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John Varney An Introduction to the
Colombian Bambuco

Background
A distinction between "artmusic" and "folk
(or traditional) music" is at times difficult to apply to Latin American mu-
sic as there are many musical genres that share some characteristics of
each of these broad classifications. Some relatively well-known examples
of such genres are the Brazilian ch6ro,the Venezuelan vals,the Puerto Rican
danza,the Cuban danz6n,and the Colombian pasillo and bambuco.All exist
as notated forms and most of the better-known examples have specific
composers. Musicians who perform such genres in their notated form find
them demanding, generally requiring a technical expertise equivalent to
that of conservatorium training to do them justice. Contemporary urban
performances of these genres are frequently by musicians dressed in the
equivalent of Western concert dress to seated audiences in theaters or con-
cert halls. Instruments of national or indigenous origin, made to exacting
specifications, are used in such performances in ensembles that may in-
clude standard Western orchestral instruments.
From this point of view, these genres might be considered as "artmusic."
However, they also have another aspect in which they display folklorictraits.
These genres may be played by ear on instrumentsthat are constructedby
self-taughtartisansor by musicianswho are also completely self-taught.They
may be combined with percussioninstrumentsthathave not changed in their
basic structureand construction for hundreds of years. Many melodies, al-
though they may have been meticulously notated by their composers at the
time of composition, may simply be handed on from musician to musician as
they recall them, graduallyadopting modificationswhich become part of the
traditionalperformanceof the pieces. Some of these traditionalmodifications

Latin AmericanMusicReview,Volume 22, Number 2, Fall/Winter 2001

? 2001 by the University of Texas Press, P.O. Box 7819, Austin, TX 78713-7819
124 : John Varney

become so strong that they may override the written score when being per-
formed even by reading musicians.
The study of such forms of interest from many points of view may help
to provide insights into the relationships that exist between notated and
aurally transmittedmusic in environments where they have not been com-
pletely separated.A LatinAmerican musical genre displayingsuch attributes
and so chosen for study is the Colombian bambuco.Its selection is due to
the fact that, as well as displaying the varying characteristicsmentioned, it
also exhibits elements of the tricultural composition of Latin American
society. Musical genres that can be shown to represent these elements are
quite rare, as it is difficult to find social environments where the three cul-
tures-the Amerindian, the European and the Black African-have coex-
isted for any significant period. As will be seen in the development of this
article,these three culturalelements were closely associatedwith the bambuco
in different periods of its evolution, so aspects of each of them may be
evident.
The bambuco itself is characteristicallyassociated with the centralAndean
region of Colombia, the valleys of the Cauca and Magdalena rivers and
the foothills and plains adjacent to them. An easterly deviation of the
Andean chain towards Venezuela determines the Andean region's north-
ern limit, while it reaches as far south as the border with Ecuador. Ex-
amples of the bambuco in song form, which are generally slow and extremely
sentimental, nostalgic and poetic, are "Cuatropreguntas" and "El Muro."
Represented by completely different pieces from those of the vocal style,
there exists an instrumental variant, referred to in the contemporary con-
text as bambucofiestero, with a rhythm as boisterous as the dance it accom-
panies. An is
example "San Pedro en el Espinal." Bambucosthat combine
characteristics of both styles are relatively rare but a sufficient number
exists for them to constitute a third category which includes "Ontabas."
An apparently syncopated triple time combining elements of 3/4 and
6/8 identifies the characteristic rhythm of the bambuco,however, it is au-
rally readily distinguishable from other genres, like the joropo (from Co-
lombia and Venezuela's shared llanos)and the pasillo, which share similar
applications of these time signatures.The rhythmic features that so readily
identify the bambucoare described in this article.
Instrumentations used for the bambucomay be extremely varied; it is
commonly represented by a number of standard ensembles, correspond-
ing to different social contexts of musical performance, whose precise com-
position is quite flexible. Examples of these ensembles are the estudiantina
(stringed instruments of Spanish origin: Spanish criolloculture) and the
chirimia(composed of cane flutes-chirimias-and percussion: traditionally
associated with the rural mestizoor the indigenous culture).
This article sets out to provide a description and the results of analysis
of the bambucoto confirm its identity and basic musical composition.
 An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 125

