Employability Skills Map

This “skills map” sets out all the main employability skills in a way that shows their relationships to each other.
You may wish to highlight any you feel you are good at and put a question mark against any you feel you need
to develop. Does a pattern emerge? You may like to write down a brief example of where you have used your
key skills next to each one you have highlighted. These examples can then be added to your CV. The innermost
oval has primary or fundamental skills, the middle oval contains intermediate skills and the outer circle very
specific skills. For example communicating can be divided into speaking and writing and spoken
communication can be further broken down into presenting, listening and telephone skills

Most of the skills link to a relevant page when clicked on.

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 TEAMWORKING SKILLS
 Exercise on team working skills
 The roles people play in meetings.
 What makes an effective team?
 Tips for group work exercises in selection
centres
 Observer assessment form for group exercises

All employers are keen to recruit graduates who are able to cooperate, solve problems and work in
teams. As less hierarchical organisations have emerged with project teams, self-managed work teams
and management teams, so the requirements to 'Get on well with people', and to 'Work with and through others'
become increasingly important.
Teamwork involves working confidently within a group, contributing your own ideas effectively, taking a share
of the responsibility, being assertive - rather than passive or aggressive, accepting and learning from
constructive criticism and giving positive, constructive feedback to others.

The roles people play in meetings.

There are a number of different roles that people adopt in meetings, some of which are listed below. These
roles are not always constant - one person might adopt several of these roles during one meeting or
change roles depending on what is being discussed. Your score for each category should give you some idea of
which of these roles you play in teams.
ENCOURAGER
Energises groups when motivation is low through humour or through being enthusiastic. They are
positive individuals who support and praise other group members. They don't like sitting around. They like to
move things along by suggesting ideas, by clarifying the ideas of others and by confronting problems. They
may use humour to break tensions in the group.
They may say:
"We CAN do this!"
"That's a great idea!"
COMPROMISER

Destructive or selfish group roles to avoid!

 Autocrat: tries to dominate or constantly interrupt other members of the team.
 Show Off: talks all the time and thinks they know all the answers.
 Butterfly: keeps changing the topic before others are ready.
 Aggressor: doesn't show respect to others, comments negatively about them.
 Avoider: refuses to focus on the task or on group relationship problems.
 Critic: always sees the negative side to any argument, but never suggests alternatives. Puts down the
ideas of others.
 Help seeker: looks for sympathy from others: victim
 Self-confessor: uses the group as a forum for inappropriate talk about self.
 Clown: shows no involvement in group and engages in distracting communication.

Tries to maintain harmony among the team members. They are sociable, interested in others and will
introduce people, draw them out and make them feel comfortable. They may be willing to change their own
views to get a group decision. They work well with different people and can be depended on to promote a
positive atmosphere, helping the team to gel. They pull people and tasks together thereby developing rapport.
They are tolerant individuals and good listeners who will listen carefully to the views of other group members.
They are good judges of people, diplomatic and sensitive to the feelings of others and not seen as a threat. They
are able to recognise and resolve differences of opinion and the the development of conflict, they enable
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"difficult" team-members to contribute positively.
They may say:
"We haven't heard from Mike yet: I'd like to hear what you think about this."
"I'm not sure I agree. What are your reasons for saying that?"
LEADER
Good leaders direct the sequence of steps the group takes and keep the group "on-track". They are good
at controlling people and events and coordinating resources. They have the energy, determination and initiative
to overcome obstacles and bring competitive drive to the team. They give shape to the team effort. They
recognise the skills of each individual and how they can be used. Leaders are outgoing individuals who have to
be careful not to be domineering. They can sometimes steamroller the team but get results quickly. They may
become impatient with complacency and lack of progress and may sometimes overreact. Also see our
leadership styles test.
They may say
"Let's come back to this later if we have time."
"We need to move on to the next step."
"Sue, what do you think about this idea?"
SUMMARISER/CLARIFIER
Calm, reflective individuals who summarise the group's discussion and conclusions. They clarify group
objectives and elaborate on the ideas of others. They may go into detail about how the group's plans would
work and tie up loose ends. They are good mediators and seek consensus.

They may say:

"So here's what we've decided so far"
"I think you're right, but we could also add ...."
IDEAS PERSON
The ideas person suggests new ideas to solve group problems or suggests new ways for the group to
organize the task. They dislike orthodoxy and are not too concerned with practicalities. They provide
suggestions and proposals that are often original and radical. They are more concerned with the big picture than
with details. They may get bored after the initial impetus wears off. See our lateral thinking skills page

They may say

"Why don't we consider doing it this way?"
EVALUATOR
Evaluators help the group to avoid coming to agreement too quickly. They tend to be slow in coming to a
decision because of a need to think things over. They are the logical, analytical, objective people in the team
and offer measured, dispassionate critical analysis. They contribute at times of crucial decision making because
they are capable of evaluating competing proposals. They may suggest alternative ideas.

They may say:

"What other possibilities are there?"
or "Let's try to look at this another way."
or "I'm not sure we're on the right track."
RECORDER
The recorder keeps the group focused and organised. They make sure that everyone is helping with the
project. They are usually the first person to offer to take notes to keep a record of ideas and decisions. They
also like to act as time-keeper, to allocate times to specific tasks and remind the team to keep to them, or act as
a spokesperson, to deliver the ideas and findings of the group. They may check that all members understand
and agree on plans and actions and know their roles and responsibilities. They act as the memory of the group.
They may say:
"We only have five minutes left, so we need to come to agreement now!"

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"Do we all understand this chart?"
"Are we all in agreement on this?"

What makes an effective team?

 It has a range of individuals who contribute in different ways (see the roles above) and complement
each other. A team made up just of planners would find it difficult to cope with changing deadlines or
plans whereas a team full of spontaneous individuals would be disorganised: you need both types. A
good team produces more than the individual contributions of members.
 Clear goals are agreed on that everyone understands and is committed to.
 Everyone understands the tasks they have to do and helps each other.
 It has a coordinator who may adopt a leadership style from autocratic to democratic depending on the
circumstances. Different people may assume the role of leader
for different tasks.
 There is a balance between the task (what do we need to do?)
and the process (how do we achieve this?)
 There is a supportive, informal atmosphere where members
feel able to take risks and say what they think.
 The group is comfortable with disagreement and can
successfully overcome differences in opinion.
 There is a lot of discussion in which everyone participates.
Group members listen to each other and everyone's ideas are
heard.
 Members feel free to criticise and say what they think but this
is done in a positive, constructive manner.
 The group learns from experience: reviewing and improving
performance in the light of both successes and failures.

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What makes an ineffective team
After all is said and done, more is said than done.
Aesop
 People talk more than they listen and only a few people may contribute.
 Some members are silent and don't contribute. They may be indifferent, bored or afraid to contribute.
 Members ideas are dismissed or even ridiculed and their views are ignored.
 There are arguments between members of the group (as opposed to constructive differences of
opinion).
 One or two members dominate the others and make the decisions.
 Disagreements are put to the vote without being discussed.
 Some members are unhappy with decisions and grumble privately afterwards.
 Little effort is made to keep to the point or to work to deadlines.
 There is a lack of clarity regarding goals and specific tasks are not agreed to.
 Roles are not delegated to particular team members.
 There is a lack of trust and helpfulness.
 Members don't talk about how the group is working or the problems it faces.

Tips for group work exercises in selection centres.

 Committee: a group of people that keeps minutes and wastes hours.
 Committee: Individuals who can do nothing individually and sit to decide that nothing can be done
together.
 If you want to kill any idea in the world, get a committee working on it. (Charles Kettering)
 Diplomacy: the art of letting someone have your own way.
 Conference: The confusion of one person multiplied by the number present.
 Conference Room: A place where everybody talks, nobody listens & everybody disagrees.
 Lecture: The art of transferring information from the notes of the lecturer to the notes of the student
without passing through the minds of either.
 Real work is done outside meetings, not in them!
 After all is said and done, more is usually said than done.
If you are invited to a selection centre as part of the interview process, it's very likely that you will have a group
task, such as a case study, where your performance in the group will be assessed. Here are some tips to help
you to perform well. For more on assessment centres see our page on this.
 Read a quality newspaper in the weeks before the assessment centre - sometimes topics for
discussion will be based on recent items in the news.
 When you read the information given for a group exercise, underline key points and the likely
arguments and counter arguments. Look for any red herrings (irrelevant or misleading facts).
 Try to be yourself. Don't try to put on a façade or mask.
 Talk to the other candidates and assessors between exercises to help keep yourself relaxed.
 Keep a note of the finish time. Don't allow the group to over-run. Statements like "look we only have
5 minutes left so we need to get a move on" may help.
 For some exercises (e.g. balloon debates) it helps to decide on the criteria on which you will make
your choices and then stick to this. For example if you have to decide who to save from a sinking ship,
do you save the youngest, the fittest or the ones with useful skills? Spend time in preparation and
planning rather than just jumping in - decide your objectives and priorities, but don't take too long and
get bogged down at this stage.
 If a particular group member is quiet try to get them to contribute. It's a good idea to encourage
them along the lines "We haven't heard from Mike yet - I'd like to hear what you think of the proposal."
 Voting for a particular choice is a last resort and should only be used if persuasion and consensus
have failed and time is running out.

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  Stick up for your opinions and argue
persuasively and with logic for them, but also Questions they might expect to face at most
interviews (e.g. asking for an example of team
listen to the opinions of others and support those
building, or showing that they are a fast learner)
you agree with. Don't belittle the ideas of others -
in most cases you're not competing directly against are difficult to answer well if you are not used to
the other members of the group - everyone could be them, and haven’t prepared a list of examples to
selected or everyone rejected. draw from. We’d recommend that students
consider why we’re asking the question. For
 Go for quality rather than quantity in your example, a good answer on team building
contributions. Don't talk aimlessly. Try to move outlines difficulties you may have had with other
the group forward by your contributions e.g. "Look team-members and shows that you understand
this is now going anywhere. Why don't we move on what you need to do to overcome those
and come back to this topic later" difficulties, rather than simply to tell the
 Summarising can sometimes help to clarify the interviewer that the team worked together really
position. "Before we go on shall I summarise what well.
we've agreed" Civil Service
 If a dominant individual tries to "hijack" the
group, don't be afraid to challenge them, but do this calmly, logically and diplomatically, not by
attacking them. You could ask "What are your reasons for saying that?"
 If you are made the leader of an exercise it's a good idea to ask for volunteers for particular tasks
such as note taking, and to delegate responsibility. Identify the strengths of the other group members
and use them. Don't get too involved in the fine detail of the task - your role as the leader is to keep an
overview.
 Keep cool and use your sense of humour. Be assertive, tactful and persuasive and work with the
group. Listen to what everyone has to say. Don't interrupt or put down other group members.
 Try to be creative - introduce new ideas or build on the ideas of others.
Group exercises Kent students have been asked to undertake at selection centres
 A discussion on who we would save given that X amount of people were in a cave, and the cave
entrance had collapsed, so chances were that some people were going to die. We had to decide on the
order of rescue. (Cable & Wireless)
 Given 4 plastic cups, 4 plates, masking tape and 8 sheets of very large paper, construct a bridge capable
of holding a stapler (the stapler isn't seen until you've finished). (Cable & Wireless)
 A choice of two possible factory buildings: you have to make a decision as to which one you would
choose. They give you info such as budget and details about each building. Don't think there is a right
or wrong answer; you just have to justify what you value to be the most important criteria. (AXA)
 We were a small start up company who were to create and organise an event for the launch of the 2012
Olympics. There are certain requirements such as budget and time scales but the rest is up to you to
come up with something appropriate. 50 minutes to prepare and then 10 minutes to present it as a
group. (ATOS Origin)
Tips and comments from Kent students:
 Have a watch and use it! Don't forget to remember when an exercise started and how long you've got to
prepare it. Also, decide on a time keeper for the group tasks.
 Be yourself, relax and enjoy. You will feel challenged, and feel very tired, but that's expected!
 The most important aspect is your interaction in the group. You must speak and play a prominent part in
the exercise, not just react to other people. However, do not be overbearing and try to listen to others too.
 Relax and enjoy the day. Ask lots of questions.
 You really are marked on the key competencies they provide you with, and you are given plenty of
opportunities to demonstrate these skills. If you are aware of the competencies and think about the task, it is
quite clear through the exercises which skills you should be using.
 The assessments were deliberately organised to put pressure on you time-wise. The point of most of the
assessments didn't seem to be getting to the correct answer but seeing how you got there: so bear this in
mind. One or two of the candidates tried too hard to impress and were very overbearing when it came
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 to the group exercises: I'm not sure that this is what the assessors were looking for and it certainly didn't
make them popular with the other candidates!
 A group of 8 candidates sat around a table and discussed a business proposal whilst 8 assessors sat around
edge of room taking notes on us. This lasted for about ¾ hour.
 Take initiatives e.g. in group discussions go use the flip chart, propose to use it, watch the time. Show
enthusiasm: this is very important when telling about an event in an assessment centre. Biggest hurdle is
the time. Always watch for the time while you are working. (Ernst & Young)
 There are always people watching so be careful about what you say/who you say it to/when you say it. Be
friendly to the other candidates. (Deloitte)
 During group work, always keep and eye on the time and make sure the panel can see you're doing this.
Encourage everyone in your group to contribute and listen to their ideas.
 The biggest thing that gave me confidence was the realisation that not only was everyone else
nervous, the other candidates were very friendly with each other in general. I took it as an opportunity to
chat to people in the breaks and I actually forgot I was probably being assessed as I was enjoying myself! I
also found it helped to make small talk with the interviewers.
 Time management is pretty crucial in individual tasks and I suspect you get brownie points for keeping on
top of this in group tasks too. Also remind yourself that what you're doing is good experience, and will
teach you valuable lessons regardless of the outcome.
You can also benefit by asking yourself some other questions:
 Where do you fit in? What is your role in groups?
 Are you a player or an observer?
 Do you cooperate with others, lead, follow, contribute, guide, advise or just watch?
 Should you take a more active role?
 Should you contribute more?
 Have you a dominant personality? If so - should you encourage others to contribute?
 Good group work, effective committees and successful management teams are based on effective
contributions from everyone. Where do you fit in? Cooperating with others is vital for every type of
management task!
You might like to use the following headings to make notes or, the contributions of particular group members.

Observer assessment form for group exercises

Here are the sort of criteria on which your contributions to a group exercise at a selection centre might be
assessed. You might like to use them to make notes on the contributions of particular group members.
Participation
 Participates enthusiastically in discussion.
Spoken Expression
 Expresses his/herself clearly and coherently.
Originality of Ideas
 Introduces new ideas.
 Builds constructively an the ideas of others.
 Brings a fresh approach to a problem.
Quality of Thought
 Analyses the problem well.
 Gets to the root of the problem.
Influence on Others
 Makes a point which is accepted.
 Influences the direction and nature of the discussion.
Open Mindedness
 Listens to carefully to other members' views.
 Incorporates the points made by others into their own.
Facilitation of the Discussion
 Makes a direct attempt to help another person.
 Squashes a dominant interrupter to allow someone else to make a point.
Judgment
 Discriminates clearly between the important and the trivial.
 Does not allow his/her feelings to sway decisions.

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 Action Planning
 What is Action Planning?
 Goals for an Action Plan
 Action Planning Model
 The Main Steps in Preparing an Action Plan
 Example Action Plan
WHAT IS ACTION PLANNING?

You've got to be very careful if you don't know where you are going
because you might not get there.
Yogi Berra
Action planning is a process which will help you to focus your ideas and to decide what steps you need to
take to achieve particular goals that you may have. It is a statement of what you want to achieve over a given
period of time. Preparing an action plan is a good way to help you to reach your objectives in life: don't worry
about the future, start planning for it!
It involves:
 Identifying your objectives
 Setting objectives which are achievable & measurable.
 Prioritising your tasks effectively.
 Identifying the steps needed to achieve your goals.
 Using lists.
 Being able to work effectively under pressure.
 Completing work to a deadline.
 Having a contingency plan
A study of 327 job seekers.by Prof. Daniel Turban, University of Missouri College of Business found that
writing a plan at the start of your job search, has a big impact on success: make a plan and continuously
assess your progress.
"Thinking about a plan, acting on a plan and reflecting upon that a plan were important early in the job
search while having positive emotions were important later in the job search"
You also have to expect rejections and develop a coping strategy in advance. This should help maintain
positive emotions during the process to improve your chances of getting a job. Positive emotions may help
job seekers behave more confidently and cope better with stress, “thereby responding more skillfully in
interviews than job seekers with less positive emotions”
“People don’t have strategies, they don’t assess their plans and they don’t think about their strategies and
reflect on whether it’s working or how to make them work better. They just don’t do it."

Writing down your goals turns them into a plan, not a dream.
An effective action plan should give you a concrete timetable and set of clearly defined steps to help you to
reach your objective, rather than aimlessly wondering what to do next. It helps you to focus your ideas and
provides you with an answer to the question ‘‘What do I do to achieve my objective?’’.
It’s OK to have several objectives, but you will need to make a separate action plan for each, otherwise things
get confused.
Although here we shall be applying the techniques to careers, it can be used effectively to help you to reach
your goals in many other aspects of your life.
The following are all valid goals for an action plan:
 To get more involved in a student society to get to know more people.
 Deciding what skills I need to improve and deciding how I will improve them.

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When careers action planning there are likely to be three main areas for action plans. These are:
 Choosing the career you wish to enter.
 Working out a strategy to help you enter this career e.g. application and interviews.
 Developing skills that you need to acquire to allow you to enter the career of your choice and to be
successful in it.

It’s essential to have clear goals in place rather than just vague descriptions, such as saying you want to grow.
Success in any walk of life is based on putting your goals first. ... Find out what you want, decide exactly how
you will achieve it, and let nothing distract you from the end result.
James Caan
ACTION PLANNING MODEL

In a survey of 50 start-up businesses, those with a plan outperformed those without even if the plan was not
followed!
Working together to develop a plan builds stronger relationships and a deeper shared understanding of what
needs to be done, so if unexpected things happen individuals can make good decisions.
The best return occurs when just one percent of the time taken to carry out a task is spent on planning.
Too much planning can be procrastination: delaying actually getting down to taking action.
"In preparing for battle I have always found that plans are useless, but planning is indispensable" President
Eisenhower (overlord of D-Day landings)
“By failing to prepare, you are preparing to fail.”
Benjamin Franklin
There are many different models of action planning, but a good starting point is shown here. Action planning is
a cyclical process, and once you have been through one cycle, you can start again at the beginning. Of course,
in real life it’s not quite as simple as this. The process is more organic and stages will overlap, or you may
change your goals as you progress, and you must be prepared to revise your plan as circumstances dictate. The
stages are as follows:
 WHERE AM I NOW? This is where you review your achievements and progress, and undertake self-
assessment.
 WHERE DO I WANT TO BE? This is where you decide your goals.
 HOW DO I GET THERE? This is where you define the strategy you will use to achieve your goals,
and to break down your goal into the smaller discreet steps you will need to take to achieve your target.
 TAKING ACTION. This is the nitty gritty where you implement your plan!
 WHERE AM I NOW?

