Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127 – 155

www.elsevier.com/locate/oregeorev

Crustal lineament control on magmatism and mineralization in

northwestern Argentina: geological, geophysical, and remote
sensing evidence
Carlos J. Chernicoff a,*, Jeremy P. Richards b,1, Eduardo O. Zappettini c
a
Council for Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET), University of Buenos Aires and Argentine Geological and Mining Survey (SEGEMAR),
651 Julio A. Roca Avenue, 1322 Buenos Aires, Argentina
b
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2E3
c
Argentine Geological and Mining Survey (SEGEMAR), 651 Julio A. Roca Avenue, 1322 Buenos Aires, Argentina
Received 1 September 2001; accepted 5 June 2002

Abstract

The relationship between long-lived deep crustal lineaments and the locations of magmatic centers and associated mineral
deposits has been investigated in the Puna region of northwestern Argentina, through the analysis of regional aeromagnetic
surveys, Landsat images, and geological information. The good exposure and excellent preservation of basement and
supracrustal geology in this region makes it particularly suitable for such a study. At a regional scale, several contrasting
magnetic domains are recognized, which correlate with crustal geology. Two basement domains are separated by a NNE-
trending boundary, which is believed to correlate with a Paleozoic suture zone between the Pampia (to the southeast) and
Arequipa – Antofalla terranes (to the northwest). Locally overlying these basement terranes is the Cenozoic magmatic domain,
which is best developed in the N – S-trending volcanic arc at the western edge of the Puna (the Cordillera Occidental). In
addition, four southeast-trending volcanic zones extend for several hundred kilometers across the Puna. Many important
mineral deposits and areas of hydrothermal alteration are associated with these volcanic breakouts, and we have selected three
such areas for more detailed study: Bajo de la Alumbrera (Argentina’s largest porphyry copper deposit), Cerro Galán (the largest
ignimbrite caldera in Argentina, with associated hydrothermal alteration zones), and El Queva (a historic polymetallic district
located within a major volcanic range). A comparison of lineament maps generated from aeromagnetic and Landsat TM images
reveals broad correlation between these different remote sensing techniques, which respectively highlight subsurface magnetic
and surface geological features. In addition, the locations of magmatic and hydrothermal centers can be related to the interpreted
structural framework, and are seen to occur near the intersections of major lineament zones. It is suggested that in three
dimensions, such intersection zones form trans-lithospheric columns of low strength and high permeability during
transpressional or transtensional tectonic strain, and may thereby serve as conduits for magma ascent to the shallow crust.
Pooling of large volumes of deeply derived magma in shallow crustal magma chambers may then result in voluminous
devolatilization and the formation of hydrothermal mineral deposits. It is important to note that in this model, structural
intersections serve as facilitators for magma ascent and volatile exsolution, but do not in themselves cause this process—other

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +54-11-4349-3148; fax: +54-11-4349-3171.
E-mail addresses: jchern@secind.mecon.gov.ar (C.J. Chernicoff), Jeremy.Richards@UAlberta.CA (J.P. Richards),
ezappe@secind.mecon.gov.ar (E.O. Zappettini).
1
Fax: +1-780-492-2030.

0169-1368/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 9 - 1 3 6 8 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 8 7 - 2
128 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155

factors such as magma supply rate and tectonic stress are essential primary ingredients, and local magmatic and volcanic
processes affect the ultimate potential for ore formation. Nevertheless, we suggest that lineament analysis provides a valuable
framework for guiding the early stages of mineral exploration; other regional and local geological considerations must then be
applied to identify priority targets within this framework.
D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Puna; Argentina; Lineaments; Mineral deposits; Aeromagnetic surveys; Landsat TM

1. Introduction detail. We follow O’Leary et al. (1976, p. 1463) in

The Puna of northwestern Argentina connects with
the Altiplano of Bolivia (Fig. 1) to form the second
largest high-altitude plateau in the world after Tibet
( f 500,000 km2, average height f 3.7 km above sea
level, with maximum elevations f 6.7 km and local
relief >3 km; Allmendinger, 1986). Crustal shortening
associated with uplift of the plateau may have begun
as early as the Late Eocene (Coutand et al., 2001) but
was established in the Puna by the Early Miocene
(Allmendinger et al., 1997). Basement blocks were
uplifted along major reverse faults at this time, and the
topographic expression of this geological framework
has been preserved in the arid conditions that have
prevailed since the Pliocene (Kleinert and Strecker,
2001). Well-preserved also are the andesitic –dacitic
volcanic products of the Miocene – Quaternary
Andean orogeny. As such, this region provides an
excellent opportunity to investigate the role played by
crustal structures in the localization of magmatism and
related mineralization.
A combination of indirect sensing techniques
(aeromagnetic data and Landsat images) and geo-
logical information has been used to define crustal-
scale lineaments in the Puna. The relationship
between these lineaments and geological features is
explored, and a strong control on the regional distri-
bution of Andean volcanic activity is noted. Three
areas where a particularly clear relationship can be
observed between regional lineaments and lineament
intersections, and the loci of volcanic centers and
associated hydrothermal systems, are examined in
defining a lineament as ‘‘a mappable, simple or
composite linear feature of a surface, whose parts
are aligned in a rectilinear or slightly curvilinear
relationship which differs distinctly from the patterns
of adjacent features and presumably reflects a subsur-
face phenomenon.’’ Lineaments may thus represent
exposed faults, but also unexposed structures or
crustal discontinuities whose existence is inferred
from indirect sensing methods and their control on
topography and magmatic activity. We propose that
these deep, in some cases, trans-lithospheric, and in
many cases, ancient (i.e., pre-Andean), discontinuities
represent planes of crustal weakness that may be
periodically reactivated and intruded during subse-
quent tectono-magmatic events (Holdsworth et al.,
1997). As such, these zones may serve to localize
magmatic-related ore-forming processes, with the
implication that lineament mapping might be used
as an exploration guide for porphyry- and epithermal-
type ore deposits.
2. Geology of the Puna
The Altiplano – Puna (Figs. 1 and 2) is a region of
thickened continental crust, reaching f 80 km near
the Argentina– Chile – Bolivia border, and with litho-
spheric thicknesses of f 150 km beneath the Alti-
plano and f 100 km beneath the Puna (Beck et al.,
1996; Allmendinger et al., 1997). Much of the crust
appears to be felsic in composition, which, combined
with its anomalous thickness, accounts for the high

Fig. 1. Regional geological sketch map of northern Chile, northwestern Argentina, and southwestern Bolivia, showing the locations of regional-
scale faults and lineaments (modified from Salfity, 1985; Salfity and Gorustovich, 1998), and the extent of Central Andean Miocene –
Pleistocene volcanic rocks. Also shown are the locations of major volcanoes and porphyry Cu deposits. Note that Salfity (1985) and Salfity and
Gorustovich (1998) used mapped faults, stratigraphic discontinuities and changes, volcanic lineations, and topographic features identified from
air and satellite images in their lineament interpretation (cf. Heyl, 1972).
C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155 129
130 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Puna region, northwestern Argentina. Boxes mark areas discussed in detail (from north to south: El Queva, Cerro
Galán, Bajo de la Alumbrera).
 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155 131

