Soil Compaction Theory

Compaction
 Soil is used as a basic material for construction
 Retaining walls,

 Highways, Embankments, Ramps

 Airports,

 Dams, Dikes, etc.

 The advantages of using soil are:

1. Is generally available everywhere

2. Is durable - it will last for a long time
3. Has a comparatively low cost
 What is Compaction?
• In most instances in civil engineering
and/or construction practice, whenever
soils are imported or excavated and re-
applied, they are compacted.

• The terms compaction and consolidation

may sound as though they describe the
same thing, but in reality they do not.
 What is Compaction
What do you think
about this live
compaction
machine
Heavy Weight

• When loose soils are applied to a construction

site, compressive mechanical energy is applied
to the soil using special equipment to densify
the soil (or reduce the void ratio).
• Typically applies to soils that are being applied
or re-applied to a site.
 What is Consolidation
• When a Static loads are applied to saturated
soils, and over a period of time the increased
stresses are transferred to the soil skeleton,
leading to a reduction in void ratio.

• Depending on the permeability of the soil and

the magnitude of the drainage distance, this
can be a very time-consuming process.

• Typically applies to existing, undisturbed soil

deposits that has appreciable amount of clay.
 Compaction - Consolidation

• Compaction means • Consolidation

the removal of means the removal
air-filled porosity. of water-filled
porosity.
 Principles of Compaction
Compaction of soils is achieved by reducing
the volume of voids. It is assumed that the
compaction process does not decrease the
volume of the solids or soil grains·

uncompacted compacted uncompacted compacted

 The Goal of Compaction
• Reduce air-void volume Va in
Phase Diagram soils as much as is possible.
• For a given water content w, the
vA Air wA max. degree of compaction that
Water
can be achieved is when all of
vT vW wW
the air voids have been
removed, that is (S=1).
vS Solids wS • Since S = wGs/e, the
corresponding void ratio
• (for S=1) will be: e = wGs
 Principles of Compaction
The degree of compaction of a soil is
measured by the dry unit weight of
the skeleton.

The dry unit weight correlates with the

degree of packing of the soil grains.
Recall that gd= Gsgw/(1+e) ·
The more compacted a soil is:
the smaller its void ratio (e) will be.
the higher its dry unit weight (gd) will be
 Typical Calculation (gd)
• block diagram shown
Phase Diagram • Total Mass M = Mw + Ms
• Total Volume V = Vw + Vs
vA Air wA • Void ratio e = Vv / Vs
• Water content w = Mw / Ms
Water
vT vW wW
• Saturation S = V w / Vv
• Moist unit weight
vS Solids wS
• g = (M w + Ms) / V
• = (w + 1) Ms / V = (1+w) gd
• gd = g / (1+w) =
Back • gd = Gsgw/(1+e)
 What Does Compaction Do?
1) Increased Shear Strength
This means that larger loads can be
applied to compacted soils since they
are typically stronger.
2) Reduced Permeability
This inhibits soils’ ability to absorb
water, and therefore reduces the
tendency to expand/shrink and
potentially liquefy
3) Reduced Compressibility
This also means that larger loads can be
applied to compacted soils since they
will produce smaller settlements.
4) Control Swelling & Shrinking
5) Reduce Liquefaction Potential
 Various Types of compaction test

Hammer No of Blows per

Type of Test Mould Drop (mm)
mass (kg) layers layer

One Liter 2.5 300 3 27

BS “Light”
CBR 2.5 300 3 62
4 in 2.49 305 3 25
ASTM (5.5lb)
6 in 2.49 305 3 56
One Liter 4.5 450 5 27
BS “Heavy”
CBR 4.5 450 5 62
4 in 4.54 457 5 25
ASTM (10lb)
6 in 4.54 457 5 56
BS Vibration
CBR 32 to 41 Vibration 3 1 minute
hammer
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981; Head, 1992)

