 watches;the ship is level withCh'u-p'an mountain[Pulau Tioman];
beyondit is Tung Hsi Chu [Pulau Aur] on the east side; pass inside; steer7'° and
[then]15°; 45 watches;theshipmakesK'un-lunmountain[GrandeCondore]".231
(13) "Ch'u-p'an mountain [Pulau Tioman]; - steer 172^°; pass Tung Hsi
Chu mountain[PulauAur]; steer172^°; 10 watches;makeCh'angisland[Mapor]".231
(14) "-K'un-lun [Grande Condore] - steer217^° and [then]exactly210°;
30 watches;makeTou island[Pulau Tenggol];steer187^°; 5 watches;enterthehaven
[P'êng-hêng,Pahang]".232
(15) [From Pêng-hêng,Pahang] "Set sail from the harbour; steer 52^°; 6
watches; make Tou island [Pulau Tenggol] [and] Mien hua island [Pulau Kapas];
steer52-£°;7 watches;steer37^°; 6 watches;exactly30°; 20 watches;make K'un-lun
[GrandeCondore]".233
"
(16) - Chi-lan-tan[Kelantan] harbour; [steer]172^°; 4 watches; make San
chüehisland [Pulau PerhentianBesar]; in the innerstraitthereis a large mountain
appearing rightahead; it is called Chüeh yüan mountain[Pulau Bidong Laut];
you can pass outsideor inside;[steer]exactly180°; 3 watches;make Mien hua island
[Pulau Kapas]; [steer]exactly180°; 5 watches; make Tou island [Pulau Tenggol];
35

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
[steer]exactly180°; 5 watches; make P'êng-hêng[Pahang] harbour; [steer]exactly

180°; 5 watches; make Ch'u-p'an mountain[Pulau Tioman]; small ships can pass
along the innerpassage; large shipspass on the outside; proceeding,you see Tung
Hsi Chu [Pulau Aur]and Chiangchiinmao [Pulau Tinggi][and]Huo shao mountain
[Pulau Lima Besar ?] and Chu mu mountain[Pulau Lima Kechil ?], all on the
outside; [steer]172£°; 7 watches; make the Lo han islands [Lima islands];- going
and coming,you mustlook out forPai chião [PedraBranca]as a leadingmark".234
(17) "Set sail fromCh'u-p'an [Pulau Tioman]; [steer]172|°; 5 watches; pass
Tung Hsi Chu [Pulau Aur] [and] Chiang chiin mao [Pulau Tinggi]; [here]are the
"Hat Band" rocks; careful;[steer]172£°;4 watches;see Mien-tanmountain[Bintan
Great Hill]".235
"
(18) - Ch'ang yao island [Mapor]; steer352^° and [then]exactly345°; 10
watches;make Shih-liMa an mountain[BintanGreat Hill]; steer352^°, [and then]
337-J0; 2 watches;make Tung Hsi Chu [Pulau Aur]; in frontof you goes Ch'u-p'an
[Pulau Tioman]".236
"
(19) - K'un-lun mountain[Grande Condore] - ; [steer]202£°; 45 watches;
make Ch'u-p'an [Pulau Tioman]; [steer]157^°; pass Tung Hsi Chu [Pulau Aur];
[steer]172^°; 10 watches;make Ch'ang yao island[Mapor]".236
(20) "Ta-ni [Pattani]- ; set sail fromthe harbour; [steer]172£°; make San
chüehisland [Pulau PerhentianBesar]; pass insideit; [steer]exactly180°; 5 watches;
make Mien hua island [Pulau Kapas]; [steer]157|° ; 5 watches; make Tou island
[Pulau Tenggol]; [steer]exactly 180°; 5 watches; make Ti-p'an mountain[Pulau
Tioman]; [steer]112^°; 10 watches;makeCh'i islands[Pulau Tujoh]".237
(21) "Chiang chiin mao [Pulau Tinggi]; steer352-J0;make Ch'u-p'an [Pulau
Tioman]".238
"
(22) - Hsiao K'un-lunmountain[Les Deux Frères];steer202|° ; 11 watches;
steerexactly210°; 15 watches; steer217^°; 18 watches; make Ch'u-p'an mountain
[Pulau Tioman] on the sail-spreadside [port];steerexactly225°; haul in to Chiang
chiinmao [Pulau Tinggi];- insideyou have the "Hat Band" - steerexactly195°;
followtheland; navigateto theLo han islands[Lima islands],- close in to Wu-ting
chiao-lin".239
"
(23) - K'un-lun [Grande Condore]; [steer]exactly210° and [then]202^°;
25 watches; [steer]exactly210°; 24 watches; make Ti-p'an [Pulau Tioman]; steer
172-£°; 3 watches;makeTung Chu [Pulau Aur]; steer172£°;10watches;makeCh'ang
yao [Mapor]".240
"
(24) - Ch'ang yao island [Mapor]; [steer]352-£°;13 watches;make Ti-p'an
[Pulau Tioman] on the inside; [steer]352^°; make P'êng-hêngharbour[Pahang];
[steer]exactly360°; 10 watches; make Tou island [Pulau Tenggol]; [steer]exactly
330°; 5 watches; make Mien hua [Pulau Kapas] and Yiian Kuang island [Pulau
BidongLaut]; theshipcan pass bothinsideand outside;[steer]exactly300°; you see
2 islands;you can approachthem;you cannotapproachtheland side wherethereare
shallows and stone-tabletrocks emergingfromthe water; when you have passed
the strait,steerexactly315°; 3 watches;make San Chüeh island [Pulau Perhentian
Besar]; [steer]337^°; 3 watches; [thereis] a tail of land; [this]is the correctroute;
36

[make ?] Chi-lan-tanharbour[SungeiKelantan]; steer292^°; 7 watches;followthe

land and navigate;you see Liu-k'unhsia ch'ih ['Nakhon Lower Pool']; make Ta-ni
[Pattani]."241
"
(25) - level withCh'ang yao island [Mapor]; and steer352^°; 4 watches;in
the eveningsee Tung Hsi Chu [Pulau Aur] underthe sail; in the nightsteer352-£°;
in themorningsee Ti-p'an mountain[Pulau Tioman]- ". [to GrandeCondore ]242
(26) "On the north-eastof Ch'ang yao island [Mapor] - ; steer352^°; in the
eveninglevel withTung Chu [Pulau Aur] - steer352^°; in themorninglevelwith
Ti-p'an [Pulau Tioman] and Shih tao mountain[onPulau Tioman] on thesouth-east
side - ".243[unfinished]
"
(27) - K'un-lun [Grande Condore] - ; steer217^° and [then]exactly210°;
45 watches;make Ch'a-p'an [Pulau Tioman] and Tung Hsi Chu [Pulau Aur]; in the
distanceyou see Chiangchünmao [Pulau Tinggi]on theinsideand Huo shao moun-
tain [Pulau Lima Besar ?]; steer202J°; 10 watches;make Pai chião [Pedra Branca]
and Ma an mountain[BintanGreatHill] and Lo han islands[Limaislands]".244
"
(28) - Pai chiao island[PedraBranca]; steer330°,and [then]352£°; 5 watches;
make Ch'a-p'an [Pulau Tioman]; clear it in 1 watch; steer 40 watches;take a
30
sounding, fathoms; see K'un-lun [GrandeCondore]".245
"
(29) - K'un-lun [Grande Condore]; steer exactly 225° and [then]232^°;
10 watches;steerexactly240° and [then]247^°; 18 watches;make Mien hua island
[Pulau Kapas] ; - steerexactly135°; 5 watches; levelwithT ou island[Pulau Tenggol];
steerexactly150°; 8 watches; make Ti-p'an [Pulau Tioman]; pass on the outside;
[steer]exactly150°; 3 watches;make Tung Hsi Hsing [readChu]; pass on theinside,
steerexactly165°; 11 watches;pass Ch'ang yao island[Mapor]".246
(30) [Noteon Hsi Chu mountain , Pulau Aur]
"Hsi Chu mountain[Pulau Aur] also has the shape of a horse-saddle;the westside
is low; inside you have Chiang chün mao [Pulau Tinggi],you have Huo shao t'a
['Fire burntower',Pulau Lima Besar ?] and Chu mu [Pulau Lima Kechil ?] - steer
172^°; 10 watches;make Ch'ang yao [Mapor]".247
(31) [Noteon Ch'angyao island, Mapor]
"Ch'ang yao island [Mapor]; steerЦ° and [then]15°; 10 watches;make Tung Chu
[Pulau Aur]".247
(32) "Again from K'un-lun mountain [Grande Condore]; steer 232^° and
[then]262^°; 30 watches;make Chi-lan-tan[Kelantan].
Chi-lan-tan[Kelantan]: thisis Ta-ni [Pattani]harbour;steer232-J° ; 7 watches;
enterthehaven; thisis thecountryof Ta-ni [Pattani]. Again fromK'un-lunmoun-
tain[GrandeCondore]:steer217^°; 30 watches;makeTou island[Pulau Tenggol].
Tou island [Pulau Tenggol]: steer 187^°; 5 watches; make the countryof
P'êng-hêng[Pahang].
The countryof P'êng-hêng:one name forit is P'êng-k'êng;[steer]exactly180°;
5 watches; makeTi-p'an mountain[Pulau Tioman].
Ti-p'an mountain[Pulau Tioman]: it is outsidethe P'êng-hêng[Pahang]haven;
outside,take a sounding,28 fathoms;inside,44 fathoms;3 watches; reach Tung
Hsi Chu [Pulau Aur].
boundaryof Jou-fo[Jöhor];steer202|°;
Tung Hsi Chu: this [is] the territorial
37

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
10 watches;makeLo han islands[Lima islands];thisis Jou-fo[Johor]harbour.

The countryof Jou-fo[Johor]:one name for it is Wu-tingCh'iao-lin [Ujong
Tanah]".248
Thereare a numberof errorsin theChinesetexts:forinstance,text(10) wrongly
statesthat ships steered52-£°[actually9$° and then315°] to getfromKuala Pahang
to Pulau Kapas, and text(29) wronglywriteshsing,'walk', forchu,'bamboo'.
Bearings.
The Arab textsgive nothingin the matterof adequate sailinginstructions^ for
shipsproceeding eastwards from Singapore.
They merelystate that the directionfromSingaporeto Banagh (perhaps Ko
Phangan,9°43'N.) was 348°15'N. The true course fromPedra Branca would be
about 356°.
The Chinese texts,on the otherhand, are repletewith detail. Ships passing
midwaybetweenthe Lo han islands [Lima islands] and Pai chião [Pedra Branca]
would turnnorthwardswhen Ц miles northof Pai chiao, that is, in 1°19'48"N.,
104°24'20"E.
The voyagein the open sea presentedno difficulties, since the navigatorhad a
numberofloftyislandsand mountainsto guidehim,and forcoastal shipping
sufficient
the only trickypiece of navigationwas the passage betweenthe mainlandand the
Redangand Perhentian groupsofislands.
Accordingto theChinesetexts,thethroughtraffic fromPai chiao [PedraBranca]
would steer22'° and then 15° tillthe ship made Tung Hsi Chu [Pulau Aur]after5
watches;thereit would change courseto Ц° and then 15°, tillit reachedK'un-lun
mountain[GrandeCondore].
Nowadays, on the courses specified,Pulau Aur would be broughtabeam at a
distanceof 13 miles,and the distanceto this point fromPai chiao [Pedra Branca]
would be about 66 miles,givinga speed of 5.5 knots; proceeding,the ship would
reacha pointabout 30 mileswestof GrandeCondore; presumablyit was considered
saferto bear to the west of Grande Condore, since an additionalland-markwas
providedby Les Deux Frères(called LittleK'un-lunby the Chinese),lyingabout 24
mileswestof Grande Condore.
fromPai chiao [PedraBranca]the shipsteered22£°tillit brought
Alternatively,
Ch'u-p'an mountain[Pulau Tioman] abeam after10 watches;thereit would change
courseto 7£° and then15°, tillitreachedK'un-lunmountain[GrandeCondore]after
45 watches.
Nowadays,theseprescribedcourseswould take the shipto a pointwhereCh'u-
p'an mountain[Pulau Tioman] was broughtabeam at a distanceof 43 miles; the
distancefromPai chiao [PedraBranca]would be 74 milesand thespeed 3 knots;for
the rest,the prescribedcourseswould take the ship to a pointabout 3 mileseast of
Les Deux Frères;thedistancewouldbe about 380 milesand thespeed3.5 knots.
Alternativelyagain, throughtrafficmightfrom P'êng-fang[Kuala Pahang]
proceedto Mien hua island[Pulau Kapas], and thence,steering45° for7 watches,45°
and 37£°for6 watches,and 30° and 22$° for20 watches,make K'un-lunmountain
[GrandeCondore].
38

IN MALAYSIAN
WATERS
Sailingon theselatterbearingswould, undermodernconditions,take the ship

about 33 mileswestof Les Deux Frères.
Anothertext,number(15), givessomewhatdifferent bearings,namely,fromMien
hua island [Pulau Kapas] 52£° for 7 watches,37£° for 6 watches,and 30° for 20
watches; thesecourses would take the ship to a point about 18 miles west of Les
Deux Frères.249
Coasting ships going northfromPedra Branca steered330° and then 352^°
as in text(28), and reachedthe west side of Pulau Tioman in 10 watches,as in text
(12) ;25°thedistancewould be about 85 milesand the speed 3.5 knots. None of the
textsgives the bearingor the numberof watchestaken on the voyagefromPulau
Tioman to P'êng-hêng[Kuala Pahang]; we estimatethe numberas 5 watches,since
thejourneyin the oppositedirectiontook 5 watchesand shipstravelledat about the
same speedin bothdirection,as maybe seen fromtexts(15) and (16) forthejourney
betweenKuala Pahang and Pulau Tenggol.
FromPulau Tioman thebearingwouldbe 330° and thedistanceabout 59 miles.
From Kuala Pahang shipstravelleddue north,as in text(24), for 6 watches,as
in text(15), to Tou island[Pulau Tenggol]; thebearingwouldbe 11£°and thedistance
74 milesifPulau Tenggolwas passed on theeast side,as in text(4).
From Tou island [Pulau Tenggol]theysailed on a bearingof 330°for5 watches,
as in text(24), to Mien hua island [Pulau Kapas]; on the chartthe bearingis 312^°
iftheislandwas passed on theeast,and thedistance38 miles.
From Mien hua island [Pulau Kapas] ships travelledwest of the Redang and
Perhentianislands, as in text (24); firstthey reached Yüan kuang island, Pulau
Bidong Laut; theythensteered300° and saw 2 islands,perhapsPulau Redang and
Pulau Lang Tengah; whentheyhad passed the latter,theysteered315°, and (if we
interpret thetextcorrectly)aftertravelling for3 watchesfromPulau BidongLaut,they
made San chüeh island [Pulau PerhentianBesar]; whencetheysteered337-£°for 3
watchesand reachedthe'tail ofland' at theentranceof SungeiKelantan.
Text (24) is theonlyauthorityforthejourneythroughtheislands,and it failsto
giveall thenecessarydetails.
If theabove identificationsare correct,thenthebearingswouldbe as follows:-
From Pulau Kapas to Pulau Bidong Laut; 315° [estimated];3 watches [esti-
mated];27 miles
Thenceto Pulau PerhentianBesar; 315° [actually312°]3 watches;25 miles
Thenceto Kuala Kelantan(abeam); 337^° [actually317°]; 3 watches;38 miles.
The Mao K'un map does not mark Pulau Kapas; and draws 4 islands with
different names,namely,Shih yüan island,251Shih mountain,Yang island,and Yen
tunisland; we seekto identify themwithPulau Chipu,Pulau Rhu,Pulau Lang Tengah,
and Pulau Susu Dara, respectively; see AddendumB.
On the southwardvoyage, long-distanceshippingran down from K'un-lun
mountain[GrandeCondore]to Kelantanin 30 watchesas in texts(8) and (32), or to
Pulau Kapas in 28 watchesas in text(29), or to Pulau Tenggolin 30 watchesas in
texts(14) and (32), or to Kuala Pahangin 40 watchesas in text(9), or to Pulau Tioman
in 45 watchesas in texts(1 1), (19), (23), and (27).
Coastal shipping,accordingto text(16), travelledfromChi-lan-tan[Kelantan]
39

