ASSIGNMENT 4

Aashna Gakhar I 3/11 I Building Construction I Submission 4

 QUESTION 1

Explain through relevant sketches and

details the shuttering formwork, fabrication
and finishes of the following modern
structural forms over large span buildings.
a) Vierendeel Girder/Truss.
b) Shell Concrete structures.
c) Portal frames.
VIERENDEEL GIRDER / TRUSS

DEFINITION:

The Vierendeel truss/girder is characterized by having only vertical members between the top and bottom chords
and is a statically indeterminate structure. Hence, bending, shear and axial capacity of these members contribute to
the resistance to external loads.

The use of this girder enables the footbridge to span larger distances and present an attractive outlook. However, it
suffers from the drawback that the distribution of stresses is more complicated than normal truss structures.

The Vierendeel girder design is sometimes adopted in the design of footbridges. In traditional truss design,
triangular shape of truss is normally used because the shape cannot be changed without altering the length of its
members.

By applying loads only to the joints of trusses, the members of truss are only subjected to a uniform tensile or
compressive stress across their cross sections because their lines of action pass through a common hinged joint.

POINTS ABOUT A VIERENDEEL TRUSS:

 Trusses can have a rectangular configuration, avoiding the potential intrusion of diagonal members, if the joints
are rigid.

 Because deep trusses are particularly efficient for long spans they are sometimes designed to be a full storey-
height deep, the top boom being within the upper floor zone and the lower floor zone incorporating the
bottom boom.

 However because of fenestration, some or all of the diagonal truss members may be undesirable. If they are
omitted the resulting "truss" is effectively a series of rectangles and if the joints were pinned it would collapse.
However, if the shear forces are accommodated by making the joints between members stiff enough the
structural integrity is retained.

 Such trusses are called Vierendeel girders, and the members are subject to bending.

 In this case individual members become subject to bending moments and shear force in addition to direct
tension or compression. These types of structure are called Vierendeel after the professor whose experimental
work still forms the basis of their design.

 The joints may be heavy, but the absence of diagonals makes this form suitable for storey-height construction.
 Using standard computer programs, the analysis is not difficult, but the resulting joints are often very heavy in
appearance.

 However the system does allow full storey-height construction without obstruction to openings. Clearly in this
situation the verticals would be at column positions. It is common to see this type of truss in the walkways, for
instance at airports.

 This is because the height available relative to the span reduces the boom forces and moments and eases the
problem of forming the joints.

 Trusses, particularly Vierendeel girders, can be used vertically (to resist horizontal loads).
 While the descriptions so far have concentrated on the truss spanning horizontally, it is by no means necessary
and often (particularly with Vierendeels) the truss spans vertically.
Arthur Vierendeel (1852–1940) born in Leuven, Belgium was a university professor and civil engineer.

The Vierendeel structure he developed was named after him. His work, Cours de stabilité des constructions
(1889) was an important reference during more than half a century. His first bridge was built 1902 in Avelgen,
crossing the Scheldt river.

LEFT

1. 1-Bay girder
2. Gravity load
3. Lateral load
4. Articulated
Inflection
points
5. 3-bay girder
6. Gravity load
7. Lateral load
8. Articulated
Inflection
points

ABOVE

1. Base girder
2. Global shear
3. Global moment
4. Bending
moment
5. Chord forces
6. Pin joints
7. Strong web
8. Strong chord
9. Shear chord
LEFT 10. Chord shear

One way girders

1. Plain girder
2. Prismatic
girder
3. Prismatic
girder

Space Frames

4. 2-way
5. 3-way
6. 3-D
A STRUCTURAL NOVELTY

In April 1897, Vierendeel published the structural theory of his ‘poutre à arcades’ as he used to call his invention,
initially in his book Longerons en Treillis et Longerons à Arcades. Examples of structures with fully rigid joints
were very uncommon at the time. He could only refer to the Dadizele church tower.

Vierendeel mentions his system for the first time in public at the Congrès International des Architectes in August
1897 in Brussels. There he also revealed his upcoming test on a 31,5 m span bridge he was going to build at his own
expense within the scope of the Brussels World Fair in Tervuren. It would be loaded to failure to verify the
agreement between calculations and measurement.

While Vierendeel’s patents describe vaguely the calculations without explaining the trailing theories, his book goes
into detail on how to calculate the particular case of a symmetric bridge with parallel fl anges and the general
case of an asymmetric bridge with non-parallel flanges. Vierendeel’s main criticism on contemporary calculation
was a discrepancy between analytical structural theory and actual building practice. Calculation assumed
pin-jointed connections whereas the execution with rivets tended to be more rigid. After Schwedler and Winkler,
German scientifi c assistant Heinrich Manderla (1853-1889) had described a calculation method in 1880 to
determine the additional secondary stresses. He assumed that angular rotations were not possible in a framework.