Characteristic idiosyncrasies of the bambucowill be described in terms of

its rhythmic content above all. The lack of research by non-Colombian
authors of Colombian Andean music is evident in the fact that there are
only three sources-Dirk Koorn (1977), List (1980) and William Gradante
(1998)-available in English. Perhaps it is because there is no Colombian
music style that fulfills the requisites of having commercial value at the
same time as folkloric interest which could make it appealing beyond
Colombia's borders. Cuban music, for example, has commercial value as
a source for salsaand at the same time possesses folkloric and polycultural
depth which makes it interesting to study from a musicological point of
view. The same can be said for various Brazilian musical genres. The mu-
sical genres of both of these countries have been studied to a degree that is
disproportionate to the number of people who play them in comparison
with music from other Latin American countries. The musical genres of
Colombia are extremely varied, and one needs to have a global view of
the diverse Colombian styles before beginning to study any one of them
because of the way these styles interact and interrelate to greater and lesser
degrees. This in itself is an impediment to their study because a long pe-
riod of familiarization is required to gain a broad appreciation of the vari-
ety of Colombian music before one can begin to investigate a particular
genre.
The bambucoitself holds great potential for study from various points of
view. Questions related to its notation; differences between its urban and
rural manifestations; functional roles of instruments in the different en-
sembles which play it; differences between regional representations and
how they may have evolved; the bambucoin Venezuela; the relationship
between the bambucoand other Colombian triple-metre genres like the
torbellino,the sanjuaneroand the joropo,for example, are a few topics that
could produce fruitful results. William Gradante (1998, 385) wrote of the
need for a "study of [the bambuco's]actual musical traits .. . [and] to the
emergence of its contemporary varieties." The study from which this ar-
ticle is extracted carries this out, alongside a broader identification and
detailed presentation of the bambucoto the non-Colombian world.
Gradante's study also contributes some ideas and theories concerning the
bambucofrom a point of view that is both based on continuous contact with
the practice of Colombian music during a period of nearly twenty years
and is detached from specific traditional schools of thought.

Why the BambucoIs Singled Out for Study

Within the context of Colombian Andean music, the bambucois distin-
guished for many reasons. Among these differentiating features are the
facts that the bambucocan be found throughout the Andean region, it
126: John Varney

appears equally characteristic of urban and rural contexts, it exists inde-

pendently as a musical genre and as a dance which may be accompanied
by music that is not a bambuco,it has a chronology that can be traced back
to the colonial period, and an enormous amount of attention has been
dedicated to it in written articles and books.

MusicalDescriptionof theBambuco

To illustrate the fundamental identifying musical traits of the bambuco,four

bars of the song "Agachateel sombrerito"are used. These demonstrate the
melodic style and represent the relationship between the melody and its
accompanying rhythm, shown here as the latter would be played simulta-
neously on a tipleand a guitar.

Figure 1. How the melody combines with the tipleand guitar accompani-
ments in a bambuco(Arrangement byJ. Varney).
A u I > > > >

voice
" lr o-r Lror
A-ga- cha- te'l som-
y d-
bre- ri- to
a-
y porde- ba- jo mi- ra- me
L
tiple Vi ^ a^ E ?u?u-i ; s L
4LI
L
C Cr LJUU U
Lu Ll [ LIwC
guitar j2 lj S t f

This brief example may be broken down into the following elements:
1. A melody which appears to fluctuate between 3/4 and 6/8 nota-
tion in both note groupings and phrasing:

Figure 2. The first four bars of the bambuco"Agachateel Sombrerito" by

Pablo Valderrama.

h^i i fL
r r I 'I' ler :
A- ga- cha- te'l som- bre-ri - to y por de - ba- jo mi- ra- me

2. A chordal pattern in evident 3/4 time, based on either of the fol-

lowing formulas:
 An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 127

Figure 3. Bambucorhythm in the configuration described as "a tiempo,"or

"in time," as played on the guitar.
> - >
# > ? > >
- >- --

Or

Figure 4. Bambucorhythm in the configuration described as "a destiempo,"

or "about time," as played on the guitar.

> > > > >IN > >'

-

3. A percussive or rhythmic pattern that features accented beats on

the third and sixth quavers of Figure 3 above:

Figure 5. Rhythmic pattern as played on the tiplecorresponding to the

guitar pattern of Figure 3.

and on the first and fourth of Figure 4, strongly suggesting a

6/8 metre:

guitar pattern of Figure 4.

