Creole Portuguese: General

Source: Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, No. 14, A Bibliography of Pidgin and Creole
Languages (1975), pp. 75-81
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 15. Creole Portuguese: General

Beginning in the latter half of the fifteenth century, the Portuguese spread their language,
mostly in pidginized or creolized forms, as a lingua franca along the coasts of Africa and

Asia, from the Cape Verde Islands to Canton and the Moluccas. In some parts of Asia
cre?le Portuguese (Crioulo or Creoulo) was still used as a lingua franca during the
early nineteenth century, long after the Portuguese trade empire had collapsed. In a few

spots inWest Africa pidgin Portuguese was displaced by pidgin English only after 1850.
In the Cape Verdes and in Sao Tom? and Principe the cre?le dialects came into use on the
first tropical plantations?prototypes of those in the New World?worked by African
slaves. In most areas cre?les developed among Portuguese traders and soldiers, their
mixed-blood families, domestic slaves, mercenaries, and other assimilated natives. In
several places the use of Crioulo was continued by the Dutch and British successors to
Portuguese rule.
The use of pidgin Portuguese in the trading posts and barracoons of West Africa is of
particular interest because some creolists have posited it as the basis of Caribbean cre?le
languages and perhaps other pidgins and cre?les (the relexification theory). Whinnom
(1956) similarly derives the Philippine Spanish cre?les from relexification of Moluccan
Portuguese. The Portuguese element in Saramaccan is obvious; majority opinion sees this
as a holdover from West African pidgin though some attribute it to Brazilian Jewish
masters. The extent of influence of pidgin or cre?le Portuguese on Afrikaans is warmly

disputed; on this point see the section on Afrikaans.

Considerable numbers of African slaves were carried to metropolitan Portugal, where
their speech was reported in literature by Gil Vicente (died 1540) and others; for discus?
sion see Teyssier (1959) and others.
Most descriptions of Portuguese cre?le dialects have been by Portuguese writers who
were sometimes themselves of overseas origin. They were usually amateurs or semi
amateurs and were bound by traditional grammar, but often their work is remarkably
painstaking. Coelho (1880-86) first aroused interest in the dialects, which was fanned by
Schuchardt (1882 if.). Leite de Vasconcellos surveyed the African cre?les (1898) and then
sketched all overseas dialects in his survey of Portuguese dialects (1901). Morais-Barbosa
(19681) has continued this overall interest in Crioulo, but Herculano de Carvalho (1961
if.) has demonstrated the greatest technical mastery of Portuguese cre?le studies.
A survey of the known Crioulo-speaking areas follows. The question of creolization of
Brazilian Portuguese is treated separately. While it is likely that Portuguese has been
pidginized at various places and at various times in Angola and Mozambique, the com?

pilers have found no proof of pidginization except for a passing reference by Richardson

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 15. CREOLE PORTUGUESE :GENERAL

(1963) to a barracoon jargon inMozambique. Wurm (1971) mentions pidgin Portuguese in

eastern Timor, but cites no references.

Cape Verde Islands. All the 230,000 inhabitants speak Creole of various grades of assimila?
tion to standard Portuguese; apparently most are bilingual in SP and Crioulo. The dialects,
one to each major island, fall into Windward and Leeward groupings. Although the
islands were first settled in 1462, the first descriptions of Crioulo were by Vieira Botelho
da Costa & Duarte (1886) and Paula Brito edited by Coelho (1887); these were supple?
mented by Schuchardt (1888c). Much later, Lopes da Silva (1957) published a rounded
though somewhat old-fashioned monograph. Oliveira Almada (1961) and Nunes (1963)
have also written on Crioulo. There are abundant texts, e.g. Parsons (1923) and Romano

(1966-67). Doubtless some material remains unpublished; e.g., Ferreira (1959, p. 71) men?
tions a study pursued for thirty years by A. N. Fernandes of Santiago. Studies by modern
linguistic techniques, particularly of the differences from island to island, are mostly
lacking, with the exception of Herculano de Carvalho (1961, 1962).
Suprisingly, there is no religious literature in Crioulo. But, beginning with Teixeira
(1895 to 1899) and going on through the poet Tavares (1932) and several contemporaries,
the dialects have been used for secular literature; see the discussions by Araujo (1966) and
Ferreira (1967a). There is the usual folk literature in the vernacular, a considerable part of
which has been recorded, e.g. by Cardoso (19336) and Parsons (1917 to 1923).