elevation of the region (Allmendinger et al., 1997; Table 1

Dorbath and Masson, 2000). The plateau is bordered Summary of main tectonic events in the Central Andes of Chile and
Argentina
to the west by the Cordillera Occidental (the axis of
Time Geological event and effect in the Puna
the current magmatic arc) and to the east by the
Cordillera Oriental. Internally, the Puna features Pliocene Crustal thickening in the southern
Puna (Diaguita phase of Andean
thrust-bounded basement blocks separated by inter-
orogeny, f 1.7 Ma)
montane basins, which since the Middle Miocene Middle Miocene – Development of internal drainage
have developed internal drainage and thick sedimen- Quaternary basins in Puna – Altiplano
tary and evaporitic infillings. Miocene – Quaternary Middle Miocene Crustal thickening in the northern
volcanism produced large, often isolated, composite (15 – 10 Ma) Puna – Altiplano (Quechua phase of
Andean orogeny, f 5.3 Ma)
volcanoes, and an extensive veneer of andesitic –
Late Oligocene – Arc volcanism in Cordillera
dacitic lava flows and ignimbrites (Figs. 1 and 2). Quaternary Occidental and across Puna
The pre-Mesozoic history of the Central Andean Late Oligocene Rapid ( f 15 cm/year),
basement is not well known, with theories for its near-orthogonal plate convergence
assembly ranging from terrane accretion to intracra- Late Eocene – Deformation and crustal shortening
Early Oligocene in NE Puna (Incaic phase of Andean
tonic evolution (e.g., Coira et al., 1982; Dalziel, 1986;
orogeny, f 34 Ma). Arc volcanism
Bahlburg and Breikreuz, 1991; Bahlburg and Hervé, in Chile and western Puna
1997; Ramos, 1999; Lucassen et al., 2000). Mon and Middle Eocene Rapid oblique (NE-directed)
Salfity (1995) suggested that the various elements that convergence
make up the current basement in the Puna region were Middle – Late Arc volcanism in Chilean
Eocene Precordillera
first assembled during the Late Proterozoic Panamer-
Paleocene – Arc volcanism in Chilean
ican orogeny (700 –600 Ma; Table 1). Metamorphic Early Eocene Central Valley
protolith model ages range from 2.2 to 1.4 Ga, and Early Cretaceous Atlantic opening. Back-arc alkaline
reflect a cratonic origin with little magmatic addition syenites and granites in Puna
(Lucassen et al., 2000). The oldest basement rocks of Jurassic Back-arc granite emplacement in Puna
Late Paleozoic – Andean cycle of subduction begins;
the Central Andes (1900 – 980 Ma; Pankhurst and
Early Cretaceous arc volcanism on western seaboard
Rapela, 1998) belong to the Arequipa –Antofalla ter- of Chile (La Negra magmatic arc)
rane, which is believed to underlie the western half of Late Devonian – Intraplate granites emplaced in
the Puna. These basement rocks do not crop out in this Early Carboniferous Pampia terrane (Chanic phase of
region, but have been identified as xenoliths in Cen- Famatinian orogeny, f 355 Ma)
Ordovician Subduction-related granitoid intrusions
ozoic ignimbrites; Pb isotopic data show a link with the
in the Arequipa – Antofalla terrane
Amazonian craton to the north (Tosdal, 1996). (Faja Eruptiva de la Puna)
A major NNE-trending boundary longitudinally Early Ordovician – Final docking of Arequipa – Antofalla
divides the Puna, separating the Arequipa –Antofalla Early Carboniferous terranes (Oclóyic phase of Famatinian
terrane in the west from the Pampia terrane to the east, orogeny, f 435 Ma)
Late Proterozoic – Onset of accretion of Arequipa –
which consists of Late Proterozoic to Early Paleozoic
Cambrian Antofalla terrane (Pampean orogeny,
rocks (750 –530 Ma). Accretion of the Arequipa – 600 – 520 Ma)
Antofalla terrane is thought to have generated the Late Proterozoic First assembly of basement elements
Pampean orogeny (600 – 520 Ma; Pankhurst and (Panamerican orogeny, 700 – 600 Ma)
Rapela, 1998; Ramos, 1999). A marine sedimentary Late Proterozoic to Pampia terrane lithologies
Early Paleozoic
basin developed between these blocks in the Early
Early – Middle Arequipa – Antofalla terrane lithologies
Cambrian, and extended eastward to the present day Proterozoic (1900 – 980 Ma)
Cordillera Oriental. However, it is not clear whether
the basin formed as an intracratonic rift, a fully
developed passive margin, or an active margin (Coira
et al., 1982; Ramos, 1999). vician –Early Carboniferous; Pankhurst and Rapela,
A second orogenic phase, the Famatinian cycle, 1998; Ramos, 1999). Intraplate granites were
affected the region in the mid-Paleozoic (Early Ordo- emplaced in the Pampia terrane during the Late
132 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155
Devonian –Early Carboniferous (the Chanic orogeny;
Page and Zappettini, 1999), whereas Pankhurst et al.
(1998) report the Early – Middle Ordovician emplace-
ment of subduction-related calc-alkaline plutons to the
south in the Sierras Pampeanas. An important suite of
apparently subduction-related Ordovician granitoid
intrusions crops out in a NNW-trending belt in the
Arequipa – Antofalla terrane, stretching from the
southwestern Puna into northern Chile (the Faja
Eruptiva de la Puna; Palma et al., 1986; Damm et
al., 1990). Bahlburg and Breikreuz (1991) and Bahl-
burg and Hervé (1997) suggest that the Famatinian
cycle was related to the final closure of the basin
separating the Arequipa – Antofalla and Pampia ter-
ranes at the end of the Ordovician (Oclóyic orogeny;
Allmendinger et al., 1982). Welding of these terranes
laid the foundations for the Puna, or Protopuna, which
featured a west-facing active margin on its western
edge during the Ordovician (now the Cordillera Occi-
dental; Bahlburg and Breikreuz, 1991; Bahlburg and
Hervé, 1997).
The Andean cycle of subduction of the Pacific
plate beneath the western margin of Gondwana was
clearly established by Jurassic times (Coira et al.,
1982), but may have begun as early as the Triassic
or even Late Carboniferous (Damm et al., 1994;
Bahlburg and Hervé, 1997). This fundamental change
in plate interactions was related to the breakup of
Gondwana (Dalziel, 1986). A volcanic arc was built
on the present-day western seaboard of Chile (La
Negra magmatic arc; Coira et al., 1982; Mpodozis
and Ramos, 1989), which operated until the Early
Cretaceous when Atlantic opening changed plate
motions and caused a hiatus in magmatism (Dalziel,
1986; Palacios et al., 1993). During this period,
magmatism in the Puna region was restricted to minor
volcanic activity with associated small alkalic intru-
sions (syenites, riebeckite granites, and carbonatites)
in extensional back-arc basins (Salta Group; Salfity
and Marquillas, 1999).
Throughout the Cenozoic, the volcanic arc moved
progressively eastwards in response to a shallowing
of the angle of subduction, with axes located in the
Central Valley of Chile during the Paleocene – Early
Eocene, the Chilean Precordillera during the Mid-
dle – Late Eocene (Jordan and Gardeweg, 1989;
Hammerschmidt et al., 1992), and then moving to
its present location in the Cordillera Occidental by
the Late Oligocene (Coira et al., 1982; Mpodozis
and Ramos, 1989). Deformation and crustal short-
ening began in the northeastern Puna (Protocordil-
lera Oriental) during the Late Eocene – Early
Oligocene Incaic orogeny, following a period of
rapid oblique (NE-directed) plate convergence in
the mid-Eocene (Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987;
Hammerschmidt et al., 1992; Coutand et al.,
2001). A second episode of rapid ( f 15 cm/year),
near-orthogonal convergence began in the Late Oli-
gocene, and high but decreasing rates were sustained
until the end of the Miocene (Pardo-Casas and
Molnar, 1987; Somoza, 1998). Crustal thickening
reached a maximum in the northern Puna and
Altiplano during this period (the mid-Miocene Que-
chua phase of the Andean orogeny, 15 – 10 Ma;
Jordan and Gardeweg, 1989; Coutand et al., 2001),
and continued through the Pliocene in the southern
Puna (Diaguita phase; Jordan and Alonso, 1987;
Kraemer et al., 1999). Coira et al. (1993) and Kay
and Kay (1993) have suggested that this late Neo-
gene deformation event was related to lithospheric
delamination beneath the southern Puna.
Neogene– Quaternary sedimentation in the Puna
produced fluvial and lacustrine (including evaporitic)
deposits within closed, commonly structurally con-
trolled, intermontane basins (Fig. 2; Jordan et al.,
1983; Jordan and Alonso, 1987; Alonso et al., 1991;
Vandervoort et al., 1995; Allmendinger et al., 1997;
Coutand et al., 2001). Volcanism flared during the
Miocene in the Cordillera Occidental, and continued
sporadically into the Quaternary (Thorpe, 1984; Jor-
dan and Gardeweg, 1989). Large andesitic – dacitic
stratovolcanoes were constructed during this period
along the main axis of the arc (e.g., Socompa,
Llullaillaco), and also along southeast-trending trans-
verse eruptive zones that cut across the Puna (e.g., the
El Queva, Antofalla, and Cerro Galán volcanoes; Fig.
1; Jordan and Gardeweg, 1989; Kraemer et al., 1999).
Several centers developed collapse calderas during
eruption of large ignimbrite sheets (e.g., Cerro Galán;
Coira et al., 1982; Koukharsky, 1985; Sparks et al.,
1985; Riller et al., 2001; Siebel et al., 2001).
2.1. Structural history
The pre-Cenozoic structural architecture of the
Puna basement is dominated by the NNE-trending
 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155
suture zone between the Arequipa –Antofalla and the
Pampia terranes (roughly defined by the western out-
crop limit of Precambrian rocks in Fig. 2). This
structural grain was reactivated during the Cenozoic,
and forms a key element in the delineation of uplifted
basement blocks and intermontane basins. Several
important NW- and NE-trending transverse linea-
ments that cut across the Puna and extend westward
into Chile also appear to have originated in the
Paleozoic (Allmendinger et al., 1983; Jordan et al.,
1983; Salfity, 1985; see below).
The Cenozoic deformation history of the Puna has
been studied in detail by a number of authors (e.g.,
Allmendinger et al., 1997; Kraemer et al., 1999).
Tectonism related to crustal thickening began during
the Late Eocene – Early Oligocene Incaic orogeny, and
reached a peak in the Miocene, as noted above.
During this period, ESE shortening across the Puna
was accommodated by NNE-trending thrust faults
along which basement blocks were uplifted (Marrett
and Emerman, 1992; Kraemer et al., 1999; Coutand et
al., 2001). Minor amounts of N – S extension occurred
at the northern and southern margins of the plateau
(Allmendinger et al., 1997), while reactivated NW-
and NE-trending faults acted as transfer structures
with sinistral and dextral displacements, respectively
(Allmendinger et al., 1983; Jordan et al., 1983; Salfity,
1985; Matteini et al., 1997; Coutand et al., 2001).
Estimates of upper crustal shortening are not as
extensive as might be expected from the observed
degree of crustal thickening (e.g., only 10 – 15%;
Coutand et al., 2001), suggesting either that the Puna
has been underthrust by cratonic material from the
east (Dorbath and Masson, 2000) or by material
tectonically eroded at the subduction zone to the west
(Baby et al., 1997), or that magmatic addition to the
crust has been volumetrically important (James and
Sack, 1999).
During the Diaguita deformational phase in the
Pliocene, motion along the main NNE-trending struc-
tures changed to strike – slip, with E- or NE-directed
shortening, and N- to NW-directed extension along
secondary structures (Allmendinger et al., 1989; Mar-
rett and Emerman, 1992; Marrett et al., 1994; Coira et
al., 1993).
In summary, although there is ample evidence for
strain in the Puna during the Andean orogeny, upper
crustal deformation was relatively thin-skinned and
133
nonpenetrative, and crustal thickening processes
appear to have been concentrated in the lower crust.
Furthermore, the main structural elements in the
Puna—NW-, NNE-, and NE-trending faults—all
appear to have had antecedents in the Paleozoic
basement.
2.2. Lineaments and structural controls on magma-
tism and mineral deposits
Mesozoic and Cenozoic magmatism in northern
Chile and Argentina defines a series of approximately
trench-parallel arcs, which young progressively east-
wards to the currently active Cordillera Occidental.
Where erosion has exposed the intrusive levels of
these arcs (e.g., the Late Eocene– Early Oligocene
porphyry Cu belt in northern Chile), close relation-
ships between plutonism and orogen-parallel strike –
slip faulting can be observed (Baker and Guilbert,
1987; Lindsay et al., 1995; Tomlinson and Blanco,
1997). More specifically, Richards et al. (2001) docu-
mented a spatial association between porphyry Cu
mineralization at La Escondida, and the intersection of
a NW-trending structural corridor (the Archibarca
lineament) with the N – S West Fissure Zone. This
relationship is unsurprising, because plutonism and
faulting in such settings are interrelated processes:
magmatic heat serves to weaken the crust and localize
strain, but preexisting structures also serve to focus
magma ascent, providing a feedback mechanism
(Davidson et al., 1994; Vigneresse and Tikoff, 1999).
At shallow crustal levels, volcanic and other surfi-
cial deposits commonly obscure deep-seated faults.
The presence of such underlying structures can never-
theless be inferred from alignments of secondary
features, such as stratigraphic discontinuities or facies
changes, linear arrays of magmatic features (intru-
sions, volcanoes), and topographic features. The
regional lineament map shown in Fig. 1 was produced
by Salfity (1985) on this basis using air photographs
and satellite images, as well as existing geological
maps. In addition to major orogen-parallel structural
corridors, the map reveals several transverse linea-
ments that can be traced from the Pacific coast of
Chile, across the Cordillera Occidental, and into the
Puna (e.g., the Calama – Olacapato– El Toro, Archi-
barca, and Culampajá lineaments; Allmendinger et al.,
1982, 1983; Jordan et al., 1983; Alonso et al., 1984;
 134
Table 2
Location, characteristics, geological environment, and magnetic signature of significant mineral deposits of the Puna
Deposit examples Deposit type Age Tectonic setting Lithologic unit Lithology Magnetic signature
Santa Catalina-Rinconada district Mesothermal Ordovician Talus deposits Acoyte f. and Quarzites and Nonmagnetic to