The cycle begins again with a redefinition of your goals........

The main steps in preparing an action plan are as follows:

A study on 1979 Harvard MBA students asked them, "Have you set clear, written goals for your future
and made plans to accomplish them?"
Only 3% of the graduates had written goals and plans; 13% had non-written goals and 84% had no specific
goals at all.
Ten years later, they were interviewed again. The 13% of the class who had goals were earning, on
average, twice as much as the 84% who had no goals. And the 3% who had clear, written goals were
earning, on average, ten times as much as the other 97% put together.

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 Have a clear objective. (‘‘Where do I want to be?’’). To be motivating a goal needs to be challenging
enough to stimulate us, but not too difficult enough to be demoralising. It should be just outside your
comfort zone: stretching but not highly stressful. Be precise about what you want to achieve,
 List the benefits you would gain by achieving your goal.
 Start with what you will do NOW. There is no point in having an action plan that will start in six
months time.
 Define clearly the steps you will take. ("How do I get there?’’) Think of all the possible things you
could do to take you closer to achieving your goal, no matter how small. Break down any large steps
into smaller components, so it doesn’t seem so difficult to achieve. What is the biggest obstacle? What
could go wrong?
 Identify the end point for each step and give yourself a small reward for achieving it! This could be
sweets, clothes, a gadget, book or CD or meal out with friends.
 Arrange the steps in a logical, chronological order and put a date by which you will start each
step. Put these dates into your diary or onto a calendar. Try to set yourself weekly goals: what research
you will do into jobs, what skills you will concentrate on learning etc. It’s also a good idea to get into
the habit of planning a timetable each evening listing your tasks for the next day or two.

A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step.

Lao Tzu
Action generates the impetus for further action: if you want something done quickly, give it to a busy
person.
The best time to do something is usually NOW!
“Never confuse motion with action.” Benjamin Franklin. Work smart rather than hard. Rather than running
around like a headless chicken from one idea to the next, pay attention to quality rather than the quantity of
effort you put in.
Life satisfaction is greatest for those involved in short term goals which are enjoyable, not too difficult;
and done in cooperation with others. Focus on one objective at a time and always have the next goal in
mind. To accomplish more difficult tasks, break them down into components. The most satisfaction comes
from pursuing an objective, not simply from achieving it.
Ari Kiev
It is good to have an end to journey toward; but it is the journey that matters, in the end.
Ursula K. Le Guin
Unless you have a definite, precise, clearly set goals, you are not going to realize the maximum potential
that lies within you.
Zig Ziglar
Well begun is half done.
Mary Poppins!
One of the advantages of being disorganized is that one is always having surprising discoveries.
Winnie the Pooh
 You need to consider if your plans are attainable and what would happen if you failed to achieve your
goals. Try to map out several paths to your goal, then if one becomes blocked another is available:
build flexibility into your planning. People tend to strongly underestimate how long a project will take,
especially if working in a group because they tend to visualise everything going to plan with no
problems. Think about the type of problems you might encounter at each step. What are the
barriers in the way of achieving your goal? What you would do to overcome these problems?
Concentrate 10% on the problem and 90% on the solution. Try to turn every problem into a challenge
and every challenge into an opportunity.
 Review your progress. Keep a diary or blog of your daily activities and record your progress as things
happen: this keeps your plan as concrete as possible. A good time to start your review is about two
weeks after you have begun. Review how far you have got towards your objective, identify any
mistakes you made and what you can learn from them, look at any new ideas or opportunities that may
have presented themselves and then revise your plan to incorporate these.

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  Mix with positive people who will encourage you to keep going! Tell your friends or relatives about
your goals. They will provide support when going gets tough and will also give you an incentive to
keep going as you'll feel embarrassed if you have to tell them you've given up!

When the going gets tough, the tough get going!

If you take a stand that is visible to others, a drive arises to maintain that stand in order to look consistent.
Public commitment makes people stubborn:
A hardened smoker desperately wanted to stop smoking. She made a list of all the people who she really wanted
to respect her, then got some blank cards and wrote on the back of each card, “ I promise you that I will never
smoke another cigarette” and signed it. She gave or sent the cards to her family, friends and boyfriend.
Stopping was the hardest thing she had ever done, but every time she thought about having a cigarette, she
pictured how all the people on her list would think of her if she broke her promise. She never smoked again.
If you write your commitments on paper you tend to live up to what you have written down as written
commitments require more effort to make than verbal ones and there is also a reminder for you. The process of
writing things down also seems to embed the commitment in your brain:
"Set a goal and write it down. Whatever the goal, the important thing is that you set it, so you've got something
for which to aim- and that you write it down. There is something magical about writing things down. So set a
goal and write it down. When you reach that goal, set another and write that down. You'll be off and running."
Amway Corporation

Supportive text messages can double the chance of someone successfully quitting smoking, according to
a study published in The Lancet Over 10% of smokers who received encouraging texts such as "you can do
it" had quit after six months, but only 4.9% who did not have the same support gave up. Dr Caroline Free,
who led the trial said: "Text messages are a very convenient way for smokers to receive support to quit.
People described txt2stop as being like having a friend encouraging them or an angel on their shoulder."
Similar text messages could be used to help people modify other behaviour.
Put "Eat Chocolate" at the top of your daily to-do list. That way you can be sure that you'll accomplish at
least one of your tasks.

From the excellent Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion by Professor Robert Cialdini
Beating Procrastination
Procrastination can involve the fear of failure, perfectionism ("I don't want to get anything wrong"), lack of self
control, not breaking projects into smaller parts, and underestimating how long it will takes to do things.
Once you have started an activity, your mind constantly nags away until you have completed it. Once it's done,
your mind clears it away, like when you close down a program on your computer. So start an activity and just
spend a few minutes on it initially and this should help to beat procrastination. As the Mastermind quizmaster
says: "I've started so I'll finish!".
Visualisation techniques can help prepare neural pathways in the brain for when the task is performed for real.
However research has found that visualising just the outcome decreases chance of success so you need to
imagine the steps along the way as well. Oettingen and Mayer found that students who reported fantasizing
about success made fewer job applications, received less job offers and had smaller salaries. So you need to
realistically assess problems that could be encountered as well.

EXAMPLE COMPLETED ACTION PLAN

MY OBJECTIVE IS: To choose my future career!
Date I expect My reward for
TO ACHIEVE THIS I NEED TO:
to complete completing this
List the steps you need to take. Be detailed and specific (not ‘‘I'll contact
this step by step will be
some employers’’, but ‘‘Find email addresses of 5 local employers who
have marketing departments & contact them"
I will tell my plan to: my three best friends, my parents!
11
I will start my action plan on (date): 3rd March
Step 1. I will use the Prospects Planner computer guidance system to Some nice
4th March
help me to identify jobs of interest chocolate!
Step 2. I will use the "What can I do with my degree in ..." pages to find More nice
6th March
out what jobs graduates from my subject can enter chocolate!
Time in gym to
Step 3. I will pick up booklets from the Career Service on some of the
9th March burn off
careers suggested and browse through these.
chocolate!
Step 4. I will use the Careers Network to arrange a day shadowing the Over Easter Book by
work of a graduate in the Career that seems to be most of interest. vacation favourite author
Step 5. I will see my careers adviser to discuss the ideas I have got from Meal out with
By 10th May
the above and to narrow these down. friends
What problems am I likely to face? What will I do to overcome these?
Fear of life after university. Have procrastinated too long and now realise that I must take action or miss
opportunities.
Will I be able to arrange a suitable work-shadow? If nobody suitable in the Careers Network, may have to
contact companies directly for help.

Now write your own action plan ...... Date I My

MY OBJECTIVE IS:
expect to reward for
TO ACHIEVE THIS I NEED TO:
complete completing
List the steps you need to take. Be detailed and specific (not ‘‘I'll contact some
this step this step
employers’’, but ‘‘Find email addresses of 5 local employers who have marketing
by will be
departments & contact them"
I will tell my plan to:
I will start my action plan on (date):
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
What problems am I likely to face? What will I do to overcome these?

"World class performance comes from striving for a target just out of reach., but with a vivid awareness of how
the gap might be breached. Over time, though constant repetition and deep concentration the gap will
disappear, only for a new target to be created, just out of reach once again."
"Bounce", by Michael Syed

12
13
 Decision Making Skills
"When you arrive at a fork in the road, take it!"
Yogi Berra
Decision making skills can be very important in a careers context: Which career should I choose? Which
university should I go to? Which course should I study? Of course they are also valuable in many other
contexts in life.

The key steps in decision making are:

1. Clarify the nature of the problem before deciding action.
What is the purpose of the decision?
What is the expected outcome?
What are the key priorities: time, money, quality? Will a quick, cheap and cheerful solution do or do you
need to invest time and cash to get things absolutely right?
2. Collect and summarise the data systematically.
Decisions can't be made in a vacuum! Gather, collate, classify and organise the information you need to
make a decision. You need to analyse and evaluate all the important factors in making the decision. Analyse the
various factors involved in the problem and identify the key ones.
Highlight any critical factors upon which the success on the decision will hinge.
Sound out the views and opinions of others: they may see something you have missed.
3. Use creativity/initiative in the generation of alternative solutions to the problem.
Produce a list of all the courses of action you can think of without trying to narrow these down. At this stage
just produce a list of possible courses of action without trying to evaluate these. Brainstorming may help here
(see below)
Think outside the box: don't just look at the obvious and tried and tested options. Don't be afraid to challenge
the status quo.
See our pages on lateral thinking and on the creative careers search
How to brainstorm
 The purpose of brainstorming is to produce as many possible options as possible without
evaluating them.
 Get a blank sheet of paper and write down any idea or possible solution which may help.
 Don't censor your ideas. Write down everything, no matter how silly or insignificant to keep the flow
going as once idea might lead to another.
 Only once all the ideas have dried up, cross out or adapt all the weaker ideas: this should still leave
you with a number of possible solutions.
 Brainstorming can be done in a group, in which case no comments should be made about the
decisions proposed or group members put down for proposing unusual ideas.
4. Produce a SHORT list of the best options.
Remove any obviously poorer choices. Don't have too many options in your final list or it will be too
confusing.
Differentiate between practical and impractical solutions.
5. Make your decision
For each of your shortlist of options consider its advantages and disadvantages. Try to recognise any
inconsistencies in your reasoning and question any assumptions you have made.
Evaluate each option against the key factors to consider the combined effect of all the factors. Weight each
factor in terms of importance paying particular attention to any critical factors. See the decision matrix
below to help you do this.
Sometimes you may get so immersed that you may not be able to see the wood for the trees: if this happens
sleep on it and postpone the decision until the next day. This may give you a fresh perspective.
Using a DECISION MATRIX to help you to decide between alternatives:

14
Make a short list of your key options and look at the positives and negatives for each item. Below is a very
simple example. You could include many more factors.

Which career would be most appropriate for me: teacher, youth worker or sales executive?
Factor Youth Sales
Factors important to me in my career choice Teacher
Weighting Worker Executive
Job security high (x 3) 9 (x3=27) 7 (x3=21) 4 (x3=12)
Informal working environment medium (x2) 4 (x2=8) 9 (x2=18) 3 (x2=6)
9 to 5 work low (x1) 6 (x1=6) 1 (x1=1) 5 (x1=5)
Good salary low (x1) 4 (x1=4) 3 (x1=3) 8 (x1=8)
Job satisfaction low (x1) 6 (x1=6) 7 (x1=7) 5 (x1=5)
Total 51 50 36
This suggests that for this particular person teaching and youth work would both be good alternatives, but a
career in sales probably wouldn't suit them. Of course intuition (gut reaction) can also play a major part in
making decisions, but a decision matrix may at least give you an idea of which is the most logical choice.

Stay committed to your decisions, but stay flexible in your approach. Tom Robbins
In a moment of decision, the worst thing you can do is nothing. Theodore Roosevelt
A peacefulness follows any decision, even the wrong one. Rita Mae Brown
When you have to make a choice and don't make it, that is in itself a choice. William James
Some persons are very decisive when it comes to avoiding decisions. Brendan Francis
You've got a lot of choices. If getting out of bed in the morning is a chore and you're not smiling on a regular
basis, try another choice. Steven Woodhull
Decision is a sharp knife that cuts clean and straight; indecision, a dull one that hacks and tears and leaves
ragged edges behind it. Gordon Graham
Whether you decide you can or you can't, you're right!
Good decisions come from experience, and experience comes from bad decisions.

6. Implement your decision

See our page on action planning
Try to have a backup (contingency) plan in case your first option doesn't work out.
Learn to argue your solution if there is opposition from others
If it is a group decision, consider the implications for the other members of the team.
Communicate your ideas to the other team members, explain your reasoning and make sure they
understand the logic behind it and get their commitment to carry it out.
See our page on effective group work

7. Evaluate how well things went

Learn from the experience especially if your solution does not prove successful!

SWOT Analysis
A SWOT analysis is a subjective method used to evaluate the STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES,
OPPORTUNITIES, and THREATS involved in trying to attain an objective. It involves specifying the
objective and identifying the internal and external factors that are favourable and unfavourable to achieving the
objective. It can be used as a business tool or on a personal level where it can help you take advantage of your
talents, abilities and opportunities. It can help to clarify and summarise the key issues and opportunities
facing you and thereby to set objectives and develop new strategies. It should help you to to maximise
strengths and minimise weaknesses in order to take advantage of opportunities and reduce threats.

15
SWOT Analysis for an unemployed graduate looking to gain employment
Helpful Harmful
Strengths Weaknesses
Attributes that help you to achieve your Limitations that are harmful to
objective. achieving your objective.
 What skills do you have that others don't have?  What skills could you improve?
Our Skills Inventory with help here.  What can you avoid?
 What skills have you gained in your degree?  I have no significant employment
 Have you any contacts who may be able to help experience
you?  My computing skills are weak: take a
 What personal resources do you have access course to improve this
INTERNAL
to?  Not much money to do things.
FACTORS  Is where you live an advantage or  Have to live at home with my
disadvantage? parents: can't afford to move away
 What do you do better than most other people? because of lack of money.
 How can you utilise each strength?
 What do other people see as your strengths?
 I have a good degree from a good university
 I have good team working and organising skills
 I have good support from my family, friends &
the Careers Service
Opportunities Threats
Favourable situations that help you achieve your External conditions which could create
objective. problems.
 Where opportunities are available to you?  What obstacles do you face?
 How can you exploit these?  How can you lessen these?
EXTERNAL  What opportunities do your strengths give you?  Could any of your weaknesses create
 What trends might help you? problems?
FACTORS  I have lots of free time to pursue things I haven't  If I stay unemployed for too long it
had time for before could be difficult to get a job
 I can do voluntary work & learn new skills to  Tough job market at present
enhance my CV
 It's a good chance to reevaluate where I'm
heading in life

Having said all the above, you also need to take into account your subconscious - your gut reaction will often
make better decisions than any amount of analysis:
We live in a world that assumes that the quality of a decision is directly related to the time and effort that went
into making it...We believe that we are always better off gathering as much information as possible an
depending as much time as possible in deliberation. We really only trust conscious decision making. But there
are moments, particularly in times of stress, when haste does not make waste, when our snap judgments and
first impressions can offer a much better means of making sense of the world. The first task of Blink is to
convince you of a simple fact: decisions made very quickly can be every bit as good as decisions made
cautiously and deliberately.
Malcolm Gladwell from his book "Blink"
The theory behind making decisions
There are big differences between the decisions we make by intuition, and those we make by logical analysis.

The logical part of your mind (the part you are aware of) can analyse problems and come up with rational
answers. It's excellent at solving problems, but it is slow and needs a lot of energy. If you have to solve a
demanding problem while walking, you will probably stop because your analytical mind can't focus on both
tasks simultaneously.

16
Your intuitive mind on the other hand is fast and automatic. It's very powerful, but hidden and is responsible
for most of the things that you do, think and believe but you have no idea this is happening. It is your hidden
auto-pilot, and has a mind of its own.
Your intuitive mind is normally in control, efficiently dealing with the myriads of decisions we have to make
each day. Mistakes occur when we allow our intuitive system to make decisions that we should allow our
logical mind to deal with.
These mistakes are called cognitive biases. They make us spend impulsively, be influenced too much by what
others think and affect our beliefs, opinions, and decisions.
Here are some common cognitive biases.
 Present bias causes us to pay attention to what is happening now, but not to worry about the future.
Read and van Leeuwen found that when making choices of food for the following week, 74% of
participants chose fruit. But when choosing for today, 70% chose chocolate. This is one of the most
important biases and causes overeating, smoking and drinking too much alcohol.
 Confirmation bias is the tendency to look for information that confirms what we already know. It's
why we tend to buy a newspaper that agrees with our views.
 Negativity bias means that we remember negative events much better than positive ones. For every
argument you have in a relationship, you need to have five positive memories just to maintain a
balance.
 Familiarity Bias. We tend to buy from a well advertised company rather than a less well known
company. This works partly because we like what we know. We even choose familiar things even
when there is evidence that it’s not the best choice (Richter & Spath).
 Loss aversion. We have a natural desire to avoid losses. We feel the pain of a loss much more than we
feel the pleasure of a gain. People tend to sell shares when they go up in price, but hold on to them
when they go down. This can be catastrophic. Daniel Kahneman invented a new branch of economics
called behavioural economics based on these cognitive biases.
Also see
 Our page on problem-solving skills
 BBC: How do we really make decisions?

17
 Problem Solving and Analytical Skills
How to develop and demonstrate your problem-solving skills
We all solve problems on a daily basis, in academic situations, at work and in our day-to-day lives.
Some of the problems that are typically faced by students include:
 Putting together an argument for an essay
 Debugging a computer program
 Dealing with an awkward customer when working part-time in a shop or
restaurant
 Thinking about how you are going to manage your budget to keep you
going until the end of term
 Working out why your printer won’t respond
 Developing a strategy to reach the next level of a computer game.
Any job will also bring problems to be faced. It is important to show to a
recruiter that you have the right skills to resolve these problems, and the personal resilience to handle the
challenges and pressure they may bring.
You need to be able to:

Problems can also be opportunities: they allow you to see things differently and to do things in a different
way: perhaps to make a fresh start.