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
steering172^° for4 watchesto San chiiehisland[Pulau PerhentianBesar],and made

Chiiehyüanmountain[Pulau BidongLaut]; thensteered180°for3 watchesto Mien
hua island [Pulau Kapas], 180° for 5 watchesto Tou island [Pulau Tenggoi],180°
for 5 watchesto P'êng-hêng[Kuala Pahang],and 180° for 5 watchesto Ch'u-p'an
mountain[Pulau Tioman], whichwas passed on the west; thence,passingwest of
Chiang chiinmao [Pulau Tinggi],172J0for7 watchesto the Lo han islands[Lima
islands],where ships travellednorthof Pai chião [Pedra Branca] into Singapore
strait.
Ships bound for Chiao-liu-pa ['Kelapa', Batavia, now Djakarta], instead of
turninginto Singaporestrait,travelledon to the south,passingMien-tanmountain
[BintanGreatHill]after4 watches'voyagingfromPulau Tinggi,as in text(17)
The manual called 'Shun Fêng' has a special sectionheaded "Kêng [Pahang].
A sketchof theaspectsof themountainsand theconditionsof thewaters". Here it
is statedthattherunfromPulau Tenggoito Kuala Pahangtook 5 watches,thatPulau
Tenggoiand an islandcalled T'ieh chên['Iron anvil']were'mutuallyvisible',and that
'opposite' to T'ieh chên island was a mountaincalled Ta tsao ch'uan ['Build ship']
mountain. These places are difficult to identify;we provisionallyidentifyT'ieh
chên island with Pulau Шаг (4°03'N.) and Та tsao ch'uan mountainwith Bukit
Panjang(4°06'N.): buttheseidentifications are doubtful;see AddendumC.
A 'reasonable' courseforcoast-wiseshippingturningnorthat a point 1} miles
northof Pedra Branca would be:-
From 1°19' 48" N., 104°24'20"E.to a point5 miles east of Pulau Tinggi; 349°;
59 miles
Thenceto a point5 mileswestofPulau Tioman; 33ty°;26 miles
Thenceto a point5 mileseast of Kuala Pahang; 330°; 59 miles
Thenceto a point5 mileseast ofPulau Tenggoi; 11^°; 74 miles
Thenceto a point5 mileseast of Pulau Kapas; 313^°; 38 miles
Thenceto a point2 mileswestofPulau BidongLaut ; 3 15°; 27 miles
Thenceto a point1 milewestofPulau PerhentianBesar; 312°; 25 miles
Thenceto a point9 milesnorth-east ofKuala Kelantan; 317°; 38 miles
Over shortdistancesthe Chinesebearingsare fairlysatisfactory, but over long
distances,forinstance,fromPulau Kapas to Grande Condore,theyare sometimes
verywide of themark,accordingto modernconditions.
Identifications
Of the Arab names,Tinggireproducesthe Malay name; Kalandan (haven or
anchorage)is sufficiently
close to obviateany doubt; and, thoughthe'Patik' of Pang
Patik cannotat presentbe explained,'Pang' mustsurely,like the Portuguese'Pam',
representPahang.252
Of the Chinese names,a disconcertingly large numberare purelyChinese,but
fortunatelythe geographerhas veritableland-marksin P'êng-hang[Pahang],Ting-
40

IN MALAYSIAN
chia-lu [Terengganu],and Chi-lan-tan[Kelantan]; while the 'Chu' ['bamboo'] of

Tung Hsi Chu suggestsa clue to the identification withPulau Aur ['Aur', Malay, a
specie$of bamboo],and 'Mien hua' ['cotton']to theidentification withPulau Kapas
['kapas', Malay, 'cotton'].253
Mien-tanis mentionedin text(17) as beingreachedaftera southwardjourney
of 4 watchesfromPulau Tinggi; this indicatesthe identification of Mien-tanwith
BintanGreatHill, and theidentification is renderedreasonablycertainby thesimila-
rityof name.
Thus Mien-tanwas the same land-markas the Ma an mountain['Horse saddle
mountain']of text(27), associated withthe Lo han islands [Lima islands]and Pai
chião [PedraBranca]as leadingmarksforthenavigatorentering Singaporestraitfrom
theeast. In text(1 1) BintanLittleHill and BintanGreatHill are calledtheNorthand
SouthSaddles. In text(18) BintanGreatHill is giventhehonorific of Shih-li,'Sri'.
Chiang chün mao be
['General'sHať] may safely equated withPulau Tinggiby
reasonof thebearings,re-inforced by thestrikingshape of the almost-perfectcone of
thepeak.
The threeislands called Hai mountain['Sea mountain'],Huo shao mountain
['Fire burn mountain',also called 'Fire burn tower',so perhapsa lighthouse]and
Chu mu ['Pig mother']lay on the south side of Pulau Tinggiand were named the
'Hat Band'; doubtlesstheycomprisedsome of the islands called Sibu and Lima;
butthereis insufficient evidenceto showwhichwas which.254
Tung Hsi Chu ['East and WestBamboo'] are sometimesreferred to as Tung Chu
mountainor Hsi Chu mountain;the saddle-shapedPulau Aur withpeaks of 1765
and 1460feetoftenpresentsan appearanceof beingtwoislands.255
Pulau Tiomanis called Ch'u-maor Ch'u-p'anor Ti-p'an or Ch'a-p'an: although
not named in the Arab texts here considered,the island is referredto in the
Akhbaras-Sin wa'l-Hind(A.D. 851) and in the worksof Ibn Khurdadhbih(844-8)
and Idrisi(1154).
Shih tao ['Lose knife']mountainon Pulau Tioman may perhaps be the re-
markabletwin-peakedhill of 1495feetnearthesouth-eastern extremity oftheisland;
the chart givesit no special name.
P'êng-hangharbouror anchorageis, of course,theestuaryoftheSungeiPahang.
T'ieh chên ['Iron anvil'] island and Ta tsao ch'uan ['Build ship'] mountainare
perhapsPulau Ular and BukitPanjang,respectively, as suggestedin AddendumC.
Tou ['Bushel']islandand Mien hua ['Cotton']islandmustbe Pulau Tenggoland
Pulau Kapas, respectively, as shownby manyreferences to bearingand time. The
the
Chinesetranslated Malay name,kapas, 'cotton'. North of SungeiTerengganu,
theidentification of variousislandsin theRedang and Perhentiangroupsis discussed
in AddendumB.
Views of Pulau Aur, Pulau Tioman, and Pulau Tenggolmay be seen in 'Pilot',
No. 30, views6, 8, and 9.
41

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
Pedra Brancato Kuala Kelantan
TABLE IX
Chinese 'Reasonable' Time Approximate Speed

course course (watches distance (knots)
& hours) (miles)
Pedra Branca (near) 330°,then 349°,then 10 / 24 85 3.5

to Pulau Tioman 352^° 335£°
Pulau Tioman to [330°,est- 330° [5/12]
Kuala Pahang imated] [estimated] 59 4.9
Kuala Pahang to 360° Щ° 6 / 14.4 74 5.1
Pulau Tenggol
Pulau Tenggolto 330° 313° 5 / 12 38 3.1
Pulau Kapas
Pulau Kapas to [315°,est- 315° [3/7.2] 27 3.7
Pulau BidongLaut imated] [estimated]
Pulau BidongLaut 300°,then 312° 3 / 7.2 25 3.4
to Pulau Perhent- 315°
ian Besar
Pulau Perhentian 337£° 317° 3 / 7.2 38 5.2
Besar to Kuala - -
Kelantan(abeam) 35 / 84 346
Average 4.1
North-west
Borneo
TABLE X
Arab Chinesename Latitude Modernname

name
Tung Shê lungmountains 2°05'N. Tanjong Datu
Tan-jungLao-meiСбо; 2°47'N. Tanjong Sirik
Ch'ih ťu pai mienmountain
re/; 2°58'N. BukitSetiam
Tan shui harbours 4°36'N. Batang Baram
BaraniJ/ Borneo (island)
42

Fig. 3. Map of Borneo

P'o-ni(63) i
I Borneo(country)
Wên-laiw; j
Mao-hua-larw 4°53'N. Borneo (town)

Li yü islandrw c.5°00'N. Pulau Muara Besar
Ch'ang yao islands; c.5°16'N. Labuan island
Ch'ang yao island harbour(68) c.5°16'N. Victoriaharbour?
K'un-lunmountains^; c.5°42'N. Pulau Tega
Shêngmountainr7o; 6°04'N. Mt. Kina Balu
Wu islands^ 6°43'N. Mantananiislands

Shih chüehmountainr
72; c.7°15'N. Pulau Balambangan
Lo-po mountainr7i; c.8°00'N. Balabac island
See BritishAdmiraltycharts2660A, 2660B, and 2107, and 'Pilot', No. 31 and

SupplementNo. 7 - 1971.
Sailingdirections
Arab
Directionsare wanting
Chinese
(1) The Mao K'un map names,on theroutefromVietnamto Java,Tung Tung
[Pulau Sapatu], Hsi Tung [Great Catwick],and, close to the coast of Borneo,Tung
Shê lung[TanjongDatu], and Sha wu p'i [Merundungisland].256
(2) [ VoyagefromThailandviaBorneoto thePhilippines ].
" - Ta mountain 80
hêng [Poulo Panjang]; [steer]127^°; watches;make Ch'ih t'u
pai mien mountain [Bukit Setiam]; take a 32
sounding, fathoms;[steer]37^°; 15
watches; makeTan shuihaven[BatangBaram]; [steer]37£°; 10watches; makeCh'ang
yao island [Labuan]; thisis So-lo harbour;on the horse-doorside [starboard]there
is a [pieceof the]land and on thenorth-east side thereis a smallisland; [steer]37^°;
5 watches;make K'un-lunmountains[Pulau Tega]; in thedistanceyou see 3 pointed
mountains;pass on theinside;[steer]37£°; 10 watches;makeShêngmountain[Mount
Kina Balu] and [then]Wu [Mantanani]islands on the sail-spreadside [port];[steer]
52i°; 5 watches; make Shih chiieh mountain[Pulau Balambangan]; [steer]7£°; 5
watches;make Lo-po mountain[Balabac island]".257
(3) [VoyagefromthePhilippinesviâ Borneoto Thailand]
Lo-po mountain[Balabac island]; [steer]exactly 180°, and [then] 187£°; 10
watches; make Wu [Mantanani]islands; [then]make Shêng mountain[Mt Kina
Balu]; [steer]262^°; 10 watches;make Chên K'un-lunmountains[Pulau Tega]; pass
43

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
inside them; [steer]exactly210°; 5 watches; make Ch'ang yao island [Labuan];

[steer]exactly210°; 10 watches;makeTan shuiharbour[BatangBaram].
If thereis an east wind,steer282^°; if thereis a northwind,steerexactly225°; 40
watches; make Tung Shê lung [Tanjong Datu]. If you are over against Ch'ih t'u
pai mien[BukitSetiam],putoutto sea ; steer292^° and [then]exactly330°; 50 watches;
[steer]exactly315°; 45 watches;maketheside ofPi chia [Sam Roiyat]".258
(4) [VoyagefromŒu-p'an [Pulau Tioman] to Wên-lai , [Brunei].
"- Tung His Shê lung mountain[TanjongDatu]; foreigners call it by the name of
Tan-jung Tu mountain ; thereare also some small islands ; steer exactly60°; 20 watches;
make Tan-jungLao-mei mountain[TanjongSirik]; foreigners call it by the name of
Tan-jung Ssû-li mountain - take a sounding, 3 fathoms ; steer exactly60°; 11 watches;
makeCh'ih t'u pai mienmountain[BukitSetiam].
In thedistanceyou see thaton themountainthereis a stonecliffresembling the
shape of a sail. Follow the mountains and proceed; 10 watches; make Tan shui
harbour[BatangBaram]; - take a sounding,3-4 fathoms;- ; steer61%°and [then]
exactly60°; 10 watches; make Wên-laiharbour[SungeiBrunei]- on the east side
thereis a large mountain;on the northis Ch'ang yao island harbour[Victoriahar-
bour?]; make Mao-hua-la [Muara]; stop theship."259
(5) [VoyagefromWên-lai[Brunei]to CKu-p'an[Pulau Tioman]
"Set sail fromWên-lai harbour[Sungei Brunei],- ; [steer]exactly285° and [then]
255°; 10 watches;make Tan shui harbour- take a sounding,3 fathoms;- ; follow
themountainsand proceed; 10 watches;make Ch'ih t'u pai mien[BukitSetiam]:
in thedistanceyou see thaton themountainthereis a stonecliffresembling theshape
of a ship's sail; [steer]exactly255°; 10 watches; make Tan-jungLao-mei mountain
[TanjongSirik];- takea sounding,3 fathoms;[steer]exactly240°; 20 watches;make
Hsi Shê lungmountain[TanjongDatu]".260
(6) [VoyagefromLü-sung[Luzon]to Wên-lai[Brunei]
" - Shih chüeh mountain
[Pulau Balambangan]; [steer]exactly210°, [and then]
exactly195°; sightShêngmountain[MountKina Balu]; [steer]exactly210° and [then]
make K'un-lunmountains[Pulau Tega]; on the outsidethereis lao-kurock;
whenyou have passed the strait,go 217^° and [then]232^-°;as you proceed,you see
Ch'ang yao island [Labuan]; [steer]202^°; seek Li t'angisland [Pulau Muara Besar];
[steer]202^°; close at handis Wên-lai(P'o-ni) haven[SungeiBrunei]".261
(7) [VoyagefromWên-lai[Brunei]toLü-sung[Luzon]
"Set sail fromthe harbour;go out past Li t'ang island [Pulau Muara Besar]; [steer]
exactly15°; 5 watches;make Ch'ang yao island [Labuan]; pass throughthe middle
of the strait;steer37^°; 3 watches;make K'un-lun[Pulau Tega]; in thedistanceyou
observethat[thegroup]is made up of threeislands; theyare K'un-lun; [steer]22^°;
5 watches;make Wang yen mountain[Mount Kina Balu]; [itis] highand largeand
has clouds [uponit]; whengoingand returning, releasean ornamentedboat and offer
sacrifices;[steer]37-|0; 3 watches; make Wu lun [Mantananiislands]; [steer]37^°;
8 watches;make Po mountain[Balabac]".261
(8) [VoyagefromCKüan Chou to Wên-lai[Brunei]
"You see Ku po mountain[Balabac]; again, you see Shêngmountain[Mount Kina
Balu] openingout opposite[to you]; it is highand large [and] has clouds [upon it];
44