Gui?? (Guinea-Bissau). Portugal planted its first colony on the Gui?? coast in 1669
but parts of the interior were not brought under effective control until the twentieth cen?

tury. Of about 521,000 inhabitants, less than 2 percent are classified as 'civilized,' the rest
presumably speaking African mother tongues. It is noteworthy that the current insur?
rectionists of the independence movement are encouraging Crioulo as a unifying force;
see Chaliant (1967).
There is no information as to the extent to which Crioulo is pidginized or reduced in
structure among tribal speakers. Only the developed coastal cre?le, which has close ties
with Cape Verdean Crioulo and is spoken in three dialects, has been described. Bertrand
Bocand? briefly sketched the Crioulo in 1849; Schuchardt wrote on it (1888/?); Marques
de Barros, a cre?le cleric, described it at length (1897-1907); Wilson gives a short con?

temporary account (1962) which lacks adequate texts. Morais-Barbosa has a description

forthcoming. Except incidentally, even the oral literature in Crioulo has not been re?

corded, and there appears to be neither religious nor secular written literature.

Ziguinchor, formerly part of Gui??, was transferred to S?n?gal in 1886. An offshoot of

Gui?? Crioulo known as Kriy?l, described briefly by Chataigner (1963), is spoken in
Ziguinchor and Dakar as the mother tongue of ca. 42,000 persons. Doneux (n. d.) adds a

little information and Esvan published a catechism (1922) inKriy?l.

Sao Tom? (pop. ca. 60,000) and Principe (ca. 5000) were colonized beginning in 1485 and
1500, respectively. Schuchardt first collected the scanty information on the closely related
dialects of S?o Tom? (1882a) and Principe (1889a), which locally are called Forro. Almada
Negreiros published an amateur's description of Sao Tom? Crioulo (1895), and Valkhoff,
a short but professional account many years later (1966). Luiz Ferraz of the University of
theWitwatersrand ismaking a detailed study of the dialect. Reis (1965, 1969) has made
some of its folklore available. Only recently have local writers begun to use a little Crioulo in
belles lettres (Moser 1969). There is no description of the Principe dialect, but Wilfried
G?nther of the Philipps-Universit?t Marburg/Lahn iswriting a dissertation on it. Ferraz

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 15. CREOLE PORTUGUESE :GENERAL

has gathered material on a third cre?le, that spoken by the Angolares, descendants of
shipwrecked slaves who remained outside the plantation system; it is reported to have a
considerable Bantu (Kimbundu) element.

Annob?n (Ano Bom) Crioulo is spoken by only ca. 2000 persons including emigrants to
Fernando P?o and elsewhere. Settled early in the sixteenth century, the island was left
to self-rule over long periods and passed to the Spanish flag in 1778. Its isolation has
produced a rather archaic dialect subject to Spanish rather than Portuguese influence.
Schuchardt brought the Fa d'Ambu to attention in 1888, but our knowledge of it rests
on the work of two priests, who at a generation's interval each produced a catechism
and a traditional grammar, Vila (1891a, 18916) and Barrena (1928, 19572).