 Evaluate information or situations

 Break them down into their key components
 Consider various ways of approaching and resolving them
 Decide on the most appropriate of these ways
Solving these problems involves both analytical and creative skills. Which particular skills are needed will
vary, depending on the problem and your role in the organisation, but the following skills are key to problem-
solving:

A large cosmetics company had a problem that some of the soap boxes coming off the production lines were
empty. The problem was quickly isolated to the assembly line, which transported the packaged boxes of
soap to the delivery department: some soap boxes went through the assembly line empty.
The management asked its engineers to solve the problem. They spent much time and money in devising an
X-ray machine with high-res monitors manned by staff to watch all the boxes on the line to make sure they
weren't empty.
A workman hearing about this, came up with another solution. He got a powerful industrial fan and pointed
it at the assembly line. As each soap box passed the fan, the empty boxes were blown off the line. Moral: the
simplest solution is usually the best!

 Analytical Ability
 Lateral Thinking
 Initiative
 Logical Reasoning
 Persistence

Analytical and critical thinking skills help you to evaluate the problem and to make decisions. A logical and
methodical approach is best in some circumstances: for example, you will need to be able to draw on your
academic or subject knowledge to identify solutions of a practical or technical nature.
In other situations, using creativity or lateral thinking will be necessary to to come up with ideas for
resolving the problem and find fresh approaches

18
Not everyone has these two types of skills in equal measure: for this reason, team working is often a key
component in problem-solving. Further skills, such as communication, persuasion and negotiation, are
important in finding solutions to problems involving people.

Whatever issue you are faced with, some steps are fundamental:
 Identify the problem
 Define the problem
 Examine the options
 Act on a plan
 Look at the consequences

This is the IDEAL model of problem-solving.

The final stage is to put the solution you have decided on into practice and check the results.
Developing your analytical and problem-solving skills
Most problem-solving skills are developed through everyday life and experience. However, the following
interests and activities may be useful in demonstrating a high level of these skills - this may be particularly
important when applying to employers in areas such as engineering, IT, operational research and some areas of
finance.
 ‘Mind games’ such as cryptic crosswords, Sudoku, chess, bridge, etc;
 Computer games – the best of these can involve strategic planning, critical and statistical analysis and
assessing the pros and cons of different courses of action;
 ‘Practical’ interests such as programming, computer repairs, car maintenance, or DIY;
 Working with sound or lighting equipment for a band, event or show;
 Academic study: evaluating different sources of information for essays, designing and constructing a
‘microshelter’ for an architecture project; setting up a lab experiment.

There are several stages to solving a problem:

1) Evaluating the problem
 Clarifying the nature of a problem
 Formulating questions
 Gathering information systematically
 Collating and organising data
 Condensing and summarising information
 Defining the desired objective
2) Managing the problem
 Using the information gathered effectively
 Breaking down a problem into smaller, more
manageable, parts
 Using techniques such as brainstorming and lateral
thinking to consider options
 Analysing these options in greater depth
 Identifying steps that can be taken to achieve the
objective
3) Decision-making
 deciding between the possible options for what action to take
 deciding on further information to be gathered before taking action
 deciding on resources (time, funding, staff etc) to be allocated to this problem
 See our page on decision-making skills
4) Resolving the problem
 Implementing action

19
 Providing information to other stakeholders; delegating tasks
 Reviewing progress
5) Examining the results
 Monitoring the outcome of the action taken
 Reviewing the problem and problem-solving process to avoid similar situations in future
At any stage of this process, it may be necessary to return to an earlier stage – for example, if further
problems arise or if a solution does not appear to be working as desired.

Problem-solving skills and graduate jobs: what

do recruiters want?
Analytical ability, problem solving skills and using initiative are among
the top ten skills for recruiters of graduates. They want people who will
take the personal responsibility to make sure targets are met; who can
see that there might be a better way of doing something and who are
prepared to research and implement change; people who don’t panic
or give up when things go wrong but who will seek a way around the
problem.
These problems may be similar to academic problems (e.g. in scientific
research) or may be more “practical” problems such as those involved in
people management.
These skills can be asked for in a variety of ways. Many job ads will
simply ask for candidates who “can take the initiative" or "have the
ability to resolve problems"; others, however, may not make it so
clear. You have to learn to interpret phrases like:
 “Someone keen to take responsibility and with the confidence to
challenge established practices and come up with new ways of
working…”
 “An enquiring mind and the ability to understand and solve complex challenges are necessary…”
 “We are looking for innovative minds and creative spirits ...”
 “We need ambitious graduates who will respond with enthusiasm to every issue they face…”

These quotes from employers’ job adverts on graduate websites are all asking for essentially the same two
things:
 The ability to use your own initiative, to think for yourself, to be creative and pro-active.
 The ability to resolve problems, to think logically and/or laterally, to use ingenuity to overcome
difficulties and to research and implement solutions.
These qualities help graduates to make a difference to their employer, whether that employer provides a service
or manufactures a product.

How will they assess these skills?

On application forms
Think of PROBLEMS as
If analytical or problem-solving skills are a key part of the job, there is likely CHALLENG
to be a question on the application form which asks you to give evidence of ES
your competency in these areas, such as:
 Describe a situation in which you analysed data and solved a complex In Chinese the
problem; character for
 Describe a complex problem you have faced and the steps that you took to danger and opportunity is the
solve it; same. Well maybe not but it
 Describe a setback in your life and say what you did to overcome it. What sounds good!
lessons did you learn from this?
 Describe a time when you demonstrated creativity in solving a difficult
problem;
 Describe a time when you provided a new or different solution to a problem;
20
 Give me a specific example of a time when you used good judgment and logic in solving a problem;
 Describe a difficult problem that you have solved. State how you decided which were the critical issues,
say what you did and what your solution was. What other approaches could you have taken?
 Give an example of a problem you have solved that required analysis. What methods did you use and what
conclusions did you reach?

When answering these questions, cover the process you used to solve the problem rather than just
outlining the problem itself. Give examples of how you used initiative/creativity, or made effective use of
resources, in solving the problem. It is also useful to say what you learned from this process, especially if the
problem was not resolved to your complete satisfaction.
Employers may follow up on your answers to these questions at interview: see below.
There is further information about competency-based questions such as this at
www.kent.ac.uk/careers/compet/skillquest.htm
Evidence you could give to an employer to convince them that you have problem-solving skills
Examples could come from your course, extra-curricular activities such as student societies, school, work
or work experience, year-in-industry placements, travel or other sources.
EXAMPLES:
 Analysing data from a project or experiment
 Working as a “troubleshooter” on a computer helpdesk
 Advising a client at the Kent Law Clinic
 Implementing a new filing system in an office job
 Acting as a student rep
 Dealing with staff problems or unexpected staff shortages
in a part-time job
 Coping with living on a limited student budget
Putting the evidence onto an application form
Give an example of a time when you have successfully resolved a complex problem:
1: Describe a situation from the last five years when you demonstrated effective use the skill you have chosen:
In the sixth form, I took part with two friends in a “Robot Challenge” competition. The brief was to design and
build a robot that could perform a dance routine synchronised with a music soundtrack.
2: What action did you have to take?
My responsibility was to control the movement of the robot through the sensors and actuators. This was a
complex task because of the number of movements that the robot was required to execute and the different
stimuli to which it had to respond. In addition, the robot proved particularly sensitive to changes in light levels
and I needed to experiment with a number of adaptations to discover the optimum balance between
responsiveness and reliability.
3: What was the result of your action?
Our team achieved second place in the local competition and progressed to the regional final, where we came
fifth out of 25 teams.

Through psychometric tests

A study in the Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin suggests you are more likely to succeed if you
solve a difficult problem on another person’s behalf rather than for yourself. One of the problems was:
A prisoner was attempting to escape from a tower. He found a rope in his cell that was half as long enough to
permit him to reach the ground safely. He divided the rope in half, tied the two parts together, and escaped.
How could he have done this?
Students were asked to think of either themselves or a stranger stuck in the tower. 66% of the students who
imagined a stranger in the tower, found the solution compared with 48% of those who envisaged themselves
in the tower. THe authors said if we imagine that our problems belong to someone else, we might find
better solutions. The solution, by the way is to split the rope lengthwise.

21
The most common of these tests involve verbal and numerical reasoning: you may also encounter diagrammatic
reasoning and critical thinking tests. They may be administered online at an early stage of the selection process,
or at first interview or assessment centres. There is a great deal of information about these tests at
www.kent.ac.uk/careers/psychotests.htm

At interview
Further questioning on the answers given on your application form
If your application form has included competency-based questions such as the ones above, you can expect the
employer to ask for more detail about the problem or the situation and the way that you went about finding a
solution. Be prepared to be asked about alternative ways in which you might have gone about tackling this
problem and what you would have done if things hadn’t worked out.
Hypothetical questions
Competency-based questions ask you about actions that you have taken in the past: hypothetical questions ask
you about the course of action you might take in the event of some fictional situation, often work-related.
 "How would you deal with a staff member who persistently arrives late and takes regular, unauthorised,
breaks from work for a cigarette?”
 "You are working on the till in a retail store when a customer’s credit card is refused. The cardholder is a
regular customer who is trying to buy a present for their mother’s birthday the following day. How would
you deal with this situation?"
 "Your manager regularly leaves you in charge of a small office in his absence. The other staff regularly
complain to you about the way he runs things, and how irritated they are by his interference in their day-
to-day work - what do you do?"
 "You work in a company that manufactures meat pies and pasties. Sales have been falling for several years
and you are asked to come up with ideas to revive the company”
There is usually no right or wrong answer to these questions: the interviewers are seeking to assess your logical
thinking and common sense. You may need to ask questions to clarify the situation and gather more
information. You can expect your answers to be challenged, the
interviewers asking questions such as:
 “Yes, but what if …?”
 “Have you thought about ….?”
 “Why would you do that …?”

This doesn’t mean that there is anything wrong with the answer you
have given – just that the interviewers are trying to find out how you
have arrived at your solution to the problem. They may also be testing
you out to see how you cope with pressure and how well you can argue
a point.
Although the situation is hypothetical, if you have been faced with any
similar situation in real life you can use this, and the way that you
handled it then, to support your answer.
For further information on handling hypothetical questions, see
The only thing harder than looking
www.kent.ac.uk/careers/intervw.htm#Hypothetical
for a needle in a hay stack is looking
Technical questions for a needle in a needle stack!
These are most commonly asked at interviews for science, engineering
and IT posts. They may relate to your previous relevant work experience or to a student project, or may relate
to hypothetical situations as in the examples below:
 “The scenario was that we were in charge of lighting a theatre. We were given different conditions as to
what type of problem could be caused by various faults in the lighting plan and who this problem would
affect e.g. lighting technician, stage manager or director. There was only ever one problem with the
lighting plan.
It got harder as different conditions were added to the original ones and you had to take more and more

22
 information into consideration, such as: certain lights need to always be turned on first; some lights need
to be warmed up in the breaks; different lights create different effects”
 “I was asked to suggest a route to synthesise ethylene glycol – one of the company’s products” (Chemistry
graduate interviewed by petrochemicals company)
 “If I were organising a national cancer screening campaign, what standards/ precautions/ feasibility/
practicality checks would I do before implementing the scheme?” (Medical physicist)
 “They asked technical questions mainly to work out my thought process on problem solving, there was no
correct answer as long as they were logical and eventually you had to come to a point where you gave up
and admitted defeat!”
(Graduate interviewed for IT support post with NHS trust)

It's not that I'm so smart, it's just that I stay with problems longer.
Albert Einstein
Leaders are problem solvers by talent and temperament, and by choice.
Harlan Cleveland
Problems are only opportunities in work clothes.
Henri Kaiser
Difficulties are opportunities to better things; they are stepping-stones to greater experience.... When one
door closes, another always opens.
Brian Adams
Every exit is an entry somewhere else.
Tom Stoppard
There are no foolish questions and no man becomes a fool until he has stopped asking questions.
Saul Steinberg
The most serious mistakes are not being made as a result of wrong answers. The truly dangerous thing is
asking the wrong questions.
Peter Drucker
It is better to know some of the questions than all of the answers.
James Thurber
The mere formulation of a problem is far more often essential than its solution.
Albert Einstein
For every failure, there's an alternative course of action. You just have to find it. When you come to a
roadblock, take a detour.
Mary Kay Ash
When life gives you a lemon, make lemonade.
If you really want something you can figure out how to make it happen.
Cher
The creation of a thousand forests is in one acorn.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Whether you believe you can, or whether you believe you can't, you're absolutely right.
Henry Ford
Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. Indeed it's the only
thing that ever has.
Margaret Mead
It is easier to tone down a wild idea than to think up a new one.
Alex Osborne
The best way to get a good idea is to get a lot of ideas.
Linus Pauling
Even if you are on the right track, you will get run over if you just stand there.
Will Rogers
The human mind is like a parachute - it functions better when it's open.
Cole's Rules
The man with a new idea is a crank - until the idea succeeds.
Mark Twain
Martin Luther King said "I have a dream", not "I have a plan.

23
See our science interviews page for more on technical questions.
Ethical questions
These are particularly common in interviews for medicine and law. Some typical examples may include:
 Should all class C drugs be legalised?
 Should doctors be authorised to remove organs from a dead person without obtaining consent from their
relatives?
 A patient urgently requires a bone marrow transplant but the only suitable donor is her brother, who has
severe physical and mental disabilities. Can this brother donate?
 Should conjoined twins be separated even if it is almost certain that one of them will die in the process?
 Since the victims in rape cases have anonymity, should the same anonymity be granted to the accused?

Again, there is often no right or wrong answer, although you should be aware of the legal and regulatory
framework behind these questions. You will be expected to put both sides of the argument before giving your
opinion and can expect to be challenged and asked to justify your opinion.
Case study interviews
This type of interview is often used for graduate positions in management consultancy and investment banking.
Case questions are business problems designed not only to test your logical and analytical thinking skills,
ability to solve problems but also to make you think on your feet. Often there are no right answers to these
types of questions, but they give the selector an idea of how you think, your reasoning skills, how you react
under pressure and your common sense.
The problems may be brief (sometimes seemingly bizarre) “estimation” or “brain teaser” questions such as the
following:
 How many cars are there in the EU?
 How many laptops will be purchased in the UK in 2020?
 Why are manhole covers round?
Alternatively, you may be asked questions related to the issues facing real-life clients:
 A manufacturer of umbrellas, based in the west of Ireland, wants to expand into mainland Europe. What
issues should they consider? What risks might they face?
 A parcel delivery company plans to offer a new service where customers can hand a package directly to
one of the company's drivers instead of taking it to a depot. What issues need to be thought about?
These business problems are similar to those put forward for group discussions at assessment centres (see
below) – the difference is that you have to tackle these on your own!
For further information on case interviews, with examples of the questions and problems set at them, see
www.kent.ac.uk/careers/interviews/CaseInterviews.htm

Through group tasks and discussions at assessment centres

Almost all assessment centres will involve a strong element of group work. These tasks may involve the group
sitting around a table discussing a problem or may (as in the final two examples) be more active and practical:
 “We were asked to come up with a business proposal for building a computer network between an
imaginary group of islands, to be presented to the islands government”
 Candidates for a place at medical school were given background information on ten patients and asked to
select five of them who would receive a kidney transplant
 “We were provided with information on four sites that were possible locations for the construction of a
nuclear power station. This information included material on the environment, the local economy,
transport links and the estimated costs of construction. We had to select one and recommend it to the
Secretary of State for Energy, giving the reasons for our decision.”
 “We were given a task involving Lego bricks - we had to work out how many bricks we wanted to use to
build the tallest tower possible at the lowest cost”
 “A large part of the Army Officer selection process takes place outdoors – the teams of candidates have to
negotiate an obstacle course using ladders, ropes, poles and planks”
24
The decision reached by the group is likely to be less important than the way in which the group works together
to reach its decision – these tasks aim to test your teamworking and negotiation, as well as your problem-
solving, skills.
There is more information about assessment centres, including examples of business games, case studies and
“balloon debates” at www.kent.ac.uk/careers/applicn.htm#Selection
Further Information and Help
 Decision-making www.kent.ac.uk/careers/sk/decisionmaking.htm
 Lateral thinking www.kent.ac.uk/careers/sk/lateral.htm
 All kinds of practice numerical and verbal reasoning tests, with links to many more sites, at
www.kent.ac.uk/careers/psychotests.htm
 Test of analytical reasoning skills www.queendom.com/tests/access_page/index.htm?idRegTest=2840
 Initiative and problem-solving www.careers.brad.ac.uk/student/skills/ipsolving.php
 www.businessballs.com/games.htm - puzzles, lateral thinking puzzles, trick questions, number puzzles,
logic puzzles and word games
 How to Solve the Times Crossword – help from the BBC www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A563690

A final thought …
"For every complex problem, there is a solution that is simple, neat, and wrong"
(H.L. Mencken)

25
HOW TO MANAGE YOUR TIME EFFECTIVELY
The two most powerful warriors are patience and time
Tolstoy

Why use time management skills?

It's important that you develop effective strategies for managing your
time to balance the conflicting demands of time for study, leisure,
earning money and jobhunting. Time management skills are valuable
in jobhunting, but also in many other aspects of life: from revising for
examinations to working in a vacation job.
Sometimes it may seem that there isn't enough time to do everything
that you need to. This can lead to a build up of stress. When revising
for examinations, or during your final year when you have to combine
the pressures of intensive study with finding time to apply for jobs
good management of your time can be particularly important. Once
we have identified ways in which we can improve the management of our time, we can begin to adjust our
routines and patterns of behaviour to reduce any time-related stress in our lives.

What skills are required for effective time management?

Some of these skills including setting clear goals, breaking your goals down into discreet steps, and
reviewing your progress towards your goals are covered in Action Planning.
Other skills involved include prioritising - focusing on urgent and important tasks rather than those that are not
important or don't move you towards your goals; organising your work schedule; list making to remind you of
what you need to do when; persevering when things are not working out and avoiding procrastination.
Your score
Your score can be from 0 to a maximum of 15 on each of eight areas. Make a note of your score or print
out the page and then see below to find out what these roles involve. Click on any of the topics below to
find out how to improve your skills in this area.
 Persevering when things get difficult
 Setting goals
 Organising your work and meeting
 Breaking tasks down into steps
deadlines
 Prioritising
 Revising for examinations
 Using lists
 Avoiding procrastination
Using Lists
Keeping a to-do List

TO DO
 Work
 Write up lecture notes.
 *Prepare for seminar on Thursday
 Decide on subject for project
 Go to library to get material for essay.
 Other
 *Pay rent
 Research employers I want to apply to.
 Card for Sue's birthday
 Prepare draft CV
 Buy iron
 Get two tickets for concert
 Visit Simon
 Go to bank
26
You should have a reminder system to tell you of when you need to do what: don't try to remember everything
in your head as this is a recipe for disaster! Carry a pen and paper or organiser wherever you go. At the
simplest level your reminder system could simply be to use your diary to write down the things you need to do,
including appointments and deadlines. Before interviews, it's fine to write down the questions you wish to ask
on a small piece of card or notepad
"To stay on schedule I devised a timetable which I had to stick to. I used an electronic calendar which I
programmed to send out emails as reminders to myself and my team. This was a very useful tool and it is one
that I have used continuously to manage my time effectively." Kent student.
A daily list of tasks that need to be done is an essential part of action planning. Refer to and update this
regularly. Prioritise items on the list into important/not important and urgent/non-urgent. Such a list can
take a variety of formats but an example is given to the right. Update your list daily, crossing off completed
tasks and adding new tasks that need to be done. Urgent or important tasks can be highlighted with an
asterisk.
Advantages of using a to do list
 Focuses your mind on important objectives
 You are less likely to forget to do tasks
 Writing a list helps order your thoughts
 It helps show the bigger picture
 You don't need to hold everything in your head.
 It saves time
 It helps you decide on priorities: the most important and the most urgent
 You are less likely to become sidetracked
 You get the reward of ticking off your achievements
 You feel more in control
 You have a record of what you've done
 You always have something to work on
Setting Goals
Set yourself specific and clearly defined goals, and make sure that these are realistic and achievable. To do
this, you first need to examine your present situation and assess what goals are important to you and what
action you need to take to achieve your target. Have a contingency plan or alternative route to your goal in
case you have to change your plans, for example, taking a relevant postgraduate course if you can't get a job.
See Action Planning.