Shih chüeh mountainis pointed; [steer]217^°; make K'un-lun mountains[Pulau

Tega]; outsidethemthereare lao-kushoals,level [withthesurface];navigatetheship
[through] thestrait;[steer]217£°and [then]exactly210°; followtheland and proçeed;
make Ch'ang yao island [Labuan]; thereis a strait;[steer]187^°; make Li yü island
[Pulau Muara Besar]; reach Mao-hua-la [Muara]; this is P'o-ni [Brunei],that is,
Wên-lai[Brunei]."262
(9) [Navigationalnotesonplaces in Borneo]
"Shih chüehmountain[Pulau Balambangan]. [Steer]202^°; 8 watches;and [steer]
exactly195°; make Shêng mountain[Mount Kina Balu]. Shêng mountain[Mount
Kina Balu]. It fillstheheavens- highand large.
Below Shêngmountain[Mount Kina Balu]. The two oppositeislandsare Wu
islands[Mantananiislands].
Wu islands [Mantananiislands]. [Steer]202^°; 5 watches;you are level with
threeislandscalled K'un-lun[Pulau Tega].
K'un-lun mountains[Pulau Tega]. Close by, you see three [islands]; at a
distance,you see one [island];as you put to sea, thereare lao-kurocks; [steer]232^°;
li watches;[make]Ch'ang yao island strait[Labuan east channel];followthe land
and proceed.
Ch'ang yao island. [Afonote]
Li yü t'ang. [No note]
P'oli [Brunei]. It is also called Mao-hua-la [Muara]; that is, Wên-lai [Bru-
nei]."263
(10) [VoyagefromLïi-p'êng[Lubang]to thecountry of Wên-lai[Brunei].
"Lo-po mountain;steer202-£°;3 watches;makeShêngmountain[MountKina Balu].
Shêng mountain[Mount Kina Balu]. - steerexactly210° and [then]217-£Q;
5 watches;make K'un-lunmountains[Pulau Tega].
K'un-lun mountains[Pulau Tega]. - steer 21 make Ch'ang yao island
[Labuan].
Ch'ang yao island [Labuan]. The ship passes throughthe island strait;steer
exactly180°; 5 watches;make Li yü t'ang[Pulau Muara Besar]. Li yü t'ang. Make
Mao-hua-la[Muara]; thatis, Wên-lai[Brunei]harbour.
The countryof Wên-lai[Brunei]. That is, thecountryof P'o-lo; thisis thevery
end oftheEasternOcean, and is theplace wheretheWesternOcean begins;therefore
P'o-lo is theterminus."264
Bearings
From Tung Shê lung mountain[Tanjong Datu] Chinese ships steered60° for
20 watchesto Tan-jung Lao-mei [Tanjong Sirik][the bearingon the modernchart
being 67^°]; thenceon the same course [actually55|°] for 11 watchesuntilCh'ih
t'u pai mien [BukitSetiam]was broughtabeam; thence37£° [actually55^°] for 15
watchesto a point whereTan shui harbour[Batang Baram] was broughtabeam;
thencetheysteered67J° [actually66^°, whichwould bringthemoffBruneicliffs],
and thenchangedcourse to 60° [presumablyto give a wide berthto Pelong rock];
thisstagetook 10 watches;afterwhich,thoughno directionsare given,theyfound
theirwaythroughBruneibay to Wên-laiharbour[SungeiBrunei].
45

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
Sometimestheyby-passedBrunei,and fromBatangBaram steered37|° [actually

66i°, 75°, and 29°] for 10 watchesuntiltheyenteredthe channelon the east side of
Ch'ang yao island [Labuan].
StartingfromWên-lai[Brunei],shipsmade Li yü or Li t'angisland [Pulau Muar
Besar],thensteered15° [actually29°]for5 watchesto thechannelon theeast side of
Ch'ang yao island [Labuan]; theythensteered37^° [actually355^°, 32}°, and 90°]
for5 watchesto the channelon the east side of K'un-lunislands[Pulau Tega], then
22^° [actually24°, and 40^°] for5 watchestillShêngor Wang yenmountain[Mount
Kina Balu] was broughtabeam,then37-£° [actually40^°] for3 watchesto thechannel
on the east side of Wu islands [Mantananiislands],and finally37^° [actually30°]
for5 watchesto Shihchiiehmountain[Pulau Balambangan].
In theoppositedirection, thenavigatorwas instructedto steeras follows:-
fromShih chüeh mountain[Pulau Balambangan]
to Shêngmountain[Mount Kina Balu] 202^°, then195°,8(?) watches
thenceto K'un-lunmountains[Pulau Tega] "

210°, then217^° 5
thenceto Ch'ang yao island [Labuan] 210° 5 "
thenceto Tan shui harbour[BatangBaram] 210° 10 "
thenceto Ch'ih t'u pai mien[BukitSetiam] 10 "

[notstated]
thenceto Tan-jungLao-mei [TanjongSirik] 255° 10 "
thenceto Hsi Shê lung[TanjongDatu] 240° 20 "
voyagewouldbe:-
A 'reasonable'courseforthenorthward
From Tanjong Datu to Tanjong Sirik 67^°
thenceto a pointwhereBukitSetiamwas broughtabeam 55^°
thenceto BatangBaram 55-£°
thenceto Labuan (east channel) 66£0,75°,29°
thenceto Pulau Tega (east channel) 355^°, 32^°, 90°
thenceto a pointwhereMt. Kina Balu was broughtabeam 24°, 40^°
thenceto Mantananiislands(east channel) 40£°
thenceto Pulau Balambangan 30°
46

The coursesspecifiedin theChinesetexts,whenlaid down in BritishAdmiralty

chart2660B, appearto exhibitveryunequaldegreesofaccuracy;sometimesa bearing
almostexactlytallies,as on thevoyagefromBatang Baram to theneighbourhoodof
; sometimesa bearingdiffers
Bruneicliffs as on thevoyagefromtheneighbour-
slightly,
hood of Mount Kina Balu to the Mantananiislands; sometimesa bearingis wide of
the mark,as on the voyagefromthe neighbourhoodof BruneicliffstowardsBrunei
Bay; (herethe navigatorwould laterhave to turneastward,but thisis not recorded
in the texts); finallysometimesa bearingappears to be suicidal,as on the voyage
northwardfromthe Mantanani islands,when the bearingof 52-£°,as in text (2),
wouldinevitably lead to shipwrecknearAgal bay.
Sometimesthe Chinesefiguresforbearingsare deficientin detail; forinstance,
thebearingof 37^° mustbe alteredin orderto maketheeast side of K'un-lunislands
[Pulau Tega] fromLabuan east channel.
Identifications
Arab name
The Arab textsgive onlyone name,Barani,also called Barniand Burnai. It is
statedthatat themostnortherly and
pointthealtitudeof thePole Starwas 5 fingers,
thatat the mostsoutherlypointthealtitudeof Ursa Minor was 6 fingers;thisrange
ofabout 600 milesshowsthatthenameBaranireferred to thewholeislandof Borneo,
or perhapsto a groupofislandsbearingthisname. The actualdifference betweenthe
latitudeofthenorthpointand thfe southpointis about 772 miles.
Chinesenames
The enquireris confronted witha formidablearrayof names,mostlyof Chinese
origin and at firstsightinexplicable;however,theyyieldto treatment;the figures
givenforbearingsand timesin thetexts,coupledwithincidentalpiecesofinformation,
make it possible to identifyall the places, withone exception,beyond reasonable
doubt. The enquirybreaksnew groundforthe historicalgeographer,and the best
plan of attack,it seems,will be to investigatethe groupsof names in threeareas;
(a) first,thecentralarea, around Brunei,(b) secondly,thecoast-lineto the southof
Brunei,(c) thirdlythecoast-linenorthof Brunei.
(a) The firstarea includes6 names,namely,P'o-ni, Wên-lai,Mao-hua-la, Li
yüisland,Ch'ang yao island,and Ch'ang yao islandharbour.
Fortunately, theenquireris providedwitha veritable'centrum',forundoubtedly
P'o-ni and Wên-laimean Brunei.
Boththecountryand thetownwereknownto theChineseas P'o-ni and Wên-lai,
and P'o-li oftext(9) is a variantof P'o-ni.
Accordingto text(10) thecountrywas also called P'o-lo; but Fairbankand Têng
said that this statement,which appears also in the Ming Shih, is erroneous,and
Pelliotconsideredthatin Ming timesP'o-lo meantanothercountry,exact situation
unknown,on thenorthcoast of Borneo; moreover,Li Hsien differentiated between
thecountriesof P'o-ni and P'o-lo.265
47

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
Accordingto texts(8) and (9) P'o-ni and Wên-laiwerealso knownto theChinese

as Mao-hua-la,'Muara', but thismayreferto thetownonly.
Ch'ang yao island, 'Long waistisland', was reachedby sailingon a bearingof
15° fromSungeiBrunei,as in text(7), and south-boundshipsfromCh'ang yao island
sailed on a bearingof 202^° or 187^° or 180° to Sungei Brunei,as in texts(6), (8),
and (10); further, Ch'ang yao island was separatedfromthe mainlandby a strait,
and coast-wiseshippingfromthenorthsailedthroughthisstraiton a bearingof 210°,
as in text(3); moreover,the voyagefromCh'ang yao island to Li yü ťang (Li ťang
island) took 5 watches,as in text(10), and at Li ťang island the mouthof Sungei
Bruneiwas "close at hand" as in text(6), so thedistancefromCh'ang yao island to
SungeiBruneiwouldprobablynotexceed40 miles: a reference to thechartshowsthat
the only island whichcomplies reasonablywell with the specifiedrequirements is
Labuan island,thedirectdistancefromthemouthof SungeiBruneibeing23 miles.
Ch'ang yao island harbouror anchoragemouthpresumablywas the So-lo har-
bour of text (2) and presumablywas Victoria harbour,but thereis not sufficient
evidenceto provetheexactlocation,and theidentification withVictoriaharbourmust
be considereddoubtful.
Li yü island, 'Carp fishisland', also called Li yü ťang, 'Carp fishponds', and
Li ťang island, 'Carp ponds island', lay on the route betweenSungei Bruneiand
Labuan, and navigatorsweretold to look out forit; shipsbound forSungeiBrunei,
afterpassing Labuan sailed on a bearingof 180° and reachedLi yü island after5
watches,as in text (10); ships bound northwardfromSungei Brunei sailed on a
bearingof 15° fromLi ťang island and reachedLâbuan after5 watches,as in text
(7); fromthe factthatin text(6) the navigatorwas givena bearingto followwhen
sailingfromLi yü island to Sungei Burneiit may reasonablybe deduced that the
mouthof Sungei Bruneiwas not readilyvisiblefromLi yü island and therefore lay
some littledistanceaway; on theevidenceLi yü island mustbe Pulau Muara Besar,
theeasternend of whichlay 7 milesfromtheentranceof SungeiBruneiand 17 miles
fromthenearestpointon Labuan island.
(b) The second area includes 4 names, namely,Tung Shê lung mountain,
Tan-jungLao-mei,Ch'ih ťu pai mien,and Tan shuiharbour.
Tung Shê lung mountain,'East Snake dragon mountain',the most southerly
place, was also called Tung Hsi Shê lung mountain,'East and West Snake dragon
mountain',or Hsi Shê lung mountain,or Lung shê mountain. We identify it with
Tanjong Datu, because:-
(a) Tung Hsi Shê lungmountainwas statedin text(4) to be a land-markon the
west-eastvoyage fromCh'u-p'an [Pulau Tioman] to Wên-lai [Brunei],the journey
taking40 watchesfromPulau Tiomanand 51 watchesfromBrunei,
(b) the nauticalmanual 'Shun Fêng' mentionedLung shê mountainas a land-
mark on the north-southvoyage fromTung Hsi Tung [Linschoten's'Tomsitom',
îles Catwick]to Chia-li-ma[Karimata],266
(c) this notable land-markon both the west-eastroute and the north-south
routecould only be near the 'horn' of Borneo, in the neighbourhoodof Tanjong
Api-TanjongDatu,
48