However Vierendeel still thought this method to be incorrect, primarily because the rigid joint was also far
from perfect: the truth balanced between a rigid joint and a pin-joint.

Dutch engineer J. Schroeder van der Kolk summarized in the Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs
(edition 1889-1890) the results of an experiment that listed the secondary stresses of a truss bridge in
relation to the primary stresses. It was striking that those secondary stresses could not be ignored, as they
amounted up to 60 % of the primary stresses. Secondly, Vierendeel indicated that in the diagonals the secondary
stresses were limited (ranging from 6 to 16 % of the primary stresses). In other experiments he had noted that
deformations in the diagonals were nearly negligible.

Vierendeel also referred to Winkler who tried to lower these stresses by using St. Andreas crosses, i.e. doubling the
diagonals. It had already been applied in the Netherlands on some railway bridges between Rotterdam and
Amsterdam. German civil engineer Otto Mohr’s method was used to calculate the basic structure, along with
Manderla’s equations. However according to Vierendeel it didn’t reduce the secondary stresses. After tests in
France in 1893 ordered by the state, engineers tried to turn truss bridges into girder bridges by using a lattice-work.

Calculation

Vierendeel’s criticism on contemporary calculation was a discrepancy between the analytical structural theory and
the building practice.
Vierendeel solved this by working out approximate methods to determine stresses in frameworks without
diagonals.
Aesthetics

The morbid growth of trellis in many 19th century structures such as the Eiffel Tower and the Galerie des Machines
led Vierendeel to support his own patented work, the Vierendeel. The austerity of only horizontal and vertical lines
was and still is a major ace of trumps for this structure.

Welding

Electric arc welding was a new technique during the interwar period and it provided opportunities in metal
constructions.
But there was a downside when insufficient knowledge of welding techniques led to a series of serious bridge
collapses.

Concrete

Vierendeel has not only patented the Vierendeel as a solution to be erected using steel, but has also patented his
beam for concrete beams.
An unlike Vierendeel application was a concrete suspension bridge of which the lower part was a Vierendeel, and
the upper part were steel cables.
SHELL CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DEFINITION:

A thin shell concrete structure, is a structure composed of a relatively thin shell of concrete, usually with no interior
columns or exterior buttresses. The shells are most commonly flat plates and domes, but may also take the form of
ellipsoids or cylindrical sections, or some combination thereof.

Types and Forms of Shell Structure

Folded Plates
Barrel Vaults
Short Shells
Domes of Revolution
Folded Plate Domes
Intersection Shells
Warped Surfaces
Combinations
Shell Arches

FOLDED PLATES

The elements of a folded plate structure are similar to those of a barrel shell except that all elements are planar,
and the moments in the slab elements are affected by the differential movement of the joints.

For the structure shown, the end supports and the side supports
are both complete walls.

BARREL SHELLS

The elements of a barrel shell are:

(1) The cylinder,
(2) The frame or ties at the ends, including the columns, and
(3) The side elements, which may be a cylindrical element, a folded plate element, columns, or all combined.
For the shell shown in the sketch, the end frame is solid and the side element is a vertical beam.
A barrel shell carries load longitudinally as a beam and transversally as an arch. The arch, however, is supported
by internal shears, and so may be calculated.

The elements of a folded plate structure are similar to those of a barrel shell except that all elements are planar,
and the moments in the slab elements are affected by the differential movement of the joints.
For the structure shown, the end supports and the side supports are both complete walls.

The elements of a short shell are the barrel, which is relatively short compared to radius, the element at the base
of the cylinder to pick up the arch loads, and the arches or rigid frame to pick up the entire ensemble. In this case
it is a rigid frame arch. The size of the arch could have been reduced by horizontal ties at the springing. There
may be multiple spans.

The short shell carries loads in two ways:

(1) As an arch carrying load to the lower elements. and
(2) As a curved beam to the arches.

The thickness of the shell can be quite thin due to these properties.

DOMES

Domes are membrane structures, the internal stresses are tension and compression and are statically
determinate if the proper edge conditions are fulfilled. In a dome of uniform thickness, under its own weight, the
ring stresses are compression until the angle to the vertical is about 57 degrees. If the dome is less than a full
hemisphere, a ring is required at the base of the dome to contain the forces.