In a survey by Accountemps 150 executives were asked, “On which day of the week are employees most
productive?”
Their responses:
 Monday 12%
 Tuesday 57%
 Wednesday 11%
 Thursday 11%
 Friday 3%
 Don't know 6%

Prioritising
Efficiency and effectiveness are not the same. Someone who works hard and is well organised but spends all
their time on unimportant tasks may be efficient but not effective. To be effective, you need to decide what
tasks are urgent and important and to focus on these. This is called prioritising. It's important to list the tasks
you have and to sort these in order of priority, and then to devote most time to the most important tasks. This
avoids the natural tendency to concentrate on the simple, easy tasks and to allow too many interruptions to your
work.
Differentiate also between urgent and important tasks: an urgent task may not necessarily be important!
When jobhunting, you won't be able to apply to every employer. You will need to carefully prioritise those you

27
wish to apply to, based upon factors such as closing date, location, degree class required, and chances of getting
in.

Avoiding Procrastination
In the professional environment people are so easily distracted by ‘noise’. Whether it’s emails, admin or
politics, there will always be something that seems so much more important than the actual task. More often
than not, people will get caught up with the nice to have activity rather than the critical work which creates
more value for the business. Being ruthlessly focused means you have the ability to cancel out this noise and
focus on what is important. It’s a strength in itself to be able to say something is not critical.
James Caan
Procrastination is the scourge of action planning. It's important that you
manage 'Your fear of doing things' you don't want to do and realise that “Never leave that till
the fear is often far worse than any possible negative results. Try to take tomorrow which you can do
decisions immediately when possible and when you don't need to gather more today.”
information pertinent to the decision. The best time to do something is usually Benjamin Franklin
NOW. Taking action generates the impetus for further action. Many
applications to prestigious employers now need to be made in the first term of
your final year and if you procrastinate you'll miss the deadlines.

Breaking down tasks

Break goals down into their components so that you can
accomplish them one step at a time. Write these steps down, and try
to be as specific as you can when you do this. Try to complete one task
before you go on to the next.
Reward yourself for achieving
these goals to maintain your A mountain is climbed one
enthusiasm. For example, when step at a time .........
you are invited to your first
interview, treat yourself to a good meal with friends. Regularly review
your progress towards your goals and revise plans as appropriate to
take account of unforeseen changes.

Persevering
Inevitably, things will not always run smoothly as you progress towards your goals. When things are not
working out, you need to persevere and learn how to take a positive attitude towards frustration and
failure.
Mistakes are a crucial part of any creative process and each is a lesson leading you towards the right solution.
Fear of making or admitting mistakes is a major handicap to taking effective action. It is said that the people
who have achieved the most have made the most mistakes! Try to be aware that satisfaction comes as
much from pursuing goals as from achieving them.
Work at effective strategies to deal with pressure - these can vary from taking exercise, to relaxation
techniques such as Yoga, to simply sharing problems with friends. Being assertive can also help here, for
example, politely saying no to the demands of others when you are pushed for time. Sharing tasks and problems
with others will spread the burden and will bring a fresh perspective to them.

Organising your time

Identify areas of your life where you are wasting time and try to reduce these. A good way to do this is to
log everything you do for a week in meticulous detail and then examine your record to see how you use (or
misuse!) your time.
Develop a regular work routine. Keep your work space tidy so that you can work efficiently - it's hard to do this
if things you need to find are buried under a pile of paper! Work to schedule so that you meet deadlines in good
time - don't leave everything until the last minute. If you have a difficult essay to write, start by drafting out the
structure first- this will break the ice.
28
When applying for jobs keep copies of all the applications you have made and keep a log of the date you
applied, result, and a record of all your interviews, plus you were questions asked. This will help you to keep
track of your progress and spot areas where you could improve.
USING A TIME LOG
One useful way to eliminate wasted time is to use a time log. First you need Monday
to make up a chart for the next seven days divided into half hour intervals  8.30 Get up
starting at the time you get up and finishing at the time you go to bed. Write  9.00 Breakfast
down what you did in each half hour of the day for the next seven days.  9.30 Read newspaper
Choose a typical week. An example for one day is given to the right.  10.00 Lecture
At the end of the week examine your time log and ask yourself the following  11.00 Coffee with
questions: friends
 11.30 Work in library
 Are there any periods that I could use more productively?
 12.30 Lunch
 At what time of day do I do my most effective work? Some people
 1.30 Careers
are most alert in the morning, whilst others concentrate best during
Information Room
the afternoon or evening. Schedule your most important tasks for
 2.00 Lecture
these times of day.
 3.00 Seminar
A time log can be particularly useful at times of pressure, for example,
 4.00 Sports Centre
when revising for examinations or jobhunting during your final year.
 5.00 Dinner
By now you should have been able to identify ways in which you could  6.00 Listening to music
manage your time more efficiently, and know some techniques to allow you at home
to do this. You might like to look at the section on action planning which  7.00 Work on CV
identifies other ways of organising your work so that you achieve your goals.  7.30 Chatting with
neighbour
One way that employers may measure your time management skills at
 8.30 Union Bar
interview is via an in-tray exercise.
 11.00 Party at Abigails
Revising for examinations  2.00 Home and bed

Have a regular venue for revision such as the library where you are free from distractions. You should after a
while become conditioned to starting work immediately in this location. Plan out a revision schedule or
timetable so you devote enough time to each subject.
Summarise your lecture notes and use diagrams and graphics where appropriate - a picture is worth a
thousand words! Use a highlighter pen or underlining to emphasise key facts. For last minute revision, make
minimal notes occupying no more than a couple of sides of A4 and record key facts, diagrams and formulae.
Use past examination papers when revising to familiarise 'yourself with the sort of questions that might be
asked. When revising, take a few minutes break every so often to clear and refresh your mind and allow some
time off for complete relaxation.
Further Information
 See the other pages in this skills section for information on different employability skills and how to
develop them
 LifeCoachExpert www.lifecoachexpert.co.uk contains over 80 articles focused on improving your life.

“Well done is better than well said.” Benjamin Franklin or to paraphrase this in modern terms, "Don't talk the
talk, instead walk the walk". Some people constantly talk about the things they are going to do but then keep
procrastinating. Take action if you wish to get results.
A stitch in time would have confused Einstein.
If it weren't for time, everything would happen at once.

29
 Communication Skills: Speaking and Listening
It is more fun to talk with someone who doesn't use long, difficult words but rather short, easy words like "What
about lunch?"
Winnie-the-Pooh

Effective spoken communication requires being able to express your ideas and views clearly, confidently and
concisely in speech, tailoring your content and style to the audience and promoting free-flowing
communication.
 Be clear and concise. Vary your tone, pace and volume to enhance the communication and encourage questions
 Persuading and Negotiating Arriving at an agreement that is agreeable to both sides: a win:win situation. Back up
your points with logic. Show tact to those you disagree with.
 Making a speech in front of an audience: presenting your message in an interesting way,
structuring your presentation, using audio-visual aids effectively and building a rapport with your
audience.
 Communicating effectively in a team
 Ask for help when you need it. Research suggests that asking for help with something (within
reason) makes you more liked by the person you ask!
Listening
Good listening has an enormous quality of nowness. Helpful listening is a form of meditation.
David Brandon
Some people talk to animals. Not many listen though. That's the problem.
Winnie the Pooh
 Make effective use of body language and speech. Be sensitive to the other person's body language as well as what
they say: eye contact, gestures, appropriate humour and analogies.
Use appropriate body language yourself: face the person with an open, attentive posture and maintain good eye
contact (look at the speaker a lot, but don't stare all the time), smiling and nod your head from time to time.
 Listen attentively. Express interest in what people are saying and don't interrupt them.
 Be aware of any prejudices or misconceptions you or the speaker may have.
 Good listening builds a rapport and understanding with the speaker and allows them to freely express their views. It
motivates them to say more.
 Poor listening makes assumptions, creates resistance and hostility, demotivates the speaker, inhibits their
development and creates dependence on the listener.
 Use ACTIVE LISTENING.
o These reflect back what the speaker is saying in other words to clarify understanding: you paraphrase and
repeat back key points.
o They may summarise and bring new interpretations to the speakers words.
30
 o They show you're listening carefully and checks you are understanding correctly what they are saying
allowing the speaker to confirm or correct your feedback.
o They encourage the speaker to elaborate and to define their problems.
o It is often the most useful way of giving positive feedback to someone: "I hear what you're saying and take
it seriously". You can't keep saying "uh-huh" or "yes" for too long without it sounding false.

Empathy
 Empathy means being open to the ideas of others and sensitive to People with a musical quality to their speech (a
their values and feelings: trying to see things from the other big variation in pitch and rhythm called
person's perspective. prosody) tend to be more empathic. Lisa Aziz-
 It is about demonstrating that you understand, that you can listen Zadeh of the University of S. California found
from other person's point of view and reflect their meaning that people whose speech is most intonated,
 Each individual has a unique perspective which should be valued. lilted or "sing-song" have more ability to
We each occupy our own private world and never completely know empathise with others and to convey emotion.
what's going on inside other people's minds.
 Be prepared to disclose your own feelings and beliefs to encourage others to do the same: be open with other
people.

Questioning and gathering information

Question types to try to avoid EXAMPLES

Closed Questions
 Demand simple yes or no answers with no chance to elaborate.
 Limit the gathering of information, fail to explore possibilities and
get overly simple answers.
"Couldn't you have resigned?"
 They typically start with: Could ..? Couldn't ...? Should ...? Would ...?
"Are you poor at exams?"
Have ...? Are ..? Is ...? Will ...?
 They can sometimes be useful for quick checking of facts or to show
that you have been listening carefully to the other person: "Now if I
understood you correctly you meant that ...."
Leading questions
 These are similar to closed questions. "You're bad at maths aren't you?"
 They predict a particular answer and should be avoided
Negative questions
"What went wrong?"
 These can sometimes be good for analysis but may demotivate the
"Whose fault was it?"
interviewee from talking.
Good question types EXAMPLES
Open ended questions
 These are prompts to get the other person to talk about a topic
 They require longer, more detailed detailed answers, produce more,
better quality information and open up possibilities.
"Tell me what you think about this?"
 They help the person crystallise their thoughts and help you to
understand their views, feelings and attitudes.
 They may start with: How ... ? When ....? Where ....? What ....? Which
....? Why ....? Who ..? What ...? If ....?
Probing questions
"Tell me exactly what your duties were at
 These delve more deeply into the interviewee's answers, and
Bloggs & Co."
allow you to dig down to reach the important information.
What if questions "How would you deal with a staff
 These are hypothetical questions These questions are used precisely member caught stealing a packet of
because it's impossible to work out your answer beforehand, thus it biscuits from the shop?"
tests your ability to think quickly, and reason logically. "How would you deal with an irate
customer?"
Clarifying questions If I heard you correctly, you felt very angry
31
  These reflect back what the speaker is saying in other words to about the way you had been treated?
clarify understanding: you paraphrase and repeat back key points.
 They may summarise and bring new interpretations to the speakers
words.
 They show you're listening carefully and checks you are
understanding correctly what they are saying allowing the speaker to
confirm or correct your feedback.
 They encourage the speaker to elaborate and to define their
problems.
The Devil's Advocate
"I think that the Government has made
 These questions are provocative. Often, they reflect the opposite
some really stupid decisions recently: don't
view to the real view of the questioner and can lure out any hidden
you agree?"
prejudices you may have.
 If you have a difficult or complex question, introduce it first with "I know this will be tough to answer so please
take your time". This is more likely to elicit a considered response and doesn't put the other person on the
defensive. Ask your question and try to stay silent until you get an answer: the longer it takes to get answer, the
more powerful the answer is likely to be.

Jargon Oscars
 The university of the present is hypermodernised and characterised as diversified, liquefied, globalised, edgeless,
marketised and technologised. Source THES
 A statistically risible exercise in neoliberal populism. (University of Brighton)
 While I am open to the initial nature of an assignment, I am decidedly disposed that it be so oriented as to at least
partially incorporate the experience enjoyed heretofore and that it be configured so as to ultimately lead to the
application of more rarefied facets of financial management as the major sphere of responsibility.
 See our page on interview skills for more examples of interview questions
Confirm and clarify

 Ask yourself exactly what you want to gain from the conversation: a lack of clarity can lead to confusion and poor
decisions.
 Asking clarifying questions: "How?", "Why?", "When?", "Who?", "What?", "Where?", will help the other person
crystallise their thoughts.
 Summarise the main points in simple language.
 Get the other person's agreement that your summary is accurate.
 Define the problem and then move the focus to the solution: separate the points that relate to the problem and
those that relate to the solution.
 Agree on the action you will both take: even if this is that there will be no action. `

Jargon free language

A survey of managers by the Institute of Leadership found that the most most irritating jargon/management
speak phrases were "thinking outside the box", "going forward" and "let's touch base", so try to avoid such
phrases when applying for jobs.

 Use simple words and clear unambiguous language.

 Be succinct: take time and effort to distill ideas to an absolute minimum.
 Make simple points that everyone agrees on.
 Use the active not passive voice. "I will send it to you" rather than "It will be sent to you".
 Avoid Jargon!
NOT: "We need to incentivize our best of breed to think outside the box in focusing our core competencies on mission
critical key deliverables."
BUT: "We should motivate our staff to use their skills on important tasks".
For help with removing jargon see the Plain English Campaign

32
Giving feedback

 Feedback has also been called constructive criticism.

 Only give feedback if the gain will exceed the pain: only use it for important things.
Praise more than you criticise! Identifying and developing strengths is more effective than focusing too much on
negatives.
 Constructive criticism which shows the person how they can improve. Not "Debbie was hopeless!", but "Debbie
made some very useful contributions but her voice was a bit quiet. I couldn't hear her very well, so she needs to raise
her voice a bit in future."
 It's a good idea to ask permission: "Do you mind if I give you some feedback?". This gives the person time to prepare.
 Try to give feedback immediately: on the spot if possible: it's most effective when fresh in the person's mind. The
more quickly it is given the more relevance and power it will have.
 Be direct and honest. Get quickly to the point, don't have long and embarrasing introductions, although starting
with some genuine praise based on what the person has actually done will help (see the praise sandwich below).
 Give feedback in private if at all possible, it's insensitive to do this in front of others.
 Focus on the most concrete and recent example
 Stick to a single clear issue, don't pack in too much criticism as this can be disheartening.
 Don't repeat the same point over and over: this will just build up resentment.
 Only criticise behaviours that can be changed: "You need to improve your computing skills" rather than "You're
stupid"!
 Give feedback on a person's behaviour not about the person themselves. Give accurate descriptions of behaviour
not comments about the person's qualities and worth as an individual: "You have been late for work a lot in the last
month"rather than :"You're lazy"!
 Don't compare the person with other people, as this can build jealousy: "Jane is always
punctual"
 Use "I" not "You" statements: "I feel upset" not "You made me feel upset".
 Use specific examples. Don't say "You're hopeless at this", say "We need to give you training on
how to do this"!
o describe the behaviour
o describe your reaction
o explain why you feel this way
o show you understand what's behind their behaviour
o suggest a different way of behaving
 Stick to facts: describe behaviour but also what happened as a result.
 The best decisions are those people reach for themselves. Try not to tell the other person
directly what they should and shouldn't do. Let them explore their behaviour and say
themselves what needs to be done. This avoids the build up of resentment.
 Allow the criticised person to express any concerns they may have.
 Use tentative words such as "sometimes" and "perhaps" rather than "always" and "never":
these allow the other person to avoid argument by saying that "always" is not strictly true.
 Keep your emotions under control.
 At the end, Check understanding: "Does what I've said make sense to you?" and summarise what you've agreed.
 Talk openly about your own concerns if necessary.

 Include positive comments. The praise sandwich can be an effective way to give criticism to someone without
alienating them:
1. First make a positive statement to the person: "I think you are really trying your best"
2. Then the criticism "But you need to structure your essay more logically".
3. Make another positive statement to finish "However it's a very good first attempt"

Any fool can criticize, condemn, and complain - and most fools do.
There are two types of people who don't say much: those who are quiet and those who talk a lot.
You can close more business in two months by becoming interested in other people than you can in two years by trying
to get people interested in you.
Dale Carnegie
 If you are recieving feedback youself, try to accept it in a positive and non-defensive manner.

33
Giving Praise

 Tell people something they have done that you like or what you like about them.
 Give them thanks if they have done something for you. Even a simple thank you can make a big difference.
 Give encouragement. If someone is not sure that they are able to do something, give them encouragement if
you think they can do it.
 Describe positive behaviour and it's effect in concrete terms "I really appreciate how you took the time to ...."
 Respond to praise by thanking the person.

Helpful feedback Unhelpful feedback

Is concrete and specific. It says precisely what the other person is Is vague and abstract. It makes the person angry
doing wrong e.g. "Your CV is 3 pages long, you need to reduce because the person is not told how they can
this to two pages." change things.

It talks about actions and says what people are doing rather Labels people: "You're stupid"
than what they are e.g. "You dance really artistically" not "You're
fantastic."

Makes "I" statements instead of giving blame or praise: "I felt Just blames or praises rather than being specific
angry when you spilt the tea" not "You're a clumsy idiot!"

Is given immediately: not hours or days later when neither of May be delayed: by the time it is given, the
you can remember what happened. person may have forgotten what you are talking
about.

Apologising.

Being able to say sorry if you have done something wrong, but in an assertive rather than a passive way.

A study at the University of Utah found that if you ask someone why he is friendly with someone else, he’ll say it is
because he and his friend share similar attitudes. But if you actually quiz the two of them on their attitudes, you’ll find out
that what they actually share is similar activities. We’re friends with the people we do things with, as much as we are
with the people we resemble. We don’t seek out friends, in other words. We associate with the people who occupy the
same small, physical spaces that we do.