IN MALAYSIAN
WATERS
(d) confirmatory evidenceis suppliedby thefactthatin describingthislocality

the manual 'Shun Fêng' statedthat "in the middleof the straitthereis one small
island called Sha hu p'i,266whilethe Mao K'un map markedan island called Sha
wu p'i nearTung Shê lungoffthecoast of Borneo; thestraitmustbe Api Passage and
theislandmustbe Merundung,267
(e) accordingto text(4), Tung Hsi Shê lungmountainwas calledbytheforeigners
Tan-jungTu, whereinthe last wordmustsurelybe a contractionof the Malay Datu
(Datuk).
Tan-jungLao-mei mountain,20 watches'travellingfromTanjong Datu, can be
identifiedbecause 'Shun Fêng' explains that foreignerscalled it Tan-jung Ssu-li
mountain,and Ssü-lino doubt represents 'Sirik'.268
The texts(4) and (5) givefigures forthebearingand timetakenon thevoyagesbetween
Tanjong Datu and Tanjong Sirik,and thesefiguresare of the greatestvalue because
theyprovidea measuring-stick, albeitsomewhatelastic,forlocatingthe otherplaces
on the Borneo coast; the distanceof 108 milestook 20 watches(48 hours) in both
directions, givinga speed of 5.4 milesin 1 watch,or 2.2 knots
Tan shui harbouror anchoragewas reachedin 10 watchesfromLabuan, as in
text(3), and thejourneyin the oppositedirectiontook the same time,as in text(2);
also, thejourneyfromTan shui harbourto Tanjong Datu took 40 watches,as in text
(3), henceTan shui harbourmusthave been situatedabout one-fifth of the distance,
about 393 miles,fromLabuan to TanjongDatu, thatis, it was situatedabout 78 miles
fromLabuan; moreover,south-goingshipsfromLabuan changedcoursefrom210°
to 225° or to 282^°, as in text(3), at Tan shui harbour;henceit is reasonablycertain
that Tan shui harbourwas Batang Baram, 92 miles fromLabuan, since Tanjong
Baramis theonlysalientpointon thispartof the coast, wherea change of bearing
wouldbe needed.
Ch'ih t'u pai mien,'Red earthwhiteface',presentsa littledifficulty;in thosedays
theremusthave been somethingmost distinctive about thispart of the coast, since
shipstravellingall the way fromTa Hêng, Poulo Panjang, in the Gulf of Thailand
soughtthisland-markaftera directjourneyof about 650 miles; theChinesesaw it as
a redhillsidewitha whitestonecliffresembling a sail in shape.
Ch'ih t'u pai mienwas reachedfromTanjong Sirikin 11 watches,accordingto
text(4), and the further voyageto Batang Baram took 15 watches;(text(4) says 10
watches,butthisis too shorta time);thedistancein a directline fromTanjong Sirik
to Batang Baram is 193 miles,hencewe may expectto findCh'ih t'u pai mienat a
pointabout 82 milesfromTanjong Sirikand 111 milesfromBatangBaram.
We therefore identifyCh'ih t'u pai mienwithBukitSetiam,2°58'N., 112°55'E.,
a conspicuoushill,2095 feethigh,broughtabeam aftera voyage of 85 miles from
Tanjong Sirik.
A view of the hill may be seen in the 'Pilot'.269
(c) The thirdarea includesthe names of 4 places in and adjacent to Borneo,
namely,K'un-lunmountains,Shêngmountain,Wu islands,and Shihchüehmountain.
K'un-lunmountainsor islandswerealso called Chên K'un-lun,'True K'un-lun';
theywere reached after5 watches' travellingfromLabuan, accordingto text (2);
49

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
hereaboutsthiswould representa distanceof approximately 37 miles; a reference

to
the chart shows that K'un-lun must be the islandscalled Pulau Tega, lying some 31
miles fromLabuan as the crow flies;the bearingof 37^° is an over-simplification,
sincefromthemiddleof Labuan east channeltheshipmuststeer355^° to clearTan-
jong Sakat, then 32^° to clear Tanjong Nosong, and then90° in order,as advised,
to reachtheeast side of Pulau Tega, but theChinesetextsdo not giveall thedetails;
thedistanceon a 'reasonable'courseis 40 miles.
Shêng mountain,'Holy mountain', or Wang yen mountain,'Gaze-at mist
mountain',was broughtabeam aftera voyage of 5 watcheson a bearingof 22^°
fromPulau Tega, as in text(7); it constitutedan outstandingland-mark;highand
large, it filledthe heaven and had clouds on it; here devout marinersreleasedan
ornamentalboat and offeredsacrifices;it cannot be doubted that this was Mount
Kina Balu (13,450feet),broughtabeam aftera journeyof 50 milesfromPulau Tega.
Wu islands,'Five islands',also called Wu lun, werereachedafterthe ship had
proceededfora further 3 watcheson a bearingof 37£°,as in text(7); in thisperiod
of timethe ship would normallytravelabout 16.2 miles; a referenceto the chart
showsthatthe Wu islandsmustbe the Mantananiislands; theywerepassed on the
east side. Finally,north-bound shippingmade Shih chüehmountain,'Dung corner
mountain',as in texts(2) and (7), sailingfromtheeast side of the Mantananiislands
on a courseof 37^° for5 watches,whichwouldnormallyrepresent a distanceofabout
27 miles; at Shih chüehmountainsome shipsturnedeastwardto enterthe Sulu sea
and proceed to Mindanao;270hence we identifythis mountainwithPulau Balam-
bangan; a 'reasonable'coursefromtheeastsideoftheMantananiislandswouldbe 30°
and the nearestdistance betweenthe respectiveislands is 40 miles; fromPulau
Balambangansome ships sailed northwardto Lo-po mountain,Balabac island,271
and thenceby way of Palawan to Luzon.272
Vièws may be seen in 'Pilot', No. 31, pages 378-380,and 385-386.
50

IN MALAYSIAN
TanjungDatu to Pulau Balambangan

TABLE XI
Chinese 'Reason- Time ApproximateSpeed
course able9 (watches distance (knots)
course & hours) (miles)
Tanjong Datu to 60° 67^° 20/48 108 2.2

Tanjong Sirik
Tanjong Sirikto 60° 55£° 11/26.4 85 3.2
BukitSetiam(abeam)
BukitSetiamto 37£° 55£° 15/36 108 3.0
BatangBaram
BatangBaram to 37^° 66^° 10/24 92 3.8
Labuan then75°,
then29°
Labuan to 37±° 355¿° 5/12 40 3.3

Pulau Tega then32|°
then90°
Pulau Tega to 22£° 24° 5/12 50 4.1

Mt Kina Balu (abeam) then40^°
Mt Kina Balu to 37|° Щ° 3/7.2 22 3.0

Mantananiislands
Mantananiislandsto 37-J-0 30° 5/12 46 3.8

Pulau Balambangan -
74/177.6 551
Average 3.1
ADDENDUM A. (See page [23] Supra)

'The fourislands,Pulau Mal'aqa, Pulau Sabta and theirfellows'.
As theArab navigatorapproachedMelaka fromthe northhe saw fourislands;

one was on his leftand nearestthe shore; thiswas called 'Pulau Ubi', and doubtless
is themodernPulau Upeh, one milefromtheshore.273
Opinionsmaydiffer as to theidentificationof theotherthreeislands. Thereare
two alternatives.
First,theymaybe thetwoisletscalled Pulau Jawalyingabout 1600 yardssouth-
ward of St Paul's Hill, and the isletcalled Pulau Panjang lyingabout 2 milessouth-
south-eastward of St Paul's Hill.274
51

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
Secondly,theymay be threeof the Waterislands,a group of sevenislands or

islets,thelargestof whichis Pulau Besar,lyingabout milessouth-eastof Melaka
and 2 milesoff-shore.275
We provisionallyprefertheformeralternative forfourreasons:-
(a) a map of Eredia (1613) showsthatPulau Malacca is to be identified
withthe
modernPulau Jawa,276
(b) thenaturalinterpretation oftheexpression4he fourislands,Pulau Mal'aqa,
Pulau Sabta and theirfellows'suggeststhatthesefourislandswerein thesamegroup,
(c) the locationof Pulau Sabta in the same groupas Pulau Jawa supportsthe
viewofde Jongthat'Pulau Sabať lay nearerto Melaka thanPulau Besarin theWater
islands,277
(d) thenavigatorof a shipapproachingMelaka fromthenorthwould be much
more interestedin islands lyingtwo miles away fromthe port than in the Water
islandslying6' milesaway to thesouth-east.
ADDENDUM В (See page [39] Supra)

The Redang and PerhentianIslands.
The Mao K'un map containsa sketchof theseislands,reproducedin thearticle

of Mills and in thebook of Wheatley.278
This sketchshowstwo islandsnearerto themainland,namely,Shihyiianisland,
about 20 miles furthernorththan the mouthof the Sungei Terengganu,and Shih
mountain,offthe mouthof the SungeiKelantan.
Furtherout to sea it shows a row of 4 islands,almostequally spaced, parallel
withthecoast; thefirstwas called Chüehyüan and lay about halfway betweenShih
yüan islandand Shih mountain;the secondwas called Yang island and lay opposite
to Shih mountain;the thirdwas called San chüehisland; and the fourthwas called
Yen tunisland; thelast-namedwas represented norththantheHsi river,
to lie further
but thisis a seriouserror,sincethe mouthof the Hsi [Saiburi]riverlies in a latitude
44 milesfurther norththanthatofthePerhentianislands.
The sketchmarksa sea-routerunningfromthenorthalong thewestside of Yen
tunislandand San chüehisland; and themainrouteof shippingis shownto runalong
the east side of all the islands; texts(16) and (24), however,specifya routerunning
throughthestraitbetweenthemainlandon thewestand certainislandson theeast.
A reference to chart2414 showsthatthe routecontemplatedin thesetextsran
on theeast side of Pulau Rhu and Pulau Chipu,on thewestside of Pulau Susu Dara,
thePerhentian islands,and Pulau Lang Tengah,and on eitherthewestside or theeast
side of Pulau BidongLaut.
To considerthe fourislands on the east side of the route. The mostnortherly
island markedin the Mao K'un map was named Yen tun island, 'Beacon island';
thereseems no reason to doubt that it was the firstdangerencounteredby a ship
proceedingsouthward,and we therefore of the
identifyit withthe most northerly
islandsunderconsideration, thatis, Pulau Susu Dara (710 feet).
Nor does thereseemanyreasonto doubtthatthenextdanger,San chüehisland,
Three cornerisland', was the nextgroup of islands on the route,namely,the Per-
52

IN MALAYSIAN
WATERS
hentianislands; Pulau PerhentianKechil (1125 feet) and Pulau PerhentianBesar

(1 134feet)are separatedbya narrowchanneland theChineseprobablyregardedthem
as a singleisland.
The most southerlyof the fourislands,Chüeh yüan, 'Cornerround',was also
called Yüan kuang,'Round bright';it was the island whichcould be passed either
on the west or the east; and this must be Pulau Bidong Laut (1055 feet),the first
dangerencountered by a shiptravellingnorthward fromPulau Kapas.
Yang island, 'Goat island', lyingbetween Chüeh yüan and San Chüeh island,
might be eitherPulau Lang Tengah(520 feet) or Pulau Redang (1249 feet);we prefer
theformerbecause it lies nearerto theroute.To considerthetwo islandson thewest
side of the route. The Mao K'un map marks only two such islands, the more
southerlycalled Shih yüanisland,'Scholar roundisland' (or T'u yüan island,'Earth
round island'), and the more northerly called Shih shan, 'Stone mountain'. Chart
2414 marksonlytwo islandson the westside of the route,the moresoutherlycalled
Pulau Chipu, and the morenortherly called Pulau Rhu. It necessarilyfollowsthat
Shihyüanislandand Shihmountainshouldbe identified withPulau Chipu and Pulau
Rhu, respectively; and if so, the Mao K'un map places Shih yüanislandtoo farto the
south.
In viewof further evidencewhichhas sincecome to light,especiallythetwo MS
manualsin the Bodleian Library,the presentwriterhas had to modifysome of the
viewsexpressedin 1937; forinstance,in theMao K'un map, K'un hsia ch'i appearsto
be an island,but furtherexaminationshows thatthe expressionmeans 'lower river
of K'un [Nakhon]'and refersto Pattani.
ProfessorWheatleyqueried the identification of all these islands except T'u
yüan(Shih yüan) island,whichhe identified withPulau BidongLaut.
ADDENDUM С (See page [40] supra)
Pulau Tenggolto Kuala Pahang.
Thiswas a fastrunof74 milesin 5 watches(12 hours),thatis,at 6.1 knots.

We presumethatthehsii, 'island',ofT'ieh chênwas actuallyan island, and nota
hill on the mainland.
We mayreasonablypresumethattheauthorofthisnotewishesto drawattention
to thesalientpointson thevoyagefromPulau Tenggolto Kuala Pahang,and we may
reasonablyexpectthatthesepointswould referto the moresoutherlyportionof the
voyagewheretheshipapproachedtheland.
The onlyislandbetweenPulau Tenggoland Kuala Pahang is Pulau Ular; hence
we provisionallyidentify T'ieh chên island withPulau Ular, 4°03'N., 31 milesnorth
of Kuala Pahang279
'Opposite' to Pulau Ular, thatis, on about the same latitudeon themainland,is
Bukit Panjang, 4°06'N., (800 feet),hence we provisionallyidentifyTa tsao ch'uan
mountainwithBukitPanjang.
One mightregardtheseidentifications as reasonablycertainwereit not forthe
statementthat Pulau Tenggol and T'ieh chên island were 'mutuallyvisible'. The
53

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
distancebetweenPulau Tenggol and Pulau Ular is 48 miles,and since Pulau Ular

is only50 feethigh,it seemsdoubtfulwhetherit could be seen fromPulau Tenggol.
But perhapsthe writerwas speakingloosely,and meantmerelythatPulau Tenggol,
907 feet,was visiblefromT'ieh chênisland.
ADDENDUM D (See page 2 Supra)
Malay place-names.
De Jonghas collectedthe Malayan and Sumatranplace-namesmentionedin

Malay classicalliteratureand has locatedthemin a map.280
The Arab and Chinesetextsstudiedin thepresentarticlerevealtheexistenceof
severalotherMalay namesofplacesin Malaya and Borneoabout A.D. 1500,and these
are set out below.
But cautionis necessary;because(a) in someinstanceswe do notknowwhatthe
Malay name was [e.g. P'a nao], (b) a name, thoughknown to the Malays, [e.g.
Madura, or Kapas], mayhave been derivedfromother[e.g.Indian,or Arab] sources,
(c) a Malay name [e.g. Cherakah]may have been applied to a place [e.g. Cherakah
islands]to whichtheMalays appliedanothername[e.g.Kelang islands],(d) a foreign
name [e.g. Niu shih chiao, 'BuffaloDung rock'] may have been applied to a place
independently of any existingMalay name [e.g. (perhaps later) Batu Kerbau,
'Buffalorock'].
We have listedthese'doubtful'cases separately.
I The Malay Peninsula
Arab or Chinesename Modernname
Butang[islands](A) "Ì
> Pulau Butang
Pu-tung[islands](C) J
Pinang[island](A) "1
>• Pulau Pinang
Pin-lang[island](C) J
Kra [island](A) Pulau Kra
Pan Kura [hill](A) Pulau Pangkor281
Pulau Sembilan[islands](A)
> Pulau Sembilan
Chiù [islets](C) J
54

I The Malay Peninsula ( Cont.)