C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155

(Au) (22j25VS.L., 66j17VW.L.); Au – Sb veins equivalents sandstones weakly magnetic.
Incahuasi (Au) Regional intensity
(25j27VS.L., 67j12VW.L.) generally moderate
Mina Aguilar Sedex Ordovician Syn – rift Lampazar Quarzites and Nonmagnetic to
(23j12VS.L., 65j42VW.L.); deposits and Cuarcita pelites weakly magnetic.
La Colorada (polymetallic) Aguilar ff. High regional
(23j38VS.L., 66j17VW.L.) intensity derived
from the underlying
Precambrain basement
Grupo La Mesada (W) Granite- Carboniferous Post-orogenic Llullaillaco Granites Moderately magnetic
(26j58VS.L., 66j56VW.L.) associated granites Complex and surrounded by a rim of
veins equivalents low gradient
Descubridora de Los Aparejos Skarn
(Cu) (27j42VS.L., 68j24VW.L.)
Piedra Calzada (Bi) Pegmatite
(26j48VS.L., 66j51VW.L.)
Tusaquillas and Liquinaste (W) Granite- Jurassic – Back arc Tusaquillas and Granites, Syenites Nonmagnetic to
(23j15VS.L. 66j01VW.L.) associated Cretaceous magmatism Rangel ff. weakly magnetic
veins and intraplate
alkaline
intrusions
Rangel District (Th-ETR) Carbonatites Moderately magnetic
(23j30VS.L., 66j15VW.L.) and associated with linear WNW-
veins trending fabric
Taca Taca (Cu – Mo) Porphyry Cu Paleogene Magmatic arc Santa Inés Rhyodacitic and Moderately magnetic
(24j35VS.L., 67j44VW.L.) Complex and dacitic porphyries,
equivalents dacites, andesites,
and ignimbrites
Pirquitas (Sn – Ag) Bolivian-type Middle Magmatic arc Cordón de Rhyodacitic and Moderately magnetic
(22j42VS.L., 66j30VW.L.) polymetallics Miocene Arizaro, Valle dacitic porphyries,
Ancho ff, Pozuelos dacites, andesites,
Complex and ignimbrites
and equivalents
Cerro Redondo (Au) Epithermal and
(22j23VS.L., 66j08VW.L.); transition type
Pan de Azúcar (Pb – Zn – Ag – Sb)
(22j32VS.L., 66j01VW.L.)
Bajo de La Alumbrera (Cu – Au) Porphyry Cu – Mo Upper Miocene Magmatic arc Agua Caliente f. Rhyodacitic and Moderately magnetic
(27j19VS.L., 66j38VW.L.); and Cu – Au Farallón Negro dacitic porphyries,
Agua Rica (Cu – Mo – Au) Complex and dacites, andesites,
(27j22VS.L., 66j17VW.L.); equivalents and ignimbrites
Inca Viejo (Cu)
(25j09VS.L., 66j45VW.L.)
Farallón Negro (Au – Mn) Epithermal
(27j18VS.L., 66j40VW.L.); type
Capillitas (Pb – Zn – Ag – Cu – Au)

C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155

(27j20VS.L., 66j23VW.L.);
El Queva District (Pb – Ag – Sb)
(24j16VS.L., 66j27VW.L.);
Pairique (Au – Sn)
(22j53VS.L., 66j50VW.L.);
Chinchillas (Pb – Ag – Zn)
(22j30VS.L., 66j16VW.L.);
Concordia (Pb – Ag – Zn)
(24j12VS.L., 66j25VW.L.);
La Hoyada (Cu—Pb—Ag—Zn)
(26j55VS.L., 67j50VW.L.);
Antofalla (Ag—Zn – Pb)
(25j40VS.L., 67j50VW.L.)
La Casualidad (S) Epithermal Pliocene – Magmatic arc Inca, Tecar Dacites and Magnetic, high
(25j26VS.L., 68j21VW.L.); type Holocene Voclanic andesites with magnetic gradient
Tocomar (travertine) complexes in thin interlayed
(24j11 S.L., 66j34VW.L.) and equivalents basalts. Ignimbrites
La Salteña (Fe) El Laco
(24j05VS.L., 67j20VW.L.) type iron
deposits
Cóndor (Au) Placers Pleistocene – Alluvial and Sands and gravels No signal at
(22j25VS.L., 66j08VW.L.); Holocene colluvial deposits regional coverage
Pircas (Sn – Au)
(22j43VS.L., 66j28VW.L.)

135
136 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155
Salfity, 1985; Chernicoff and Zappettini, 2000). Sev-
eral of these lineaments coincide with southeastward-
trending volcanic breakouts from the main arc axis,
which suggest a structural control on localization of
magmatism, as observed in Chile (Salfity, 1985;
Schreiber and Schwab, 1991; Matteini et al., 1997;
Riller et al., 2001). The relationship between linea-
ments, structure, and mineralization was emphasized
by Garcı́a (1969), Figueroa (1971), Baldis (1980), and
Bassi (1992).
2.3. Metallogeny
There seems to be no clear geological reason why
the mineralization potential of the Argentine Puna
should not match that of neighbouring districts in
northern Chile, but extensive blanketing of the Puna
region by young volcanic and sedimentary rocks ren-
ders exploration difficult. Thus, remote sensing meth-
ods that can be used to detect or predict underlying
geology are of particular value. Table 2 summarizes the
location, characteristics, geological environment, and
magnetic signatures of significant mineral deposits of
the Puna.
The Paleozoic basement of the Puna is host to a
number of different mineral deposit types, including
Ordovician sedimentary-exhalative (SEDEX) Pb –
Zn – Ag deposits (e.g., Aguilar and La Colorada;
Sureda and Martı́n, 1990; Zappettini and Segal,
1998) and Bendigo-type mesothermal Au vein depos-
its in metamorphosed Ordovician turbiditic sequences
(e.g., the Santa Catalina-Rinconada and Incahuasi
districts; Zappettini and Segal, 1999).
However, the greatest metallogenic diversity
occurred in the Cenozoic, beginning with Paleogene
porphyry Cu mineralization at Taca Taca (Rojas et al.,
1999; Rubinstein et al., 1999), and followed by
Miocene epithermal Au deposits associated with felsic
volcanism (Pairique; Coira, 1999), Bolivian-type tin
mineralization (Pirquitas; Chayle, 1999), Pb –Ag – Zn
polymetallic mineralization (Pan de Azúcar, Concor-
dia, Antofalla, and El Queva; Sillitoe, 1975; Caffe and
Coira, 1999), Cu – Au porphyry deposits (Inca Viejo;
Chabert, 1999), and Au porphyries (Cerro Redondo;
Caffe and Coira, 1999). Historically important native
sulfur deposits also occur in fumarolic alteration zones
within the peaks of Miocene– Quaternary stratovolca-
noes (e.g., Llullaillaco, Mina Julia). Near the southern
margin of the Puna in the transition zone to the region
of flat-slab subduction (26 –30jS), potassic magma-
tism generated the large Bajo de la Alumbrera por-
phyry Cu – Au deposit, and localized smaller
polymetallic deposits similar to those found to the
north (La Hoyada, Capillitas, Farallón Negro; Guil-
bert, 1985; Müller and Forrestal, 1998; Sasso and
Clark, 1998).
3. Aeromagnetic survey of the Puna
The Puna aeromagnetic survey is the integration of
three different regional surveys carried out by the
Servicio Geológico Minero Argentino (SEGEMAR)
between 1996 and 1999. Together, they comprise
nearly 170,000 line kilometers and cover an area of
150,000 km2. The contractors involved in the acquis-
ition were World Geoscience, Sander Geophysics, and
Sial Geosciences. The surveys were flown with fixed-
wing aircraft at 1 km line spacing and 150 m nominal
terrane clearance. Due to the rugged topography, in
many cases, the altitude above ground was signifi-
cantly higher than the nominal terrane clearance.
Gamma-ray spectrometry data were also acquired
during the surveys.
3.1. Processing and interpretation of the aeromag-
netic survey
Analysis of the aeromagnetic survey data involved
close inspection of a number of layers of information
derived from the original magnetic profiles. These
layers included the total magnetic intensity, total
magnetic intensity reduced to the pole (RTP; Fig. 3),
analytic signal (or total gradient), and first vertical
derivative (FVD; Fig. 4) of the total magnetic inten-
sity reduced to the pole. Each layer focuses on differ-
ent aspects of the magnetic signatures of the region.
The total magnetic intensity data were reduced
to the pole in order to reposition the magnetic
anomalies above their sources, a necessary step
when working in areas of low magnetic latitude
(Silva, 1986; Keating and Zerbo, 1996). The RTP
and analytic signal (total gradient) layers were
mainly used to delineate litho-magnetic domains,
which constitute areas of similar magnetic signature
that can be interpreted to belong to a particular
 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155 137

Fig. 3. Total magnetic intensity reduced to the pole of the Puna. Data from SEGEMAR aeromagnetic surveys, 1996 – 1999. Inset: 2-km upward
continued total magnetic intensity reduced to the pole of same area.
138 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155