Indo-Portug?ese. Portuguese trade in India began in 1498 and Goa, the seat of govern?
ment, was conquered in 1510. Other colonies and trading posts were founded from time to

time, the resulting communities often surviving the loss of commercial and military
power. Melo Lopes (1936) gives a comprehensive survey of the use of Portuguese in India
and elsewhere in the Orient but does not differentiate between standard and pidgin/creole
varieties. Schuchardt (18896) surveyed Indo-Portuguese in general, and he and Dalgado
between them sketched, rather than described, some surviving cre?le and semi-creole
dialects: Diu (Schuchardt 1883a), Dam?o (Dalgado 1903), Bombay and vicinity (Dalgado
1906), G?a (Dalgado 1900), Cochin (Schuchardt 1882Z>), Mah? and Cannanore (Schuch?
ardt 1889c), and Mangalore (Schuchardt 1883a1). They and Moniz Junior (1900) give a
few texts. Hancock (1971) lists over 40 other communities in India and several in Indo?
China where cre?le or pidgin Portuguese was once spoken. Laurentiu Theban of the
University of Bucharest has found that only a few remnants remain of the dialects de?
scribed by Dalgado and Schuchardt; however, at Korlai, Chaul, a hitherto undescribed
norteiro dialect is spoken by about 700 persons.

Ceylon is a special case of Indo-Portuguese because the dialect was used so and so
long
extensively. Portuguese conquest of the coast began in 1517 and Portugal's last stronghold
was captured by the Dutch in 1658. The Dutch (1656-1796), and after them the
British,
continued to use Crioulo as a lingua franca. The first description of Crioulo was by Ber
renger (18112), who was followed by by Fox (18191). Dalgado, when the dialect was sup?
posed to be in full decline, produced a full-scale monograph on it (1900), and Ta vares de
Mello published several texts of folk literature (1907/08 to 1914). Hesseling (1910) also
attests to the continued use of the dialect among the mestizo Dutch Burghers. Though
Crioulo appears on the way to extinction as an urban D. E. Hettiaratchi of Vidyo
dialect,
daya University (1969) has found 300-400 creole-speaking rural families at Uppodai near
Batticaloa.
An abundance of religious literature was produced by the Wesleyan mission, including
translations of the Psalms (18211), theNew Testament (18261), the Pentateuch (1833), the
Book of Common Prayer (18201), and Lloyd's catechism (n.d.), and periodical literature
extending into the twentieth century. The Roman Catholics and independent Catholics
also wrote in Crioulo, and there was a little secular writing.

Indonesia andMalaysia. At Batavia (now Jakarta) in Java, never held by the Portuguese, the
Dutch mixed-blood community and its slaves used Crioulo until about 1800, and in the
nearby village of Tugu the dialect continued until after 1900. This dialect was the subject
of a monograph by Schuchardt (1890), supplemented by Huet (1909).
The Portuguese held Malacca from 1511 to 1641, and perhaps 6000 of their descend

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 [1. 15. CREOLE PORTUGUESE: GENERAL

ants, largely fishermen, still speak what they term Papia Kristang. It has been described
and illustrated at length in traditional fashion by Silva R?go (1942) and sketched pro?
fessionally but briefly by Knowlton (1964) and Hancock (1969, 1970a). The dialect has
been carried to Singapore, where it is spoken by a cosmopolitan offshoot of the Malaccan

community (Teixeira 1963).

Macao (Macau) and Hong Kong. A Portuguese settlement was established in Macao in

1557, resulting in a mixed-blood, creole-speaking community. The population is predom?

inantly Chinese. Of the ca. 8000 Portuguese only a few hundred speak Crioulo. The
dialect was carried to Hong Kong, where it is spoken by possibly as many as 2000. At
both places it is now in decline. Note, however, the recent literary work in 'Patois' by
Ferreira (1967). First sketched by Leite de Vasconcellos (1892), the dialect was later de?
scribed at length in traditional fashion, with texts, by Marques Perreira (1899-1901).
More recently it has been treated by Nogueira Batalha (1953 to 1968), Thompson (1959
to 1967), and Morais-Barbosa (1968), and locally by Barreiros (1943-44). Batalha is
publishing a detailed glossary of macaista words in Revista Portuguesa de Filolog?a, begin?
ning with 15:144-150 (1969/71 [1973]).