TRANSLATION SHELLS

A translation shell is a dome set on four arches. The shape is different from a spherical dome and is generated by
a vertical circle moving on another circle. All vertical slices have the same radius. It is easier to form than a
spherical dome.
The stresses in a translation shell are much like a dome at the top, but at the level of the arches, tension forces
are offset by compression in the arch. However there are high tension forces in the corner.
 Advantages of Concrete Shells

Like the arch, the curved shapes often used for concrete shells are naturally strong structures, allowing wide areas
to be spanned without the use of internal supports, giving an open, unobstructed interior. The use of concrete as a
building material reduces both materials cost and a construction cost, as concrete is relatively inexpensive and
easily cast into compound curves. The resulting structure may be immensely strong and safe; modern monolithic
dome houses, for example, have resisted hurricanes and fires, and are widely considered to be strong enough to
withstand even F5 tornadoes.

Disadvantages of Concrete Shells

Since concrete is porous material, concrete domes often have issues with sealing. If not treated, rainwater can
seep through the roof and leak into the interior of the building. On the other hand, the seamless construction of
concrete domes prevents air from escaping, and can lead to buildup of condensation on the inside of the shell.
Shingling or sealants are common solutions to the problem of exterior moisture, and dehumidifiers or ventilation
can address condensation.

PORTAL FRAMES

DEFINITION

Portal frames are generally low-rise structures, comprising columns and horizontal or pitched rafters, connected
by moment-resisting connections. Resistance to lateral and vertical actions is provided by the rigidity of the
connections and the bending stiffness of the members, which is increased by a suitable haunch or deepening of
the rafter sections.

This form of continuous frame structure is stable in its plane and provides a clear span that is unobstructed by
bracing. Portal frames are very common, in fact 50% of constructional steel used in the UK is in portal frame
construction.

They are very efficient for enclosing large volumes, therefore they are often used for industrial, storage, retail and
commercial applications as well as for agricultural purposes. This article describes the anatomy and various types
of portal frame and key design considerations.

ANATOMY OF A TYPICAL PORTAL FRAME

A portal frame building comprises a series of transverse frames braced longitudinally. The primary steelwork
consists of columns and rafters, which form portal frames, and bracing. The end frame (gable frame) can be either
a portal frame or a braced arrangement of columns and rafters.

The light gauge secondary steelwork consists of side rails for walls and purlins for the roof. The secondary
steelwork supports thebuilding envelope, but also plays an important role in restraining the primary steelwork.

The roof and wall cladding separate the enclosed space from the external environment as well as
providing thermal and acoustic insulation. The structural role of the cladding is to transfer loads to secondary
steelwork and also to restrain the flange of the purlin or rail to which it is attached.

Cross-section showing a portal frame and its restraints

 Principal components of a portal framed building

TYPES OF PORTAL FRAMES

Many different forms of portal frames may be constructed. Frame types described below give an overview of
types of portal construction with typical features illustrated. This information only provides typical details and is
not meant to dictate any limits on the use of any particular structural form.

Pitched roof symmetric portal frame

Generally fabricated from UKB sections with a substantial eaves haunch section, which may be cut from a rolled
section or fabricated from plate. 25 to 35 m are the most efficient spans.

Portal frame with internal mezzanine floor

Office accommodation is often provided within a portal frame structure using a partial width mezzanine floor.
The assessment of frame stability must include the effect of the mezzanine

Crane portal frame with column brackets

Where a travelling crane of relatively low capacity (up to say 20 tonnes) is required, brackets can be fixed to the
columns to support the crane rails. Use of a tie member or rigid column bases may be necessary to reduce the
eaves deflection.

The spread of the frame at crane rail level may be of critical importance to the functioning of the crane;
requirements should be agreed with the client and with the crane manufacturer.
Tied portal frame
In a tied portal frame the horizontal movement of the eaves and the bending moments in the columns and rafters
are reduced. A tie may be useful to limit spread in a crane-supporting structure.
The high axial forces introduced in the frame when a tie is used necessitate the use of second-order software
when analyzing this form of frame.

Mono-pitch portal frame

A mono pitch portal frame is usually chosen for small spans or because of its proximity to other buildings. It is a
simple variation of the pitched roof portal frame, and tends to be used for smaller buildings (up to 15 m span).

Propped portal frame

Where the span of a portal frame is large and there is no requirement to provide a clear span, a propped portal
frame can be used to reduce the rafter size and also the horizontal shear at the foundations.

Mansard portal frame

A mansard portal frame may be used where a large clear height at mid-span is required but the eaves height of
the building has to be minimized.

Curved rafter portal frame

Portal frames may be constructed using curved rafters, mainly for architectural reasons. Because of transport
limitations rafters longer than 20 m may require splices, which should be carefully detailed for architectural
reasons.
The curved member is often modelled for analysis as a series of straight elements.
Alternatively, the rafter can be fabricated as a series of straight elements. It will be necessary to provide purlin
cleats of varying height to achieve the curved external profile.
.