General Compaction Methods

Coarse-grained soils Fine-grained soils
Laboratory

•Falling weight and hammers

•Vibrating hammer (BS) •Kneading compactors
•Static loading and press

•Hand-operated vibration plates

•Motorized vibratory rollers •Hand-operated
tampers
Field

•Rubber-tired equipment
•Sheepsfoot rollers
•Free-falling weight; dynamic
compaction (low frequency •Rubber-tired rollers
vibration, 4~10 Hz)

Vibration Kneading
 The Standard Proctor Test

• R.R. Proctor in the early

1930’s was building dams
for the old Bureau of
Waterworks and Supply
in Los Angeles, and he
developed the principles
of compaction in a series
of articles in Engineering
News-Record.
 Variables of Compaction
Proctor established that compaction is a function of
four variables:
• Dry density (d) or dry unit weight gd.
• Water content w
• Compactive effort (energy E)
• Soil type (gradation, presence of clay minerals,
etc.)
 The Standard Proctor Test Equipments

Hammer
Weight
2.6kg

Drop Height
h=310mm

Diameter 150 mm
soil Height 127.3mm
Volume
Equipments Needed
For Compaction

ASTM D-698 / D-1557 AASHTO T-99 / T-180

For determining moisture - dnesity relationship.
Machined steel, galvanized, 4" i.d.,
SO-351 Standard Proctor Mold 1 Pc
4.584" height, 2" height of collar
Machined steel, galvanized, 6" i.d.,
SO-352 Standard Proctor Mold 1 Pc
4.584" height, 2" height of collar
Standard Proctor Machined steel, galvanized, 2" i.d.,
SO-353 1 Pc
Hammer 12" drop height, 5,5 lbs weight
Standard Proctor Machined steel, galvanized, 2" i.d.,
SO-354 1 Pc
Hammer 18" drop height, 10 lbs weight
SO-355 Extruder Steel frame, hydraulic jack 1 Set
GE-303 Square Pan Galvanized steel, l 65 x 65 x 7.5 cm 1 Pc
GE-390 Thin Box Alumunium, 60 gr capacity 12 Pcs
GE-405A Graduated Cylinder Plastic, 1.000 ml capacity 1 Pc
GE-801 Scoop Cast Alumunium 1 Pc
GE-871 Trowel Pointed type 1 Pc
GE-890 Straight Edge 30 cm length 1 Pc
GE-900 Rubber Mallet Wooden handle 1 Pc
GE-920 Steel Wiire Brush Wooden handle 1 Pc
 Standard Proctor Test
o The soil is mixed with varying amounts of
water to achieve different water contents.

o For each water content,the soil is

compacted by dropping a hammer 25
times onto the confined soil
o The soil is in mold will be divided into
three lifts
o Each Lift is compacted 25 times
o This is don 4-6 times from dry-wet

Layer or lift # 3
soil Layer or lift # 2
Layer or lift # 1
25 Blows/Layer
 Standard Energy
• Compactive (E) applied to soil per unit volume:

(# blows/layer) * (# of layers)* (hammer weight) * (height of drop)

E
Volume of mold

(25blows/l ayer) * (3 of layers) * (2.6kg) * (310mm)

ESP   592 kJ / m 3
1000ml
 Results from Standard Proctor Test

Maximum dry
• Optionally, the unconfined
unit weight compressive strength of
Dry Density (gd)

 the soil is also measured


A sample
  from the
mold

Optimum water content

Water Content (w)

 Dry Unit Weight
• The compacted soil is removed from the mold and its
dry density (or dry unit weight) is measured.

g m
gm 
Mg
g d  Where
V
1  
g d • =Dry Unit weight
• =Bulk Density
 • =Water Content
V • =Total Soil Volume
M • =Total Wet Soil Mass
g • =Gravitational Acceleration
 Water Role in
Compaction Process
Water lubricates the soil grains so that
they slide more easily over each other
and can thus achieve a more densely
packed arrangement.