Pulau Tanburak(A) Pulau Jarak
Chi-na[greatmountain](C) BukitCherakah
Pulau Hansa (A) Pulau Angsa
Pulau Jumar(A) Djemur
Wên lu ku (С) Lukut
Pulau Ubi (A) Pulau Upeh
Pulau Malacca (A) Pulau Jawa
Pulau Pisang (A) "1

> Pulau Pisang
P'i-sung[islands](C) J
Karimun[islands](A) 1
> Pulau Karimun
Chi-li-mên[islands](C) J
Kaling [harbour?](A) Kalang
Chu ['bamboo', islands](C) Pulau Aur
Doubtful
Chi-na[fiveislands](C) Kelang islands
suggestsPulau Cherakah
Qafasi [area] (A) and BukitJugra

Mien hua ['cotton',hill](C)
suggestBukitKapas
Madura [cape] (A) Cape Rachado
Niu shih['BuffaloDung', rock](C) Batu Kerbau

suggestsBatu Kerbau
P'i-p'a [island](C) Pulau Sakijang Pelepah

suggestsPelepah
55

j. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
I The Malay Peninsula ( Cont.)
P'a nao [island](C) Pulau Anak Sambo

suggestsPrao[1]
Shih [rock](C) Pulau Sribuat

suggestsSri
П BORNEO
Tung Shê lungalias Tan-jungTu [cape] (C) Tanjong Datu
Tan-jungLao-mei alias Tan-jungShih-li[cape] (C) Tanjong Sirik
P'o-ni
Brunei
J-[country](C)
Wên-laiJ
Mao-hua-la [Muara, town?](C) Brunei
So-lo [Solokl, harbour?](C) Victoriaharbour?
Doubtful
K'un-lun[islands](C) Pulau Tega

suggestsKundur[?]
CONCLUSIONS
are Ahmadbin Majid, SulaimanbinAhmad,
(1) The principalArab authorities
and Sidi Ali Selebi.
The principalChinese authoritiesare the Mao K'un map (publishedin Mao
Yüan-1's Wu Pei Chih), the anonymous'Shun Fêng Hsiang Sung', LÜ P'an and Lu
Ch'êng-Ên,and Chang Hsieh.
All thedocumentscontainerrors.
(2) Arab tradingships, progressingeastward,penetratedto Malayan waters
about A.D. 700: Chinese tradingships, progressingwestward,foundtheirway to
Malayan watersabout 795.
(3) Arab tradersreachedChina soon after724; by about 750 Arab and Persian
tradershad become the principalmiddlemenin the tradeof China to the southand
west,and theirshipswerethechiefmeansof communication:Chinese tradingships
by 805 had reachedthenorthcoast of Sumatra.
The greatroutebetweenChina and India ran viâ Palembangand throughthe
Straitof Melaka.
56

(4) In 879, followingdisturbancesin China, Arab tradingships terminated

theirvoyage at Kalah (perhapsKedah) on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula,
and Chineseshipstravelledto Kalah to meetthem.
(5) By 900 the Arab seamenwerewell acquaintedwiththe coast of the Malay
Peninsula,but Arab shipsafterleavingKalah ran straightthroughSingaporeStrait
to Tiyumah',Pulau Tioman,and in 1000theArabs knewthenameof onlyone place,
'Panhang',in the southernpart of the Peninsula: thereis no recordof the Chinese
visitingthesouthernpartofthePeninsulabeforethelatterdate.
(6) In 970 the Arab tradersresortedagain to China; and fromthis date until
1500theArabsremainedtheleadingtradersand marinersoftheIndian Ocean.
(7) In 977 a traderbearingtheArab name'P'u Lu-hsieh'opened relationsbetween
China and Borneo: at the beginningof the tenthcenturyChinesewere carryingon
commercialexchangesin Sarawak,and beforethe end of thatcenturyKuang Chou
(Canton) and Ch'üan Chou weretradingdirectly withwesternBorneo.
(8) The Arab voyagers were either (accordingto Houráni) eithertradersor
pirates; and the statesof southern Arabia neverestablisheda navy: the government
of Sung China established permanentnavyin 1132,and fromabout 1150 until1433
a
China was a 'sea power'.
(9) By 1178 Chinesemerchantsweresailingto India, and theybroketheArab
monopolyof thefreight and passengerbusiness.
(10) The powerfulfleetsof the Yüan emperors(1280-1368) ensuredthe safety
of sea-travelbetweenChina and westernEurope.
In Yüan timesChinesemerchants beganto takeup residencein the'South Seas';
forinstance,in 1350on Fort CanningHill, Singapore.
(11) The naval mightoftheYung Lê emperor,attainingitszenithin 1421, made
Ming China theparamountsea powerof theOrient.
Enormousexpeditions,mostlyunderthe Grand Eunuch ChêngHo, showedthe
flag from Java to Hormuz, and emissariesvisitedMalindi in Africaand Mecca in
Arabia.
Naval bases wereestablishedat variousports,includingMelaka.
(12) Trade followedthe flag,and presumablythe volume of China's overseas
tradereacheda newhighpointundertheYung Lê emperor(died 1424).
(13) After1433 the Chinese navy was allowed to disintegrate. On theother
hand,aftera periodof quiescence,therestartedbefore1487 a greatefflux of Chinese
tradingjunks from portsin south China to south-east Asia.
In 1500
(14) Arab tradingshipswerepointedat bow and stern,constructedof planks
stitchedwith palm fibre,(Houráni calls them "frail"), normally single-masted,
and about 110 feetlong: Chinesetradingships were rectangularin shape, strongly
constructed withironfastenings, usuallymulti-masted, and about 250 feetlong.
(15) Arab ships had a triangularlateen sail, slungfore-and-aft:Chineseships
had a rectangularbalance lug, stiffened withbattens.
(16) BothArab and Chineseship-masters wereprovidedwithchartsand books
of sailinginstructions.
57

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
(17) Arab sea-captainshad a magneticcompass,indicating32 points,impre-

ciselyspaced: Chinese skippershad a magneticcompass,indicating24 points,pre-
ciselyspaced: a combinationoftwocontiguouspointsprovided48 points.
(18) Arab and Chinesesea-captains,in orderto ascertainlatitude,measuredthe
altitudeof starsabove the horizon: the Arabs mightuse 70 starsor stargroups,of
which7 wereparticularly important, themostimportantbeingal-Jah(Polaris,Alpha
of Ursa Minor),thenal-Murabba' (Alpha of Crux),al-Farqadan (Beta and Gamma
of Ursa Minor), and al-Na'sh (Delta, Eta, and Zeta of Ursa Major); the Arabs
reckonedthat when the altitudeof al-Jahwas 1 finger,that of al-Farqadan was 8
fingers,and thatwhenthe altitudeof al-Farqadan was 1 finger, thatof al-Na'sh was
13 fingers; theydividedthefinger(isba) of Io 36'25" into 8 zam of 12°03'; measurements
weremade withan instrument called khashaba:the Chineseordinarily used 10 stars,
the most importantbeing Pei ch'ên (Polaris), Têng lung ku (four stars in Crux),
and Hua kai (50 of Cassiopeia); the Chinesereckonedthatwhenthe altitudeofPei
ch'ên was 1 finger,that of Hua kai was 8 fingers ; theydividedthe finger(chih)of
1°36'25"into 4 chüehof 24' 10"; measurements wereprobablymade withsome kind
of cross-staff.Both Arab and Chinesefiguresvariedgreatlyin accuracy.
(19) The Arab unitof timewas a watchof 3 hours,called zam, measuredby
observingthepositionofthestarsin thetail of Ursa Major: theChinese unit of time
was a watchof2.4 hours,calledkêng, measuredbytheburningofan incense-stick.
(20) In Arab theorythe unit of distancewas a zam of 12.05 sea-miles,being
one-eightof thedistancetravelledin orderto raisethePole Starby 1 finger(1°36'25")
when travellingdue north; the methodof measuringdistancesis not known; the
textsrecordthefollowingdistancesin Malayan waters:-
Kuala Kedah to Pulau Pinang,4 zam or 48.2 miles[actually40 miles],
Pulau Pinangto Pulau Perak,8 zam or 96.4 miles[actually75 miles],
Kuala Pasai to Dindings,13 zam or 156.6miles[actually217 miles]:
in Chinesetheorythedistancetravelledin 1 kêngwas reckonedto be 60 //,equivalent
to a speedof7.6 knots; Chinesechartsand nauticalcompendianeverrecorddistances.
(21) For an Arab ship,a normalspeed would be between2 and 4 knots; on
occasionsit mighthave travelledat 5 knots: Chineseships,in thetextsherestudied,
travelledat a minimumspeed of 2.2 knotsand a maximumspeed of 6.1 knots; the
theoreticalspeed of 7.6 knotscould have been attainedonlyin veryfavourablecondi-
tions; a speed of 8 to 10 knots would be quite reasonable for Chêng Ho's ships
(Needham).
(22) Arabs and Chinese both consideredthat the most importantfactorin
navigationwas the skipper'sknowledgeof guidesand aids, particularly land-marks;
both normallytimedtheirvoyagesto co-incidewiththe dates of the south-west and
north-eastmonsoons; both measuredthe altitudesof the starsin orderto ascertain
theirlatitude,but the Arabs observeda greaternumberof starsand observedthem
more frequently;both used the plumb-lineto measurethe depthof the water,but
the Arabs used it more frequently:on the otherhand, the Arab navigators,unlike
theChinese,showeda predilection for'sailingalong thelatitude'to theirdestination;
in changingcoursetheArabs normallypreferred 'wearing'and the Chinesepreferred
'tacking',and Chineseshipscould sail closerto thewindthanArab ships.
58

(23) In criticizingthe accuracy of the bearings on which fifteenth century

navigatorswereinstructed to sail, commentators mustneedsbear in mind
(a) that theremay have been changes in conditions,particularlyin respect
ofvariationofthecompass,and thedirectionand forceofwindsand currents,
(b) navigatorswereexpectedto use theirdiscretionand to make a correction
whentheyfoundthattheywereofftheircourse.
(24) For thevoyagebetweentheButangislandsand BukitJugra,theArab texts
are moreinformative than the Chinese. The formergive certainsailingdirections,
of whichsome are adequate and some inadequate; theyname 14 places and givethe
stellaraltitudesat 9 : thelattername 10 places,and giveno further information.
(25) For the dangerouspassage between the North Sands and South Sands,
both Arab and Chinesetextsgive detailedand satisfactory directions,based on the
positionof Djemur and Bukit Jugra,foreffecting a safe crossing:but whereasthe
Arabsmeasuredthedepthofwaterconstantly, theChinesedid notmeasureit at all.
(26) For thevoyagebetweenBukitJugraand Melaka,thebearingsrecommended
in bothArab and Chinesetextswould now take the shiptoo farfromthemainland;
and no instructions are givenforreachingMelaka fromTanjong Keling or fromthe
Waterislandsbeyonga vague directionto 'followtheland'.
(27) BeyondMelaka thequalityoftheArab descriptions deterioratessuddenly;
and Arab textsgive no sailinginstructions forthe voyagesfromMelaka to the east
side of the Karimunislands,or forthe voyagesthroughSingaporeStrait,or along
the east coast of the Malay Peninsula,or along the north-west coast of Borneo: on
the otherhand, the Chinese instructions remainjust as detailed,and since on the
journeyfromthe Water islands to the Karimunislands thereis no objection to a
straightcourse on a bearingof 123°,the Chinesefigureof 127^° may be considered
satisfactory.
(28) For the passage throughSingaporeStraitfromthe Karimun islands to
Pedra Branca (Horsburghlight),the Chinese sources should be accepted as sub-
stantiallycorrect;these sourcesprescribea course south of Pulau Saturnu(Raffles
light),and thoughthe bearingswould not be satisfactory undermodernconditions,
a suggestedcoursethroughKeppel Harbourmustbe rejectedas beingirreconcileable
withtheinstructions givenin theChinesesources.
(29) For the voyagealong the east coast of the Malay Peninsula,some of the
bearingsgiven in the Chinese textsare satisfactory and some are unsatisfactory;
certainnecessarydetails are lacking,for instance,the bearingfromPulau Tioman
to Kuala Pahangand fromPulau Kapas to Pulau BidongLaut; but forthemostpart
thiswas an easyjourneyin theopen sea witha sufficiency ofprominent land-marks.
(30) In respect of the voyage from Tanjong Datu to Pulau Balambangan,the
prescribedbearingsvaryfromgood to bad; detail
insufficient is givenforthechanges
of directionfromBatang Baram to the east side of Labuan island,and one bearing,
52^°, fromtheeast side oftheMantananiislands,wouldbe fatal.
59

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
(31) The Arab and Chinesetextsdisclosethe existencein Malaya and Borneo

of 21 place-namesnot recordedin Malay classical literature,as well as the possi-
ble existenceof 8 otherplace-names.
(32) The Arab textsprovideno help towardsthe identification of unidentified
places named in the Chinese texts; and the Chinese texts no
provide help towards
theidentificationof unidentified
places named in the Arab texts.
J.V.G. Mills D. Litt. (Oxon)
60

IN MALAYSIAN
NOTES.
1. The books of Pires (1515) and Barbosa (1516) describeconditionsin the

early years of the sixteenthcentury;and theyare frequentlyquoted by Meilink-
Roelofsz.
2. Compare the rules adopted for Britishofficialuse, China Sea Pilot, vol.
Ill, 1954, pp. xv-xvi.
3. This may appear unrealistic;but the reasonable courseis the approximate
course whichArab and Chinese navigatorsmustactuallyhave followed. No texts
set out all the necessarybearings;the navigatorwas expectedto keep his eye on the
land-marks;the Chinese textssay "follow the mountains",and the modern'Pilot'
says "steeras necessary"- whichamountsto thesame thing.
4. See Tibbetts(1), p. xvii.
5. On Ahmad, see Ferrand (1), pp. 183-237, especiallyp. 220; Tibbetts(l),
pp. 7-41, especiallypp. 7-8, 15-16, 18,23-25, 31-34,also pp. 182-183,186, 188-189:
Meilink-Roelofsz, p. 343 n. 5.
Ahmad lived fromabout 1437 to 1501. Tibbetts(1), pp. 9-11, takes the view
thatthenavigatorwho guidedda Gama to India was nottheArab,Ahmadibn Majid,
but a Muslim Gujarati.
'
Julfarwas a portsituatednearthemodernKhaimah(25° 48 'N., 55° 57 E.)
6. On Sulaiman,see Ferrand(1), pp. 237-248,especiallypp. 240-244: Tibbetts
(1), pp. 41-44. As to dates,all we knowis thathis Umdaappearedin 1511and that
he had died before1554 (Tibbetts(1), pp. 41-42.)
Shihrwas situatedin 14° 45' N., 49° 34' E., on thesoutherncoast of Arabia.
7. See Ferrand (1), pp. 220, 240-241: Tibbetts(1), p. 500. There does not
appear to be any Englishor Frenchtranslationof Sulaiman's work,but Tibbetts
gave some valuable quotationsfromSulaimanregardingthewestcoast of the Malay
Peninsula;he did notmentiontheeast coast,and his paperdid notpurportto include
Borneo: see Tibbetts(2), pp. 21-57.
8. Sidi Ali was a distinguished navigator,poet, and author. In 1553 he was
orderedto take commandof the Turkishfleetat Basra and to sail to Suez. The
fleetwas wreckedon the coast of Gujarat and Sidi Ali was detainedat Ahmedabad,
capitalof Gujarat,until1554. It was duringtheperiodof his residenceat Ahmeda-
bad thathe wroteal-Muhit. On Sidi Ali, see Ferrand(1), pp. 248-255: Tibbetts(1),
pp. 44-46.
9. Englishtranslationsby J. Prinsepof certainportionswerepublishedin the
Journalof theAsiaticSocietyof Bengal, 1834, 1836, 1837,and 1838. In 1897 there
appeared the work of M. Bittnerand W. Tomaschek entitledDie topographischen
Capiteldes indischen SeespiegelsMohit; herea Germantranslationof certainextracts
fromSidi Ali wereaccompaniedby a seriesof finemaps. In 1914 G. Ferrandpub-
lishedhis Relationsde voyageset textesgéographiques arabes, persanset turksrelatifs
à VExtrême-Orient des VIIIQ au XVIIIe siècles, with a sectionon 'Sidi Ali Celebi'
(vol. II, pp. 484-541). For furtherdetailssee Tibbetts(1), pp. xi-xvi.
10. An Englishtranslationof this chapterwill be foundin the Journalof the
61