> > > > > > > >

4 isiyl ,S ljjj|I v pp i p p w I
|T 6

These rhythmic and stylistic features will be discussed in greater detail and
are simply given here as a preliminary orientation towards the musical
structure of the bambuco.
128 : John Varney

History of the Bambuco

The division byJorge Afiez (1951, 45) of the history of Colombian song
into four periods can be applied to both the instrumental and the vocal
forms of the bambuco.As redefined for the purposes of this article, the fol-
lowing periods are identified.

FormativePeriod(until 1837)

This period takes into account the development of the bambucofrom its
first documented appearances until it is perceived as having a place in
Colombian society. The first confirmed appearance of the word bambuco
in a musical context occurred in a letter from the republican General
Francisco de Paula Santander on 6 December 1819 to General Paris who
was in the Cauca region at the time (Ulloa 1994, 10; Restrepo 1987, 87).
In this letter the bambucois compared with landmarks and characteristic
features of the Cauca region, suggesting that General Paris takes advan-
tage of the fact that he is in Cauca to enjoy the best that the region had to
offer, including the bambuco.The fact that, by 1819, the bambucowas na-
tionally identified with the Cauca region would imply that it had already
established itself long before that date. The bambuco'sidentification as a
national symbol occurred in the final battle of Peru's War of Indepen-
dence on 9 December 1824 at Ayacucho, Peru. A Spanish division ad-
vanced towards the Colombian Voltijeros, who counterattacked and
captured the Spanish Viceroy, Laserna, and his chiefs of staff (Murillo
1881 cited in Restrepo 1987, 94). According to the memoirs of Manuel
Antonio L6pez (1878, 160; cited in Restrepo 1987, 91), this charge was
accompanied by the regimental band playing a bambuco.The importance
of this association is that it establishes the bambuco'sidentity as a national
symbol by this time as Afiez states that the Voltijeros battalion was com-
posed principally of soldiers from Tolima, Huila, and Cundinamarca.
For soldiers from these localities to be expected to be emotionally in-
spired by the sound of the bambucomeans that it must have been already
well known beyond the Greater Cauca area.

EmergentPeriod(1837-1890)

This phase covers the establishment, recognition, and acceptance of the

bambucoalongside genres of specifically European origin, including the
bambuco'sparticipation in the formation of a national musical culture inde-
pendent the European. The bambuco'spresence beyond Colombia was
of
recorded as "the famous bambuco" in Guatemala in 1837 (Afiez 1951, 23). A
 An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 129