Fig. 4. First vertical derivative of the total magnetic intensity reduced to the pole of the Puna.
 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155
lithological unit (Fig. 5). The litho-magnetic
domains are generally larger than the known out-
crop areas of the lithological units to which they
relate, because the magnetic basement is extensively
covered by nonmagnetic supracrustal sediments.
The first vertical derivative (Fig. 4) layer was
found to be particularly valuable for interpreting the
basement structure of the area because this process
highlights contrasts and changes in magnetic intensity.
Various angles of illumination were applied to the
FVD and RTP layers to produce shaded relief images
that emphasized different sets of structures. In addi-
tion, several composite images (e.g., RTP/FVD, RTP/
analytic signal, FVD/analytic signal) were also used to
constrain the interpretations shown in Fig. 5.
3.2. Litho-magnetic domains
A map of the total magnetic intensity reduced to
the pole of the Puna region is shown in Fig. 3. Three
major litho-magnetic domains can be defined within
the study area (Chernicoff et al., 1996; Chernicoff and
Zappettini, 2000): Precambrian – Early Cambrian
basement, Paleozoic basement, and the Cenozoic
magmatic arc (Fig. 5).
Precambrian – Early Cambrian basement rocks of
the inferred Pampia terrane occupy the southeastern
part of the region, which is characterized by a regional
magnetic high with low gradient; this area is trans-
ected by three belts that belong to the Cenozoic
magmatic arc.
The Paleozoic basement domain (Arequipa – Anto-
falla terrane) lies immediately to the west of the
Precambrian – Early Cambrian domain (Fig. 5), and
is characterized by a predominantly low magnetic
gradient derived from Ordovician sedimentary rocks.
It is distinguished from the older basement domain to
the southeast by the absence of a regional magnetic
high. The Paleozoic basement domain contains all of
the Bendigo-type gold vein deposits (Rinconada and
Incahuasi districts) and SEDEX-type Pb – Ag – Zn
deposits (Aguilar and La Colorada mines) known in
the Puna, many of which are in the vicinity of long
NNE lineaments.
The Cenozoic magmatic arc is distinguished from
the other domains by its conspicuously high magnetic
gradient (Fig. 3), and an average total magnetic
intensity that is lower than the average for the rest
139
of the region. Because these rocks are typically
exposed at the surface, this domain is well constrained
by outcrop geology. The main axis of Cenozoic
magmatism lies along the border between Chile and
Argentina, and is only partially imaged here. How-
ever, four narrow ( f 50 km wide) belts of volcanic
rocks extend southeast from the Cordillera Occidental
across the Puna (Fig. 5). A similar situation has been
observed in Chile (Behn, 1998), where magnetic
‘‘cross-anomalies’’ (i.e., transverse to the Andean
orogen) have been interpreted to be the track of the
eastward migration of the segmented Andean mag-
matic arc, or the axes of structurally controlled upper
crustal intrusive complexes.
3.3. Magnetic lineament interpretation
The magnetic lineament framework of the study
area, as interpreted from the aeromagnetic data (Figs.
3 and 4), is shown in Fig. 5. Lineaments were defined
as breaks in the magnetic pattern and are regarded as
dislocations, either shallow (as shown by mapped
faults/fractures) or deep-seated discontinuities (as evi-
denced by their presence in deeper ‘‘slices’’ of the
aeromagnetic data, as well as their length; see inset in
Fig. 3). Four main groups of lineaments can be
recognized from this analysis:
3.3.1. NNE- to NE-trending lineaments
This group is the most conspicuous in terms of
lineament frequency and length, and corresponds to
major Cenozoic structures (faults, thrusts, fractures)
characteristic of the Argentine northwest. The corre-
spondence of several NNE-trending lineaments with
the boundary between the Precambrian – Early Cam-
brian and Paleozoic domains suggests antecedents in
the structure of this suture zone.
3.3.2. WNW- and ENE-trending lineaments
This group comprises structures of a broad range of
ages, from pre-Andean zones of weakness (e.g., in the
Nevados de Palermo range) to late Cenozoic trans-
current faulting (as evidenced by the WNW twist of
the N –S-trending faults in the Olacapato area). These
lineaments are interpreted to represent deep crustal
structures that have been selectively reactivated in the
Cenozoic (Allmendinger et al., 1983; Alonso et al.,
1984; Salfity, 1985). The intervening shorter linea-
140 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155

Fig. 5. Litho-magnetic domains and magnetic lineaments interpreted from SEGEMAR aeromagnetic surveys of the Puna (modified from
Chernicoff and Zappettini, 2000).
 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155 141

Fig. 6. Bajo de la Alumbrera district. (A) Total magnetic intensity reduced to the pole. (B) First vertical derivative of the total magnetic intensity
reduced to the pole. (C) Analytic signal (total gradient) of the total magnetic intensity. Contours of analytic signal shown to emphasize structure.
142 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155
ments are likely to be younger (mostly Cenozoic),
shallower structures.
3.3.3. N – S-trending lineaments
This group is restricted mainly to the southeast of
the area (within the Precambrian Pampia terrane), and
is likely to be late Cenozoic in age, as evidenced by
disrupted alluvial fans to the west of La Quiaca.
3.3.4. Circular anomalies (5– 20 km diameter)
Several of these anomalies correspond to major
Cenozoic eruptive centers. Smaller circular anomalies
are related to domes and hydrothermal systems.
The transverse volcanic belts host the majority of
mineral deposits in the Puna, and in many cases, the
locations of these deposits coincide closely with
structural elements of the major WNW lineament
corridors (Fig. 5). For example: the Concordia, El
Queva, and La Poma epithermal districts lie along the
Calama – Olacapato – El Toro lineament; the Mina
Julia, Antofalla, and Cerro Galán fumarolic and epi-
thermal systems lie along the Archibarca lineament;
and deposits in the Bajo de la Alumbrera district occur
near the intersections between the Culampajá linea-
ment, ENE-trending lineaments related to the Tucu-
Fig. 7. Aeromagnetic lineament interpretation of the Bajo de la Alumbrera district. Small black dots indicate the locations of known mineral
deposits.
mán Transfer Zone and a conspicuous set of N – S-
trending lineaments.
4. Example districts
The use of lineament distributions, and particularly
lineament intersections, to explain or predict the
locations of magmatic or hydrothermal systems is a
well-established but not foolproof method. As
reviewed by Richards (2000), magmatism and hydro-
thermal activity may be focused to shallow crustal
levels by deep-seated structures, which may in turn be
recognized as lineaments or lineament corridors in
geophysical or remotely sensed images. However, the
converse is not necessarily true, i.e., an identified
lineament does not necessarily reflect the presence
of a major structure, and even where such structures
exist, they do not cause the emplacement of magmas
or the passage of hydrothermal fluids—they merely
offer high permeability structural pathways that may
be invaded by magmas or volatiles if such fluids are
present. Furthermore, magmas and hydrothermal flu-
ids are not restricted to following such structural
pathways, but may be emplaced away from any
 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155 143

Fig. 8. Landsat TM image (A) and lineament interpretation (B) of the Bajo de la Alumbrera district, showing the locations of major mineral
deposits.
144 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155

obvious lineament association. Nevertheless, although
a perfect correlation between identified lineaments
and the locations of volcanic centers or mineral
deposits is rarely observed, good examples exist that
display clear spatial associations at the kilometer- to
tens of kilometer-scale. At these scales, the relation-
ship is to lineament corridors (i.e., structural corri-
dors), rather than individual structural elements.
Three such example districts have been chosen
from the Puna study area: Bajo de la Alumbrera,

Fig. 9. Cerro Galán district. (A) Total magnetic intensity reduced to the pole. (B) First vertical derivative of the total magnetic intensity reduced
to the pole. (C) Analytic signal (total gradient) of the total magnetic intensity. Contours of analytic signal shown to emphasize structure.
 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155 145

Cerro Galán, and El Queva. In these districts, close mented by ENE-trending lineaments, the latter repre-
spatial relationships can be seen between lineaments senting traces of the Tucumán Transfer Zone (Fig. 1).
defined by geophysical surveys and on Landsat This structural assemblage is intersected by N – S- to
images, and the locations of magmatic centers and NNW-trending lineaments, along which a smaller
hydrothermal deposits. In illustrating these examples, number of mineral deposits are aligned. Unambiguous
Landsat TM and selected geophysical images are cross-cutting relationships are not clear, although both
presented separately from lineament interpretations NNW- and ENE-trending lineaments delimit or cross-
drawn at the same scale. Note that only selected cut volcanic features in the map area, and are therefore
geophysical images are shown, but several other interpreted to represent faults active in the late Cen-
composite layers, or layers illuminated from different ozoic.
angles, were employed in the magnetic lineament A similar framework is suggested in the interpre-
interpretations. Landsat lineament interpretations were tation of the Landsat image shown in Fig. 8, where the
made at 1:250,000-scale, using spectral bands 7, 4, surface topography and the spectral response more
and 1 (assigned to red, green, and blue, respectively) clearly define traces of the NE-trending Tucumán
from scenes 231-079 (dated 13/10/86), 232-078 Transfer Zone. The locations of the Bajo de la
(dated 02/09/86), and 232-077 (dated 10/03/86). Alumbrera, Capillitas, and Agua Rica mineral depos-
its near intersections of this zone with NW- and
4.1. Bajo de la Alumbrera district WNW-trending lineaments are particularly evident.
A number of other large circular features (up to 15
The Bajo de la Alumbrera district is located at the km diameter) occur to the north of the main WNW
eastern end of the southern belt of Cenozoic magma- corridor (Fig. 7), where they are bounded and/or
tism (Fig. 5), f 200 km east of the main volcanic arc transected by WNW-, ENE-, and N –S-trending linea-
and f 500 km east of the trench where the Nazca ments. The sources for these features are covered by
plate is subducting beneath South America. This young alluvial sediments, but they may be older,
transverse volcanic belt coincides with, and locally
defines, part of the trans-Andean Culampajá linea-
ment (Figs. 1 and 5). Economic porphyry Cu –Au
mineralization at Bajo de la Alumbrera is centered on
a dacite porphyry ( f 6.9 Ma) emplaced into coeval
Late Miocene (12.6 –5.1 Ma) high-K andesites and
shoshonites of the Farallon Negro volcanic complex
(Guilbert, 1985; Müller and Forrestal, 1998; Sasso
and Clark, 1998). Sasso and Clark (1998) suggested
that magmatism was localized in a dextral pull-apart
basin along the NE-trending Tucumán Transfer Zone
(Figs. 1 and 5), which is interpreted to follow a major
basement terrane boundary (see also de Urreiztieta et
al., 1996). Lineament control on the porphyry-type
mineralization in the district was analysed by Ramos
(1977).
Inspection of the magnetic pattern of the Bajo de la
Alumbrera district (Fig. 6) reveals the occurrence of
several circular features (up to 6 km diameter) corre-
sponding to eruptive centers within a WNW-trending
corridor ( f 50 km long, 8 km wide), which hosts
most of the known mineral occurrences in the area
(Fig. 7). The structural framework of this corridor Fig. 10. Aeromagnetic lineament interpretation of the Cerro Galán
comprises a prominent WNW-trending lineament seg- district.
146 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155