Malcolm Gladwell: The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference

Good conversations

Researchers at the University of Arizona & Washington University tracked conversations of 79 students. They
assessed how many conversations were trivial and how many substantive, based on whether the information
exchanged was banal: “Hot today isn't it?” or more serious: “I'm really worried about her relationship with
him ...”.
The happiest subjects spent 70% longer talking than the unhappiest ones, which suggests that “the mere time a
person spends in the presence of others is a good predictor of the person’s level of happiness”. The happiest
participants also had twice as many substantive conversations and only a third as much small talk as those who
were least content.
The authors suggest that adding five substantive conversations to your weekly social calendar could boost
your spirits dramatically. “Just as self-disclosure can instill a sense of intimacy in a relationship, deep
conversations may instill a sense of meaning in the interaction partners.”
 Should be two way with both parties equally involved and interested. It is a shared experience. It is a
partnership like a dance: you respond to each other's movements and are both winners.
 Build them around respect: treat other people the way you want to be treated yourself. The atmosphere should
feel comfortable: like plants, conversations need good ground to take root and flourish.

34
  Talk about mainly positive things. People who talk about good news tend to cheer people up whereas people
who always talk in negatives tend to depress the people they are talking to! Obviously there must be a balance,
as sometimes we must talk about unhappy events, but make sure you don't do this too much. You wion't go far
wrong if you use the old adage: "If you don't have anything nice to say, don't say anything at all!"
 There should be a willingness to be open on both sides. Each person has the opportunity to express their point
of view and feelings. Relationships develop through conversations where we open up and exchange details to
create closeness.
 Always address someone by their first name if you know this. It shows that you are treating them as an
individual.
 A good conversation makes a difference; something useful happens and it has a satisfying conclusion.
 Nod your head from time to time to encourage the speaker.
 Leave spaces: stay silent for a few seconds. Don't talk for too long: our attention only lasts a few minutes before
we need a break. Cut your story into bite sized chunks to allow breathing space.
 Make descriptions specific: don't generalise or use clichés. Be precise and concrete.
 Ask the speaker to elaborate on major points.
 Regularly summarising can improve the quality and accuracy of your conversations. Feed brief summaries back
into the conversation.
 When starting conversations show that you value the other person's attention: "I'd really like your opinion
about ....."

Bad conversations

 We make guesses and assumptions rather than listening properly. Assumption is the enemy of good
communication; we assume that the other person is just like us. Avoid prejudice and presumption. Similarities
between people make communication possible, but differences make it worthwhile.
 We score points off each other and apply pressure.
 Our opinions and feelings are denied: we feel under attack, ignored, patronised, put down and threatened.

Progression of conversations with people you don't know

The fundamentals of conversation haven't changed much in 200 years. Even then there was a progression from
small talk to more serious topics:
"The hindrance thrown in the way of a very speedy intimacy .... prevented their doing more than going
through the first rudiments of an acquaintance, by informing themselves how well the other liked Bath, how
much she admired its buildings and surrounding country, whether she drew, or played, or sang, and whether
she was fond of riding on horseback."
Northanger Abbey by Jane Austen
Begin with light topics such as the weather and later move onto more serious topics.
1. Light conversation/small talk
2. Humour
3. Friendly gossip
4. Affection
5. Support
6. Problem solving
7. Discussing deep subjects
Managing turn-taking when talking to another person
1. First the speaker makes eye contact
2. The speaker then looks away whilst speaking but makes eye contact from time to time to see whether listener
wants their turn to speak
3. If the listener doesn't want to speak they will nod or break eye contact or say something like " uh huh" or
"yes"
4. If the listener wants to to take their turn to speak they will look the speaker in the eye or lean forward or
perhaps raise their finger in the air

Research found that what you say about others reveals as much about about you as the person you are
35
 describing. A person's tendency to describe other people in positive terms is an important indicator of the
positivity of the person's own personality.
Students who rate their peers positively were found to be trustworthy, nice, enthusiastic, happy, kind-
hearted, courteous, capable and emotionally stable. They reported greater life satisfaction, less depression,
better grades and were more liked by others. They were seen as being agreeable and conscientious. Women
tended to rate others more positively than men.
Those with negative opinions of others were more apt to be disagreeable, antisocial and narcissistic and
were more likely to be depressed and to have personality disorders.
“You stand to learn a number of things about a person from just observing whether the person describes others
positively or not. Your words could reveal a lot about your own personality traits.” said Dustin Wood,
assistant psychology professor.
Dustin Wood, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2010; vol 99: pp 174-190.
Here are answers to the sort of question you might get on application forms or at interview to test your
communication skills.

EVIDENCE FOR SPEAKING SKILLS

Joining a campus drama group.

Getting involved in a debating society.
Seminars
Working as a receptionist in a vacation job

Can you give me an example of a time when you have had to argue your case and convince another person of its
merits?

CONTEXT
I had a lot of trouble managing my finances during my first year at University. I ignored the first couple of
letters from the bank manager but eventually I had to meet her to explain the situation and persuade her to let
me run quite a large overdraft until the end of the academic year.
ACTION:
Before I went to see the bank manager, I drew up a cash flow forecast to show how I would economise through
the rest of the year & how much I would still need to spend on essentials. I also found a job in a pub for two
evenings a week.
RESULT:
The bank manager was very impressed with my figures and let me have a larger overdraft than I'd expected!
With my part-time job and another job in the summer vacation I managed to pay off the overdraft by the start of
my second year. I won't say that I've never been in debt since because its quite hard to manage as a student, but
I've never let my finances get out of control again.

How have you used your communication skills to persuade others to follow your lead?

CONTEXT
I have been involved with the Parent-Teacher Association at the local primary school since my elder son first
started there. The PTA organises a number of fund-raising events which have involved me in persuading people
to buy raffle tickets, display posters in shop windows, donate prizes, etc. Three years ago, the PTA produced a
book to mark the school's 25th anniversary and, as a member of the editorial committee, I helped to decide on
the content and format of this book.
ACTION
The school governors wanted an "official" history, but I represented the PTA in arguing that a collection of
reminiscences of past pupils would be more readable and saleable. This was agreed and we then contacted ex-
pupils through mailshots based on old school registers and features in the local newspaper and on local radio.
The response was excellent and the only problem was in sifting and editing the letters we were sent.
I then negotiated with local printers to find the best quote and
RESULT
persuaded local shops of all kinds (not just booksellers) to sell the publication.

See our competencies page for more about how to answer these types of question.
36
 Communication Skills: Writing
Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man.
Francis Bacon
The Recruitment and Employment Commission (REC) says that around half of all CVs received by
recruitment consultants contain spelling or grammatical errors. Candidates aged between 21 and 25 are
most likely to make these mistakes and graduates in this age group are, surprisingly, twice as likely to make
mistakes as those who did not go on to university.
http://careers.guardian.co.uk/cv-mistakes
Even something as basic as the name of an employer, or an
individual recruiter, is often spelled incorrectly. The former
Graduate Recruitment Manager at City law firm Mayer Brown
found that 20% of applicants got the firm’s name wrong (one
hopes that these people did not also apply to another law firm
called Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher & Flom (UK) LLP!).
Your covering letter is an important part of your job application,
as it demonstrates your writing style better than your CV (which
is usually more brief and factual). For advice on writing a
covering letter see
www.kent.ac.uk/careers/cv/coveringletters.htm
Written Communication involves expressing yourself clearly, using language with precision; constructing a
logical argument; note taking, editing and summarising; and writing reports.

There are three main elements to written communication

 structure (the way the content is laid out)
 style (the way it is written)
 content (what you are writing about)
Structure and layout can be relatively quickly learnt but learning how to write good quality content takes much
longer.
Structuring
A good structure will help you to express yourself more clearly, whether in a dissertation, an essay, a job
application letter or a CV. The following tactics may help you to structure your writing:
 Clarify your thoughts and the purpose of your communication before you start writing. In business
communications, clarity is more important than style.
 Identify the key points, facts and themes
 Decide on a logical order for what you have to say
 Compose a strong introduction and ending. The first will make an immediate and positive impression on the
reader; the second will remain in their mind after they have finished reading
 Use short paragraphs and sentences rather than long, rambling ones. Keep to one idea per paragraph and put
your point in the first line, then add the supporting information.
 Help key points to stand out by the use of headings, sub-headings and bullet points. This will allow your reader
to quickly scan your message for the main points.

Writing in a style appropriate to the audience

All good communicators should think about their readers:

"A single spelling mistake can cut online sales in half."

37
A study by the University of Hertfordshire on over 500 companies found that poor spelling or grammar
alienated 77% of the companies surveyed.
The greatest attractors for employers were relevant work experience (46%), followed by a "good work ethic"
(43%).
 How much information and detail will they need?
 Should you use specialist terms or should you “translate” these to make yourself understood by a generalist
reader?
 How formal or informal should your writing be?
For example:
 A scientific paper aimed at an audience of non-scientists would have to be written in simpler and less technical
language.
 A report in the Financial Times would be written in a very different style from one covering the same issue in the
Sun
 A lawyer giving advice to a client would not go into the same amount of details as to legal precedents and
arguments as a law student would when writing an academic essay.
 Emails sent with job applications should be treated more formally than emails to friends and family!
"Bad writers, and especially scientific, political, and sociological writers, are nearly always haunted by the
notion that Latin or Greek words are grander than Saxon ones, and (use) unnecessary words like expedite,
ameliorate, predict, extraneous, deracinated, clandestine, subaqueous."

Simplicity:
 The four basic premises of writing are clarity, brevity, simplicity, and humanity. William Zinsser
 Beauty of style and harmony and grace and good rhythm depend on simplicity. Plato
 Simplicity is the final achievement. After one has played a vast quantity of notes and more notes, it is simplicity
that emerges as the crowning reward of art. Chopin
 Hard writing makes easy reading. Easy writing makes hard reading. William Zinsser
 I am sorry for the length of this letter, but I did not have the time to write a short one. Blaise Pascal
In other words writing improves in proportion to the amount of effort put in.

As a careers adviser, I can tell within 30 seconds if a CV has been worked on for 1 hour or 10 hours!
See our page on simplicity in CVs
George Orwell

Checklist
Look at a piece of writing you have had to do (i.e. an essay, report or job application) and check it against the following
points.
Structure (the way the content is laid out)
 Is the layout clear and easy to follow?
 Do headings stand out (e.g. are they in a larger font size)?
 Is the information arranged in a logical sequence with a beginning (introduction), middle, and end (conclusion)?
 Does the introduction clearly state the subject and purpose?
 Does it briefly summarise the content?
Style (the way it is written)
 Does it look neat, and elegant?
 Is it concise, with an exact use of words and economy of style?
"If in doubt, cut it out!". Learn to be laconic!
For example instead of saying forward planning, just say planning - there is no such thing as backward planning!
Words such as very, just, quite, perhaps, maybe and really should all be removed ( see "10 Words to Cut From Your
Writing")
 Is is simple, direct and lucid? (See table on right)
For example a bureaucrat would write:
38
 Political organisation administered directly via the populace, intended for the employment of the general community,
on behalf of each and every one of the citizens of the nation.
Abraham Lincoln wrote:
Government of the people, by the people, for the people.
See "Flush the buzzwords" for more about this
 Are paragraphs too long?
Paragraphs of less than 10 lines are easier to read.
 Is a blank line left between paragraphs to aid clarity?
 Are sentences too long? A sentence should contain just one idea.

Use single words rather than clichés:

Let us have an end to such phrases as these: "it is also important to bear in mind the following considerations" .... "or
consideration should be given to the possibility of carrying into effect". Most of these woolly phrases are mere padding,
which can be left out altogether, or replaced by a single word.
Churchill
Some Kent student examples of how not to do it:
Within the workplace arena = at work
At this point in time = now
In addition to the aforementioned = also
Acquainted with = told
Effective practitioner = teacher
 Sentences with more than 30 words should normally be split.
 Is the first sentence interesting/ Does it draw the reader in?
 Have you avoided unnecessary jargon?
 Is the style suitable for the intended audience?
A scientific report aimed at an audience of non-scientists would have to be written in simpler and more jargon free
language.
 Are bulleted lists used where appropriate?
 Have you used short, concrete, familiar words rather than long, obscure, complex words?
 Use the active words where possible rather than the passive voice? "It is recommended ...." should be replaced by
"We recommend" as this is simpler and more direct
 Have you kept wordy phrases to a minimum?
 Have you avoided repetition?
 The Plain English Campaign recommends
sans serif fonts (e.g. Arial, Verdana) such as this, as clearer and easier to read than
serif fonts (e.g. Times New Roman, Garamond) such as this.
Content (what you are writing about)

Using language with precision

Correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
Use your spell checker but don’t rely on it completely: a spell-checker failed to pick up the following errors:
 administrator in a busty office
 I have all the right qualities to make an excellent manger
 I have a long-standing interest in pubic relations
 I attended a fist aid course with St. John Ambulance
 Studied for an A-level in Art & Design at Canterbury Collage
 In my spare time I enjoy hiding my horse
 I was responsible for sock control
 I hope to hear from you shorty
“We receive standardised letters from graduates which show no thought… They use text speak in covering
letters...” Graduate Recruiter
39
  Have you carefully checked the spelling and punctuation?
 Have you thought through in advance what you want to say?
 Have you a clear objective?
 Have you listed the essential points you wish to make?
 Have you made these points clearly?
 Have you developed your argument in a logical way?
 Have you allowed detail to obscure the main issues?
 Is the content positive and constructive?
 Have you shown an interest in the reader by writing with warmth, sensitivity and friendliness?
 Have you edited it through several revisions, honing the text until it is just right?
 Have you left it overnight if possible: your mind will assimilate it better and you will come back with a fresh
view.
The writing rules of George Orwell
 Never use a long word where a short one will do.
 If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
 Never use the passive voice (e.g. "Bones are liked by dogs") where you can use the active voice ("Dogs like
bones").
 Never use jargon if you can think of an everyday equivalent.

"Cut every page you write by one third". Hillary Mantel, author of Wolf Hall

How will employers assess your written communication skills?

Your very first contact with a prospective employer is likely to be in writing. When employers read application
forms, CVs and covering letters they are not just looking at WHAT you have to say about yourself, your
skills and your experience but also at HOW you say it.
Application Forms
Application forms often ask you to write a piece of text in response to questions such as the following:
 "Please write about yourself in no more than 4000 characters [approx. 750 words].
 You may wish to mention any posts of responsibility held at school or subsequently, any regular employment or
other work experience, any sporting or other achievements and any particular interests and personal qualities
which are relevant). Please also state briefly why you are making this application”
 Describe a time you were faced with a particularly difficult situation or problem. What did you do? (200 words)
 What are your interests and hobbies? What have you contributed and what do you get out of them? (no word
limit, but this is the only question on one A4 page of a paper form!)

EVIDENCE FOR WRITING SKILLS YOU COULD USE ON AN APPLICATION FORM

o Writing up a project or dissertation
o Writing for the student newspaper
o Writing a report for a course placement
o Essays, dissertations, project reports
o Secretary of student society
o Publicity materials for a charity
o Letter to raise sponsorship for an event

The strongest evidence will be the quality of the spelling and grammar on your application form, covering
letter and CV. If these are full of spelling mistakes, sloppy grammar and poor presentation you are likely to be
judged as having poor writing skills, whereas if your English is lucid, concise and to the point it will make a
strongly positive impression.
Your English GCSE grade may also be taken into account here and larger organisations may give you a
VERBAL REASONING TEST
See our competencies page for more about how to answer questions about your skills.

40
Structuring your answers, and choosing your words, carefully will help you to answer these questions
effectively.
Where you have a very tight word limit, it is essential to be very concise in your answers and to avoid any non-
relevant information.
Where you have a lot of space to fill, avoid the temptation to go into a lot of unnecessary detail simply in order
to fill the page! Select what you are going to say, break down your answer into shorter paragraphs to make it
easier for the recruiter to read and structure it into a coherent narrative.
There is further information about tackling application-form questions at
www.kent.ac.uk/careers/applic.htm
Where written communication is the most important part of the job, for example in journalism, public relations
or technical writing, you may also be asked to submit a piece of written work along with your application.
Always send something that is relevant in style and content to the employer – academic essays and dissertations
are unlikely to be the best example of your writing style in this situation!
Have your spell checker set to the correct language. These pages are written in British English rather than
American English and there are subtle differences between the two. For example, UK English uses an s rather
than a z in words such as summarise and realise whereas US English uses z (summarize, realize). For more
about these differences see our spelling test
At the interview or assessment centre stage
There may be further tests of your written communication skills such as:
In-tray/In-box exercises.
These are a form of role play in which you will be given a selection of letters, emails and reports which
somebody doing the job might find in their in-tray or e-mail inbox first thing in the morning. Items may need a
response such as drafting a reply to a customer complaint, writing a report, delegating tasks to colleagues or
recommending action to superiors. For advice on handling these exercises, see
www.kent.ac.uk/careers/interviews/intray.htm
Case studies
“We like to include a written test as it gives candidates an opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge and
understanding of the work by giving them a case study and then asking them to pull out the main issues, such as
risk, analysis and planning ideas, legislative framework etc. You should never be tested on anything that is not
included in the person specification for the job”.
(Social work recruiter)
“You will be presented with a file of papers which provide information from different sources on three fictitious
projects, each of which is being considered by the government as a solution to a specific problem. Your task is
to analyse the papers and prepare a note which builds a balanced and convincing case for one of the three
projects. To do this you will need to compare and contrast the options, using the stated criteria, and explain
convincingly the reasons for your recommendation”.
(Civil Service Fast Stream)
“I was given 15 minutes to read through what the employer described as “the world’s worst-written press
release” (a fictitious example!), mark it up and note the mistakes.”
(Marketing candidate)
“You will have 30 minutes to read the exercise briefing materials and prepare a written report on the given
subject. This exercise is designed to assess your ability to produce written reports to an appropriate standard.
Your report will be assessed on the basis of your application of structure; use of clear, concise language; and
logical and coherent presentation”.
(PricewaterhouseCoopers)
See www.kent.ac.uk/careers/interviews/Marstairs.htm for more about case studies as part of assessment centres.

The connection between health, personality and writing

In his book "The Secret Life of Pronouns" (Bloomsbury Press) Professor James W. Pennebaker describes how
the more people changed from using first-person singular pronouns (I, me, my) to using other pronouns (we,

41
you, he, they) in their writing, the better their health became. Their use of words reflected their psychological
state. He also found that people who had a traumatic experience and kept the experience a secret had more
health problems than people who talked openly. It was found that people who were asked to write about their
secrets had improved health. Also, using words associated with positive emotions is also beneficial to health.