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
Asiatic Societyof Bengal, 1836, pp. 161-11A. Ferrand(1), p. 255, consideredSidi

Ali's commentsto be insignificantand useless.
11. See Ferrand(2), p. 508. Chapter4 was translatedby Bittnerand Tomas-
chek,pp. 55-76.
12. See Ferrand(2), p. 514.
13. Tibbetts(ÌÌ. d. 45. Tibbettssaw Europeaninfluencehere.
14. An Englishtranslationof all thesevoyageswill be foundin theJournalof
the Asiatic Societyof Bengal, 1836, pp. 451-468, and a Frenchtranslationof the
twenty-seventh and twenty-ninth voyagesin Ferrand(2), pp. 488-489,and 492-493,
respectively.
15. Ferrand(2), pp. 515-540: Bittnerand Tomaschek,pp. 77-91. Sidi Ali,
like Ahmad and Sulaiman,wronglyorientatesJava fromnorthto south; also, he
omitsCalicutfromhis table of stellaraltitudes.
16. On this map see Mills (1), pp. 236-302, especiallypp. 239-241, 251, 258,
270,279,280,281,290-291(map), 298,299, 301,and 302. Partsofthemap,together
makingup the whole map, were reproducedin the articlesof Phillipsand Mulder.
The wholemap has also beenreproducedin HsiangTa.
17. Mills (1), pp. 250-251,and 295.
18. But we know that Chinesemerchantships visitedKalah (perhapsKedah)
as earlvas A.D. 878 (Houráni,o. 78).
19. Laud. MS Or. 145.
20. Needhamvol. IV, pt. 3, p. 725.
21. Ff 25v-26v,30-30V,32-33, 39v-45,50v-51,53v,and 54-54v.
22. Ff 51v-53v,58, and 60.
23. F. 46v.
24. For instance,in recordingthebearingfromLung ya straitto Pedra Branca
(Mills (1), p. 316).
25. The compilersstatethattheyderivedtheirinformation froman "ancestor";
thismightmean grandfather.
26. ChineseCollection. BackhouseMS 578.
27. Ff 42v, 44v,46, 47v, and 48v.
28. F. 14.
29. F. 12v. Needham,vol. iv, pt. 3, Plate CDXVI reproducesthistable.
30. F. 5.
31. F. 5. See Needham,vol. iv, pt. 3, p. 564.
32. Ff. 5 to 8.
33. Ff 14v-18. For instance,whenit is stated(ff. 15vand 16)thatthebearing
fromone place to anotheris ciï ou kuei [30°-15°],readingthe charactersanti-clock-
wise,and thatthebearingin thereversedirectionis tingwei [195°-210°],readingthe
charactersclockwise,it necessarilyfollowsthatthepointsintendedare 22^° and 202^°
[being22^° added to 180°]: this disprovesthe hypothesisthat '30°-15°' meant20°
and that '195°-210°' meant205°; cf Toung Pao , vol. XXXVII, livr. 1 (1942), pp.
1-14, especiallyp. 5.
34. Ff. 36v,37-37V,43, 45v,49, 50-51v.
35. F. 32.
62

IN MALAYSIAN
36. But anotherpartof theworkcontainsa reference to the Moluccas (/. 31v).

37. For instance,it states(/. 51v) that the navigatorsails fromSaja isletsto
Linggaisland on a bearingof 202^° [actually7°].
38. Pp. 120-121.
39. P. 122.
40. P. 124.
41. Kelantan is mentionedmerelyas a place visitedon the way fromGrande
Condoreto Pattani(p. 120).
42. P. 120.
43. Pp. 118 and 124.
44. P. 120.
45. P. 121.
46. Houráni,p. 11.
47. Houráni,p. 33.
48. Needham,vol. I, p. 179.
49. Tibbetts(3), pp. 31-32.
50. Tibbetts(3), p. 37: Wheatley,p. 210.
51. Wolters(1), p. 39.
52. It is not certainwhenthe Arabs firstarrived,but it musthave been some
timebefore758 (Wang Gungwu,p. 75 n. 19).
53. Tibbetts(3), p. 37.
54. Wang Gungwu,p. 75. The Arabs soon advanced further north,to Yang
Chou on the Ch'ang Chiang [Yangtze],and evento Korea (Tibbetts(3), pp. 28, 37).
Presumablytheyproceededto China by the main routeof the time,thatis, by way
of the Nicobar islandsto Kedah, thenceto Palembang,and thenceto Kuang Chou
[Canton](Tibbetts(3), p. 3: Wang Gungwu,p. 103: Wheatley,pp. 43-45).
55. Wang Gungwu,p. 79.
56. Tibbetts(3), p. 27.
57. Houráni, p. 77. The main route of the Arabs sailingto China now by-
passed Palembang,and ran fromKedah throughSingaporeStraitto Pulau Tioman
(Houráni,p. 71). Houráni(p. 73) saysthattheArabsfollowedthesame routeon the
returnjourney,whereasChia Tan, writingabout 800, describesthemainrouteto the
west as runningfromSingaporeStraitalong the east and northcoasts of Sumatra
(Wang Gungwu,p. 105).
58. Houráni,p. 77.
59. Houráni, p. 78. The location of Kalah is uncertain:Sauvaget (whom
we follow)favouredKedah: WheatleypreferredMergui: and Coedès says 'Malay
Peninsulato the northof the isthmusof Kra' (Wheatley,p. 224: Coedès, p. 242:
Wolters(2), p. 163).
60. Tibbetts(3), p. 31 : Wang Gungwu,p. 88.
61. Houráni,p. 83. In the twelfth centurythe Arabs had a monopolyof the
freightand passengerbusiness; but this monopolywas wrestedfromthemby the
Chinese(Lo (1), p. 499). However,by about 1400 the Chinesehad ceased to carry
on directtradewithIndia (Schrieke,pt. I, p. 25).
63

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
62. Tibbetts(2), pp. 38, 44, wherethe sea-roversare called "strangesavages",

and identified withthe Proto-Malayoranglaut: Tibbetts(3), pp. 14, 37: Wheatley,
p. 212 (map), and p. 232, wherethe sea-roversare called "aborigines". It may be
notedthat(a) the maritimeactivityof theancientArabs was restricted to commerce
and piracy(Houráni, p. 55), and (b) the statesof southernArabia neverestablished
a permanentnavy.
The principalArabian ports connectedwiththe Far Easterntrade were (pro-
ceeding from west to east) Jidda (21°29'N.), Aden (44°59'E.), Shihr (49°34'E.),
Risut (54°01'E.), Muscat (23°37'N.), and Suhar (24°21'N.). (Houráni pp. 70,
78-79).
The Arab merchantsestablishedsemi-permanent settlements in several,if not
many,ports of the Malay Archipelago; for instance, aitPalembangand Brunei,and
perhaps at Lamuri (Lambri) in Sumatra and Leran in Java, as wellas at Kalah in the
Malay Peninsula(Tibbetts(3), pp. 36, 38-41,44; Meilink-Roelofsz, p. 164).
63. Ferrand(1), vol. Ill, p. 89.
65. Wang Gungwu,pp. 38-39.
66. Wang Gungwu,pp. 58-59. The Yüeh people (fundamentally Indonesians)
occupiedthe territory now called Chê Chiang (Chekiang); withtheir'sinization'in
the thirdcenturyB.C. the 'Chinese' people now includeda sea-faringgroup(Wang
Gungwu,p. 4). During the centuries,therewas considerablemaritimeactivityin
'home' waters,includingnaval warfarewiththe people of Nan Yüeh, Tung Ching,
and Lin I or Lam Ap, latercalled Champa (Wang Gungwu,p. 14: Le Thanh Khoi,
p. 117: Hall, p. 34). Some writershave thoughtit probable that Chinese ships
duringthe fifthcenturytravelled,not only to Ceylon,but to Aden and the Persian
Gulf; see Needham,vol. I, p. 179and Houráni,p. 38.
67. Hirthand Rockhill,p. 8: Wang Gungwu,pp. 65-66: Wheatley,pp. 26-36:
Coedès, p. 100: Wolters(2), pp. 161, 173,203. The location of Ch'ih t'u is much
disputed:we hereadopt theviewof Moens and Coedès.
68. Kuwabara, no. II, p. 70. Buddhistpilgrimsnormallyused theseforeign
ships: bywayofexception,I Chingtravelledin a Persianship(Wang Gungwu,p. 103).
69. But improvements were being made m ship-construction; and by about
730 ironfastenings werenormal(Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 459 n.h.).
71. WangGungwu,pp. 104-105:Wheatley,pp. 47-60: Wolters(2), pp. 187-190.
72. Wang Gungwu,p. 107: Reischauer,p. 156.
73. Houráni, p. 18: Schrieke,pt. II, pp. 231-232: Wheatley,pp. 216-224:
Coedès, p. 242: Wolters(2), p. 163. The Arab tradingshipsresortedto China again
at thebeginningof thetenthcentury(Wang Gungwu,p. 88), and by about 950 most
of theArabs who came to China preferred to travelin thestronger and saferChinese
ships(Kuwabara, no. II, p. 66); but thePersiansceased tradingto China,apparently
defeatedbyArab and Indiancompetitors (Hadi Hassan, pp. 115,146).
74. Lo (1), pp. 489, 491: Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 476.
75. Hirthand Rockhill,pp. 89, and 91 n. 13: Lo (1), p. 499.
76. Lo(l), p. 491.
64

77. Le Thanh Khoi, p. 181: Reischauerand Fairbank,pp. 280-281: Needham,

vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 477. Khubilai's navystagedthelargestoverseasexpeditionswhich
theworldhad yetseen; but his invasionsof Japan,Champa, Tung Ching,Liu Ch'iu
(Ryu-kyu),and Javaall endedin failure(Latourette(1), pp. 264-266: Reischauerand
Fairbank,pp. 539-540). In Yüan timesChinese merchantsbegan to take up resi-
dencein the'South Seas'; thus,in 1350a groupof Ch'üan Chou traderswas resident
in Pan-tsu,Fort CanningHill ÍWheatlev.o. 83Ì.
78. FerrandC2Ì.vol. II. d. 350.
79. Schrieke,pt. II, p. 232.
80. LatouretteCD, P. 267: Latham,p. 273.
81. On theseexpeditionssee Mills (1), pp. 8-19. The Chinese establisheda
depot at Melaka (Wheatley,p. 324). The Sultan of Melaka was accordedespecial
favoursby the Emperorof China; in particular,he was presentedwithceremonial
robes bearingthe patternof the five-claweddragon {lung)as contrastedwithrobes
bearingthe patternof the four-claweddragon (mang; Giles, no. 7671), normally
bestowedon vassal rulers(Cammann,p. 194).
82. Lo (2), p. 151. Needham (vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 484) thoughtthatChêngHo's
navy would have outmatchedthat of any contemporary European state. Chinese
merchantshipsoccasionallyvisitedportsin the Red Sea, e.g. Aidhab in 1422 (Craw-
ford,p. 122) and Jiddain 1431and 1432 (Greenlee,p. 83). Trade followedtheflag,
and presumably thevolumeof China's tradereacheda newhighpointundertheYung
Lê emperor(Reischauerand Fairbank,p. 323). On theotherhand,in some spheres
therewas retrenchment; forinstance,Chinese ships did not normallysail to India
afterabout 1400(Schrieke,pt. I, p. 25).
83. Mills (1), pp. 14-21.
84. Lo (2), pp. 157-162.
85. Fairbank and Têng, pp. 201-202: Lo (2), pp. 156-157: Reischauerand
Fairbank,p. 336.
86. Latourette(2), p. 282: Lo (2), p. 156. But in the Indian Ocean the Arabs
remainedtheleadingtradersand mariners(Houráni,p. 83).
87. Wolters(2), p. 322 n. 23. In 607 Fu-shih-pu-lo, 'Vijayapura',somewhere
in westernBorneo,was apparentlythe chiefkingdomlyingeast of the Malay Penin-
sula (Wolters(2), p. 175).
88. Wolters(2), p. 175: Pelliot(1), p. 287 n. 2. The oldestmentionofthename
T'o-ni' appearsin Fan Cho's Man Shu, publishedabout 860 (Pelliot(1), p. 132 n. 5).
89. Wolters(1), p. 189.
89a. Groeneveldt,p. 230: Hirthand Rockhill,pp. 157 and 159 n. 13: Tibbetts
(3), pp. 30-31,43. This was thefirsttributeembassyfromBruneito China.
90. Hirthand Rockhill,pp. 18-19.
91. Groeneveldt,p. 231: Coedès, p. 291.
92. Hirth and Rockhill, p. 155. An importantand wealthysultanatewas
developing;therulercontrolled14 districtsand thetownof Bruneicontained10,000
inhabitants. Membersof the royalfamilymightuse platesof gold. Camphorwas
an importantproduct. Chao Ju-Kua (1226) describesthe mode of tradingand
specifiesthetradegoods. (Hirthand Rockhill,pp. 156, 158).
65