Fig. 11. Landsat TM image (A) and lineament interpretation (B) of the Cerro Galán district. Fault locations are taken from the Provincia de
Catamarca 1:500,000 geological map sheet (Servicio Geológico, 1995). The location of a prominent hydrothermal alteration zone at the caldera
margin is highlighted.
 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155 147

eroded magmatic centers. If so, they might be pro-
spective for intrusion-hosted porphyry mineralization.
4.2. Cerro Galán district
The Cerro Galán district is located within the
south-central Cenozoic magmatic belt, and features
the largest Cenozoic ignimbrite caldera in Argentina
(Fig. 5). The Cerro Galán crater (Sparks et al.,
1985) is clearly visible on the aeromagnetic maps
(Fig. 9), and is interpreted to be a nested caldera,
as indicated by three intersecting circular features.
Additional circular features, interpreted to be small
satellite eruptive centers, are located around the

Fig. 12. El Queva district. (A) Total magnetic intensity reduced to the pole. (B) First vertical derivative of the total magnetic intensity reduced to
the pole. (C) Analytic signal (total gradient) of the total magnetic intensity. Contours of analytic signal shown to emphasize structure.
148 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155

main caldera (Fig. 10). Extensive NE-, NNE-, and
NW-trending lineaments can be discerned on both
the magnetic and Landsat images (Fig. 11), and are
consistent with regional structural trends. In partic-
ular, the NW-trending lineaments comprise elements
of the major trans-Andean Archibarca lineament
(Fig. 1).
Sparks et al. (1985) reported that eruption of the
f 1000 km3 rhyodacitic Cerro Galán ignimbrite at
2.1 Ma was the culmination of a volcanic episode
that began in the Middle Miocene, and involved a
significant amount of deep crustal melting (Francis
et al., 1989). Sparks et al. (1985) also conjectured
that the location of the caldera was controlled by
N –S-trending faults in the late Paleozoic metamor-
phic basement. Although some N – S lineaments are
indeed recognized, the caldera lies more noticeably
in the zone of intersection of regionally extensive
NNE- and NW-trending lineaments and mapped
faults (Figs. 10 and 11; Martı́nez, 1995). Hydro-
thermal alteration is extensively developed in the
volcanic rocks (Sparks et al., 1985), and several
mining companies have conducted mineral explora-
tion programs in the area. One particularly prom-
inent alteration zone, highlighted in Fig. 11, occurs
at the intersection of a NW-trending lineament and
the caldera rim, itself apparently controlled by a
major NNE-trending fault.
range is clearly depicted as an area of high mag-
netic gradients in the southeastern quadrant of the
aeromagnetic map (Fig. 12). A prominent circular
shaped area of very high magnetic gradient in the
right-central part of the map derives from the Aguas
Calientes caldera.
The Landsat and magnetic lineament interpreta-
tions shown in Figs. 13 and 14, respectively, are
broadly in agreement with the mapped structural
framework, and reveal WNW-trending lineaments
intersected by NE, NW, ENE, and N –S lineaments.
The NE lineaments probably relate to the boundary
between the Precambrian and Ordovician basement
blocks, whereas the WNW and NW lineaments are
interpreted to represent individual structural ele-
ments of the Calama –Olacapato – El Toro lineament.
Most of the mineral occurrences of the district fall
within the zone of intersection between the Cal-
ama – Olacapato – El Toro corridor and NE linea-
ments, and many deposits are spatially related to
individual lineaments or eruptive centers (Figs. 13
and 14).

4.3. El Queva district

The El Queva district is located within the north-

central Cenozoic magmatic belt (Fig. 5), which
defines part of the SE-trending trans-Andean Cal-
ama – Olacapato– El Toro lineament (Fig. 1). Exten-
sive hydrothermal alteration, fumarolic sulfur
deposits, and minor Pb –Ag mineralization (worked
from 1968 to 1973 at the El Queva mine; Sillitoe,
1975) occur within edifices of the Nevados de
Pastos Grandes volcanic range, which have been
partially excavated by minor Pleistocene glaciation.
The volcanoes are constructed of andesitic to dacitic
lava flows and pyroclastic deposits of Upper Mio-
cene to Pliocene age. Sillitoe (1975) proposed a
spatial relationship between the locations of individ-
ual volcanic vents and the projection of a zone of Fig. 13. Aeromagnetic lineament interpretation of the El Queva
N – S-trending faults exposed in the Ordovician district. Small black dots indicate the locations of known mineral
basement. The Nevados de Pastos Grandes volcanic deposits.
 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155 149