Function words such as pronouns and articles require social skills to use properly and this is backed up by brain
research. Men were found to typically use articles ("a" and "the") more than women. Ignoring gender, people
who use "a" and "the" a lot tend to be more organised, emotionally stable, conscientious, politically
conservative and older.
Pennebaker found there were three main types of writing which related to personality:
 Formal writing can be stiff, humourless, and sometimes with a little arrogance. It contains lots of articles and
prepositions but few I-words, and adverbs. Those who score highest in formal thinking tend to be concerned
with status and power and to be less self-reflective. They drink and smoke less, tend to are more mentally
healthy, but also less honest. Older people tend to have more formal writing.
 Analytical writing is about making distinctions. Analytical writers tend to do well academically, be more honest,
and open to new experiences. They read more and tend to be more introspective.
 Narrative writers are storytellers. Narrative writing uses lots of function words involving people, the past-tense
and inclusive words such as "with" and "together". These writers tend to have good social skills, more friends
and are more outgoing.

Also see:
Vocabulary.com www.vocabulary.com/articles/chooseyourwords great way to learn new words. Choose your
words - over 125 easily confused words.

42
 How to find out your style of leadership
Innovation distinguishes between a leader and a follower
Steve Jobs (founder of Apple)

The following exercise will ask you 50 questions about your leadership style, and then give you an idea of your
typical styles.
If you are still a student you might like to answer the questions as you would if you were a manager in an
organisation, rather than the way you would if, for example, you were president of a student society where the
leadership style is more casual than that in most work environments.
Now make a note of your scores which can vary up to a maximum of 50 for each style. The highest scores
should suggest your most liked styles of leadership, and the lowest scores, the styles that are least like you.
Once you have finished the test go to the table below where you'll find explanations of each of the leadership
styles.

You can click on the chart below to go to relevant pages in our site:

Leadership involves

Management training is not new

The following is from the Tao Te Ching written in the 6th century BC
The best rulers are scarcely known by their subjects;
The next best are loved and praised;
The next are feared;
The next despised: they have no faith in their people and their people become unfaithful to them.
When the best rulers achieve their goals their subjects claim "We did it ourselves!"
Harry Selfridge quotes
o The boss drives his men; the leader coaches them.
o The boss depends upon authority; the leader on good will.
o The boss inspires fear; the leader inspires enthusiasm.
o The boss says 'I'; the leader, 'we.'
o The boss fixes the blame for the breakdown; the leader fixes the breakdown.
o The boss says 'Go'; the leader says 'Let's go!'
o The customer is always right.

 Being able to motivate & direct others

43
  Taking responsibility for the direction & actions of a team
 Setting objectives.
 Organising & motivating others.
 Taking the initiative
 Persevering when things are not working out.
 Taking a positive attitude to frustration/failure.
 Accepting responsibility for mistakes/wrong decisions.
 Being flexible: prepared to adapt goals in the light of changing situations.
How to become a leader
 Use initiative to act on opportunities. Become a leader before other people view you as one. Healthy
organisations reward those who take the lead, not just those with formal management roles.
 Take responsibility for own objectives: set priorities.
 Display a "can do" attitude even in demanding situations.. Try to solve problems, rather than to pass them on to
other people. First answer is ‘yes, I’ll make it happen’ .
 "Go the extra mile" when asked to do tasks. Go beyond your job description. Do work that gets you noticed.
 Show enthusiasm: this will be noticed and you will eventually be rewarded.
 Take ownership of problems: anticipate potential problems, take pre-emptive action and act quickly to resolve
problems.
 Introduce improvements to the way things are done.
 Develop innovative practices. Value innovative thinking.
 Learn new skills that will enhance capability.
 Common sense is not common!

44
Test results: explanations of the different styles of leadership
Style Authoritarian
Autocratic
Transactional: the
“transaction” is that the
Other names
organisation rewards (pays)
the team, in return for their
work & compliance.
Example Napoleon
High: telling, directing,
Amount of
controlling.
control
The leader has a lot of
power over team members &
has the right to reward good
performance or punish
members if they don't reach
the agreed standard.
They tell their team what
they want done & how
without often asking for
advice from team members.
What it Team members are given
involves little opportunity to make
suggestions, even if these
would be in the team's
interest.
It should normally only be
used occasionally
The focus is on short-term
tasks so it's more a a method
of managing rather a true
leadership style
Procedural
Task-orientated
Bureaucratic
Managerial
Also related to
authoritarian
Florence Nightingale
High: telling, directing,
controlling.
Work “by the book”:
team members follow
procedures precisely.
Focuses only on getting
the job done, & can be
quite autocratic.
Little thought given to the
well-being of team
members
Task Orientated vs
relationship orientated:
both procedural &
transformational leaders are
usually needed. "managers"
focus on tasks while
"leaders" focus on people.
Transformational
Charismatic leadership is very Democratic or Consulting
similar, where the leader
depends on his/her charisma
& energy to inspire staff.
Barack Obama
Medium: selling, reasoning,
persuading, delegating.
The leader inspires team with
their vision of what should
happen. They supply the main
goal, but allow members to
choose their own way of
reaching it.
The leader is totally focused
on organizing, supporting &
developing the team.
The leader is always looking
for ideas that move towards
the organisation’s vision.
Transformation leaders are
very visible, & spend lot of
time communicating.
Communication is the basis
for achievement by focusing
the group on the required
outcome. They don’t
necessarily lead from the
front, as they tend to delegate
responsibility.
Participative
Nelson Mandela
Medium: Low: advising, counseling,
selling, reasoning, persuadi participating, observing,
ng, consulting. joining.
Builds consensus through
participation: the leader
makes the final decision,
but the team to contribute
to the decision-making
process.
The leader asks the team's
opinions & uses these to
make decisions. The team is
kept informed & are allowed
to discuss & propose changes
to policy.
The leader can't know
everything: this is why you
employ skillful team
members.
This style is not a sign of
weakness, more a sign of
strength your team will
respect.
Laissez-faire
Delegative.
Servant: A leader who is not
formally recognized. Leads
just by meeting the needs of
the team. Whole team is
involved in decisions.
Mahatma Gandhi
Team members make the
decisions but leader is still
responsible for these.
Leader asks for the team's
opinions. Team is left to make
its own decisions which are
then sanctioned by the leader.
Leader participates in the
discussion as a normal team
member & agrees in advance
to carry out whatever decision
the group makes. Team
members are left to get on
with their tasks.
Effective if the leader
monitors what is being
achieved & regularly
communicates this back to the
team.
45
 Works well when you're
short on time, & team is
well motivated
For some routine &
When
unskilled tasks.
used
In a crisis.
With difficult employees.
Can achieve results quickly
In research done on this
groups were found to be
most productive under
autocratic, but if the leader
was absent work stopped.
Pros
Team doesn't gain from
creativity & knowledge of
members, so benefits of
teamwork are lost.
Staff can't improve their
job satisfaction& may
resent the way they are
Cons treated leading to high
absenteeism & staff turnover.
Serious limitations but still
much used. Sometimes
thought of as bullying but
this isn't a valid authoritarian
style.
Tasks requiring great This is the most common
attention to detail. modern leadership style.
Appropriate for work
involving safety risks such
as working with machinery
or where large sums of
money are involved.
Clearly defines the tasks
& the roles required.
Puts structures in place:
planning, organization &
monitoring is usually good.
The inflexibility & high
levels of control exerted
can demoralize team
members, & reduce the
organisation's ability to
react to changing
circumstances
Similar problems to
autocratic leadership:
difficulties in motivating
& retaining team
members.
Motivates the team to be
effective & efficient.
Tends to lead to good
teamwork & creative
collaboration.
The enthusiasm & energy of a
transformational leader is often
infectious.
Can communicate an
inspirational vision of the
future
Procedural &
transformational leadership
are symbiotic. The procedural
leaders (managers) ensure
routine work is done well, while
the transformational leaders
focus on initiatives that add
value. The transformational
leader focuses on the big
picture, but needs to be
surrounded by people who
take care of the details.
Taken to extremes, can lead to
failure to achieve the team's
goals.
When organisational
flexibility & a sense of
individual responsibility
is needed,
Where team working is
essential
When quality is more
important than speed or
productivity.
Mutual benefit: allows
members to feel part of the
team & leader to make
better decisions.
Members feel in control &
motivated to work hard.
Increases job satisfaction
by involving the team in
decisions. Helps to develop
team members' skills.
Most consistent in quality
& productivity
This style may result in
indecision, & some team
members may be left
feeling confused &
leaderless.
As participation takes time
things may happen more
slowly than with an
autocratic approach, but
often the end result is
better.
When you have confidence &
trust in your team.
Where team members are
experienced & skilled; they
can analyse the situation &
determine what needs to be
done & how to do it. (e.g.
team of research scientists).
Increasingly necessary in a
world where leaders achieve
power on the basis of their
ideals & values.
You can't do everything so
you have to set priorities &
delegate some tasks.
Often less effective in terms
of quality and productivity
than other methods.
Not good in competitive
situations.
Often happens naturally in
situations where managers are
not exerting sufficient control.
46
Using the appropriate style of leadership in differing circumstances
Leadership involves managing, coordinating and supervising, taking responsibility for people; directing,
organising and motivating them. A good leader will use a variety of styles of leadership according to the
situation whereas bad leaders tend to fall in to just one style. In practice, most leaders use both task-oriented
and people-oriented styles of leadership.

Managing a group project

 Have an overall plan with milestones
 Keep a daily or weekly action plan
 Allocate resources in advance
 Know the roles of the other team members
 Have an agenda for meetings
 Communicate: don't email if something is urgent
 Be organised (e.g. have a filing system for emails)
 Manage risks: plan for the worst case scenario.
 Review: think how you could improve next time

At university, a participative style may be most appropriate. Whereas a production manager in a factory may
need to use a procedural or authoritative style much or the time. So you need to take into account the nature
of the task.
A fire officer dealing with a serious fire may need to be authoritative, making instant decisions and barking
out commands, but when training staff, a participative style will be more effective.
Different individuals also require different styles. You may need to manage an intelligent, competent and
trustworthy team member by using transformational techniques whereas someone who is lazy and unreliable
may require an authoritarian style.
Think about:
 The skills, experience and attitudes of your team members.
 Whether the work is routine or innovative.
 You own preferred or natural style.
What makes a charismatic leader?
Professor Richard Wiseman gave the following tips
 Keep up good eye contact
 Develop a genuine smile.
 Have an open body posture
 Keep your hands apart with palms forwards or upwards and away from your face when talking.
 Stand up straight but be relaxed.
 Let people know they matter and you enjoy being around them. Nod when they talk, briefly touch them on the
upper arm.
 In groups move around to appear enthusiastic, lean slightly forward and look at everyone in the group from
time to time.
 Keep your messages simple to understand. Be slightly controversial and move beyond status quo
 When speaking, be clear, fluent, forceful and articulate, evoke imagery, use an upbeat tempo, occasionally slow
for tension or emphasis

Rewards such as bonuses provide a short term boost to performance but ultimately reduce long term
motivation. Performance related pay and the carrot and stick approach have little or no long term value in
motivating staff.
Research from the Institute of Leadership & Management found that few employees said that bonuses
motivated them to work harder.
According to those surveyed the most important motivators were:
 59% felt enjoyment of the job was the most important motivator
 49% how much they are paid.

47
  42% getting on with colleagues was the best motivator
 22% being treated fairly by their managers
 22% autonomy: how much control they have over their work
 Only 13% of employees said that bonuses motivated them to work harder.
Getting regular feedback, allowing staff autonomy in their role, the opportunity to innovate and
improved office environments also helped
Good managers are key motivators who can make a real difference to their teams. The ‘five fundamentals’ of
good management: coaching, giving feedback, listening, rewarding and recognising success and
performance management. Something as simple as hearing ‘you've done a really good job on ....’ can strongly
boost to an employee’s confidence, deliver a sense of pride and satisfaction and encourage them to put more
into their work.
Two thirds (61%) of employees said their workplace had an appraisal system, but a quarter of respondents
(25%) think that appraisals are performed poorly by their manager. Appraisals were less effective at driving the
performance and motivation among female employees.
The only way to really learn leadership is by doing it!
Exercises like this one get you thinking about different ways of leading, and about attributes that make a good
leader .... but they are no substitute for reality. Get involved in leading groups, whether is be leading a group
project, chairing a student society, captaining a sports team or even being a playscheme helper. Carefully
observe what is working for you and learn from your mistakes.

Bad Boss
 is dogmatic and inflexible
 is subjective
 is feared
 is self serving
 sticks strictly to the "company line."
 communicates to impress their superiors
Good Boss
 delegates
 trusts staff with minimal supervision
 is supportive and encourages initiative
 encourages staff to work together towards common goals.
 has honesty and integrity
 their motivation not just based on gain for themselves or power as an end in itself
 has self confidence
 has belief in the abilities of others
 has sensitivity to others feelings
 is fair towards all
 has drive: this encompasses achievement, motivation, ambition, initiative, energy, tenacity and resilience
 has relevant skills and knowledge
 has a positive mood
"Keep away from people who try to belittle your ambitions. Small people always do that, but the really great make you
feel that you, too, can become great."
Mark Twain
Unlike top management at Enron, exemplary leaders reward dissent. They encourage it. They understand that,
whatever momentary discomfort they experience as a result of being told they might be wrong, it is more than offset by
the fact that the information will help them make better decisions.
Warren Bennis
"He tells you what you want to hear, he tries to talk you up, he tries to give you the belief and you go there to do the
work for him. He knows what I can do. Before the game he told me 'King, listen to me, do your magic - you are the best'.
When you hear that from your coach, you want to do something for him."
Kanu talking about Harry Rednapp to BBC Sport
You don't manage people, you manage things. You lead people. We went overboard on management and forgot about
leadership. It might help if we ran the MBAs out of Washington.
Grace Hopper

48
"A chief is a man who assumes responsibility. He says, 'I was beaten'; he does not say 'My men were beaten.'"
Antoine de Saint-Exupery
EXAMPLE ANSWERS FOR APPLICATION FORMS AND INTERVIEWS
Can you give me an example of a time when you have had to co-ordinate the work of other people?
CONTEXT
I was Social Secretary of the European Society on campus. We decided to mark Europe Day last May by
organising a programme of social and cultural events representing all the EU member countries. I had to find
people willing to take part: some were members of our own Society but I also approached other societies on
campus, such as the French Society, and had to seek out individuals to make sure that all 15 countries were
represented.
ACTION
Once I had a full complement of people willing to contribute I could draw up a programme of events for the
day and we held regular meetings to monitor progress and iron out any problems.
RESULT
On the day there were 15 different events running from a French breakfast with coffee and croissants through
films, lectures and musical recitals through to a late-night disco with music from all over Europe. Several
hundred students took part in them and the European Society signed up over 30 new members
Describe a time when you have managed your own performance or the performance of others to achieve
results. What did you do?
CONTEXT
When I volunteered at an Oxfam Charity Shop, there were very few employees. I was therefore given a large
amount of responsibility from my first day.

ACTION
As I was often the only employee in the actual shop, it was necessary for me to manage the maintenance of the
store – as new volunteers were recruited it became my duty to train them in a variety of tasks. I had to learn to
delegate responsibility and learn how to handle occasionally difficult customers with tact.

RESULT
I learned a lot about how to take responsibility and it gave me confidence that I could enter a management role
at some stage in the future.
See our Competencies Page for other examples
Find out more about the leadership styles used here
 Burns Transactional and transformational theories http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_MacGregor_Burns
 Kurt Lewin http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Lewin#Leadership_climates defined the three main styles:
authoritarian, participative or democratic and delegative or free rein
Interesting links
 LInkedIn Article How Great Leaders Communicate
 Valve: How going boss-free empowered the games-maker www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-24205497
 Anatomy of world's top CEOs uncovered but Jobs goes against the grain

49
 Striving for Excellence
We don’t get a chance to do that many things, and every one should be really excellent. Because this is our life.
Life is brief, and then you die, you know? So this is what we’ve chosen to do with our life.
Steve Jobs
Striving for excellence is an important part of professionalism in any job. It involves trying to put quality into
everything you do, and this attitude tends to separate the achievers, who make rapid strides in their career from
others. Here are some of the attributes that these individuals
tend to have.
"Excellence is about stepping outside the comfort zone, "Develop persistence: don't take no for an
training with a spirit of endeavour, and accepting the answer".
inevitability of trials and tribulations. Progress is built, in
effect, upon the foundations of necessary failure. This is the advice of a creative director at a
top advertising agency.
This is the essential paradox of expert performance. When these
conditions are in place, learning takes off, knowledge escalates, and When he graduated from university a few
performance soars. You are on the path to excellence." years before he found he had missed all the
deadlines for the graduate training schemes
Taken from "Bounce", by Michael Syed and after lots of rejections he got his first job
Initiative in advertising by "camping" in the reception
of an agency.
 Use initiative to act on opportunities. Become a leader
before other people view you as one. Healthy organisations He arrived early in the morning and asked the
reward those who take the lead, not just those with formal receptionist if he could talk to one of the
management roles. managers about the possibility of getting
some work experience with the agency. The
 Take responsibility for own objectives: set priorities. receptionist said that this wasn't possible, so
 Display a "can do" attitude even in demanding situations.. he sat down in the reception area and refused
Try to solve problems, rather than to pass them on to other to leave until someone saw him.
people. First answer is ‘yes, I’ll make it happen’ .
Finally at 4.30 p.m. one of the managers took
 "Go the extra mile" when asked to do tasks. Go beyond pity on him and came down. The manager
your job description. Do work that gets you noticed. was so impressed with his determination that
he offered him a week's work experience and
 Show enthusiasm: this will be noticed and you will
later gave him a job.
eventually be rewarded.
 Take ownership of problems: anticipate potential
problems, take pre-emptive action and act quickly to resolve problems.
 Introduce improvements to the way things are done.
 Develop innovative practices. Value innovative thinking.
 Learn new skills that will enhance capability.
 Common sense is not common!