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
93. Rockhill,pt. II, pp. 261, 264, 266. Tanjong Pura lay on the Pawan river,
at or near the modernMatan; it was 'a sortof capital among the Borneanplaces'.
Wang Ta-Yiian enumeratesthe local products,whichincludedcamphorfromBrunei
and gold dustfromTanjongPura (Rockhill,pt. II, pp. 265, 266). In 1365Majapahit
exerciseda certainauthorityover these Bornean ports,and by 1500 the place of
Majapahit had apparentlybeentakenbyJapara(Meilink-Roelofsz, p. 101).
94. Groeneveldt,p. 231-
95. MingShih,p. 7913,row3. Accordingto Pelliot,in Mingtimes(1368-1644)
P'o-ni was a stateon the westcoast of Borneo,and P'o-lo, exact locationunascer-
tained,on thenorthcoast of Borneo(Pelliot(2), p. 267 n. 346).
96. Accordingto the Ming Shih,the dates of the embassiesfromChina were
1405, 1408,and 1411 (p. 7917, row 3); and the dates of the embassiesfromBrunei
were:-
1405 and 1406 (p. 7917, row 3) 1415 (p. 7918, row 1)
1408 (p. 7917, rows 3 and 4) 1416 and 1417 (p. 7107, row 2)
1410 (p. 7106, row 3) 1421 (p. 7107,row 3)
1412 (p. 7106, row 4) 1425 (p. 7109, row 1)
Fairbankand Têng (p. 151), quotingthe Ming Hui Tienof 1587,recordan em-
bassy fromBruneiin 1414; but this is not mentionedin the Ming Shih,eitherin
'basic annals' ( pên chi) on p. 7107, row 1, or in the account of Bruneion p. 7918,
row 1. Some oftheabove datesmaybe foundin Groeneveldt, pp. 223,232-234.
Li Hsien's Ta MingI Tung Chih(c. 1450),ch. 90, containsan accountof P'o-ni
(/. 16) and of P'o-lo (/. 21v). In 1408 theChineseemperorcommandedJavanot to
demandtributefromBrunei(Groeneveldt,p. 233).
97. Rockhill,pt. II, p. 262, quoting Fei Hsin, for Gelam island. Rockhill
does not translateFei Hsin's account of P'o-ni; it may be foundin Fêng Ch'êng-
Chiin'sHsingCK a ShêngLan Chiao Chu, II, p. 14.
98. Meilink-Roelofsz,pp. 50, 84, 85, 100, 101, 164. The Borneanproducts,
especiallydiamonds,gold. Camphor, and foodstuffswere importantto Melaka
(Meilink-Roelofsz,pp. 101, 164). Lawe is identifiedby Meilink-Roelofsz(p. 349
n. 205) witha riverin south-eastBorneo: one suggeststhatit is morelikelyto be the
Lo-weiof 'ShunFêng,(/.42v) whichgivessailinginstructions forthevoyagefromWu
Hsü, near Hsia Men (Amoy),v/áPulau Tioman to Lo-wei; thisplace was situatedon
the west coast of Borneo, south of 0°48'N. and north of Sukadana (1°10'S.).
We provisionallyidentify it withPontianak(0°01' S.). Some supportforthisidenti-
ficationis providedbythestatement of Eredia (1597-1600)that"Sucadana and Laue
are two abundantRiversin the Southerncountryof Borneo, whereinlarge quan-
titiesof PreciousStonesare found"(Mills (3), p. 245).
99. Tibbetts(1), p. 48.
100. Tibbetts(1), p. 48: Houráni,pp. 91-94.
101. Tibbetts(1), p. 49: Houráni,p. 89.
102. Tibbetts(1), p. 52: Houráni,p. 100.
103. Needham vol. IV, pt. 3, pp. 480-482: Mills (1), pp. 304-305. Chêng.
Ho's 'treasureships' were said to be 449 feetlong: some modernwritersinclineto
reducethisto 300 feet,themaximumlengthfora safewooden ship(Gibson, p. 145).
66

IN MALAYSIAN
WATERS
A noteby thepresentwriter,originallyintendedas a basis fordiscussion,was, owing

to a misunderstanding, printedin the Mariner'sMirror, vol. 46, no. 2 (1960), pp.
147-148.
104. Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, pp. 399-402: Mills (1), p. 305. Iron fastenings
werealreadynormalin theeighthcentury(Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 459 n.h.)
105. Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, pp. 480-481: Mills (1), p. 305.
106. Mills (1), p. 305. Larger ships mighthave 8 masts (Needham, vol. IV,
pt. 3, p. 481).
107. Houráni,p. 101: Tibbetts(1), p. 52.
108. Needham, vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 595. For handinessthe Chinese rig is un-
surpassed(Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 598).
109. Arab rahmanirecordedthe latitude of every port and headland, and
contained tables. Chinese charts might also include navigational instructions
(Houráni, p. 107: Tibbetts(1), pp. 45, 321: Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, pp. 564, 568
n.j, 569 n.b: cf.Mills (1) on theMao K'un map,pp. 236-302.
110. Tibbetts(1), pp. 294-297,withfigureon p. 297.
111. Ferrand(1), pp. 44 n. 1 and 58 n. 1.
112. Tibbetts(1), p. 315.
113. Tibbetts(1), pp. 312-315.
114. There were different typesof khashaba(Tibbetts(1), pp. 317-321). For
the methodof usingthe instrument see Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 574. For other
instruments, including ¡camal, Tibbetts(1), pp. 313-319.
the see
115. Tibbetts(1), p. 331.
116. Tibbetts(1), pp. 337,339. For theotherstarssee Tibbetts(1), pp. 324-354.
117. Tibbetts(1), pp. 339-340.
118. Tibbetts(1), p. 321. Ahmad maintainedthat if therewas only a single
brightstarin theheavenshe could alwaysascertainthelatitude(Tibbetts(1), p. 325).
119. Tibbetts(1), p. 315, says that "most of the Pole Star altitudesforplaces
wereinheritedover the ages" ; but Ahmad insiststhathis own measurements ought
to be accurate(Tibbetts(1), p. 322).
120. Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, pp. 570, 575.
121. Needham, vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 574. In the fifteenth centurythe Chinese
navigatorswere using a set of 12 standardebony tablets(Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3,
pp. 574-575). Sidi Ali had a systemof 9 tablets,as used by "the ancients"(Tibbetts
(1), p. 316). For some time the Portugueseused the Arab kamal, a singletablet
witha knottedstringrunningthroughthecentre(Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 574).
122. Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, pp. 567, 571, 583. This, of course,was a source
of inaccuracy,sincethedifference (in 1965)betweenthedeclinationof Polaris (89°06')
and 50 of Cassiopeia (72°15') is 16°51' and not 11°12' (seventimes 1°36').
Chinese textsdo not mentionthe relation between Hua kai and Ursa Major (Pei
tou, The northernbushel').
123. For theidentification of Hua kai, thewriteris indebtedto Dr. G. T. Bath,
ResearchFellow of MertonCollege, Oxford.
For the other stars and theiridentification see Needham, vol. IV, pt. 3, pp.
565-567 and Plate CDXVI: Mills (1), pp. 307, 335-346: Tibbetts(4), pp. 97-108.
67

J. V. MILLS VOL. Al
JMBRAS,
The Ting Ch'ien' (/.12v) containsa registerof 9 stars,and the stellardiagramsof

Mao Yüan-1's WuPei Chihmention6 otherstars,making15 different starsin all.
124. "Observationswith the early instrumentscould be made reasonably
accuratelyon land,buthardlyat all at sea" (Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 557 n.k.)
125. Tibbetts(1), pp. 62-63. The Arab textsdo not mentionany mechanical
deviceformeasuringtime(G. R. Tibbetts,privatecommunication).
126. Tibbetts(1), pp. 272, 299.
127. Needham, vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 570. A sand clock was made in 1370,and
ChêngHo's largeshipsmayhave carriedone (Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 569).
128. Tibbetts(1), pp. 299-300.
129. Tibbetts(1), p. 354.
130. Tibbetts(1), p. 307. The basic mistakewas the fallacythatthe longest
side of a right-angled trianglewas equal in lengthto thesum of thetwo shortersides
(Tibbetts(1), p. 301).
131. Tibbetts(1), pp. 358, 359, 360.
132. Tibbetts(1), p. 355: Tibbetts(5), p. 16.
133. Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 564 n.e. The Ming Ii was 0.348 statutemile,
and thelengthof Io oflatitudeon theequatoris 68.71 statutemiles.
134. Houráni, pp. 110-112. If it is correctto presumewithTibbetts(1), p.
299, that12.05 sea-mileswould be, roughly,thedistancesailed in 3 hours,the speed
would be, roughly,4 knots. It is also possibleto calculatespeedby measuringthe
actual distancebetweenthe severalplaces mentionedby Sulaiman(Tibbetts(1), pp.
358-360); forinstance,ifthezam is takenas equivalentto 3 hours' sailing,then the
speedof a shipsailing75 milesfromPulau Pinangto PulauPerakin 8 zam or 24 hours
is 3.1 knots.
135. Mills (1), p. 308.
136. Needham, vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 564 n.e., consideredthat a speed of 8 to 10
knotswouldbe quitereasonableforChêngHo's ships.
137. Tibbetts(1), p. 276: Mills (1), p. 306.
138. Tibbetts(1), p. 360: Wheatley,pp. xviii-xx. In Malaysian watersthe
monsoons are, of course, the north-eastand south-westmonsoons. But ships
could work 'against' the monsoon; thus, sailingdirectionsare givenfor a voyage
to the south-east(fromThailand to Sarawak) and thennorth-east(along the north-
westcoast of Borneo): cf' 'Shun Fèng'ff. 51v-52.
139. Tibbetts(5), p. 6: Tibbetts(1), pp. 290 et sqq.: cf.Taylor,p. 128.
140. Tibbetts(5), pp. 6, 22: Tibbetts(1), pp. 312 et sqq.
141. Tibbetts(1), pp. 278 et sqq. In Melaka Strait,when crossingbetween
North and South Sands, the Arabs took the depth 'constantly'. The use of the
plumb-linewas also of vital importanceforEuropean sailorsin the shallowwaters
of north-westEurope; cf.Taylor,p. 131.
142. Tibbetts(5), p. 19. Hence the importanceof knowingthe latitudeof
importantplaces: cf the tables in Tibbetts(1), pp. 358-360, and in Ferrand (2),
pp. 515-539.
143. Houráni,p. 109: Tibbetts(1), p. 57: Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, pp. 593-594,
witha diagramshowingtheprinciplesof 'tacking'and 'wearing'.
68

IN MALAYSIAN
WATERS
144. From'Shun Fêng',combiningtheinstructions givenfor4 voyages,namely,

fromKuang Tung to Melaka (ff. 25-26), fromMelaka to Kuala Pasai (/. 45), from
Kuala Pasai to Calicut(jf. 46v-47),and fromCalicutto Hormuz(Jf.47v-48),we get
instructionsfor the whole voyage from China to Iran (Persia), (a) Compass-
bearingsare recordedin 59 instances;(b) stellaraltitudesare recordedin 9 instances,
namely,Polaris4 times,Crux3 times,and 50 Cassiopeia twice,butin only3 instances
can themeasurements be consideredto have beentakenin orderto ascertainlatitude,
the measurement in the other6 instancesbeing noted merelyby way of comment;
(c) depthsare recordedin 4 instances;the Chinesedid not measurethe depthof the
waterduringthe dangerouspassage betweenthe North and South Sands; on the
otherhand, theythricetook a soundingin the vicinityof Pai chião, Pedra Branca
('Shun Fêng',/.32), and theymighttakea soundingin mid-ocean,as whenapproach-
ing Grande Condore (Lü P'an /. 50v).
145. Needham,vol. IV, pt. 3, p. 594. By changingdirectionin mid-ocean,
as on the voyagefromDeogarh in India to Jabal Quraiyatin Arabia ('Shun Fêng',
/. 47v),theChineseindicatedthattheythoughttheyknewtheirlongitude.
146. Poujade, p. 243 n.l: cf.Needham,vol. IV pt. 3, pp. 593-594.
147. We have writtenЩ9 fingersfor convenience;the Arab text gives 6Ц'
fingers as thealtitudeof Polaris(Tibbetts(1), p. 188).
148. Tibbetts(1), pp. 186, 188, 483-484. We ignorePulau Perak because it
is too remote,and we ignorePulau Tanburak,alleged to lie west of Pulau Pinang,
becauseit does notexist;cf.Tibbetts(1), p. 484.
149. See Tibbetts(2), pp. 48-53: Wheatley,pp. 234-240: Tibbetts(1), p. 188:
Ferrand(2), pp. 540-541.
150. But we know that Chinese ships werevisiting'Kalah', not further south
thanKedah, as earlyas theyear879; cf.Houráni,p. 18, and Wheatley,pp. 222-224.
151. Tibbetts(1), pp. 483-484; cf.Mills (3), pp. 122-123.
152. The distancefrom'Keda' to Pulau Pinang was 4 zam (about 48 miles)
and thedistancefromKuala Kedah to Pulau Pinangis 40 miles,whereasthedistance
fromKuala Merbokto Pulau Pinangis only 14 miles: cf. Tibbetts(1), p. 186: Mills
(2), pp. 12-15.
The identification of places namedin theMao K'un map is dealtwithin greater
detailin Mills (2), pp. 1-48.
153. The name appears underthe heading'Mien hua' ('cotton') islandsin the
geographicalnotesof 'Shun Fêng' (/. 14v): we have notmetwiththe name elsewhere.
154. Mills (2), pp. 15-18: Tibbetts(1), pp. 484-485.
155. The figureof 6J fingersis givenby Sidi Ali (Ferrand(2), p. 533).
156. Tibbetts(2), p. 52.
157. Tibbetts(2), p. 52. Sulaiman's otheraccountsmay be foundin Tibbetts
(2), pp. 48-52.
158. Ahmad's account may be found in Tibbetts(1), p. 188. The various
accountsdo not altogethertally.
159. 'Shun Fêng',/. 45 v.
160. Mao K'un map,jf. 16-16v: Mills (1), pp. 286-287.
161. 'Shun Fêng',/. 45.
69

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
162. Shipwreckswerenot infrequent in thisdangerouspassage; but thephleg-

maticChinesedo not evenwarnthènavigatorto be careful.
163. See note 149.
164. 'Pilot', No. 44, p. 175.
165. Wheatley,p. 236 n. 3.
166. Wheatley,p. 236.
167. See Tibbetts(1), pp. 483-485, 494: Tibbetts(2), pp. 48-57: Wheatley,
pp. 234-243 : Mills (1), p. 285: Mills (2), pp. 16-18.
168. Tibbetts(1), pp. 188-189.
169. Tibbetts(2), p. 48.
170. Tibbetts(2), p. 49.
171. Tibbetts(2), p. 52.
172. Tibbetts(2), p. 49.
173. Tibbetts,(2), p. 52.
174. Mao K un map,ff. 16-16v.
175. 'Shun Fêng',/. 26.
176. 'Shun Fêng',/. 32v.
177. 'Shun Fêng',/. 45v.
178. 'Shun Fêng',/. 53v.
179. LüP'an,/. 50.
180. 'Shun Fêng',/ 26.
181. 'Shun Fêng',ff.32-32v.
182. 'Shun Fêng',/ 45.
184. LüP'an,/ 50.
185. Chang Hsieh,p. 121.
186. Tibbetts(1), p. 485.
187. Illustratingthe generalrule that the radical difference between'western'
and 'eastern'geographicaldocumentslies in the fact that the formerbecome less
detailedand accurateas theyproceedeastward,and the latteras theyproceedwest-
ward.
188. Tibbetts(1), p. 485.
189. The name appears, withoutany description,betweenBukit Jugraand
Cape Rachado in thegeographicalnotesof 'Shun Fêng',/ 14. We have notmetthe
name elsewhere.
190. Tibbetts(1), p. 485.
191. Melaka was called Five Islands because,as Ma Huan stated,"the sea had
fiveislands",namely,theWaterislands(Mills (1), p. 108).
192. Tibbetts(1), pp. 188-189.
193. Herein lies a curious story. As stated above, Chang Hsieh wrote "a
chiefestablisheda marketon these[islands]"(ch'iuk'ai chert yii tz'u); Phillipsmisread
thefirsttwo charactersas " Yiu men",and noted" a largetradingplace bythename
of Yiu-menwas on one of theseislands"; sincewhen,fornearlya century, historical
geographershave vainlysearchedforthis"geographicalphantom"called"Yiu-mên"
(ChiangHsieh,p. 121: Phillips,XXI, p. 38: Duyvendak,pp. 42-43).
70

IN MALAYSIAN
194. 'Pilot', No. 44, p. 184: Mills (2), pp. 19-20.