Fig. 14. Landsat TM image (A) and lineament interpretation (B) of the El Queva district, showing the locations of prominent hydrothermal
alteration zones within the volcanic edifices of the Nevados de Pastos Grandes volcanic range.
150 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155
5. Discussion
In the foregoing sections, we have firstly estab-
lished the regional-scale geophysical and interpreted
structural framework of the Puna, and have then
focused on three detailed areas within that region at
a scale at which spatial relationships between linea-
ments and individual magmatic and hydrothermal
centers can be observed. This combination of
regional- and local-scale analyses is essential, because
local details are lost on the small-scale regional maps,
whereas the significance of regional trends and linea-
ment corridors is often not clear within the bounds of
the large-scale local maps. The combination of differ-
ent methodologies (geophysical and Landsat) is also
important because these techniques record different
characteristics and contrasts of the surface and subsur-
face geology. In particular, Landsat images record
only features visible at the Earth’s surface, whereas
the aeromagnetic method is sensitive to magnetic
contrasts throughout the crust. Therefore, lineaments
visible in both data sets, and in particular, those of
significant linear extent (i.e., comparable to the crustal
thickness of 50 –70 km), are interpreted to represent
major, through-going crustal structures.
Richards (2000) and Tosdal and Richards (2001)
recently reviewed evidence for a relationship between
deep crustal structures and the emplacement of deeply
derived magmas, and concluded that while such
structures may provide weak or permeable pathways
for magma ascent, their mere existence does not in
itself result in intrusion. Instead, the tectono-magmatic
history of the region also needs to be considered in
order to satisfy both the necessity for an active magma
source, and for the existence of a conducive stress
field acting on the structural framework to promote
permeability.
Supracrustal magmatism in each of the three study
areas is related to the late Cenozoic Andean orogeny,
which occurred in response to relatively rapid and
shallow subduction of the Nazca plate beneath South
America. The main focus of arc magmatism during
this period was, and continues to be, the Cordillera
Occidental, which forms the western border of the
Puna. However, coeval breakouts of volcanism and
associated shallow-level plutonism extended as fin-
gers to the SE across the Puna; four such fingers are
identified in Fig. 5. A deep structural control on the
orientation and extent of these breakouts has been
suspected for some time (e.g., Jordan et al., 1983;
Salfity, 1985), but such structures are hard to identify
in the field because they have largely been covered by
the volcanic rocks that they have helped to localize.
Blanketing of the pre-Cenozoic basement by such
materials is not complete, however, and on a regional
scale, the trends of basement structures become visi-
ble and can be projected beneath the younger succes-
sions. Thus, in Fig. 5, strong WNW structural trends
can be recognized, several of which correlate with the
transverse belts of late Cenozoic volcanism. At least
three of these structural zones are of such intensity
and lateral persistence that they have been named: the
Calama –Olacapato – El Toro, Archibarca, and Culam-
pajá lineaments (Figs. 1 and 5).
Studies of exposed fault strands along these WNW
lineaments suggest that, at least during the late Cen-
ozoic, they have behaved as strike –slip faults, mostly
with limited sinistral offsets ( f 20 km for the El Toro
fault; Allmendinger et al., 1982, 1983; Jordan et al.,
1983; Salfity, 1985; Matteini et al., 1997). Coutand et
al. (2001) have referred to these structures as transfer
faults, accommodating shear strain between large
crustal blocks during Neogene crustal shortening.
Other structural trends are also visible in the geo-
physical and Landsat images, including a prominent
corridor of NNE-trending lineaments that broadly
corresponds to the suture zone between the Are-
quipa –Antofalla and Pampia terranes, and numerous
but less extensive N –S structures.
In order to explore in more detail the spatial
relationship between magmatism, mineralization, and
deep crustal structure, three areas in which this
association is clear both at a regional and local scale
were selected for closer examination: Bajo de la
Alumbrera (containing the largest porphyry Cu –Au
deposit in Argentina), Cerro Galán (the largest late
Cenozoic caldera complex in Argentina), and El
Queva (a historically important polymetallic district
hosted by a major volcanic complex). In each case,
these centers are found to lie within the zones of
intersection of major crustal lineaments, most notably
the WNW trans-Andean set (all locations), the NNE-
to NE-suture-related set (El Queva and Cerro Galán),
and the ENE-trending Tucumán Transfer Zone (Bajo
de la Alumbrera). Relatively discontinuous N – S-
trending lineaments are also identified in several
 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155
locations, and may be conjugate to WNW- or NE-
trending structures.
The favourability of lineament intersections for
focusing magma ascent has frequently been noted in
the past (e.g., Rehrig and Heidrick, 1972; Bussell,
1976; Pitcher, 1979; Sylvester and Linke, 1993;
Rowley et al., 1998). In particular, development of
extensional pull-apart volumes that may serve to
focus magma emplacement is favoured at step-
overs, bends, and structural intersections along
strike –slip faults during transtensional or transpres-
sional deformation (Bellier and Sébrier, 1994; Tom-
masi et al., 1994; Tobisch and Cruden, 1995;
Román-Berdiel et al., 1997; Benn et al., 2000;
Riller et al., 2001). From a metallogenic perspec-
tive, areas of enhanced magmatic flux also represent
zones of increased prospectivity for magmatic-
related hydrothermal ore deposits, and recognition
of such centers therefore has significance for min-
eral exploration.
Our analysis of three major magmatic centers in
the Puna, each associated with an ore deposit and/or
large hydrothermal alteration zone, suggests a spa-
tial relationship between magmatic – hydrothermal
activity and the intersections of deep-seated base-
ment structures. This relationship may be further
rationalized in terms of structural weakness and
permeability, permitting focused ascent of magma
to shallow crustal levels where devolatilization may
produce hydrothermal ore deposits. However, con-
version of this relationship into an exploration
model is complicated by the fact that structural
architecture does not in itself generate or localize
magmatism—as noted above, it merely provides a
favourable environment for magma ascent when a
magma source is present within a suitably oriented
regional stress field. Furthermore, magmatism and
mineralization are not precluded from forming away
from such intersections, although it might be
expected that the largest centers would indeed be
localized by zones of maximum structural favour-
ability. As can be seen in Fig. 5, many intersections
between individual lineament strands are evident
throughout the Puna region, and many are not
directly associated with recorded mineralization.
This lack of perfect correlation could be viewed
as a limitation of the model for exploration pur-
poses. However, such ‘‘barren’’ loci might be
151
unfavourable for other, predictable reasons, such
as that they lie off the magmatic axis, that the local
structural framework was misoriented with respect
to the prevailing stress field at the time of potential
mineralization, or that local conditions were inap-
propriate (e.g., nonprospective magma chemistry,
nonideal depth of emplacement, catastrophic erup-
tion, etc.). In addition, the region might not yet
have been explored in sufficient detail (much of the
Puna has received only reconnaissance exploration).
Thus, more geological information must be brought
to bear in making exploration decisions, rather than
simply looking for lineaments and their intersec-
tions.
Finally, it is important to remember that the
definition of mineralization, and particularly of
ore, is an economic one: potentially useful minerals
may be present, but either at concentrations too low
to be considered interesting, or at depths too great
to be recovered economically today. In the young
volcanic belts of the Puna, the latter problem is
particularly serious because erosion has been mini-
mal, such that subsurface porphyry and even near-
surface epithermal mineral deposits have barely
been exposed. Surficial fumarolic alteration zones
are widespread in these volcanic edifices, however,
and may overlie mineralized systems at depth (e.g.,
at Cerro Galán). From an exploration perspective,
therefore, it will be helpful to identify systems that
have been sufficiently dissected either by erosion or
edifice collapse (e.g., Sillitoe, 1994) to bring poten-
tially mineralized zones within range of surface
exploration and development.
6. Conclusions
Aeromagnetic and Landsat TM data have been
used to investigate a spatial relationship between
lineaments, lineament intersections, and large mag-
matic and hydrothermal alteration centers. Many of
the identified lineaments and lineament zones are
interpreted to represent faults, some of trans-crustal
extent. Observation at, and correlation between,
both regional- and local-scale perspectives is impor-
tant for the recognition of significant controlling
structures in magma emplacement and hydrothermal
activity, because the dimensions of regional linea-
152 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155
ments are such that they are commonly not clearly
resolved within a large-scale local map area. For
example, the extensive trans-Andean lineaments are
rarely defined by single structural elements, but
instead by zones of faulting, often tens of kilo-
meters wide. Thus, ENE-trending lineaments that
are interpreted as elements of the Tucumán Transfer
Zone at Bajo de la Alumbrera are spaced over a
width of f 35 km, and WNW-trending elements of
the Calama – Olacapato – El Toro lineament at El
Queva form a corridor f 40 km wide. In terms
of localizing magmatic or hydrothermal centers, it is
these broad zones of intersection that are important
rather than the intersections of specific structural
elements, which individually may have limited lat-
eral and vertical extent.
Use of lineament intersection relationships for
mineral exploration gains validity when defined by
multi-technique approaches, such as combinations
of remote sensing, geophysical, and geological
methods. In addition, applicability can be tested
by inclusion of known metallogenic information,
which may help to identify favourable structural
settings in a given regional context. Crustal-scale
structural controls on magma emplacement are just
one of a number of independent factors that affect
the potential to form an ore deposit, and so the
identification of an apparently favourable lineament
intersection does not guarantee prospectivity. Sim-
ilarly, this model does not preclude the occurrence
of mineral deposits unrelated to lineament intersec-
tions. Nevertheless, large deposits typically require