‘A positive, can-do attitude is a real selling point for graduates. This doesn't have to be loud and gregarious,
more a quiet confidence, willing to work hard to achieve goals which accord with the company’s objectives.
Pride in your own work and a desire to give of your best will
also go a long way.’
"A chief is a man who assumes responsibility. He
says, 'I was beaten'; he does not say 'My men were
beaten.'"
Antoine de Saint-Exupery

50
Employer Concepts of Graduate Employability
"If you wish to be promoted, you must be
prepared to step outside your comfort zone"
Inspiring, positive, determined! "Keep away from people who try to belittle your
ambitions. Small people always do that, but the
 Give assistance to others. Respond positively to requests
really great make you feel that you, too, can
for help.
become great."
 Clarify the way forward for others.
Mark Twain
 Empower others: great people help others to become
great whereas weak individuals try to hold others back.
Give someone a fish and they will eat for a day.
Teach someone to fish and they will sit in a
 Recognise that each person has a unique perspective. boat all day daydreaming.
 Have self confidence and inspire confidence in team Practice isn't the thing you do when you're good. It's
members. Believe the team will be successful. the thing you do that makes you good.
 Remain self-motivated even when things are going Malcolm Gladwell
wrong.
 Recognise and draw attention to contributions from team members and give positive feedbac
 Maintain networks of colleagues. Get to know as many people in your organisation and industry as you can.
 Learn from your mistakes: they are just as useful as your successes
 Watch others who do their job really well and try to emulate what makes them successful.
Quality and professionalism
 Check the quality of your own work.
 Set out a clear vision of what is required for success.
 Compare the risks and benefits. Take calculated risks
 See the bigger picture.
 Give priority to customers.
Negative performers
 Are content to leave performance at existing levels: how
little interest in developing their skills further. Reed Recruitment asked the employers they
dealt with a question: "If you had to choose
 Disown responsibility for their own tasks. between a candidate with 'the desired
 Distance themselves from responsibility for the team's mindset' who lacked the complete skill set for
performance. the job and a candidate with the complete
skill set, but without the desired mind set,
 Give up in the face of obstacles and don’t demonstrate a which would you choose?"
sense of personal responsibility for delivery.
The candidate with the desired mindset was
 Take a narrow focus, taking decisions in the interest of chosen by 96% of the employers. "If we get
their own team or self the mindset right, it is more likely to lead to
 Are risk adverse: undermine confidence by focusing on skills being developed as a consequence"
difficulties, problems and obstacles. said Reed
 Act as if ‘knowledge is power’: reluctant to pass on their
skills to others
 Don't involve team members where appropriate.
 React to symptoms rather than trying to understand the underlying causes.
 Are resistant to change
 Avoid difficult conversations and confrontation.

51
HAVE YOU GOT A POSITIVE OR A
When I first started my job I always used to
NEGATIVE OUTLOOK?
ask my manager about every little thing:
 When optimists encounter a setback they are less "How do I do this?"; "What do I say to this
likely than pessimists to just give up. customer?".
Suzanne Segerstrom, Professor of Psychology.
University of Kentucky.
After a while I learned to be a solver of
problems rather than a conveyor of problems
 Optimists tend to respond to disappointments to my manager: "We had this problem, but I
such as being turned down for a job by managed to solve it rather than troubling you
formulating a plan of action and asking others for with it", consequently making her life easier.
help and advice; whereas pessimists tend just to
give up. It's no coincidence that shortly afterwards,
Michael F. Scheier, Carnegie-Mellon University. she recommended me for promotion:
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. everyone wants to recruit a problem solver,
not a problem- bringer!
 People who have an optimistic mind set achieve
more positive outcomes than those with a By blaming other people or events for what
negative mind set. happens in your life, you give your power to
others. Try to look for a positive
 People who believed that they could achieve a interpretation of any situation or the actions
certain goal did so in 80% of cases whereas
of individuals if you can.
people who did not believe they could achieve
their goal only achieved it 20% of the time. By taking responsibility, you take control
Optimists were found to put in more effort, were over your circumstances; action generates the
more persistent and acted more creatively to find impetus for further action. If you argue for
ways to overcome problems your limitations ("I can't do this") you will
 A study of salesmen found that salesmen who had
get to keep them!
a more optimistic outlook sold 37% more If you show enthusiasm for something, good
insurance in their first two years on the job than things tend to follow.
did those with the pessimistic view.
 Pessimistic children do less well on achievement tests. It is not that they are less bright: they give up when
things get frustrating.
Martin Seligman, University of Pennsylvania. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
 Optimists handle stress better than do pessimists. Have a sense of well-being and improved health and have
better coping skills during hardships
How to turn a negative outlook into a positive one.
 Cultivate a "can do" approach. Take greater responsibility for your decisions and actions. Don't pull yourself
down: focus on what you can do rather than what you can't. Don't say anything to yourself that you wouldn't
say to anyone else. Use positive language: praise and show appreciation of others.
 Take regular exercise: this will release endorphins - brain chemicals which make you feel good.
 80% of the things that we worry about never happen and most of those that do we learn how to cope with.
Worry is about the future, not the present. When
a problem arrives we learn to cope with it.
Excellence is not a skill. It is an attitude.
We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence,
therefore, is not an act but a habit.
"When one door of happiness closes, another
opens; but often we look so long at the closed
door that we do not see the one which has been
opened for us."
Helen Keller
"If you think you can or you think you can't,
you're absolutely right."

52
  Compare yourself with other less well off than
yourself rather than those better off. For example Henry Ford
with people in developing countries who have "The man who never makes a mistake is the man
nothing but are still often cheerful whereas many who never does anything."
rich people in Western countries are unhappy.
Theodore Roosevelt
 Count your blessings. Each day write down at
least three things to be grateful for. People who "Think of failures as results"
have done this have found an increase in Thomas Edison.
happiness. Remember what you like about
yourself. Looking at the glass as half empty rather "Be persistent. Nothing in this world takes the
than half full can make you focus on trivial place of persistence."
problems. Calvin Coolidge
To every disadvantage there is a positive
advantage: remember that challenge =
opportunity. Make a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats).
 Action generates the impetus for further action. The more you take control of your circumstances, the better
you will feel.
 Resilience involves reacting positively to negative outcomes. Learning to cope with adversity makes you
stronger: helps in teaching us how to bounce back. The most successful people are often those who have had
the most failures: they are more adventurous and learn from their mistakes. If you have never had a failure, you
have never taken a risk. Failures should be thought of as opportunities for learning: you learn far more from
your failures than from your successes.
 Find a role model: read the biographies of people you admire.
 Neuro Linguistic Programming is another useful set of techniques. It provides step-by-step procedures to help
people achieve excellence.
 Strength for life Career Paths www.strength4life.com/careerpaths.php
The Placebo effect
Patients who get dummy pills (called placebos) often show clinical improvement. But in all trials to date, the
patients believed they were getting a real drug.
A recent study shows that placebos work, even when patients know they’re taking them. Doctors actually told
patients they were getting placebos. 80 patients with irritable bowel syndrome were told to take two sugar pills
daily. The bottle even had the word “placebo” printed on it. After three weeks, 60% of the patients taking
placebos reported relief from symptoms, compared to 35 percent
who had no treatment at all.
A couple of years ago I saw a Theology
graduate who had just got a Third. He
was rather upset about this as he had
expected better.
He was a really positive individual with a
warm personality who would go out of
his way to help anyone, and always put
his best into whatever he did (hence why
he was upset about his degree).
A few months later I met him in
Debenham's where he was working as a
sales assistant and I asked him how things
were going. He looked really happy, and
explained that he had just been accepted
for their graduate training scheme. His
manager had been so impressed by his
attitude and determination to "go the extra
mile" to do things well, that she had

53
Placebos work because the mind is very powerful: just thinking
you’re being treated can make you feel better. The very act of strongly recommended him for the
ministering to patients may have a positive effect. scheme

Here are answers to the questions you might get on

application forms or at interview to test this. See our competencies page for more information
on this

When have you risen to a challenge? Describe your role and any outcomes.
CONTEXT
When I was elected as social secretary of the volleyball club, the club had just suffered a drastic cut in funding
due to savings being implemented by the Students' Union and needed to raise funds for travel to fixtures and
new team kit. The committee held a brainstorming session and I suggested holding a 24-hour marathon
volleyball game. Players would be sponsored for every half-hour played and, when a player needed a break,
any student or staff member could join a team for a charge of £1 per ten minutes.
ACTION
As the chief organiser of this event I negotiated with the University, who allowed us to set up a court on the
lawn outside the Administration Building; persuaded people to sponsor us and to join in on the day, and
publicised it through the campus media and posters.
Two days before the event, a joking remark that our team captain should play in a gorilla suit led to a last-
minute search for fancy dress costumes and further negotiations with the Drama department and local costume
hire businesses.
RESULT
The match attracted considerable attention on campus - thanks McDonald's Performance Guidelines
largely to the gorilla suit plus the Viking, the vampire and other  Positive "can-do" attitude.
outfits, both loaned and created by the wearers - and raised £500. Encourages everyone to have the
same attitude when delegating &
When have you risen to a challenge? Describe your role and
being delegated to
any outcomes.
 High level of enthusiasm: evident to
CONTEXT
the customer that you enjoy the job.
The greatest challenge I have undertaken was my year out
teaching & traveling in Africa. I knew that I wanted a year out but  Treats all customers with respect
that I did not just want to travel but to share in the life of a country
 Accepts feedback on a positive &
& its people. Teaching gave me such an opportunity to put down
non-defensive manner
roots in a community but, as this was a voluntary programme, I
needed to raise £500 in order to take part in this project.  Smiling & open body language &
coaches others to do the same.
ACTION  Communicates job knowledge to
I did this by working very long hours in a factory over the summer others
to raise the funds that I needed. I planned my year by reading a
great deal about Tanzania, using websites to research the country  Leads by example
& speaking to Tanzanian students at the university. I also asked  Has great working relationships with
the organisation that arranged the placement to put me in touch other employees & assists those
with previous volunteers so that I could pick up tips from them as who need help willingly
to the life in Tanzania, the schools & what I should take with me.
Despite all this planning I still found that I needed to be very  Completes assigned tasks promptly
flexible & to adapt to teaching a class of 60 lively ten-year old & efficiently. Proactively completes
boys with few text books & even less in the way of scientific additional tasks without being asked
equipment. I had to adapt to this lack of resources & to bear in to do so.
mind that the pupils were learning English at the same time as  Accepts responsibilities willingly &
they were learning science. inspires team spirit with a positive
approach
RESULT
This experience was the most satisfying of my life.
Notable alumni of the University of Kent include:
54
  Sir David Akers-Jones - Former  Rebecca Lenkiewicz - playwright
acting Governor of Hong Kong,
1986/87  Mark Mardell - BBC North America Editor

 Michael Baigent - author  David Mitchell - writer (Cloud Atlas)

 Valerie Bloom – poet  Sir Hugh Orde OBE - Chief Constable of Northern Ireland

 Ivo H. Daalder Senior Fellow of the
Brookings Institution
 Alan Davies - English comedian and
actor
 Gavin Esler - BBC journalist and
author
 David Fulton - Cricketer, former
Captain of Kent CCC
 Lyn Gardner - Guardian theatre
critic
 Ellie Goulding - singer/songwriter
 Kazuo Ishiguro - writer (Remains of
the Day)
 William H. Kennedy – author
 Howard Read - Perrier nominated comedian
 Robert Wade – screenwriter
 Sarah Waters - (English & American Literature, 1987) is the
bestselling and award-winning author of Night Watch,
Fingersmith and Tipping the Velvet
 Tom Wilkinson OBE - actor, Oscar nominee
 Christopher Wrench - Shanter Publisher's Writer of the Year
2009
 Patrick Wright - journalist and author
 Charlotte Green, BBC newsreader (English, 1978) is heard by
millions on Radio 4's “Today” programme
 Shiulie Ghosh newsreader and correspondent (Law, 1989)
moved from ITN to launch the English-language channel of Al-
Jazeera International.

Quotes
 It's not what you've got, it's what you use that makes a difference. (Zig Ziglar)
 When you do more than what you are paid for, you will soon be paid more for what you do. (Zig Ziglar)
 Success means doing the best we can with what we have. Success is the doing, not the getting; in the trying, not
the triumph. Success is a personal standard, reaching for the highest that is in us, becoming all that we can be.
(Zig Ziglar)
 I am a great believer in luck, and I find the harder I work the more I have of it. (Stephen Leacock)
 All things are possible - except skiing through a revolving door.
 Some mistakes are too much fun to only make once.
 Luck is the crossroads where preparation meets opportunity.
 We grow the garden of our own reality with thought seeds. If we wish to grow flowers instead of weeds, we
must attend to our thoughts. Negative thoughts inhibit your power, generate stress and turn people away from
you.
 A pessimist complains about the noise when opportunity knocks.
 A bird in the hand is better than one just overhead.

The difference between winners and losers

Winners are part of the answer;
Losers are part of the problem.

Winners sees a solution to every problem;

Losers see a problem for every solution.
Winners have a plan;
Losers have an excuse.

55
Winners say, “Let me do it for you”;
Losers say, “That's not my job.”

Winners say, “It may be difficult but it is possible”;

Losers say, “It may be possible but it is too difficult.”

When winners make a mistake, they say, “I was wrong”;

When losers make a mistake, they say, “It wasn’t my fault.”

Winners say, “I must do something”;

Losers say, “Something must be done.”

Winners are a part of the team;

Losers are apart from the team.

Winners see the gain;

Losers see the pain.

Winners see possibilities;

Losers see problems.

Winners believe in win-win;

Losers believe for them to win someone has to lose.

Winners use hard arguments but soft words;

Losers use soft arguments but hard words.

Winners stand firm on values but compromise on petty things;

Losers stand firm on petty things but compromise on values.

Winners translate dreams into reality;

Losers translate reality into dreams.

Winners empower;
Losers control.

Winners are part of the solution;

Losers are part of the problem.

Winners are not afraid of losing;

Losers are afraid of winning.

Winners say, I was wrong;

Losers say, It was not my fault.

Winners make time;

Losers waste time.

Winners say, I'm good but not as good as I can be;

Losers say, I'm not as bad as a lot of other people.

Winners listen to what others say;

Losers wait until it's their turn to talk.

Winners catch others doing things right;

Losers catch others doing things wrong.
56
Winners learn from others;
Losers resent others

Winners see opportunities;

Losers see problems.

Winners say, There ought to be a better way;

Losers say, That's the way it's always been done.

Winners celebrate others;

Losers complain about others.

Winners expect success;

Losers expect failure
Winners do it;
Losers talk about doing it.

Winners say, I'll plan to do that;

Losers say, I'll try to do that.

Winners make it happen;

Losers let it happen.

Winners plan and prepare;

Losers hope for things to happen to them.

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 Determination
"Now remember, when things look bad and it looks like you're not gonna make it, then you gotta get mean. I
mean plumb, mad-dog mean. 'Cause if you lose your head and you give up then you neither live nor win. That's
just the way it is."
Josey Wales
Determination is a key attribute sought after by recruiters of
graduates and for many roles can be more important than sheer
intelligence. It is sometimes referred to as drive: "the
determination to get things done, to make things happen &
constantly to look for better ways of doing things." It comes sixth
in our list of the top ten skills that employers want.
It is assessed on application forms and at interview by asking you
questions abut when you faced up to a challenge or a significant
achievement in your life. Sometimes your interests can show
evidence of this: mountain climbing, marathon running or
major sporting achievements may strongly suggest the drive to
succeed, but also learning to play a musical instrument to grade
8 or to reach black belt in a martial art could also be evidence Mountains are climbed one step at a time!
for substantial determination. A vacation sales job in which you
substantially exceeded your targets could also be seen as evidence.
Determination is closely associated with resilience: the ability to bounce back from setbacks, rather than giving
up. When the going gets tough, the tough get going! Perseverance and persistence are also highly related.
We are more likely to persevere if we think talent is only peripheral to our future achievements. It
requires about 10,000 hours or 10 years of serious practice and sustained effort to get to the top in any sport
and the same applies also in the Arts and Sciences: a long persistence of deliberate effort is more important
than talent.

Determine that the thing can and shall be done, and then we shall find the way.
Abraham Lincoln
Nothing in this world can take the place of persistence. Talent will not; nothing is more common than
unsuccessful people with talent.
Genius will not; unrewarded genius is almost a proverb. Education will not; the world is full of educated
derelicts. Persistence and determination alone are omnipotent.
Calvin Coolidge
The man who succeeds above his fellows is the one who early in life discerns his object and towards that
object habitually directs his powers. Even genius itself is but fine observation strengthened by fixity of
purpose.
Edward Bulwer-Lytton
If I find 10,000 ways something won't work, I haven't failed. I am not discouraged, because every wrong
attempt discarded is often a step forward.
Thomas Edison

Commitment is what transforms a promise into reality.

Abraham Lincoln
Success is not final, failure is not fatal: it is the courage to continue that counts.
Churchill
I do not think that there is any other quality so essential to success of any kind as the quality of perseverance.
John D. Rockefeller
Genius is one percent inspiration, and ninety-nine percent perspiration.
Thomas Edison
"Some of the most successful people in the world are the ones who've had the most failures."
Barack Obama.
Develop success from failures. Discouragement and failure are two of the surest stepping stones to success.

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 Most of the important things in the world have been accomplished by people who have kept on trying when
there seemed to be no hope at all.
The successful man will profit from his mistakes and try again in a different way.
When fate hands you a lemon, make lemonade
Dale Carnegie.
Observing the lives of those who have mastered adversity have established goals and sought with all their
effort to achieve them. From the moment they decided to concentrate all their energies on a specific objective,
they began to surmount the most difficult odds.
Dr Ari Kiev
When the wind of change blows some build walls, the wise build windmills.
Chinese proverb
"Sometimes, when you fall, you fly."
Neil Gaiman
This Japanese proverb "Nana korobi ya oki" (literally: seven falls, eight getting up) means fall down seven
times and get up eight. This speaks to the Japanese concept of resilience. No matter how many times you get
knocked down, you get up again.
Daniel Garr - Presentation Zen
The basic difference between an ordinary man and a warrior is that a warrior takes everything as a
challenge, while an ordinary man takes everything as a blessing or a curse.
Don Juan quoted by Carlos Castaneda
“Do not fear mistakes. You will know failure. Continue to reach out.”
Benjamin Franklin
A calm sea never made a skillful sailor
The question isn't who is going to let me; it's who is going to stop me.
Ayn Rand
People say nothing is impossible, but I do nothing every day.
Winnie the Pooh
"Those who believed that their performance was transformable through effort, not only persevered but actually
improved in the teeth of difficulties, whereas those labouring under the talent myth regressed."
Ordinary adults have a strong ability to change with practice, but if you have a fixed mind set, you don’t think
you can improve your intelligence, you will probably not improve.
The region of the brain responsible for controlling fingers in young musicians grew in direct proportion to the
number of years training. Purposeful practice builds new neural connections in your brain, so you can improve
aspects of your "intelligence" with practice.
From the excellent book "Bounce" by Michael Syed
Resilience, the ability to bounce back from setbacks, is a major attribute of determined individuals. According
to Heather Hiles CEO of Pathbrite the five key components of resilience are optimism, empathy, emotional
intelligence, trust and perseverance. She says that "The ability to both respond to and embrace change is at the
very heart of resilience."
The value of failure
What is the secret of success?
Right decisions.
How do you make right decisions?
Experience
How do you gain experience?
Wrong decisions
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (former President of India)
There is the old saying that a challenge is an opportunity, not a threat and we need to see failure as a chance to
learn new ways of doing things.
Theodore Roosevelt said: "The man who never makes a mistake is the man who never does anything." and it's
true that often the most powerful way to learn how to do something right is to initially fail: we learn from our
mistakes.