Angola and Mozambique. One would expect cre?le dialects to have developed in these two

long-standing colonies, but the compilers have found no reference to such. Moser (19696)
refers to the use in literature of the broken Portuguese (pequeno-portugu?s or pretogu?s)

spoken by illiterate Africans in the cities of Angola. Language contacts in these two
countries merit study but are not likely to receive it under present political conditions.

Included are works dealing with the expansion of the Portuguese language and its
creolization in many places ; the reciprocal influence of Portuguese and other languages ;
early West African pidgin Portuguese; works dealing with several areas; necrologies of

Portuguese creolists.

Derek. 1971. Rethink? los . . .', RPF 1:617-620.

BICKERTON, [3.
ing pidgin genesis', unpub. paper, first
-. 19476. 'Adolfo Coelho e a
draft, ca. Nov. 1971. 22 p. typescript. [1.
filolog?a portuguesa e alam?o no s?culo
Attributes much of the structure of early cre?le Biblos 23:607-691. in
XIX', Summary
Portuguese and afterwards of other Atlantic
cre?les to West Africans who set them? RPF 2:370-372 (1948). [4.
European
selves to learn Portuguese as a trade language or Bare mention of Coelho's work on cr?oles, p.
learned it from one another in barracoons. 686.

BLAKE, John William (ed. and tr.). 1942. BOXER, C[harles] R[alph]. 1965. The
Europeans in West Africa, 1450-1560. Dutch seaborne empire 1600-1800. Lon?
Documents to illustrate the nature and
don: Hutchinson & Co., Ltd. 326 p. [5.
scope of Portuguese enterprise in West
Portuguese influence on superseding Dutch
Africa, the abortive attempts of Castilians colonists through intermarriage, leading to the
to create an and the use of Portuguese patois as home language, p.
empire there, early
221-226.
English voyages to Barbary and Guinea.
Vol. 1. London :Printed for the Hakluyt BRADSHAW, A. T. von S. 1965. Ves?

Society, xxxvi, 246 p. [2. tiges of Portuguese in the languages of

Incidental information on the use of trade Sierra Leone', SLLR 4:5-37. [6.
Portuguese. Lexical; but briefly discusses early language
Tn contacts, p. 6-9.
BOLEO, Manuel de Paiva. 1947a.
?
memoriam . . . J. Leite de Vasconcel BRANCO, Bernardes. 1882-85. A lin

78

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 15. CREOLE PORTUGUESE: GENERAL [22.

goa nas regi?es orientais', records', unpub. paper, 13 p. typescript.

portuguesa
Boletim da Sociedade de Geographia [14.
Commercial do Porto 2:118-119. [7. ENTWISTLE, William J[ames]. 1936.
?1940. 'Das Suffix des The Spanish language together with Por?
BRUCH, J[osef].
"Crioulo" in Fest? tuguese, Catalan and Basque. London:
portugiesischen ',
der Universit?t K?ln zu den por? Faber & Faber Ltd. vii, 367 p. [15.
schrift
tugiesischen Staatsfeiern des Jahres 1940, -. - 2d ed. Ibid,
1962. xiii,
p. 99-100. [8. 367 p. [16.
C?SAR, Am?ndio. 1967. Par?grafos de Trenchant discussion of cre?le Portuguese, p.
ultramarina. Socie? 313-316, and Brazilian Portuguese, 316-323.
literatura [Braga?]
dade de Expans?o Cultural. 346 p. [9. FLASCHE, H[ans]. 1937. Review of D.
Discusses overseas writers but barely mentions de Mel? Lopes (1936), RF 51:246-248.
Crioulo writings. [17.
COELHO, Francisco] Adolpho (orAdolfo). HAIR, P. E. H. 1966. The use of
1880-86. 'Os dialectos rom?nicos ou African in
languages Afro-European
neo-latinos na ?frica, Asia e Am?rica.' contacts in Guinea, SLLR
1440-1560',
[10. 5:5-26. [18.
Covers Portuguese creole-speaking areas and The Portuguese trained native interpreters,
Brazil. which gave them a head start in trade.