letter to a periodical from Bogota, El amigodelpueblo(The People's Friend),

expresses the opinion that theatrical performances should be enlivened by
the inclusion of "well-known"music such as the bambuco.The first known
iconographic representation of the bambucois a watercolor by Edward
Walhouse Mark titled "Indios bailando el bambuco" (Indians dancing the
bambuco),painted on 26 December 1845 in the village of Raquira located
in the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes. In this painting, as Davidson (1970,
441) observes, "one can see a carrasca(scraper), and can make out some
string instruments."It is clear that by this time it had become customary to
accompany the bambuco with stringinstrumentsand percussion. It also shows
the speed with which the bambucohad become accepted into folk culture
and into relatively remote villages, as Raquira would have been at this
time. Earliest references to the bambucoin Neiva (1847) and in Antioquia
(1849) are noted by Restrepo (1987, 105-6) and further demonstrate the
speed of its diffusion in Colombia, keeping in mind that transport was
principally by arduous river and overland travel.
The acceptance of the bambucointo the patriciate of Bogota was noted
by the representation of a couple dancing in a painting by Ram6n Torres
Mendez in 1851 titled "El Bambuco-Bogota." In this portrayal a gentle-
man attired in tails dances with a lady dressed in an evening gown with a
train to the accompaniment of an ensemble consisting of violin, tiple,and
clarinet in which the musicians are formally dressed ("vestidosde etiqueta")
(Davidson 1970, cited in Restrepo 1987, 107).Thus in only thirty-twoyears
from its firstdocumented appearance, the bambuco had become established
as a musical icon in Colombia, accepted and fomented at all social levels.
In 1851, this period also saw the appearance of the firsttexts, by the distin-
guished Caucan author Rafael Pombo, to be specifically written as bambucos.
The bambuco'sappearance as a concert piece followed very quickly. It
was featured in a performance in Bogota by the visiting violin and piano
duo FranzCoenen and ErnstLiibeck in "theduo concertante of FraDiabolo
(sic),"on 28 November 1852, according to the contemporary journal El
pasatiempo(cited in Restrepo 1987, 112).The response of a local poet,Juan
Francisco Ortiz, published in the same journal inJune 1853, observes that
however admirable the musical prowess of the two musicians might have
been, the bandola,and not the violin with piano, was the correct instrumen-
tation for the execution of a bambuco.Later, significant progress in the ac-
ceptance and prestige of the bambucooccurred with the publication by
Breitkopf and Hartel of a work for piano titled "El bambuco-Aires
nacionales neogranadinos variados para el piano. Op. 14," composed by
Manuel Maria Parraga, who is described by Ignacio Perdomo (1963,
104-5) as one of the most popular composers of the nineteenth century.
One of the most significant references to the bambucoin literary works
occurred in the novel MariabyJorge Isaacs, published in 1867, in the fol-
lowing paragraph:
Figure 7. The most probable routes of initial diffusion of the bambucoin
Colombia departing from the Popayan area (Adapted byJ. Varney from
Mifiana 1997). Carlos Mifiana used the dotted lines to join sites men-
tioned with reference to the bambuco,whereas the continuous lines are
those drawn by this author to illustrate probable routes of diffusion of
the bambuco.

Carolena

i:
IL

92 ei
lunMtIt 0

II 9
AiiUtioquia tA

I 4iff '4 1
V *Rionego

I* ci
tI' iAlM

C
Roklan7t GU As'4
Ab1
/;"J Sa

~18753,0- 18!enz

1r ~~ ~/8 ~ ~Qw t g0tI

-y 1824 14

I/Pasto
lBn3e of /t
 An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 131

As the bambuco is a musicalgenrewhichin no respectresemblesthe musicof

the Americanaboriginesnor Spanishairs, one can assurewith some cer-
taintythatit was broughtfromAfricaby the firstslaveswho the conquerors
importedto the Caucaregion,just as the name thattodayit bearsseems to
be none other than that of "Bambuk"[a town/countryin FrenchSudan]
slightlyaltered.(Isaacs1867;citedin Restrepo1987,25)
This was the firsttime that any author had suggested that the bambuco might
have had African origins. In the last century there was a nation named
"Bambouk"in the west of what is now Mali. Its location was described as
being within an angle formed by the Faleme and Senegal Rivers between
12? 30' and 14? 30' north latitude and between 10? 30' and 12? 15' west
longitude (Lippincott 1880, 166). The word bamboukmeans "land of back-
carriers" and is derived from two words in Mande, the language of the
Mandinka tribe: bdmbu(back-carrier)and ko (country). This suggests that
the people from Bambouk may have been a people who carried loads on
their backs (Room 1994, 25). Also in Eritreathere is a town called Bambuco
and in Angola one finds a town called Bambuca very close to another
town called Cauca. This is particularly interesting because according to
Isaacs (1867) and Ulloa (1994), the bambucofirst took root in the Cauca
region of Colombia. It is evident, then, that there is more than one possible
place in Africa from where the bambucocould have taken its name if it did
indeed derive its origins from that continent.
Jose Maria Samper, an ascendant of Colombia's president from 1994-
98, Ernesto Samper Pizano, was the author of the firstprose text dedicated
to the bambucoin the periodical El hogaron 1 February 1868, which is
reproduced in Hernan Restrepo's study (1987, 144-150). This article is
possibly the first publication in which a detailed distinction is made, even
if in impressionistic rather than technical terms, between bambucosfrom
different regions of Colombia. Restrepo describes the following variants
from the Eastern Plains, Tolima, Antioquia, Bogota and surrounding areas,
and Cauca.
The emergent period was also noted by the "transcendental"(Restrepo
1987, 169) arrival in Bogota of Pedro Morales Pino from the city of Ibague
in 1877.Morales Pino, born in Cartago, Cauca, was only fourteen years old
at the time but already had sufficientfame as a painter and musician for his
parents to permit his migration to the capital.
Jorge Afiez (1951, 46) notes how in the mid- to late nineteenth century
there had developed in Bogota a considerable community of musicians
dedicated to the cultivation of Colombian popular music. It was into this
musical environment that Morales Pino was introduced and which un-
doubtedly influenced his decision to move from painting to music. Afiez
further clarifies that Morales Pino's achievement was not so much placing
the bambucoon the written staff, as this had already been done by Manuel
132 : John Varney

Figure 8. Pedro Morales Pino (Cartago, Cauca 1863-Bogota 1926).