• A little bit of water facilitates compaction

• too much water inhibits compaction.

 Dry Unit Weight
as
2.0

1.9 Density when compacted

(Mg/m3)

Increase of
Density due Dry + mass of water added
3

1.8
to compaction
1.7

1.6 Increase of density due

Density

1.5 to mass of water added

1.4

1.3 Density when compacted dry

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Water content w (%)
 Modified Proctor Test
 Was developed during World War II
 By the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineering
 For a better representation of the compaction
required for airfield to support heavy aircraft.
 Modified Proctor Test
 Same as the Standard Proctor Test
with the following exceptions:
 The soil is compacted in five layers

 Hammer weight is 4.89 Kg

 Drop height h is 45.00cm
 Then the amount of Energy is calculated
 Remember Standard Proctor Energy ESP  592 kJ / m 3
(25blows/layer) * (5 of layers) * (4.89kg) * (450mm)
E MP 
# 5 (1000ml)
# 4

soil # 3 E MP  2700kJ / m3
# 2
E MP 2700 kJ / m 3
# 1
  4 . 55
E SP 592 kJ / m 3
 Effect of Energy on Compaction
E2 > E1

Modified E=E2
Dry Density (gd)

Standard E=E1

Water Content (w)

 Comparison-Summary
Standard Proctor Test Modified Proctor Test

• Mold size: 1000ml • Mold size: 1000ml

• 310mm height of drop • 450mm height of drop
• 2.6 kg hammer • 4.89kg hammer
• 3 layers • 5 layers
• 25 blows/layer • 25 blows/layer
• Energy 592kJ/m3 • Energy 2700kJ/m3
Dry Density (gd)

Modified E=E2

Standard E=E1

Water Content (w)

 Common Compaction Curves
Encountered in Practice
Dry unit weight gd

One & one-half peaks

Bell-shaped

Double-peaked
Odd-shaped

Water content (w)

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Zero-Air-Void
Degree of Saturation ZAV:The curve represents
the fully saturated
2.0 60% 80% 100% condition (S=100%).
"Zero ZAV cannot be reached by
( Mg 3/ m )

1.9 Line of Air compaction.

optimums
Voids" Line of Optimum: A line
drawn through the peak
1.8 Modified
Proctor points of several
compaction curves at
Dry density

1.7 different compactive

Standard
Proctor
efforts for the same soil
will be almost parallel to a
1.6
0 5 10 15 20 25 100 % S curve
Water content w (%)
Entrapped Air: is the
Points from the ZAV curve can be distance between the wet
calculated from: side of the compaction
gdry = Gsg / 1 e curve and the line of
100% saturation.
 Zero-Air-Void
The Equation for the ZAV
Degree of Saturation curves with different
degree of saturation is :
2.0 60% 80% 100%
 wS  S
"Zero d   w
( Mg 3/ m )

Air
w S
1.9 w S w
Voids" s Gs
Modified
You can derive the equation
1.8
Proctor
Dry density

by yourself, Hint
1.7
Standard s
Proctor d 
1 e
1.6
0 5 10 15 20 25
Se  wG s
Water content w (%)
 Results-Explanation
Below womc At womc Above womc
Dry of Optimum The density is at the Wet of Optimum
•As the water content maximum, and it does not Water starts to
increases, the increase any further. replace soil particles
particles develop OMC in the mold, and
larger and
water films around
larger
Dry Density (gd)
  since w<<s the dry
density starts to
them, which tend to
“lubricate” the
  decrease.

particles and make

Dry Wet 
them easier to be
moved about and
Side Side
reoriented into a Water Content (w)
denser configuration.
Escaping air

Entrapped
air
Dry side Wet side
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981; Das, 1998

Effects of Soil Types on Compaction

The soil type-that is, grain-size distribution, shape of the soil
grains, specific gravity of soil solids, and amount and type of
clay minerals present
Soil texture and Plasticity data
2.2
NO Description Sand Silt Clay LL PI
(Mg / m3)