Cellular beam portal frame

Rafters may be fabricated from cellular beams for aesthetic reasons or when providing long spans.
Where transport limitations impose requirement for splices, they should be carefully detailed, to preserve the
architectural features.
The sections used cannot develop plastic hinges at a cross-section, so only elastic design is used.
.
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

In the design and construction of any structure, a large number of inter-related design requirements should be
considered at each stage in the design process. The following discussion of the design process and its constituent
parts is intended to give the designer an understanding of the inter-relationship of the various elements of the
structure with its final construction, so that the decisions required at each stage can be made with an
understanding of their implications.

FRAME DIMENSIONS

A critical decision at the conceptual design stage is the overall height and width of the frame, to give adequate clear
internal dimensions and adequate clearance for the internal functions of the building.

Clear span and height

The clear span and height required by the client are key to determining the dimensions to be used in the design,
and should be established early in the design process. The client requirement is likely to be the clear distance
between the flanges of the two columns – the span will therefore be larger, by the section depth. Any requirement
for brickwork or block work around the columns should be established as this may affect the design span.
Where a clear internal height is specified, this will usually be measured from the finished floor level to the underside
of the haunch or suspended ceiling if present.

Main frame
•The main (portal) frames are generally fabricated from UKB sections with a substantial eaves haunch section, which
may be cut from a rolled section or fabricated from plate. A typical frame is characterised by:
•A span between 15 and 50 m
•An clear height (from the top of the floor to the underside of the haunch) between 5 and 12 m
•A roof pitch between 5° and 10° (6° is commonly adopted)
•A frame spacing between 6 and 8 m
•Haunches in the rafters at the eaves and apex
•A stiffness ratio between the column and rafter section of approximately 1.5
•Light gauge purlins and side rails
•Light gauge diagonal ties from some purlins and side rails to restrain the inside flange of the frame at certain
locations.

Haunch dimensions
The use of a haunch at the eaves reduces the required depth of rafter by increasing the moment resistance of the
member where the applied moments are highest. The haunch also adds stiffness to the frame, reducing deflections, and
facilitates an efficient bolted moment connection.

The eaves haunch is typically cut from the same size rolled section as the rafter, or one slightly larger, and is welded to
the underside of the rafter. The length of the eaves haunch is generally 10% of the frame span. The haunch length
generally means that the hogging moment at the end of the haunch is approximately equal to the largest sagging
moment close to the apex. The depth from the rafter axis to the underside of the haunch is approximately 2% of the
span.The apex haunch may be cut from a rolled section – often from the same size as the rafter, or fabricated from
plate. The apex haunch is not usuallymodelled in the frame analysis and is only used to facilitate a bolted connection.
POSITIONS OF RESTRAINT

During initial design the rafter members are normally selected according to their cross sectional resistance to
bending moment and axial force. In later design stages stability against buckling needs to be verified and restraints
positioned judiciously.
The buckling resistance is likely to be more significant in the selection of a column size, as there is usually less
freedom to position rails to suit the design requirements; rail position may be dictated by doors or windows in the
elevation.
If introducing intermediate lateral restraints to the column is not possible, the buckling resistance will determine
the initial section size selection. It is therefore essential to recognise at this early stage if the side rails may be used
to provide restraint to the columns. Only continuous side rails are effective in providing restraint. Side rails
interrupted by (for example) roller shutter doors, cannot be relied on as providing adequate restraint.
Where the compression flange of the rafter or column is not restrained by purlins and side rails, restraint can be
provided at specified locations by column and rafter stays.

Bending moment diagram resulting from the plastic analysis of a symmetrical portal frame under
symmetrical loading

Bending moment diagram resulting from the elastic analysisof a symmetrical portal frame under
symmetrical loading
VERTICAL BRACING

The primary functions of vertical bracing in the side walls of the frame are:
To transmit the horizontal loads to the ground. The horizontal forces include forces from wind and cranes
To provide a rigid framework to which side rails and cladding may be attached so that the rails can in turn provide
stability to the columns
To provide temporary stability during erection.

The bracing may be located:

At one or both ends of the building
Within the length of the building
In each portion between expansion joints (where these occur).