Parraga,but the accuracyof the way in which he did it. The bambucos"Cuatro
preguntas" and "Por un beso de tu boca," composed by Morales Pino and
Eduardo Cadavid respectively, are compared by Afiez to show the impor-
tance of this. Among the various differences in the methods used by these
two composers to notate the bambuco,the most apparent is the left-hand
accompaniment.
Cadavid's method is a smooth arpeggio accompaniment that places pri-
mary accents on the first and third beats of the bar through the placing of
a bass note reinforced by a harmony note. A high note on the second beat
of the bar calls attention to this beat as a secondary accent while the off-
beat notes-always the same note in a given chord-gives the effect of an
off-beat ostinato. This creates a rhythmic structure from three elements
linked together by the continuity of the constant quaver movement. Chord
changes occur on the first beat of the bar.
 An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 133

Figure 9. The bambuco"Porun beso de tu boca" showing Cadavid's

manner of notating the melody and accompaniment for piano (Afiez
1952, 42-43).

Porun be-so de tu bo - ca yo no se cuan-to da - ri- a.

g:i - 'P-r r X t"

Morales Pino's method places notes on the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, and 6th qua-
ver beats of the bar, creating accents through the placing of bass notes on
the first and third beats, leaving the second beat empty and strengthening
the off-beat ostinato by grouping harmony notes on these off-beat quavers.
The empty second beat further strengthens this ostinato by virtue of hav-
ing it attack after a rest and also by permitting it to introduce the chord
changes, which occur on the second beat of the bar. In addition, the lack of
a continuous quaver movement gives the accompaniment a more agitated
quality:

Figure 10. Excerpt from the bambuco"Cuatropreguntas,"showing Morales

Pino's manner of notating the melody and accompaniment for piano (Aiez
1952, 42-43).

1. Nie - gas con Ie lo ue hi - cis - te y mis

(t,_ f g5a
1N d-c-
The most strikingdifference between the methods can be observed when
they are compared with transcriptions of performances of these pieces.
Comparison of (presumably) the composer's score of "Cuatro preguntas"
with the transcriptionof the recording by Obdulio andJulian shows minor
differences involving only voicings of chords in the accompaniment and
adaptations of the accompanying notes for the instruments which are used.
A comparison of the score of "Porun beso de tu boca" with the transcrip-
tion of a recording by an anonymous instrumental ensemble shows that
the performance radically differs from the given score. As the transcrip-
tion is of an instrumental version there are note substitutions suited to the
change of medium, as is to be expected, but the rhythmic placing of the
134: John Varney

notes is the main difference. A recent vocal recording of the song was not
available; however my Colombian wife, Marina Varney, a professional
vocalist, confirmed that this instrumental recording reflects the rhythmic
observed
phrasing in which the song would be sung. Syncopations can be
which were not present in the original score:

Figure 11. Written score (upper staff) and transcription of performance

(lower staff) of "Cuatro preguntas" (TranscriptionbyJ. Varey).
1 >

Aniez's main point with respect to Morales Pino is that his method of
notation of the rhythmic elements reflected the style of phrasing present
in the performance of the bambucoand he was the firstcomposer to achieve
this. Morales Pino's musical knowledge and ability led him to form a
series of ensembles, called "La Lira Colombiana" in the form of
estudiantinas.In these groups Morales Pino began to train Colombia's
future bambuqueros and helped to carry the bambucoforward to its next
historical phase.

GoldenAge (1890-1930)

In this period the bambucobecame the predominant Colombian genre and

established its struggle to represent Colombian culture in a national sense.
 An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 135

Figure 12. Written score (above) and transcription of performance of

"Por un beso de tu boca" (TranscriptionbyJ. Varney).
_
A _o

:Ai.f .