1
2.1 Well graded
Zero air voids, S= 100 1 88 10 2 16 NP
loamy sand
2.0 2 %
Well graded
2 72 15 13 16 NP
sandy loam
1.9
3 Med graded
3 73 9 18 22 4
sandy loam
Dry density

1.8
4 Lean sandy
4 32 33 35 28 9
5 silty clay
1.7
6 Lean silty
5 5 64 31 36 15
clay
1.6 7
8 6 Loessial silt 5 85 10 26 2

5 10 15 20 25 7 Heavy clay 6 22 72 67 40
Water content w (%) 8
Poorly graded
94 6 6 NP NP
sand
Compaction Characteristics
Unified Soil Classification
Compaction
Group Symbol
Characteristics
GW
GP
GM
GC Good
SW
SP
SM
SC
Good to Fair
CL
ML Good to Poor
OL, MH, CH, OH, PT Fair to Poor
 Embankment Materials
Unified Soil Classification
Group Symbol Value as Embankment Material
GW
Very Stable
SW
CL Stable
GP
GM
Reasonably Stable
GC
SC
SP
Reasonably Stable when Dense
SM
ML Poor, gets better with high density
OL, MH, CH, OH, PT Poor, Unstable
 Subgrade Materials
Unified Soil Classification
Group Symbol Value as Subgrade Material
GW Excellent
GP
Excellent to Good
GM
GC
Good
SW
SP
SM Good to Fair
SC
ML
Fair to Poor
CL
OL, MH, CH, OH, PT Poor to Not Suitable
 Typical Compaction Curve for
Cohesionless Sands & Sandy Gravel

Complete saturation
 
(increasing) Density

Air dry
 
 

 
 The low density that is obtained at
bulking low water content is due to capillary
Forces resisting arrangements of
the sand grains.

(increasing) Water content

 Water & Compaction

Remember what is the Affect

• Increasing the water content at which soil
is compacted:
 Increases the likelihood of obtaining dispersed
soil structure with reduced shear strengths.
 Increases the pore pressure in the soil,
decreasing the short term shear strength.
 Water Role in
Compaction Process
Water lubricates the soil grains so that
they slide more easily over each other
and can thus achieve a more densely
packed arrangement.

• A little bit of water facilitates compaction

• too much water inhibits compaction.
Lambe and Whitman, 1979

Structure of Compacted Clay

Intermediate
structure

High Compactive
Effort Dispersed Structure
or
parallel
Dry Density

Low
Flocculated Structure Compactive
or Effort
Honeycomb Structure
or
Random

Water Content

Structure
Particle Arrangement Dry side more random
Dry side more deficient; thus imbibes more water,
Water Deficiency
swells more, has lower pore pressure
From Lambe and Whitman, 1979;
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

10-7

Effect of Compaction on
Permeability

permeability
Permeability at constant
compactive effort decreases
with increasing water content
and reaches a minimum at about
the optimum.
10-9
If compactive effort is
increased, the permeability
Density

decreases because the void

ratio decreases.

Water content

Permeability
Magnitude Dry side more permeable
Dry side permeability reduced much more by
Permanence
permeation
From Lambe and Whitman, 1979;
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Effect of Compressibility
Dry compacted or Dry compacted or
undisturbed sample undisturbed sample

Void ratio , e
Void ratio , e

Wet compacted or Wet compacted or

Remolded sample Remolded sample

Rebound for both samples

0
Pressure, natural scale
0
Pressure, log scale
Low pressure consolidation High-pressure consolidation

Compressibility of compacted clays is function of stress level.