optimum conditions for their formation, and well-
defined intersections that offer structural favourabil-
ity for magmatism will have an increased probability
for hosting significant ore deposits. We conclude that
lineament analysis is a useful tool for first-pass target
selection, but priority rankings should include addi-
tional geological and metallogenic information.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Servicio Geológico
Minero Argentino (SEGEMAR) for financial support
and for permission to use the geophysical data. JPR
acknowledges the support of a grant from the Natural
Sciences and Engineering Research Council of
Canada. We thank Daniel Knepper and Victor Ramos
for helpful and constructive reviews.
References
Allmendinger, R.W., 1986. Tectonic development, southeastern bor-
der of the Puna Plateau, northwestern Argentine Andes. Geo-
logical Society of America Bulletin 97, 1070 – 1082.
Allmendinger, R.W., Jordan, T.E., Palma, M., Ramos, V.A., 1982.
Perfil estructural en la Puna Catamarqueña. Quinto Congreso
Latinoamericano de Geologia, Buenos Aires, Argentina, Actas
1, pp. 499 – 518.
Allmendinger, R.W., Ramos, V.A., Jordan, T.E., Palma, M., Isacks,
B.L., 1983. Paleogeography and Andean structural geometry,
northwest Argentina. Tectonics 2, 1 – 16.
Allmendinger, R.W., Strecker, M., Eremchuk, J.E., Francis, P., 1989.
Neotectonic deformation of the southern Puna Plateau, north-
western Argentina. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 2,
111 – 130.
Allmendinger, R.W., Jordan, T.E., Kay, S.M., Isacks, B.L., 1997.
The evolution of the Altiplano – Puna plateau of the Central
Andes. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 25,
139 – 174.
Alonso, R.N., Viramonte, J., Gutiérrz, R., 1984. Puna Austral—
bases para el subprovincialismo geológico de la Puna. Actas,
Noveno Congreso Geológico Argentino. S.C. Bariloche, Argen-
tina, pp. 43 – 63.
Alonso, R.N., Jordan, T.E., Tabbutt, K.T., Vandervoort, D.S., 1991.
Giant evaporite belts of the Neogene central Andes. Geology 19,
401 – 404.
Baby, P., Rochat, P., Mascle, G., Hérail, G., 1997. Neogene short-
ening contribution to crustal thickening in the back arc of the
Central Andes. Geology 25, 883 – 886.
Bahlburg, H., Breikreuz, C., 1991. Paleozoic evolution of active
margin basins in the southern Central Andes (northwestern Ar-
gentina and northern Chile). Journal of South American Earth
Sciences 4, 171 – 188.
Bahlburg, H., Hervé, F., 1997. Geodynamic evolution and tectonos-
tratigraphic terranes of northwestern Argentina and northern
Chile. Geological Society of America, Bulletin 109, 869 – 884.
Baker, R.C., Guilbert, J.M., 1987. Regional structural control of
porphyry copper deposits in northern Chile. Geological Society
of America, Abstracts with Programs 19, 578.
Baldis, B., 1980. Control megaestructural de los Distritos metal-
ı́feros en el Noroeste de Argentina. In Metalogénesis en Latino-
américa, Publicación IUGS 5.
Bassi, H.G.L., 1992. Hypothesis concerning a regmagenic network
controlling metallogenic and other geologic events in the
South American austral cone. Geologische Rundschau 77,
491 – 511.
Beck, S.L., Zandt, G., Myers, S.C., Wallace, T.C., Silver, P.G.,
Drake, L., 1996. Crustal-thickness variations in the central An-
des. Geology 24, 407 – 410.
Behn, G., 1998. Respuestas geofı́sicas de yacimientos tipo cobre
porfı́rico. X Congreso Latinoamericano de Geologı́a, Simposio
 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155
III. Geofı́sica aérea y Geoquı́mica en la prospección geológico-
minera, Buenos Aires, Servicio Geológico-Minero Argentino,
Anales, vol. 31, pp. 9 – 20.
Bellier, O., Sébrier, M., 1994. Relationship between tectonism and
volcanism along the Great Sumatran Fault Zone deduced by
SPOT image analysis. Tectonophysics 233, 215 – 231.
Benn, K., Odonne, F., Lee, S.K.Y., Darcovich, K., 2000. Analogue
scale models of pluton emplacement during transpression in
brittle and ductile crust. Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, Earth Sciences 91, 111 – 121.
Bussell, M.A., 1976. Fracture control of high-level plutonic contacts
in the Coastal Batholith of Peru. Proceedings of the Geologists
Association 87, 237 – 246.
Caffe, P., Coira, B.L., 1999. Complejos de domos volcánicos del
Mioceno Medio de Puna Norte. Un modelo geológico y metal-
ogenético para yacimientos epitermales de metales de base
ricos en plata (estaño). In: Zappettini, E.O. (Ed.), Recursos
Minerales de la República Argentina, Anales, vol. 35. SEGE-
MAR, Instituto de Geologı́a y Recursos Minerales, Buenos
Aires, pp. 1569 – 1578.
Chabert, M.R., 1999. El pórfiro cuprı́fero Inca Viejo, Salta. In:
Zappettini, E.O. (Ed.), Recursos Minerales de la República Ar-
gentina, Anales, vol. 35. SEGEMAR, Instituto de Geologı́a y
Recursos Minerales, Buenos Aires, pp. 1429 – 1436.
Chayle, W., 1999. Mina Pirquitas, Jujuy. In: Zappettini, E.O. (Ed.),
Recursos Minerales de la República Argentina, Anales, vol. 35.
SEGEMAR, Instituto de Geologı́a y Recursos Minerales, Bue-
nos Aires, pp. 1593 – 1598.
Chernicoff, C.J., Zappettini, E.O., 2000. Interpretación geológica –
metalogénica del levantamiento aeromagnétio de la Puna, Ar-
gentina. 9j Congreso Geológico Chileno, Puerto Varas, Actas,
Vol. 2, Simposio Nacional No. 3. Sociedad Geológica de Chile,
Puerto Varas, Chile, pp. 277 – 280.
Chernicoff, C.J., Garea, G., Hongn, F., Seggiaro, R., Zappettini, E.,
Coira, B., Caffe, P., Chayle, W., Gutierrez, G., Perez, A., Soler,
M., Rankin, L., 1996. Interpretación geológica del relevamiento
aeromagnético de la Puna septentrional, Jujuy y Salta. Serie
Contribuciones Técnicas, Geofı́sica, vol. I. Dirección Nacional
del Servicio Geológico, Buenos Aires, 46 pp.
Coira, B.L., 1999. Potencialidad minera de sistemas megacaldéricos
miocenos en Puna norte, Jujuy. In: Zappettini, E.O. (Ed.), Re-
cursos Minerales de la República Argentina, Anales, vol. 35.
SEGEMAR, Instituto de Geologı́a y Recursos Minerales, Bue-
nos Aires, pp. 1557 – 1567.
Coira, B., Davidson, J., Mpodozis, C., Ramos, V., 1982. Tectonic
and magmatic evolution of the Andes of northern Argentina and
Chile. Earth-Science Reviews 18, 303 – 332.
Coira, B., Kay, S.M., Viramonte, J., 1993. Upper Cenozoic mag-
matic evolution of the Argentine Puna—a model for chang-
ing subduction geometry. International Geology Review 35,
677 – 720.
Coutand, I., Cobbold, P.R., de Urreiztieta, M., Gautier, P., Chauvin,
A., Gapais, D., Rossello, E.A., López-Gamundı́, O., 2001. Style
and history of Andean deformation, Puna plateau, northwestern
Argentina. Tectonics 20, 210 – 234.
Dalziel, I.W.D., 1986. Collision and Cordilleran orogenesis: an An-
dean perspective. In: Coward, M.P., Ries, A.C. (Eds.), Collision
153
tectonics. Geological Society of London Special Publication 19,
pp. 389 – 404.
Damm, K.-W., Pichowiak, S., Harmon, R.S., Todt, W., Kelley, S.,
Omarini, R., Niemeyer, H., 1990. Pre-Mesozoic evolution of the
central Andes; the basement revisited. In: Kay, S.M., Rapela,
C.W. (Eds.), Plutonism from Antarctica to Alaska. Boulder,
Colorado, Geological Society of America Special Paper 241,
pp. 101 – 126.
Damm, K.-W., Harmon, R.S., Kelley, S., 1994. Some isotopic and
geochemical constraints on the origin and evolution of the Cen-
tral Andean basement (19j – 24jS). In: Reutter, K.J., Scheuber,
E., Wigger, P.J. (Eds.), Tectonics of the Southern Central Andes;
Structure and Evolution of an Active Continental Margin.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 263 – 276.
Davidson, C., Schmid, S.M., Hollister, L.S., 1994. Role of melt
during deformation in the deep crust. Terra Nova 6, 133 – 142.
de Urreiztieta, M., Gapais, D., Le Corre, C., Cobbold, P.R., Rossel-
lo, E., 1996. Cenozoic dextral transpression and basin develop-
ment at the southern edge of the Puna Plateau, northwestern
Argentina. Tectonophysics 254, 17 – 39.
Dorbath, C., Masson, F., 2000. Composition of the crust and upper-
mantle in the Central Andes (19j30VS) inferred from P wave
velocity and Poisson’s ratio. Tectonophysics 327, 213 – 223.
Figueroa, L.A., 1971. Fotolineamientos y mineralización en el Nor-
oeste Argentino. 1er Simposio Nacional de Geologı́a Económ-
ica, San Juan 1, pp. 107 – 124.
Francis, P.W., Sparks, R.S.J., Hawkesworth, C.J., Thorpe, R.S.,
Pyle, D.M., Tait, S.R., Mantovani, M.S., McDermott, F.,
1989. Petrology and geochemistry of volcanic rocks of the Cer-
ro Galan caldera, northwest Argentina. Geological Magazine
126, 515 – 547.
Garcı́a, H., 1969. Consideraciones sobre algunas alineaciones de
desarrollos hidrotermales tipo pórfido cuprı́fero en el noroeste
argentino. Dirección Nacional de Geologı́a y Minerı́a, Revista
18, 55 – 66.
Guilbert, J.M., 1985. Geology, alteration, mineralization, and gen-
esis of the Bajo de la Alumbrera porphyry copper – gold de-
posit, Catamarca province, Argentina. In: Pierce, F.W., Bolm,
J.G. (Eds.), Porphyry copper deposits of the American Cor-
dillera. Tucson, Arizona Geological Society Digest 20, pp.
646 – 656.
Hammerschmidt, K., Döbel, R., Friedrichsen, H., 1992. Implica-
tions of 40Ar/39Ar dating of Early Tertiary volcanic rocks from
the north-Chilean Precordillera. Tectonophysics 202, 55 – 81.
Heyl, A.V., 1972. The 38th parallel lineament and its relationship to
ore deposits. Economic Geology 67, 879 – 894.
Holdsworth, R.E., Butler, C.A., Roberts, A.M., 1997. The recogni-
tion of reactivation during continental deformation. Journal of
the Geological Society (London) 154, 73 – 78.
James, D.E., Sack, I.S., 1999. Cenozoic formation of the Central
Andes: a geophysical perspective. In: Skinner, B.J. (Ed.), Geol-
ogy and ore deposits of the Central Andes. Society of Economic
Geologists, Special Publication 7, pp. 1 – 25.
Jordan, T.E., Alonso, R.N., 1987. Cenozoic stratigraphy and basin
tectonics of the Andes mountains, 20j – 28j south latitude.
American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 71,
49 – 64.
154 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155
Jordan, T.E., Gardeweg, M., 1989. Tectonic evolution of the Late
Cenozoic central Andes (20j – 33jS). In: Ben-Avraham, Z.
(Ed.), Oxford Monographs on Geology and Geophysics 8.
The Evolution of the Pacific Ocean Margins. Clarendon Press,
Oxford, pp. 193 – 207.
Jordan, T.E., Isacks, B.L., Allmendinger, R.W., Brewer, J.A., Ra-
mos, V.A., Ando, C.J., 1983. Andean tectonics related to geom-
etry of subducted Nazca plate. Geological Society of America
Bulletin 94, 341 – 361.
Kay, R.W., Kay, S.M., 1993. Delamination and delamination mag-
matism. Tectonophysics 219, 177 – 189.
Keating, P., Zerbo, L., 1996. An improved technique for reduction
to the pole at low latitudes. Geophysics 61, 131 – 137.
Kleinert, K., Strecker, M.R., 2001. Climate change in response to
orographic barrier uplift: paleosol and stable isotope evidence
from the late Neogene Santa Marı́a basin, northwestern Argen-
tina. Geological Society of America Bulletin 113, 728 – 742.
Koukharsky, M., 1985. Caracterización petrológica de ignimbritas
Cenozoicas de la Puna Argentina (Petrologic characterization of
Cenozoic ignimbrites of Puna, Argentina). Actas, IV Congreso
Geologico Chileno, Antofagasta, Chile, Aug. 19 – 24. Universi-
dad del Norte Chile, Antofagasta, Chile 4, pp. 254 – 274.
Kraemer, B., Adelmann, D., Alten, M., Schnurr, W., Erpenstein, K.,
Kiefer, E., van den Bogaard, P., Görler, K., 1999. Incorporation