.r

r e n
i
Xr
d
0. -Suu t r a.: C cCrn --

While Morales Pino was setting up his ensemble "La Lira Colombiana,"
conducting a tour which culminated in performances at the Buffalo Expo-
sition in 1901, there existed in Bogota an intense cultural life in keeping
with its reputation as the "Athens of South America" (Epocarepublicana,
1997). David Puerta (1987, 21) considers that it was not until the end of the
nineteenth century that Colombian culture had sufficient self confidence
to begin to recognize the quality of its own musical production. During this
period many of the bambucos which today are considered true classics and
part of the backbone of the bambuco genre were written.
While the bambucowas maturing in Bogota within the general develop-
ment of a Colombian national music in the hands of musicians like Mo-
rales Pino, Emilio Murillo, and others, its advancement in other parts of
the country was also taking place. Restrepo documents how the first pub-
lished bambucoin traditional style was "LasBrisas del Pamplonita"by Elias
Soto (190); how Pedro Leon Franco (El Pel6n Santamaria)recorded, with
Adolfo Marin, the first phonographic recordings of bambucos in Mexico in
1908 (192); and how the subsequent popularity in Latin America led an
intense interchange of popular bambucos with other countries rearranged as
(or from) different genres (197-200). In the 1920s the bambucoprovided
music for theater and for silent films, was transmitted by radio for the first
time (in New York in 1926), and represented Colombia at the Seville Ex-
position in 1929. However, towards the end of the decade its popularity
began to wane (Restrepo 1987, 217, 225, 257).
136 : John Varney

Figure 13. A photo from 1899 of the members of "La Lira Colombiana"
who toured in the United States.

Period(1930 onwards)
Contemporary

Due to the lack of a local recording industry, opportunities for Colombian

musicians to record were in the United States, and with the rising popular-
ity of jazz and the Argentinean tango, these were becoming difficult there.
The recording industry itself faced great difficulties because of the compe-
tition from radio, which, although its transmissions were based on recorded
music, did not stimulate recording sales, as occurs today. Relatively few
homes possessed record players, and those that existed had an inferior
sound quality to that of radio (Restrepo 1987, 276). This situation led to a
greatly diminished range of opportunities for artistswho had risen to fame
with the bambuco.
In an interesting observation of the musical situation at the end of the
1930s, Restrepo notes that:
Companiesof Mexicanrevues... sing a type of song whichis cheerful,un-
demandingand catchy,withoutthe problemsof interpretation and dancing
thatwere being createdaroundthe bambuco, the faultbeing ... of elements
imposed... by Pedro MoralesPino, such as that of writingit in 3/4 and
creatinga dumbfoundingconfusionwith its rhythm.(1987,281)
Therefore Restrepo is inferring that the same attributesthat contributed
 An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 137

to elevating the bambucoto its once high status also caused it to go beyond
the tastes and comprehension of the general public and therefore brought
about its downfall. The bambuco'snew manifestation in the 1940s was the
bambucofiestero which appeared together with the rumbacriolla.Launched
principally by Emilio Sierra and Milciades Garavito in Bogota, bambucos
are
fiesteros described by Restrepo (1987, 302) as "hybrids where there are
memories of Cuba, of the coast, of all that which later will flood us." How-
ever, despite the fact that the composers or bandleaders who had launched
the rumbacriollain the early 1940s had, by the end of the decade, turned to
the porro,the emerging popularity and commercial strength of music from
the Atlantic Coast helped to reinforce the establishment of Colombia's
recording industry which in turn permitted the inclusion of Andean music
within a stable industry. In 1960 the bambucoachieved the recognition of
the institution of its own national festival-the FestivaldelBambucobased in
Neiva, Huila. The signature song of the festival, "El Sanjuanero," com-
posed by Anselmo Duran in 1934 (Salazar 1987, 75) or 1938 (Restrepo
1987, 345) belongs to the genre of bambucosfiesteros of which the band con-
ductor of its firstperformance, Emilio Sierra,was an exponent. In the town
of Ginebra, Valle, a festival of "vernacular music" with accent on "old
music" was inaugurated in 1974, becoming an annual event. It was later
given the name Festival Moiio Nufiez. Recorded in 1981 at this important
festival was a bambucotitled "La llamita" referred to by Restrepo (1987,
352) as a bambucoantoldgico,and which departs quite markedly from tradi-
tionally structured bambucos.