Low stress level: Clay compacted wet of optimum are more compressible.
High stress level: The opposite is true
Compressibility
Wet side more compressible in low pressure range,
Magnitude
dry side in high pressure range
Rate Dry side consolidates more rapidly
Compressibility & Expansion
Unified Soil Classification
Compressibility
Group Symbol
and Expansion
GW
GP
Very Little
SW
SP
GM
GC Slight
SM
SC
Slight to Medium
ML
CL Medium
OL, MH, CH, OH, PT High
Compressibility & Expansion
Unified Soil Classification
Compressibility
Group Symbol
and Expansion

GW
Very Little
GP
GM
Slight
GC
SW
Very Little
SP
SM Slight
SC
Slight to Medium
ML
CL Medium
OL, MH, CH, OH, PT High
From Lambe and Whitman, 1979

Effect of Strength
150
Samples 100

Degree of Particle Orientation

(Kaolinite) Dry unit weight (kN/m3) Parral
145 80
compacted
60
dry of 140
optimum 40
tend to be 135 20
Random
more rigid 0
and 130
22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
stronger 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 Molding water content (%)
than Molding water content (%)
samples 600
compacted
Deviation stress (kN/m2)

500
wet of 400
optimum
300

200
100

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Axial Strain (%)
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Effect of Strength (con)

100
Unsoaked CBR (%)

55 blows / layer
75 26 blows / layer The CBR (California bearing ratio)

10 lb hammer 18 “ drop (modified proctor)

50
12 blows / layer CBR= resistance required to
06 blows / layer penetrate a 3-in2 piston into the
25 compacted specimen/ resistance
required to penetrate the same
0
120
depth into a standard sample of
crushed stone.
Dry density (lb/ft3)

115
A greater compactive effort
110 produces a greater CBR for the
dry of optimum. However, the CBR
105 is actually less for the wet of
100 optimum for the higher
compaction energies
95 (overcompaction).
90
10 15 20 25
Water content (%)
 Comparison of Soil Properties
Dry of Optimum & Wet of Optimum Compaction

Strength
As molded
a :Undrained Dry side is much higher
b :Drained Dry side is some how higher
After saturation
Dry side higher if swelling prevented,wet sidecan be
a :Undrained
hiher if swelling is permitted
b :Drained dry side the same or slpghtly hiher
Stress-strain modulus Dry side much greater
Sensitivity Dry side more apt to be sensitive
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Effect of Swelling
• Swelling of compacted clays is greater for those
compacted dry of optimum. They have a
relatively greater deficiency of water and
therefore have a greater tendency to adsorb
water and thus swell more.

OMC

Dry Density (gd)


Higher
  Higher
Swelling Dry Wet  Shrinkage
Potential Side Side Potential

Water Content (w)

 Compaction and Shrinkage
Dry of OMC Wet of
optimum optimum
• samples
Kneading compacted wet
of optimum
Vibratory
have the
highest
Static
shrinkage
1.80
Dry density ( Mg / m3 )

S = 100%
1.75

1.70
Legend
Kneading compaction

1.65 Vibratory compaction

12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Static compaction
Molding water content (%)
1.60
 Engineering Properties
Summary
Properties Dry side Wet side

Structure More random More oriented

(parallel)

Permeability More
permeable

More compressible More compressible

Compressibility in high pressure in low pressure
range range

Swell more, higher *Shrinkage

Swelling
water deficiency more

Strength Higher
 Summary
UCS
Compaction Compressibility Value as
Group Value as Embankment Material
Characteristics and Expansion Subgrade Material
Symbol
GW Very Stable Excellent
Very Little
GP
Excellent to Good
GM Reasonably Stable
Slight
GC Good
Good
SW Very Stable
Very Little
SP
Reasonably Stable when Dense
SM Slight Good to Fair

SC Good to Fair Reasonably Stable

ML Good to Poor Slight to Medium Poor, gets better with high density
Fair to Poor
CL Good to Fair Stable
OL, MH, CH,
Fair to Poor High Poor, Unstable Poor to Not Suitable
OH, PT
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981 Hand Out 03_2