Where the side wall bracing is not in the same bay as the plan bracing in the roof, an eaves strut is essential to transmit
the forces from the roof bracing into the wall bracing. An eaves strut is also required:
To ensure the tops of the columns are adequately restrained in position
To assist in during the construction of the structure
To stabilise the tops of the columns if a fire boundary condition exists

PORTALISED BAYS

Where it is difficult or impossible to brace the frame vertically by conventional bracing, it is necessary to
introduce moment-resisting frames in the elevations in one or more bays.
In addition to the general serviceability limit on deflection of h/300, where h is the height of the portalised bay it
is suggested that:
The bending resistance of the portalised bay (not the main portal frame) is checked using an elastic frame
analysis
Deflection under the equivalent horizontal forces is restricted to h/1000, where the equivalent horizontal
forces are calculated based on the whole of the roof area.
CONNECTIONS

The major connections in a portal frame are the eaves and apex connections, which are both moment-resisting. The
eaves connection in particular must generally carry a very large bending moment. Both the eaves and apex
connections are likely to experience reversal in certain combinations of actions and this can be an important design
case. For economy, connections should be arranged to minimise any requirement for additional reinforcement
(commonly called stiffeners). This is generally achieved by:
Making the haunch deeper (increasing the lever arms)
Extending the eaves connection above the top flange of the rafter (an additional bolt row)
•Adding bolt rows
•Selecting a stronger column section.

Eaves connection Apex connection

COLUMN BASES

In the majority of cases, a nominally pinned

base is provided, because of the difficulty
and expense of providing a rigid base. Arigid
base will involve a more expensive base
detail, but more significantly, the foundation
must also resist the moment, which
increases costs significantly compared to
a nominally pinned base.

If a column base is nominally pinned, it is

recommended that the base be modelled as
perfectly pinned when using elastic global
analysis to calculate the moments and forces
in the frame under ULS loading.

The stiffness of the base may be assumed to

be equal to the following proportion of the
column stiffness:

•10% when assessing frame stability

•20% when calculating deflections under
serviceability loads.
 QUESTION 2

Explain Space frames with design

considerations and the materials used in
their construction. Also distinguish roof
trusses from space frames.
SPACE FRAME
DEFINITION
Space Frame Systems are lightweight but rigid structures constructed from tubular elements in certain geometric
pattern. It is usually used to pass long span lengths with fewer supports. Its strength comes from its triangle rigid
form which provides tensional load transmission along the length of each every interlocked modules.

Since its basic structure property comes from its rigid modularity;
The type of the modules can also be in square, rectangular, triangular or hexagonal forms depending on the decision
made during design stage in consideration of requirement of project along with its effectiveness in manufacturing ,
handling , and cost benefits together with its aesthetics.
Define Elements of Square Module :
a : Module Length in x-axis
b : Module Length in y-axis
h : Module depth / Ø : Module angles

LOADING

Vertical Loads :

1. Dead Loads : Space Frame own weight.

2. Snow Load : The values tabulated in TS-EN 498 are accepted as base standard loading values. Always accept the
values at least 50 pct more than standard values and stays in plus "safe side" in consideration of unusual
conditions, like excessive snow, icy conditions, rain after snow and gusty conditions e.t.c..
3. Purlins and Beams : Determined by POLARKON in according structural necessities.
4. Cladding Material : In according to clients preferences.
5. Service Loads : Cat walks, any necessary installation for cabling , Air conditioning, cooling, Heating,
Ventilating,etc..

Horizontal Loads :

1. Wind Load : Minimum loads specified in TS-EN 498 are taken as for standard application parameters.
2. Earthquake : When the structural modeling is completed, geometry of the model is cross checked with the
architectural drawings which are followed by structural analysis by using special methods particularly generated
for space frame systems. The parameters are subject to structural analysis , calculations and assumptions
conform with both national and international standard requirements in according to latest earthquake
specifications.

ADVANTAGES OF SPACE FRAME STRUCTURES

Structural solution that provides complete freedom in large span areas while providing strong resistance and
economic efficiency.
Demountable steel elements are light and easy to handle, and their assembly is safe and time saver.
Providing column-free space, aesthetic appearances and spectacular qualities while offering flexibility and
adaptability.
Created a wide array of ultra-modern , functional and innovative designs while blending professional
engineering experience with state of the art computer technology.
Satisfying the needs of an extremely diverse range of clients demands from municipalities to aviation, from
sport halls to shopping centers for their own specific project needs.
Best fit to any structures with their outstanding and elegant designings while perfectly interfacing with any structures
whether new or renovation works.
Manufactured in sophistication and elegance with the specialy prepared corrosion resistant round tubes and spherical
nodes that are available in spans up to 100 meters.
Uses exclusive assembly methods and organized according to structural rules depending on deadline and the requests
of the work owner.
Ensuring the rigidity of materials, make up of elements able to transmit compression or tention forces and utilising
advantage of 3-D structural behavior.
Offers are prepared in detail and complete turnkey service from feasibility studies to preliminary/final/shop drawings
and from simulation to installations

TYPES OF SPACE FRAMES

Within the meaning of space frame, we can find three systems clearly different between them:

Curvature classification
Space plane covers. These spatial structures are composed of planar substructures. Their behavior is similar to that of a
plate in which the deflections in the plane are channeled through the horizontal bars and the shear forces are supported
by the diagonals.