CUST, Robert Needham. 1883. A HART, Thomas R., Jr. 1959. The over?
sketch of the modern languages of Africa. seas dialects as sources for the history of
London: Tr?bner & Co. 2 vols. [11. Portuguese pronunciation', in III Colo?
Internacional de Estudos Luso
Mixed Portuguese of West Africa, p. 43-49. quio
Brasileiros 1957, Actas 1:261-272. [19.
DALGADO, Sebasti?o Rodolfo. (See also
Contains some comment on creolists, especially
A. X. SOARES.) 1916. Contributes
Dalgado.
para a lexiologia [sic] luso-oriental.
Coimbra: Imprensa daUniversidade. 192 JOHNSTON, Sir Harry [Hamilton]. 1906.
Liberia.. . . London: Hutchinson& Co.
p. (Separate from Boletim da Segunda
2 vols., xxviii, 519; xvi, 521-1183 p. [20.
Classe, Vol. 9, Academia das Ciencias de
Early Portuguese pidgin, 1:48-49.
Lisboa.) [12.
Detailed treatment of individual loanwords LOPES, David de Mel?. 1936. A expan?
from Asian languages, including material not used s?o da no Oriente
lingua portuguesa
in the Gloss?rio.
durante os s?culos XVI, XVII e XVIII. . .
-. 1919-21. Gloss?rio luso-asi?tico. Barcelos: Portucalense Editora Lda.
2
Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade. xii, 188 p. [21.
vols., 1919 and 1921. [13. Reviewed: Jos? Pedro Machado in BF(L)
influence of Asian lan? 4(3/4)-.381-386; H. Flasche in RF 51:246-248.
Historical-philological:
Contains much valuable historical and biblio?
guages on Portuguese and through it on other
graphical material but does not differentiate
European languages. Detailed treatment of each
word on the lines of O.E.D. between standard and pidgin/creole Portuguese.
Bibl., p. lv-lxvii. For
English translation see A. X. Soares.
LOPES, Edmundo Correia. 1941. 'Dia?
Reviews reprinted in Port, translation in RL
24:298-305; J. Bloch in Journal Asiatique (1919); lectos crioulos e etnograf?a crioula',
M. Longworth Dames in JRAS (1921); A. BSGL 59:415-435. Reprinted inMorais
Meillet in BSLP 21: 207 (1919); H. Schuchardt in
LGRP 41:339-341 Barbosa (1967), p. 405-430. [22.
(1920).
Deals almost entirely with Portuguese cre?les,
DILLARD, J[oey] L. 1971? Creole as 'vasto laboratorio de ra?a e de
envisaged
Portuguese and cre?le English : the early cultura.' Emphasizes tendency to reduce gram

79

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 [23. 15. CREOLE PORTUGUESE: GENERAL