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"The fear of making a mistake, of risking an error, or of being told you are wrong is constantly with us. And
that’s a shame. Making mistakes is not the same thing as being creative, but if you are not willing to make
mistakes, then it is impossible to be truly creative. I f your state of mind is coming from a place of fear and risk
avoidance, then you will always settle for the safe solutions—the solutions already applied many times before.
Failing is fine, necessary in fact. But avoiding experimentation or risk—especially out of fear of what others
may think—is something that will gnaw at your gut more than any ephemeral failure. A failure is in the past.
It’s done and over. In fact, it doesn’t exist. But worrying about “what might be if…” or “what might have been
if I had… ” are pieces of baggage you carry around daily. They’re heavy, and they’ll kill your creative spirit.
Take chances and stretch yourself. You’re only here on this planet once, and for a very short time at that. Why
not just see how gifted you are?"
Daniel Garr - Presentation Zen
"If you make the wrong decision, it's never too late to make the right one"
Michael Oher
How I became a manager
People who do lots of work...
Make lots of mistakes
People who do less work...
Make less mistakes
People who do no work...
Make no mistakes
People who make no mistakes...
Get promoted!
A positive outlook
Henry Ford said: "If you think you can or you think you can't, you're absolutely right." and the latest research
on this has suggested he is correct. Professor Suzanne Segerstrom, University of Kentucky found that when
optimists encounter a setback they are less likely than pessimists to just give up.
Professor Martin Seligman of the University of Pennsylvania found that people who believed that they could
achieve a certain goal did so in 80% of cases whereas people who did not believe they could achieve their
goal only achieved t 20% of the time. But a positive attitude requires practise, just as you become unfit if
you don't exercise regularly. We grow the garden of our own reality with thought-seeds. If we wish to grow
flowers instead of weeds we must attend to our thoughts.
Taking Action
To keep your determination high, it is important to set yourself goals that are stretching but attainable and
challenging but realistic. 90% of all research on setting goals have shown a positive effect on performance.
Life satisfaction is greatest for those who have short term goals which are enjoyable, not too difficult; and done
in cooperation with others. The most satisfaction comes from pursuing a goal, not from ultimately achieving it.
"Develop persistence: don't take no for an answer": this is the advice of a creative director at a top
advertising agency.
In his final year he applied for graduate training schemes with all the top advertising agencies but found that
no one was interested as he was heading for a lower second class degree. After lots of rejections he decided to
email lots of agencies but was devastated when he got no response. So he decided to phone the agencies but
couldn't get past the receptionist.
After this setback he thought a lot and decided that the only path left open to him was to visit the agencies in
person. He made a list of all the agencies within reasonable traveling distance and spent the next week going
round them and asking for some unpaid work experience. Again the same problem: everywhere he visited the
receptionist said that everyone was too busy to see him. He was finally on the point of giving up on his dream.
He decided to give it one final throw of the dice.
He decided to go back to the agency he most admired. He arrived early in the morning and asked the
receptionist if he could talk to one of the managers about the possibility of getting some work experience with
the agency. The receptionist said that this wasn't possible, as he knew she would. So he sat down in the
reception area and refused to leave until someone saw him.
Late in the afternoon, the receptionist whom he had got to know quite well during the day and who had taken a

60
 liking to him rang one of the managers, explaining the situation and asking her if she could come down have a
very brief chat with him. After hearing his story, the manager took pity on him and told him she could offer
him just a few days work experience but nothing more.
At 7.30 when the doors opened on Monday he was standing outside and that week he was always the first into
the office and the last too leave at night. No task was too menial for him and he put one hundred percent into
everything he was given to do. The manager was so impressed that she offered him a temporary job at the
minimum wage.
He never left ....
You need to focus on one objective at a time and always have the next goal in mind. To accomplish more
difficult tasks, break these down into components. Try to have mini goals on-route and try to map out several
paths to your target: this allows flexibility if one route becomes blocked. Activity itself generates the impetus
for further activity.
Should you praise people for effort or intelligence?
Carol Dweck of Columbia University did seminal research on motivation. She divided school children into two
groups who were given a test. After the test, half the students were praised for their intelligence and the others
for the effort they had put into the test ("You have worked really hard").
The children were then given the choice of doing another harder test or an easier one. The children praised for
intelligence chose the easier test, as they didn't want to risk failure as they might look bad if they failed: they
avoided challenging situations. The children praised for effort chose the harder test: they weren't interested
in success, but in facing a challenge. They wanted to show how hard-working they were. They also worked
much longer at the test , enjoyed it more and didn't lose confidence.
Praising intelligence damages motivation and performance and teaches people to pursue easy challenges
rather than to learn.
Praise effort not ability: "You must have worked really hard to get that score". Ask them what parts they
enjoyed most and how they dealt with any problems that arose. Focus on effort, concentration and
organisational skills, for example, the ability to train hard and work well with others in a sporting situation. Say
"You played well today" rather than "You are good at cricket".
In another study on two groups of children doing homework, one group was promised a medal as a reward
and the other group was given nothing. The children given the medal spent less time on the work. The
reasoning was that "adults offer rewards when they want me to do something I don't enjoy so I must not like
doing it!" Rewards reduced the enjoyment and demotivated them. Instead praise their effort or give an
occasional small surprise reward after completion.
Typical question of the type asked by recruiters to gain evidence that you have determination
Describe a situation when you showed determination in facing up to a challenge
A Good Answer
I knew that I wanted a year out in Africa and that I did not just want to travel but also to
share in the life of the country and its people. Teaching gave me such an opportunity to
put down roots in a community but, as this was a voluntary programme, I needed to Demonstrates
raise £2000 in order to take part in this project. I did this by working very long hours in determination
a factory over the summer to raise the funds that I needed.
I planned my year by reading a great deal about Tanzania, using websites to research the Evidence of careful
country & speaking to Tanzanian students at the university. I also asked the organisation planning and forward
that arranged the placement to put me in touch with previous volunteers so that I could thinking.
pick up tips from them on life in Tanzania, the schools & what I should take with me.
Despite all this planning I still found that I needed to be very flexible & to adapt to
teaching a class of 60 lively ten-year old boys with few text books & even less in the Shows adaptability
way of scientific equipment. I had to adapt to this lack of resources & to bear in mind
that the pupils were learning English at the same time as they were learning science.
This experience was the most satisfying of my life and the headmaster was so pleased
with the children's progress that he asked if I would be able to return at sometime in the
future.
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Barefoot to America
"My mother did not know where America was. I said to her, "Mother, I want to go to America to go to college.
Will you give me your permission?" "Very well," she said. "You may go. When will you leave?" I did not want
to give her time to discover how far away America was, for fear that she would change her mind. "Tomorrow,"
I said. "1 will prepare some maize for you to eat along the way," she said. Next day I left my home in
Nyasaland, East Africa. I had only the clothes I wore, a khaki shirt and shorts. I carried the two treasures I
owned: a Bible and a copy of Pilgrim's Progress. I carried, too, the maize my mother had given me, wrapped in
banana leaves
My goal was a continent and an ocean away, but I did not doubt that I would reach it. I had no idea how old I
was. Such things mean little in a land where time is always the same. I suppose I was 16 or 18. My father died
when I was very young. From missionaries I learned I was not the victim of circumstances but the master of
them. I learned that I had an obligation to use whatever talents I had to make life better for others. And to do
that I would need education. I learned about America. I read the life of Abraham Lincoln and grew to love this
man who suffered so much to help the enslaved in his country. I read, too, the autobiography of Booker T.
Washington, himself born in slavery in America, and who had risen in dignity and honour to become a
benefactor of his people and his country. I gradually realized that in America I could receive the training and
opportunities to prepare myself to emulate these men in my own land, to be, like them, a leader, perhaps even
the president of my country.
My intention was to make my way to Cairo, where I hoped to get passage on a ship to America. Cairo was over
3,000 miles away, a distance I could not comprehend, and I foolishly thought I could walk it in four or five
days. But in four or five days I was about 25 miles from home, my food was gone, I had no money, and I did not
know what to do, except that I must keep going. I developed a pattern of travel that became my life for more
than a year. Villages were usually five or six miles apart, on forest paths. I would arrive at one in the afternoon
and ask if I could work to earn food, water and a place to sleep. When this was possible, 1 would spend the
night there, then move on to the next village in the morning. I was actually defenceless against the forest
animals I dreaded, but although I heard them at night none of them approached me. Malaria mosquitoes,
however, were constant companions, and I often was sick.
By the end of a year 1 had walked 1,000 miles and had arrived in Uganda, where a family took me in and I
found a job making bricks. I remained there six months and sent most of my earnings to my mother. In
Kampala, I unexpectedly came upon a directory of American colleges. Opening it at random, I saw the name of
Skagit Valley College, Mount Vernon, Washington. I had heard that American colleges sometimes give
scholarships to deserving young people, so I wrote and applied for one. I realized that I might be refused but
was not discouraged; I would write to one school after another in the directory until I found one that would
help me.
Three weeks later I was granted a scholarship and assured that the school would help me find a job.
Overjoyed, I went to the United States authorities, only to be told that this was not enough. I would need a
passport and the round-trip fare in order to obtain a visa. I wrote to my government for a passport but it was
refused because I could not tell them when I was born. I then wrote to the missionaries who had taught me in
my childhood, and through their efforts was granted a passport. But I still could not get the visa because I did
not have the fare. Still determined, I resumed my journey. So strong was my faith that I used my last money to
buy my first pair of shoes; I knew I could not walk into college in my bare feet. I carried the shoes to save them.
Across Uganda and into the Sudan I walked. The villages were farther apart and the people were less friendly.
Sometimes I had to walk 20 or 30 miles in a day to find a place to sleep or to work to earn some food. At last I
reached Khartoum, where I learned that there was a United States consulate. Once again I heard about the US
entrance requirements, but this time the Consul was interested enough to write to the college about my plight.
Back came a cable. The students, hearing about me and my problems, had raised the fare of $1,700 through
benefit parties. I was thrilled and deeply grateful, - overjoyed that I had judged Americans correctly for their
friendship and brotherhood. News that I had walked for over two years and 2,500 miles circulated in
Khartoum.
After many, many months, carrying my two books and wearing my first suit, I arrived at Skagit Valley College.
In my speech of gratitude to the student body I disclosed my desire to become prime minister or president of my
country, and I noticed some smiles. I wondered if I had said something naive. I do not think so. When God has
put an impossible dream in your heart, He means to help you fulfil it. I believed this to be true when as an
African bush boy, I felt compelled to become an American college graduate. And my dream of becoming
president of my country can also become true."
Legson Kyira - I Will Try

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 Strength-Based Interviews
Graduate recruiters, such as Aviva, Standard Chartered, Ernst &
Young, Barclays, Nestlé, Royal Mail, BAE Systems and
Unilever all now use “strengths-based interviews” in their graduate
recruitment process. Strengths interests have a simple aim: to find
out your interests.
Competencies are behaviours that an organisation needs.
Competency-based interviews have been the most common type of
graduate recruitment interview for a long time. Competencies can
be defined as “what you CAN do”, while strengths are “what you really ENJOY doing”.
Professor Alex Linley of Capp defines a strength as: “a pre-existing capacity for a particular way of behaving,
thinking or feeling that is authentic and energising to the user and enables optimal functioning, development
and performance”.
When a candidate is using their strengths they demonstrate "flow":
 a real sense of energy and engagement;
 often lose a sense of time because of being so engrossed in a task;
 rapidly learn new information and approaches;
 demonstrate high levels of performance;
 are irrevocably drawn to do things that play to their strengths – even when tired, stressed or disengaged.

This focuses on making sure you do more of what you are good at rather than what you are capable of
doing.
The theory behind strengths interviewing is based on positive psychology: everyone has strengths they are born
with but few people know what these are. By identifying your strengths and matching yourself to the role, you
will enjoy it more and perform better that those who have to try hard to fill the role.
How to prepare for a strengths interview
One of the beauties of strengths based interviews is that you can't do so much preparation and are less likely to
come up with the hackneyed answers candidates thing interviewers want. Think about what you love doing
both inside and outside work and be prepared to be open: don't try to be something you're not. Be honest about
what tasks you don't enjoy doing and think about how your preferences might fit with the organisation's culture
and the job requirements
Questions you might be asked at strengths interviews
You can also identify your strengths by asking yourself these questions.
 What are you good at?
 What comes easily to you?
 What do you learn quickly?
 What did you find easiest to learn at school or university?
 What subjects do you most enjoy studying?
 What things give you energy?
 Describe a successful day you have had.
 When did you achieve something you were really proud of?
 Do you prefer to start tasks or to finish them?
 Do you find you have enough hours in the day to complete all the things you want to do?
 What things are always left on your to-do list and not finished? These are probably weaknesses: things you
dislike doing!
 What do you enjoy doing the least? These are likely to be areas where you lack natural aptitude or skills.
See our page on What makes us happy at work? especially the part about flow activities for more
explanation on this.
And try our Strengths Test
63
Benefits to organisations
 They are especially useful for recruiting staff who don't have much experience such as graduates
where you are looking for potential and passion for the job.
 Strength spotting is easier at application and first interviews so need less assessment days.
 Cost and time saving as job offers made earlier
 You get fewer plastic pre-prepared answers from candidates
 You get a genuine insight into candidates
 Increases engagement and interest from interviewers
 Candidates enjoy the interview more, so are attracted to the organisation.
 Rejected candidates understand why and may realise they wouldn't be happy in the role and so don't feel
they've failed.
 Identifies successful candidates who have better performance as they are built for the role rather than
adapting to fit the role.
 Those employed are more likely to stay in the job and will perform at their best and learn new
information faster.
“The feedback from applicants who have had a strengths-based interview has been great – they feel they
have been better able to demonstrate who they are as a person not just trot out the same answers to
the competency based questions which says little about them & does not engage them in the process as
everyone else does the same thing!”
Simon Reichwald (Graduate Success and Bright Futures)
Disadvantages
 More time is initially needed to identify the strengths via focus groups and to train managers
Ernst & Young
E&Y receives around 16,000 applications annually for its graduate training programmes, which result in about
600 appointments. The firm is now moving away from traditional competency based recruitment, as many
applicants understood the formula too well: many answers and relevant experiences were well rehearsed.
Competency interviews are based round the assumption that past behaviour will predict future performance.
Competency interviews are known to be reliable, objective and consistent but techniques to answer questions
well can be learnt. You cannot prepare for a strengths based assessment other than by your own reflection.
Strengths are argued to lead to higher performance than competencies and are easier to spot. Strengths are
innate: talking about strengths gives candidates energy and real authenticity,
E&Y is now moving to a strengths-based system, looking at people's more innate strengths: natural aptitudes
that people have for a role. They think this system will lead to better recruitment decisions.
“We are particularly keen to find out about you as a person, your strengths and attributes, as well as what
you’re interested in. We recommend you think about your hobbies and extra-curricular activities, as well as
any work or other experience you’ve had that you think may be relevant to Ernst & Young”.
Ernst & Young identified 16 strengths via focus groups of their high performers that relate to the work that
E&Y does. These include credibility, personal responsibility, analyst, organiser.
"Some of the strengths that we identify are people's ability, or that people have a sense of pride in what they do.
People's analytical ability is also a strength. Working with others is a strength. So we'll ask questions around
these areas and ask for examples, but in a slightly different way than before."
Rather than asking applicants a standard set of competency based questions, a broader range of questions are
now asked at a higher pace. Firms are seeing more authentic candidates as they are less prepared than they
would be for a competency-based assessment.
Spotting strengths comes from seeing the energy and enthusiasm of a candidate. It is a better experience for
the candidate: they learn from the sessions and can identify whether they are suited for the role themselves. It's
also a more positive experience as they gain energy from the experience.
Interviewers also look at body language and other signals like tone of voice, to identify whether someone has
pride in what they have been doing or has a specific interest in a subject.

64
A key driver for Ernst & Young was to be different from the other big 3 accountants by differentiating
themselves via the selection process.
An article from the Financial Times by Stephen Isherwood, E&Y manager of graduate recruitment, on the
strengths-based approach is at www.ft.com/cms/s/0/00579e56-98be-11dd-ace3-000077b07658.html
Further resources on strengths-based interviewing:
Life After Competencies: a presentation given by Emma Judge of Ernst & Young and Martin Galpin, Director
at Work Positive www.agr.org.uk/Content/Life-After-Competencies-Using-Strengths-Based-Recruitment-To-
Discover-The-Realcandidate
Playing to your Strengths? a summary of the background to Ernst & Young’s introduction of SBI by Emma
Judge and Martin Galpin www.work-
positive.com/resources/downloads/GraduateRecruiter_Playingtoyourstrengths_full.pdf
Strengths Finder 2.0 – book to help you assess your own strengths, available from the Careers and
Employability Service www.strengthsfinder.com
From What is Wrong to What is Strong: psychological background to the VIA Survey
www.positivepsychology.org.uk/pp-theory/strengths/112-from-what-is-wrong-to-what-is-strong.html

Also see What are your strengths?

Back to the Applications, Interviews, Test and Selection Centres Menu

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 How to be assertive in interviews
No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.
Eleanor Roosevelt

Assertiveness is the ability to communicate with others in a

clear and direct manner. It has been described as "The Art of
telling people what you would like them to do, in a way that they
don't feel threatened or put down". It differs from being
aggressive, where you may get what you want, but may upset
people and hinder your progress in the long run.
Some people confuse assertiveness with getting your own way
all the time, but there may be occasions when you take the
decision to back down on an issue, because you realise that the
other person has rights too. It also differs from being passive,
where you let others get their own way in most situations and
don't stand up for your rights.
Assertive behaviour helps you to:
 Say "No" to the requests of others in a firm but polite
way when you don't want to do as they say.
 To avoid being manipulated or put off by others.
 To listen better to what others are saying.
 To stand up for your rights.
 To ask for what you want.
Some people confuse
 To achieve "win-win" situations where both parties are assertiveness with
happy with the outcome of the situation. getting your own way
Being assertive helps you to exercise more control over your all the time ....
life and relationships, and thus may help to increase your self-
confidence. It helps you to reduce the stress in your life as you are
less bothered about the opinions of others. Non-assertive
behaviour can lead to loss of respect from others and loss of
self-respect in the long term.

It can be used in many situations, but can be an important factor in performing well at interviews. In
interviews assertive behaviour will help you to come across as a confident candidate who is likely to be able to
get things done. It is characterised by:
 a firm clear voice,
 eye contact with the interviewer,
 being relaxed rather than nervous,
 an open body posture (e.g. don't have your arms and legs folded tightly)
 saying what you want to say using simple, clear language
 a direct open manner.
 See our non-verbal communication test for more information on these

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