This train station is supported by a barrel vaults structure.

Barrel vaults. This type of vault has a cross section of a simple arch. Usually this type of space frame does not need to
use tetrahedral modules or pyramids as a part of its backing.

Spherical domes and other compound curves usually require the use of tetrahedral modules or pyramids and additional
support from a skin.

Classification by the arrangement of its elements

Single layer grid. All elements are located on the surface to be approximated.
Double layer grid. The elements are organized in two parallel layers with each other at a certain distance apart. Each of
the layers form a lattice of triangles, squares or hexagons in which the projection of the nodes in a layer may overlap or
be displaced relative to each other. The diagonal bars connecting the nodes of both layers in different directions in
space. In this type of meshes, the elements are associated into three groups: upper cordon, cordon and cordon lower
diagonal.

Triple layer grid. Elements are placed in three parallel layers, linked by the diagonals. They are almost always flat.
Other examples we could attach with the definition of space frame are these:
Pleated metallic structures. Emerged to try to solve the problems that formwork and pouring concrete had their
counterparts. Typically run with welded joint, but may raise prefabricated joints, a fact which makes them space
meshes.

Hanging covers. Designs on the cable taut, spine, and the catenary arch antifunicular show their ability to channel forces
theoretically better than any other alternative, have an infinite range of possibilities for composition and adaptability to
any type of plant cover or ensure vain. However, imprecisions in shape having the loaded strand (ideally adapts
dynamically to the state of charge) and the risk of bending the arc to unexpected stresses are problems that require pre-
compression and prestressing elements. Although in most cases tend to be the cheapest and the technical solution that
best fits the acoustics and ventilation of the covered enclosure, are vulnerable to vibration.

The dome is a ‘parashell’concrete structure and is the only one in Scotland. It was constructed using a pioneering
technique in which concrete was poured onto a special neoprene membrane and then pneumatically inflated.
Pneumatic structures. Wherein the closure membrane is subjected to a pressurized state, may be considered within this
group.

Majorly there are 2 types:

1) Two and three-way grids

Characterized as two way or three way

2) Single, Double and Triple Layered

Single layer frame has to be singly or doubly curved.
Commonly used space frames are double layered and flat.
Triple layered is practically used for a large span building.
COMPONENTS OF SPACE FRAME

Tubes:
1. Circular Hollow tube 2. Rectangular hollow tube

Connectors:

Tuball Node Connector

• A hollow sphere made of spheroidal graphite
• The end of the circular hollow section member to be connected is fitted at its ends by welding.
• Connection from inside the cup is using bolt and nut.

Nodus Connector
It can accept both rectangular
and circular hollow
sections and that the
cladding can be fixed
directly to the
chords.
Chord connectors have to be
welded to the ends of
the hollow members
on site.

Triodetic Connector
It consists of a hub, usually an aluminium extrusion, that has slots or key ways, which the ends of members are
pressed or coined to match the slots
Hemispherical Dome Connector

Usually use for double layer domes.

Has a span more than 40m.
More economical for long span.
The jointing is connect by sliting the end of the tube or rod with the joint fin.
There are 2 types of joint, pentagonal joint and hexagonal joint.

Preliminary Planning Guidelines

In the preliminary stage of planning a space frame to cover a specific building, a number of factors
should be studied and evaluated before proceeding to structural analysis and design. These include not
only structural adequacy and functional requirements but also the esthetic effect desired.

1. In its initial phase, structural design consists of choosing the general form of the building and the
type of space frame appropriate to this form. Since a space frame is assembled of straight, linear
elements connected at nodes, the geometrical arrangement of the elements — surface shape,
number of layers, grid pattern, etc. — needs to be studied carefully in the light of various pertinent
requirements.

2. The geometry of the space frame is an important factor to be planned, which will influence both
the bearing capacity and the weight of the structure. The module size is developed from the overall
building dimensions, while the depth of the grid (in the case of double-layer), the size of cladding,
and the position of the supports will also have a pronounced effect upon it. For curved surface, the
geometry is also related to the curvature, or more specifically to the rise of the span. A compromise
between these various aspects usually has to be made to achieve a satisfactory solution.

3. In a space frame, connecting joints play an important role, both functional and esthetic, which
derives from their rationality during construction and after completion. Since joints have a
decisive effect on the strength and stiffness of the structure and compose around 20 to 30% of the
total weight, joint design is critical to space frame economy and safety. These are quite a few
proprietary systems that are used for space frame structures. They should be selected on the basis
of quality, cost, and erection efficiency. In addition, custom-designed space frames have been
developed, especially for long-span roofs. Regardless of the type of space frame, the essence of any
system is the jointing system.