of the Paleogene foreland into the Neogene Puna plateau: the
Salar de Antofalla area, NW Argentina. Journal of South Amer-
ican Earth Sciences 12, 157 – 182.
Lindsay, D.D., Zentilli, M., Rojas de la Rivera, J., 1995. Evolution
of an active ductile to brittle shear system controlling mineral-
ization at the Chuquicamata porphyry copper deposit, northern
Chile. International Geology Review 37, 945 – 958.
Lucassen, F., Becchio, R., Wilke, H.G., Franz, G., Thirlwall, M.F.,
Viramonte, J., Wemmer, K., 2000. Proterozoic – Paleozoic de-
velopment of the basement of the Central Andes (18 – 26jS)—a
mobile belt of the South American craton. Journal of South
American Earth Sciences 13, 697 – 715.
Marrett, R.A., Emerman, S.H., 1992. The relations between faulting
and mafic magmatism in the Altiplano – Puna plateau (central
Andes). Earth and Planetary Science Letters 112, 53 – 59.
Marrett, R.A., Allmendinger, R.W., Alonso, R.N., Drake, R.E.,
1994. Late Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Puna Plateau
and adjacent foreland, northwestern Argentine Andes. Journal
of South American Earth Sciences 7, 179 – 207.
Martı́nez, L., 1995. Mapa geológico de la Provincia de Catamarca:
1:500,000 map sheet. Servicio Geológico-Minero Argentino.
Matteini, M., Mazzuoli, R., Omarini, R., 1997. The Volcanism
Along the Calama – Olacapato – El Toro Transversal Fault Sys-
tem in the Central Andes: The Tultul, del Dedio and Pocitos
Volcanoes (Puna, Argentina). Universidad Católica del Norte,
VIII Congreso Geológico Chileno, pp. 159 – 163.
Mon, R., Salfity, J.A., 1995. Tectonic evolution of the Andes of
northern Argentina. In: Tankard, A.J., Suárez, R., Welsink, H.J.
(Eds.), Petroleum basins of South America. AAPG Memoir 62,
pp. 269 – 283.
Mpodozis, C., Ramos, V., 1989. The Andes of Chile and Argentina.
In: Ericksen, G.E., Cañas Pinochet, M.T., Reinemund, J.A.
(Eds.), Geology of the Andes and its Relation to Hydrocarbon
and Mineral Resources. Houston, Texas, Circum-Pacific Coun-
cil for Energy and Mineral Resources Earth Science Series 11,
pp. 59 – 90.
Müller, D., Forrestal, P., 1998. The shoshonite porphyry Cu – Au
association at Bajo de la Alumbrera, Catamarca Province, Ar-
gentina. Mineralogy and Petrology 64, 47 – 64.
O’Leary, D.W., Friedman, J.D., Pohn, H.A., 1976. Lineament, lin-
ear, lineation: some proposed new standards for old terms. Geo-
logical Society of America Bulletin 87, 1463 – 1469.
Page, S., Zappettini, E., 1999. El magmatismo gondwánico Provin-
cias de Jujuy, Salta, Tucumán y Catamarca, República Argenti-
na. XIV Congreso Geológico Argentino, Relatorio, Salta, pp.
120 – 142.
Palacios, C.M., Townley, B.C., Lahsen, A.A., Egaña, A.M., 1993.
Geological development and mineralization in the Atacama seg-
ment of the South American Andes, northern Chile (26j15V –
27j25VS). Geologische Rundschau 82, 652 – 662.
Palma, M.A., Parica, P.D., Ramos, V.A., 1986. El granito Archibar-
ca: Su edad y significado tectonico, Provincia de Catamarca.
Associacion Geologica Argentina, Revista 41, 414 – 419.
Pankhurst, R.J., Rapela, C.W., 1998. The proto-Andean margin of
Gondwana: an introduction. In: Pankhurst, R.J., Rapela, C.W.
(Eds.), The Proto-Andean Margin of Gondwana. Geological
Society of London, Special Publications 142, pp. 1 – 9.
Pankhurst, R.J., Rapela, C.W., Saavedra, J., Baldo, E., Dahlquist, J.,
Pascua, I., Fanning, C.M., 1998. The Famatinian magmatic
arc in the central Sierras Pampeanas: an early to mid-Ordovi-
cian continental arc on the Gondwana margin. In: Pankhurst,
R.J., Rapela, C.W. (Eds.), The proto-Andean margin of Gond-
wana. Geological Society of London, Special Publications 142,
pp. 343 – 367.
Pardo-Casas, F., Molnar, P., 1987. Relative motion of the Nazca
(Farallon) and South American plates since Late Cretaceous
time. Tectonics 6, 233 – 248.
Pitcher, W.S., 1979. The nature, ascent and emplacement of gran-
itic magmas. Journal of the Geological Society (London) 136,
627 – 662.
Ramos, V., 1977. Basement tectonics from Landsat imagery in min-
ing exploration. Journal of the Royal Geological and Minera-
logical Society (The Netherlands) 56 (3), 243 – 256.
Ramos, V., 1999. Rasgos estructurales del territorio Argentino.
In: Caminos, R. (Ed.), Geologı́a Argentina, Anales, vol. 29.
Instituto de Geologı́a y Recursos Minerales, Buenos Aires,
pp. 715 – 784.
Rehrig, W.A., Heidrick, T.L., 1972. Regional fracturing in Laramide
stocks of Arizona and its relationship to porphyry copper min-
eralization. Economic Geology 67, 198 – 213.
Richards, J.P., 2000. Lineaments revisited. Society of Economic
Geologists Newsletter 42 (1), 14 – 20.
Richards, J.P., Boyce, A.J., Pringle, M.S., 2001. Geological evolu-
tion of the Escondida area, northern Chile: a model for spatial
and temporal localization of porphyry Cu mineralization. Eco-
nomic Geology 96, 271 – 305.
Riller, U., Petrinovic, I., Ramelow, J., Strecker, M., Oncken, O.,
2001. Late Cenozoic tectonism, collapse caldera and plateau
formation in the central Andes. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters 188, 299 – 311.
 C.J. Chernicoff et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 21 (2002) 127–155
Rojas, N., Drobe, J., Lane, R., Bonafede, D., 1999. El pórfiro cu-
prı́fero de Taca Taca Bajo, Salta. In: Zappettini, E.O. (Ed.),
Recursos Minerales de la República Argentina, Anales, vol.
35. SEGEMAR, Instituto de Geologı́a y Recursos Minerales,
Buenos Aires, pp. 1321 – 1331.
Román-Berdiel, T., Gapais, D., Brun, J.-P., 1997. Granite intrusion
along strike – slip zones in experiment and nature. American
Journal of Science 297, 651 – 678.
Rowley, P.D., Cunningham, C.G., Steven, T.A., Mehnert, H.H.,
Naeser, C.W., 1998. Cenozoic igneous and tectonic setting of
the Marysvale volcanic field and its relation to other igneous
centers in Utah and Nevada. In: Friedman, J.D., Huffman, A.C.
(coordinators), Laccolith Complexes of Southeastern Utah:
Time of Emplacement and Tectonic Setting—Workshop Pro-
ceedings. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2158, pp. 167 – 201.
Rubinstein, N.A., Segal, S.J., Zappettini, E.O., 1999. El pórfiro
cuprı́fero de Taca Taca Alto, Salta. In: Zappettini, E.O. (Ed.),
Recursos Minerales de la República Argentina, Anales, vol. 35.
SEGEMAR, Instituto de Geologı́a y Recursos Minerales, Bue-
nos Aires, pp. 1333 – 1336.
Salfity, J.A., 1985. Lineamientos transversales al rumbo andino en
el noroeste Argentino. IV Congreso Geológico Chileno. Anto-
fagasta, Chile, Part 2, pp. 119 – 137.
Salfity, J.A., Gorustovich, S.A., 1998. The geological evolution of
the province of Salta (Argentina) and neighboring regions. Min-
istry of Production and Employment, Secretariat of Mining,
Industry and Energy Resources, Salta, Argentina, atlas of 67
Figures with explanations.
Salfity, J., Marquillas, R., 1999. La Cuenca Cretácico-Terciaria del
Norte Argentino. In: Caminos, R. (Ed.), Geologı́a Argentina,
Anales, vol. 29. Instituto de Geologı́a y Recursos Minerales,
Buenos Aires, pp. 613 – 626.
Sasso, A.M., Clark, A.H., 1998. The Farallón Negro Group, north-
west Argentina: magmatic, hydrothermal and tectonic evolution
and implications for Cu – Au metallogeny in the Andean back-
arc. SEG Newsletter 34, 1 and 8 – 18.
Schreiber, U., Schwab, K., 1991. Geochemistry of quaternary
shoshonitic lavas related to the Calama – Olacapato – El Toro
Lineament, NW Argentina. Journal of South American Earth
Sciences 4, 73 – 85.
Siebel, W., Schnurr, W.B.W., Hahne, K., Kraemer, B., Trumbull,
R.B., van den Bogaard, P., Emmermann, R., 2001. Geochemis-
try and isotope systematics of small- to medium-volume Neo-
gene – Quaternary ignimbrites in the southern central Andes:
evidence for derivation from andesitic magma sources. Chem-
ical Geology 171, 213 – 237.
Sillitoe, R.H., 1975. Lead – silver, manganese, and native sulfur
mineralization within a stratovolcano, El Queva, northwest Ar-
gentina. Economic Geology 70, 1190 – 1201.
Sillitoe, R.H., 1994. Erosion and collapse of volcanoes: causes of
telescoping in intrusion-centered ore deposits. Geology 22,
945 – 948.
Silva, J.B.C., 1986. Reduction to the pole as an inverse problem
and its application to low-latitude anomalies. Geophysics 51,
369 – 382.
Somoza, R., 1998. Updated Nazca (Farallon) – South America rela-
tive motions during the last 40 My: implications for mountain
155
building in the central Andean region. Journal of South Amer-
ican Earth Sciences 11, 211 – 215.
Sparks, R.S.J., Francis, P.W., Hamer, R.D., Pankhurst, R.J., O’Cal-
laghan, L.O., Thorpe, R.S., Page, R., 1985. Ignimbrites of the
Cerro Galán caldera, NW Argentina. Journal of Volcanology and
Geothermal Research 24, 205 – 248.
Sureda, R.J., Martı́n, J.L., 1990. El Aguilar mine: an Ordovician
sediment-hosted stratiform lead – zinc deposit in the central An-
des. In: Fontboté, L., Amstutz, G.C., Cardozo, M., Cedillo, E.,
Frutos, J. (Eds.), Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 161 – 174.
Sylvester, H., Linke, M., 1993. Structural control of intrusions and
hydrothermal alteration zones by intersecting fault systems in
the Cretaceous magmatic arc of the southern Central Andes at
27jS: III. Region, Chile. Zentralblattes für Geologie und Pal-
äontologie Teil I, Heft 1/2, 361 – 376.
Thorpe, R.S., 1984. The tectonic setting of active Andean volcan-
ism. In: Harmon, R.S., Barreiro, B.A. (Eds.), Andean Magma-
tism Chemical and Isotopic Constraints. Nantwich, Cheshire,
Shiva, pp. 4 – 8.
Tobisch, O.T., Cruden, A.R., 1995. Fracture-controlled magma con-
duits in an obliquely convergent continental magmatic arc.
Geology 23, 941 – 944.
Tomlinson, A.J., Blanco, N., 1997. Structural Evolution and Dis-
placement History of the West Fault System, Precordillera,
Chile: Part 1. Synmineral History. Universidad Católica del
Norte, VIII Congreso Geológico Chileno, pp. 1873 – 1877.
Tommasi, A., Vauchez, A., Fernandes, L.A.D., Porcher, C.C.,
1994. Magma-assisted strain localization in an orogen-parallel
transcurrent shear zone of southern Brazil. Tectonics 13,
421 – 437.
Tosdal, R.M., 1996. The Amazon – Laurentian connection as viewed
from the Middle Proterozoic rocks in the Central Andes western
Bolivia and Northern Chile. Tectonics 15, 827 – 842.
Tosdal, R.M., Richards, J.P., 2001. Magmatic and structural controls
on the development of porphyry Cu F Mo F Au deposits. In:
Richards, J.P., Tosdal, R.M. (Eds.), Structural Controls on Ore
Genesis. Society of Economic Geologists, Reviews in Economic
Geology 14, pp. 157 – 181.
Vandervoort, D.S., Jordan, T.E., Zeitler, P.K., Alonso, R.N., 1995.
Chronology of internal drainage development and uplift,
southern Puna plateau, Argentina central Andes. Geology 23,
145 – 148.
Vigneresse, J.L., Tikoff, B., 1999. Strain partitioning during partial
melting and crystallizing felsic magmas. Tectonophysics 312,
117 – 132.
Zappettini, E.O., Segal, S.J., 1998. El depósito polimetálico La
Colorada (Salta, Argentina): Un cuerpo de sulfuros masivos
de filiación sedex. X Congreso Latinoamericano de Geologı́a
y VI Congreso Nacional de Geologı́a Económica, Buenos Aires,
Actas 3, pp. 200 – 206.
Zappettini, E.O., Segal, S.J., 1999. Los depósitos aurı́feros veti-
formes de la Sierra de Rinconada, Jujuy. In: Zappettini, E.O.
(Ed.), Recursos Minerales de la República Argentina, Anales,
vol. 35. SEGEMAR, Instituto de Geologı́a y Recursos Miner-
ales, Buenos Aires, pp. 507 – 514.