mar to the barest possible minimum. Compares Forum

discovered', African 2(4):78-96.
developments in various regions.
[31.
MACHADO, Jos? Pedro. 1936. Review Discusses literature from the Cape Verdes, S.
of David de Mel? Lopes (1936), BF (L) Tom? e Pr?ncipe, and Angola, with special notice
of the Cape Verdean Tavares
4(3/4): 381-386. [23. Eugenio (1867
1930).
MARGARIDO, Alfredo. 1960. Cr?ni?
-. 19696. in
cas de Lisboa: A dos crioulos Essays Portuguese
forma?ao
African literature. University Park, Pa.:
portugueses', Cabo Verde 11 (132):
The Pennsylvania State Univ. 88 p. (The
3-5. [24.
Pennsylvania State Univ. Studies, no.
A general treatment resting on Silva Neto, A
lingua portuguesa no Brasil. 26.) [32.
-. 1962. 'The social and economic NEMESIO, Vitorino. ?1948. 'Perfil de
of Portuguese negro
Adolfo Coelho', Revista da Faculdade de
background poetry',
37:50-74. Letras de Lisboa 14: 23-46. Summary in
Diogenes [25.
and in Cape
RPF2: 433-434. [33.
Folk literary poetry Verdean
Crioulo (p. 56) and folk poetry in S?o Tom? Forro NOGUEIRA, Rodrigo de S?. 1930. 'Da
(58); corrupt Portuguese spoken in Angola (70). necessidade de se estudiar a nossa
MATOS, Luis de. 1968. 'O portugu?s? Portu?
dialectolog?a colonial', Lingua
lingua franca no Oriente', in Coloquios 1:280-281.
guesa [34.
sobre as provincias do Oriente 2:11 Creole dialects are valuable for survivals of
23. [26. earlier stages of Portuguese.

On Portuguese generally; no special mention Oscar Bastian. 1957. 'Reflex

PINTO,
of cre?le.
?es acerca da expans?o da lingua portu?
MATTA, J. D. Cordeiro da. 1893. En guesa no mundo', in Anais do Congresso
saio de diccionario kimb?ndu-portuguez. Brasileiro de Lingua Vern?cula 2: 152?
Lisboa: Casa Editora Antonio M. 193; summary in A nais 3: 460-461.
Pereira. xvi, 172 p. [27. [35.

Specimens of Cape Verde and S. Thom? dialect, A diffuse article, useful for quotations from and
p. xiv-xv. citations of old writers and D. Lopes (1936) on
Portuguese in the Orient.
MORAIS-BARBOSA, Jorge. ?1968. A
no QUADROS, J?nio. 1966. Curso pr?tico
lingua portuguesa mundo. Lisboa:
da lingua portuguesa e sua literatura. Vol.
Sociedade de Geograf?a. 192 p. [28.
1. S?o Paulo: Editora Formar Ltda.
-. 1969.
-2.a revista.
edi?ao, 408 p. [36.
Lisboa: Ag?ncia-Geral do Ultramar.
List of crioulo dialects, p. 61-63. Story of the
170 p. [29. Prodigal Son in 4 Indo-Portuguese dialects,
63-64.
A competent survey. 'Os crioulos,' p. 113-121;
'O portugu?s no Brasil,' 121-123; 'A difus?o da 1959. Historia da
no 'In?
RIBEIRO, Joaquim.
lingua portuguesa Oriente,' 123-124;
fluencia do portugu?s em l?nguas orientais,' 124? romaniza?ao da Am?rica. Rio de Janeiro:

128; 'Influencia do portugu?s em l?nguas afri? Servi?o Nacional de Teatro, Ministerio

canas,' 128-133. Bibl., 159-168.
da Educa?ao e Cultura. 322 p. [37.
MOSER, Gerald M. 1962. 'African lit? 'O portugu?s e as l?nguas negro-africanos,' p.
erature in the 246-278, lexical.
Portuguese language',
//. of General Ed. 13:270-304. [30. RODNEY, Walter. 1970. A history of
A good article but has nothing specifically on the Upper Guinea coast, 1545-1800.
Crioulo. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 283
xiii,
-. 1969a. 'African literature in p. [38.