4. At the preliminary stage of design, the choosing of the type of space frames has to be closely related
with the constructional technology. The space frames do not have such a sequential order of
erection for planar structures and require special consideration on the method of construction.
Usually, a complete falsework has to be provided so that the structure can be assembled in the high
position. Alternatively, the structure can be assembled on the ground, and a certain technique can
be adopted to lift the whole structure, or its major part, to the final position
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ROOF TRUSS AND SPACE FRAME

Trusses Frames
Members are
At least one member is
subjected to
subjected to bending,
tension/compression
shear or torsion
only

Composed of rods Composed of bars

Usually more simple to Usually more simple to

calculate, more weight manufacture, and to
effective place in tight layout

Trusses and frames are both composed of triangular members connected at joints.

In a truss, the joints are pin type joints and the members are free to rotate about the pin. As such, a truss cannot
transfer moments and members are subjected to only axial forces (tensile and compression).

On the other hand, members of frames are connected rigidly at joints by means of welding and bolting.
Therefore the joints of frames can transfer moments in addition to the axial loads.

In a practical setting, you may see trusses with no flexibility in joints, but it is still acceptable to analyse them as a
perfect truss.

Structural design
This study was accomplished by calculating the transversal structure of a
standard bay. In this calculation, the transversal structure mentioned was dealt with as a
bi-dimensional frame.
Rigid frames and English trusses (with the web members perpendicular to the
lower chord) structures (fig. 1) were compared in a range of spans from 10 to 30 m, and
post heights from 3 to 6 m. Roof slope was 20º for 20 m of maximum span and 15º for
spans beyond 25 m. The spacing between bays was 5 m.
Rigid frames were designed with IPE sections, using longitudinal bracing in
posts as well as in rafters, with gusset rafters in corner joints.

English trusses erected on IPE posts were used in the design of truss structures.
The upper chord of the truss was dimensioned with 2-UPN sections, flanges outwards,
since purlins are placed off the connections. The rest of the truss beams were designed
with 2L sections. The upper and lower chords were considered as continuous bars, and
truss-to-post connections were treated as pinned joints. Apart from the usual upper
chord and post bracing, the lower chord central joint were also braced, since it presented
reversal of forces.
The shape of each truss was determined by the space between purlins (IPE-100
section), and at the same time, this space between purlins depends on the material used
for the roof. The material used for the roof was galvanized steel of 1 mm thickness, and
the maximum recommendable space between purlins for the galvanized steel roof
chosen was 1.75 m, thus this limitation was taken into account for the purlins
distribution and the length of the beams of the upper chord of the trusses. In rigid
frames the purlins distribution considered was the same as the one for trusses.
 The foundations must distribute the forces received from the columns over a
large area in order to transfer a stress always lower than the one that the soil can
support.
Rectangular, eccentric foundations were chosen, looking for proportionality
between length and width (normally 2:1). Reinforced concrete HA-25 (fck=25 N/mm2)
and steel B400 S (fyk=400 N/mm2) with 20 mm diameter, were used.
An allowable value of 0.2 N/mm2for the soil pressure in relation with the
subsidence of the footing size was considerate.

Loads regarded in calculation

The study structures were located in Albacete (Spain), taking into account
actions such as own dead load, plus the live loads (snow and wind loads). Calculation of
loads was carried out according to NBE AE-88 (1988) and NTE ECV-88 (1988)
standards.
The dead load assumes the weight of the roof material and the fixing accessories.
The roof material was galvanized steel of 1 mm thickness, and 100 N/m2
weight; the
weight of purlins and the fixing elements was 101 N/m.
To determine the wind load, the bays were included in a normal topography
situation, closed with less than 33% of holes and under assumption A (hypothesis normal) and B (hypothesis
related to possible suctions of the wind over the structure
when the building have open hollows).
QUESTION 3

Discuss the various passive methods that

may be adapted in reducing.
a) Conductive solar heat gain into the
building.
b) Convective solar heat gain into the
building.
c) Radiative solar heat gain into the
building.
a) Conductive solar heat gain into the building