195. 'Pilot', No. 44, p. 188: Mills (2), pp. 20-21.
196. Mao K'un map,#. 15-15v.
198. 'Shun Fêng',/. 32v.
199. 'Shun Fêng',#. 50v-51.
200. Lü P'an,# 50-50V.
201. 'Shun Fêng',/. 14.
202. 'Shun Fêng',ff.25v-26.
203. 'Shun Fêng',/. 32.
204. 'Shun Fêng',/. 50v.
205. Insteadof writing pan cKuang(Giles, no. 8602,2778), perhapstheauthor
intendedto writepan chuang(Giles,no. 8602,2756),'partlyvisible'.
206. LüP'an,/. 50.
207. Chang Hsieh, pp. 120-121.
208. If theywere makingtor Keppel Harbour,tneywouia nave to steer /о ,
thatis, northof due east.
209. 'Pilot', No. 44, p. 194.
210. In orderto avoid the shoals offTanjong Pagar, it would be essentialto
make thisturnto the south-east(see Gibson-Hill(1), pp. 180-181,190; Gibson-Hill
(2), pp. 59-61): yet,mayit be emphasized,it was preciselythisturnwhichtheChinese
textsinstructedthe navigatornot to make. The course throughKeppel Harbour
has alwaysbeen unpopularwithnavigators;evenaftertheimprovements made from
1863onwards,bothsailingcraftand coastingsteamerspreferred to round
travel to the
bay offtheSingaporeriver(Tregonnig,p. 276).
211. F. 15v.
212. Mills (1), pp. 327-328.
213. Gibson-Hill(2), p. 59.
214. Mills (1), p. 327.
215. Mills (2), Plate II, facingp. 21: Wheatley,Fig. 20, facingp. 100: Mills
(1), P. 313.
216. We need not attachany weightto the factthatCh ang yao island means
'Long waist' island, since several islands in this region were called 'Ch'ang yao'
island by the Chinese.
217. Thereis no meritin thesuggestionthat Dragon teeth referred to vertical
rocksat the westernentranceof Keppel Harbour: cf. Braddell,pp. 19-21: Gibson-
Hill (2), p. 37 n. 58: Mills (1), pp. 317-318. The conclusionsof Gibson-Hill,based
on probabilities,possibilities,disputedfacts,and suggestions(forinstance,thatthe
textof theMao K'un map was 'doctored')do not requirefurther consideration.
218. See 'Pilot', No. 44, p. 427. View (35).
219. LüP'an/. 51.
220. Since all the Chinese textscontainerrors,a commentatoris justifiedin
rejectingparticularstatements if otherevidenceso requires. But whatevidence,one
mustask, requirestherejectionof theassertion,expressedor impliedin 8 statements
by4 authors,to theeffect thatChineseshipson reachingtheKarimunislandschanged
71

J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
to a more southerlycourse [towardsPulau Saturnu]and not to a more northerly

course[towardsKeppel Harbour]?
The presentwritergreatlyregretshis inabilityto followthe reconstruction of
ProfessorWheatleyand ProfessorHsü Yün-Ts'iao, who favourthe identification of
Lung ya straitwithKeppel Harbour. CompareWheatley,pp. 91-103, withFigure
20 (the Mao K'un map) and Figure21 (reconstruction), and Hsü Yün-Ts'iao, p. 3.
Those who identifyLung ya straitwithKeppel Harbour mustseek to identify
Sha fang shoals, Liang san island,and Niu shihrock withplaces on the southside
of thefairwaythroughKeppel Harbour.
221. Ferrand(2), p. 500: Ferrand(1), p. 172.
222. Ferrand(2), p. 527.
223. Tibbetts(1), pp. 182, 183,487.
224. Mao K'un map,ff. 14v-15.
225. 'Shun Fêng',/. 14.
226. 'Shun Fêng',/. 17.
227. 'Shun Fêng',/. 23v.
228. 'Shun Fêng',/ 24v.
230. 'Shun Fêng',/ 25v.
231. 'Shun Fêng',/ 26v.
232. 'Shun Fêng',/ 30.
233. 'Shun Fêng',/ 30v.
234. 'Shun Fêng',/ 32.
235. 'Shun Fêng',/ 33v.
236. 'Shun Fêng',/ 34.
237. 'Shun Fêng',/ 39v.
238. 'Shun Fêng',/ 42.
239. 'Shun Fêng',/. 50v.
240. Lü P'an / 36v.
241. Lü P'an,/ 37.
242. Lü P'an,/ 43.
243. Lü P'an, /. 46v.
244. Lü P'an,/ 50.
245. Lü P'an,/ 50v.
246. Lü P'an,/ 51.
247. Lü P'an,/ 51v.
249. These small changesof course show thatthe Chinese(a) took greatcare
to adopt thecorrectbearings,and (b) thoughtthattheyknewtheirlongitude.
72

250. Text (28) says 5 watches; but this is too little;in the oppositedirection
thevoyagemighttake 15 watches,as in text(11).
251. In ProfessorWheatley'sreproduction (Wheatley,p. 96) thefirstcharacter
is ťu , 'earth': certainly'earthround' seems a more likelyname foran island than
'scholarround'.
252. Tibbetts(1), pp. 486-487.
253. ProfessorWheatleyre-examinedthese names in 1961 (Wheatley,p. 96);
and wherehis conclusionsagree withthe identifications suggestedin thispaper, no
further 1
explanationsare necessary.
254. On the one hand,it mightbe thoughtthatHuo shao mountainwould be
Pulau Sibu, because Huo shao mountainis themostoftenmentionedand Pulau Sibu
is the highesthill,being503 feethigh. On the otherhand,it mightbe thoughtthat
Huo shao mountainand Chu mu mightbe Pulau Lima Besar (172 feet)and Pulau
Lima Kechil (174 feet),because theseislandsare connectedwitheach other,as stated
in text (3). We have suggestedthe latter alternative,because (a) these islands
lie onlyabout 5 milesfromthe'reasonable'trackofa shipproceedingnorthward from
Pedra Brancato theeast side of Pulau Tinggi,whereasPulau Sibu lies about 10 miles
away,and (b) in text(17) navigatorsare warnedto be carefulwhenpassingthe 'Hat
Band' and theLima islandsare a nearerdangerthanPulau Sibu.
255. 'Pilot', No. 30, p. 127.
256. Mao K'un map,ff. 12v-13.
258. 'Shun Fêng',/. 52v.
259. 'Shun Fêng,/. 53.
260. 'Shun Fêng',#. 53-53v.
261. 'Shun Fêng',/. 58. Lao-ku rock was a kind of corallinerock; the term
lao-ku is well-knownto the Chinese,but it representssome foreignwords,as yet
unexplained:cf.Rockhill,pt. II, p. Ill n. 1: Mills (1), p. 157n.9.
262. 'Shun Fêng',/ 60.
263. Lü P'an, ff.32-32v.
265. Fairbankand Têng, pp. 221-222: Pelliot (2), p. 267 n. 346: Li Hsien,ff.
16, 21 v.
266. 'Shun Fêng',/. 40v.
267. Mao K'un map,/. 13: cf. Mills (1), p. 280.
268. 'Shun Fêng',/. 53.
269. 'Pilot', No. 31, p. 376, view 12. Cf. Chart2107.
270. 'Shun Fêng',/. 52.
271. The Chinese name lo-po9'turnip',suggeststhat Balabac is a Malayo-
Polynesianword, etymologicallyconnectedwith the Malay lobak, now meaning
the Chineseradish.
73

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,

273. Tibbetts(1), pp. 188-189,485.
274. 'Pilot', No. 44, p. 178.
275. 'Pilot', No. 44, p. 180.
276. Mills (3), p. 205.
277. de Jong,p. 64 (insetmap).
278. Mills (2), Plate III, facingp. 29: Wheatley,Fig. 20, facingp. 100: cf.
'Pilot', No. 30, pp. 151-153,and Chart2414.
279. See 'Pilot', No. 30, pp. 141-142,147,and Chart3543.
280. de Jong,pp. 61-70 (withmap on p. 64)
281. The name 'Pan Kura' representsthe name Pangkor, but the place Fan
Kura was BukitSegari(False Dindings).
74

IN MALAYSIAN
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J. V. MILLS VOL.47
JMBRAS,
ARAB AND CHINESE NAMES
(See Tables I, II, IV, VI, VIII, X)
Arabicletters Chinesecharacters
i (i) -£ f) & * m
isytà 2 (2) tu«
U.í 3
(3) ü it
gi¿¡ ух 4 (4) m m
IjŠ 5
7
gb çb
à1::1'" fi 8 (5) Ä< ttl
9 (6) '% 1ù m
10
giJU
11
giJU gil.
(1> i üp * A
L-ia ¡2
(8) # W Л
/5
W # 4- ;£
^""4 J.1» /4 (io) щ лд
yii ¡5 (II) #1
16 (12) m Гс i*
^[ii
/7 r/j; m te m
,i i
80

IN MALAYSIAN
WATERS
18
(14) X .£ Ý
19 (15) Ш Л Щ
а'И 20
<»% 21 (16) jft Щ jh
АлЛл ylš 22
23
(17) л m
(18) ft Д<
¿а_;» 24 (19) & £ #1
(20) + 34
ù-ljï 25 (21) t #'] П
(22) ;£ & M П
(23) >-}■
m
(24) -к m m
(25) ЛЯП
(26) ф л|1
(27) * & m
(28) ш % m
(29) т *lî
(so) & m m
26 (31) ;£ Лг Щ
27
çjJlS"
Г52; ^ т> :ж m
(33) % т Ífi ft
(34) Щ ;Ц Щ
(35) Ê) íft
(36) ft ^
W .«g #
(38) # ^
^ *. & л
(40) й- #
81

J. V. MILLS VOL. 47
JMBRAS,
28 (41) Ш % tf
(42) t ® S A
(43) íft
^ A Jj
(45) T Я A
dl>U 29 f-tój % ÏÏL :"£
£>U
(47) Ш. & №
(48) ft it t& ^
(49; -t tft
Г5о; m m
(51) T Л» №
(52) ft Й
^55j -t k m
(54) 4- Ш
(55) Ъ ц,
Г5б; =. ft m
(57) ад * #1
¿a»** 50 С55; £ i fl- ;£
Г-5^ & И Л
Г60J ip. ^ *щ щ
(61) ft. i. É> S Л
^ ;À ;K $ о
Л'. 31
(63) %, m
(64) X ж
fói; 4. л «
(66,) $£ tb A|i
í<57; £ я$
Í6SJ £ ut j# о
Г69; « * ^
(70j 5е Л
(71) i <ft
Г72; # ři л
Г7з; Ц ^ А
82


Arab Abd Chinese Navigators in Malaysian Waters in About Ad 1500

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Arab Abd Chinese Navigators in Malaysian Waters in About Ad 1500

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ARAB ABD CHINESE NAVIGATORS IN MALAYSIAN WATERS IN ABOUT A.D.

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

SCOPE OF THE ENQUIRY.

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name; thus,the Malay 'Pulau Sembilan'is designated'Chiù chou (Nine islets)';

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(7) The presentwritershouldadd thathe has not studiedArabicor navigation,

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

(i) It treatsof navigationaltheoryand practice,includingmnemonicsand

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

bearingfromthe firstplace to the second; in 13 cases it also statesthe bearingin

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

On ChêngHo's seventhand last expedition(orderedby the Hsüan Tê emperor

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

The rulerMa-na-jo Chia-na and in 1408 the rulerHsia-wang('Awang'?) visited

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Plate 3. Copied by JohnPrinsepat Calcuttaabout 1836 froma practicalworkon

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

25", and a zam of one-eigthof a finger,thatis, 12° 03'.113

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In practice,the Arabs also attemptedto make oblique measurements129 but

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

Arab navigatorsordinarilysailed to a convenientpoint eitherdue east or due

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Arab Chinese Altitudeof True Modern

Butang' Ku-li-yuPu-tungw [8^] f. 5°54'N. c.6°34'N. Butanggroup147

KedaJ 8 f. 5°06'N. 6°06'N. Kuala Kedah

Chi-tahavenw 5°40'N. Kuala Merbok

Pualu Pin-langislands 7f f. 4°42'N. c.5°24'N. Pulau Pinang

Kra5 Ц f. 4°42'N. 5°08'N. Pulau Kra

Pan Kura5 4°24'N. False Dindings

Dingding7 Ц f. 4°18'N. c.4°19'N. Dindings

Pulau Chiù islets(í) Ц f. 3°54'N. c.4°01'N. Sembilan

Pulau Ch'ên Kung islandr«; 3°58'N. Pulau Jarak

Salang70 7 f. 3°30'N. c.3°20'N. Selangor

Balang c.3°15'N. (Near-Sungei

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

Pulau 3°11'N. Pulau Angsa

Chi-nafiver«; c.3°00'N. Kelang islands

Klang" 7 f. 3°30'N. 3°02'N. Kelang

Chi-linghavenw 3°00'N. SungeiKelang

See BritishAdmiraltycharts830, 1353,and 1358,and 'Pilot' No. 44 withSupple-

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This content downloaded from 193.142.30.61 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 11:46:39 AM

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Arab Chinesename Altitudeof True Modern

Pulau Chi ku islands di) 6i f. 3°06'N. 2°53'N. Djemur15*

Qafasi76 Mien hua shoals 6J f. 3°06'N. 2°5rN. Amazon Maru

See BritishAdmiraltychart1358,and 'Pilot', No. 44.

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nue straightahead in the same directionuntilthedepthincreasesagain to about 15,

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and thencesteerto make One Fathom Bank lighthousebearingabout 112°,passing

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Arab name Chinesename Altitudeof True Modern

Sanya Usang7* 6£f.2°18'N. c.2°43'N. SungeiUjong