Portuguese: the first written, the last Considerable detail on Portuguese settlements

80

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 15. CREOLE PORTUGUESE: GENERAL [51.

along the coast, showing how creolized trade Strongly emphasizes the role of CP in affecting
Portuguese got started. other creolized languages.
-. 1964. sobre
1888. Bei? Algumas reflexoes
SCHUCHARDT, H[ugo].
os dialectos crioulos. Sao Tom?: Tipo?
tr?ge zur Kenntnis des kreolischen
Romanisch. I. Allgemeineres ?ber das graf?a das Miss?es Cat?licas. Reprinted,
ZRP 12:242
with revisions, inBF(L) 20: 3-12 (1969).
Negerportugiesische',
254. [39. [45.
A general treatment of Portuguese cre?les, with
A general treatment of the Guinea coast, Cape special attention to S?otomense.
Verdes, islands in the Gulf of Guinea, and other
-. 1966. Studies in Portuguese and
Portuguese colonies.
Creole, with special reference to South
SILVA Neto, Serafim da. 1952. Historia
Africa. [46.
da lingua portuguesa. Rio de Janeiro:
Incorporates Valkhoff (1960) and treats also of
Livros de Portugal. 583 p. [40. the Gulf of Guinea dialects and Portuguese
influence on Afrikaans.
General discussion of cre?le languages, p.
431-442, with some good material on early use of VASCONCELLOS, J[os?] Leite de (i.e.,
Portuguese in West African trade.
Leite de Vasconcellos Pereira de MEL?
-. 1957. 'A lingua portuguesa e a LO). 1897/99. 'Dialectos crioulos por?
sua expans?o', in Anais do Congresso tugueses de ?frica (contribui?oes para o
Brasileiro de Lingua Vern?cula 2: 95-123. estudo da dialectolog?a portuguesa)', RL
Summary, Anais 3: 448^50. [41. 5:241-261. [47.
A valuable survey mostly incorporated in the
Mainly theoretical, but gives 'Conspecto dos
Esquisse (1901). Bibl., p. 242-246. Text of Tei
falares crioulos,' p. 115-123. xeira's translation of a passage from Os Lusiadas
into S. Ant?o Crioulo, with grammatical analysis,
SOARES, Anthony Xavier. 1936. Portu? 246-261.
guese vocables in Asiatic languages. From
-. 1901. Esquisse d'une dialectolo?
the Portuguese original of Monsignor
gie portugaise. (Th?se pour le doctorat de
Sebasti?o Dalgado translated into
with additions and com?
l'Universit? de Paris.) Paris & Lisboa:
English notes,
ments. Baroda: Oriental Institute,
Aillaud & Cie. 220 p. [48.
cxxv,
Reviewed :Pedro A. d'Azevedo in RL 8:153-158
520 p. [42.
(1903/05).
Includes a sketch of Dalgado's life and work. Includes short descriptions of virtually all
overseas dialects, including cre?les, with biblio?
TONKIN, Elizabeth. 1971. 'Social as? graphical references.

pects of the development of Portuguese -. 1925/27. 'Monsenhor Sebasti?o

pidgin in West Africa', paper read at R. RL 26:311-323.
Dalgado', [49.
SOAS Language and History in Africa A necrology.
Seminar, 28 Oct. 1971. 10 p. mimeo.
-. 1959. Li?oes de filolog?a portu?
[43. 3.a comemorativa centenario
guesa. ed.,
Discusses the conditions under which simplified do com notas do
autor, enriquecida
Portuguese came to be spoken, with attention to
autor, prendada e anotada por Serafim
theory of formation of pidgins and cre?les.
Emphasizes role of simplified Portuguese in da Silva Neto. Rio de Janeiro: Livros de
Africa.
Portugal, xxx, 492 p. [50.

VALKHOFF, Marius[-Francois]. 1960. V?ZQUEZ CUESTA, Pilar, and Maria

'Contributions to the study of Creole. Albertina MEND?S da LUZ. 1961.
II. An historic language: Creole Portu? Gram?tica portuguesa. 2.a ed. Madrid:
guese', AfrS 19:113-125. [44. Editorial Gredos. 551 p. [51.
Reviewed: Albano Monteiro Soares in RPF Brief sketch of most cre?les, p. 102-110;
12:270-272 (1962/63). mention of a cr?ole on Timor.

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