1. Provide adequate insulation levels.

In most of North America, wall and ceiling insulation levels optimized to reduce winter heat loss will be adequate for
reducing summertime heat gain. In some southern areas, more insulation is justified for cooling load avoidance than
for winter heat loss. To reduce conductive heat gain, insulation in the roof or ceiling is most important.
2. Install radiant barrier in attics.
Radiant barriers reflect heat radiation and can reduce cooling loads. A radiant barrier should be installed so as to
provide an air space between it and the roof sheathing. It can be draped loosely over the top chord of the trusses or
rafters before sheathing is installed, or it can be stapled to the underside of rafters or top chord of trusses. Radiant
barriers are generally not cost-effective in northern climates, and even in the south, the costs and benefits should
be weighed against those of additional insulation or a reflective roof surface. Two inches of insulation is roughly
comparable to a radiant barrier in blocking heat gain. A reflective roof surface will keep out more heat gain than a
radiant barrier.
3. Provide light-colored roof and wall surfaces.
Conductive heat gain through the building envelope can be significantly reduced by making outer surfaces more
reflective. Light-colored wall siding is beneficial, but most effective is reflective roofing. Choose a roofing material
that is reflective (light-colored asphalt shingles are not—they still absorb nearly all of the sunlight striking them), or
apply special reflective elastomeric coatings to less-reflective roof. Reflective roofing will provide the greatest
savings in houses with air conditioning ducts running through the attic.
4. Provide attic or roof ventilation.
Install continuous soffit and ridge vents to prevent high temperatures from building up in unheated attics—which
will increase heat flow through the insulation. Operable windows in unheated attic spaces should also be
considered. With cathedral ceilings (insulated roofs), provide soffit and ridge vents and a continuous air space under
the roof sheathing for ventilation.
a) Convective solar heat gain into the building

1. Design a tight envelope.

Make sure the envelope is tight to reduce both sensible and latent infiltrative heat gain. When an air conditioner is
operating, air leakage increases due to pressure imbalances in the building.
2. Suggest that building owners keep windows and doors closed during hot, humid weather.
When outdoor temperature and humidity levels are above the comfort range, doors and windows should be kept
closed. This will reduce demand on mechanical air conditioning or, without air conditioning, maintain more
comfortable conditions. This strategy works well with nighttime ventilation in many areas.
3. Avoid inappropriate use of ventilation fans.
Suggest using whole-house ventilation systems or window fans only when outside air is more comfortable than
indoor air—typically during evening hours. With good air flow, whole-house ventilation can be done effectively with
air temperatures as high as 82°F. Ventilation for indoor air quality maintenance will also increase cooling loads, but
the air exchange rate is far lower than ventilation for cooling. Ceiling fans should be used only when the rooms are
occupied to reduce heat gains from fan motors.
4. Keep moisture-laden air from the basement or attached greenhouse out of the living space.
Situations in which moisture evaporates in one location (such as a basement or attached greenhouse) and the air
from that space enters the house can also be sources of significant latent heat gain. The living space will not benefit
from the evaporative cooling but will get the latent heat in the moisture-laden air. Moisture sources in these spaces
(basements leaks, drying firewood, excessive plant watering) should be controlled, or the spaces should be vented
to the outdoors.

a) Radiative solar heat gain into the building

1. Ceilings and roof spaces account for 25–35% of winter heat loss and must be well insulated. To prevent heat
loss, place most of the insulation next to the ceiling as this is where the greatest temperature control is
required.
2. Floors account for 10–20% of winter heat loss. In cool climates insulate the underside of suspended timber
floors and suspended concrete slabs. Insulate the edges of ground slabs. Insulation is not required beneath
earth-coupled concrete slabs; however, installation may be desirable when groundwater is present (see
Insulation installation). Waffle pod construction helps to insulate under slabs.
3. Walls account for 15–25% of winter heat loss. Insulation levels in walls are often limited by cavity or frame
width. In cold climates, alternative wall construction systems that allow higher insulation levels are recommended.
(see Lightweight framing)
In high mass walls such as double brick, rammed earth and reverse brick veneer, thermal lag slows heat flow on a
day−night basis. Insulation is still required in most instances; strawbale walls are an exception as they have a high
insulation value. (see Thermal mass; Construction systems)
Internal walls and floors between heating and non-heating zones can be insulated to minimise heat loss and help
reduce noise.
4. Roof space
Sealed roof spaces provide a thermal buffer zone.
Some heat always escapes into the roof space through your insulation. If the roof space is sealed, this escaping heat
is trapped and can raise the temperature of the roof space by up to 17°C and reduce the temperature differential
across both your ceiling insulation and roofing material (which should include insulation in cooler climates).
As discussed earlier, heat flow through any building element is directly proportional to the temperature differential
on either side. Sealed roof spaces are warmer and this reduces the differential and increases the effectiveness of
your insulation in the cooler months.
Roof spaces should be able to be ventilated in summer — often best achieved with thermostat controlled, self-sealing
exhaust fans in gables or ridges that can be switched off in winter. When activated in summer, the fan only operates
when the roof space is warmer than the outside air. (see Passive cooling)
Whirly bird roof ventilators are less effective in mixed (heating and cooling) climates because most are unable to be
sealed in winter and automated in summer.
It is important to vent exhaust fans and range hoods to the outside in all cases to avoid condensation and fire risk
from the build-up of cooking by-products