RecentDevelopments. The 1970s and 80s have seen a new appreciation of

Colombian Andean music, including the bambuco,as representative of
Colombia's distinctive autochthonous musical culture. In the field of con-
temporary art music, the composer Blas Emilio Artehortua has composed
a bambucowithin his "Suite Popular Colombiano," inspired by de Falla's
"Siete Canciones Populares,"which itself includes a canci6nthat could be
considered to be a stylized bambuco.Furthermore in 1997 the Colombian
Cultural Institute Colcultura instituted a competition for musical arrange-
ments in instrumental, choral, and symphonic categories in which the sym-
phonic work was to be a kirpaor Caucan bambuco. The fact that the bambuco
was chosen for this competition shows that in Colombia there is a per-
ceived need to continue to stimulate innovation in the national musical
treasure that is the bambuco.Its fame as a fashionable genre will probably
never be recovered without rediscovering Colombia's traditional values
and the desire to express these. Its status as a national icon probably safe-
guards the degree of respect given to it but at the same time does not
guarantee that any enthusiasm need necessarily be felt for it by the general
138 : John Varney

population. The bambucois generally regarded as a kind of quaint museum

piece reserved for special occasions to be then put away afterwards.Still it
would appear, from the amount that continues to be written about the
bambuco,and by the fact that it continues to be performed, that in certain
musical quartersits uniquely Colombian combination of boisterous rhyth-
mic complexity and sad sentimentality continues to be appreciated by a
dedicated few. These are the musicians who still compose and arrange
bambucosfor performance in artificially recreated folkloric contexts, or as
contemporary concert pieces, and their followers.

The Bambuco-Ensemble Composition and Musical Analysis

Ensembles

When discussion occurs concerning the composition of ensembles in Latin

American music, often a degree of controversyariseswith respect to whether
certain instruments or ways of playing them are acceptable for a musical
performance to be traditional and/or characteristicand then whether this
is, in fact, important. The basic Colombian string trio consisting of bandola,
tiple, and guitar may be expanded into an estudiantinaby increasing the
numbers of each of these three instruments to form sections and by adding
a plucked violoncello or a double bass. Alternatively an estudiantinamay
include bandola,tiple,guitar, double bass and violin, trumpet, clarinet, flute,
or any of a broad selection of similar European melody instruments.David
Puerta (1987, 24) describes this last conformation, which may be also de-
scribed as a conjuntocolombiano(Colombian ensemble) (35), as an ensemble
which is
unaagrupacion sin duda,peroautentica,
eclectica, nosdloporloscomponentes, que
sonpartefundamentaldenuestrahistoriamusical,sinoporsusejecutorias,
tantoen
la cancidn
comoenlaspiezasinstrumentales.
... an eclectic,undoubtedly,but authenticcombination,not only because
of its components,whichforma fundamentalpartof ourmusicalhistory,but
alsobecauseof performancesof songsjustas muchas in instrumentalpieces.
(author'stranslation)
The relationship between the bambucoand its chosen ensembles is in con-
tinuous evolution. However, it must be admitted that there are certain in-
strumental combinations that are more frequently associated with the
bambucothan others. Among the ensembles that result from these instru-
mental combinations are the string trio, or estudiantina,and the chirimia.
 An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 139

TheColombianStringTrio. As has been stated previously, the fundamental

Colombian Andean string trio is composed of the bandola,the tiple,and the
guitar, while variants may include a requintoor a double bass.

The Chirimia Ensemble. When bambucosare played in the western and

southern Andean areas, the preferred ensemble is often the chirimia
(Behague and List 1980, 577). An ensemble of this name is generally more
specifically associated with the Pacific Coast (PardoTovar, 1961), however,
this does not prevent its occurrence in the Andean region as well. On the
Pacific Coast the ensemble is generally quite large and includes clarinets,
as well as brass and percussion instruments, but the Andean chirimiausu-
ally consists of two flutes, also referred to as chirimzias
but more correctly as
flautas de carrizo(cane flutes), and percussion instruments. Parallels can be
observed between the Andean string trio's accompaniment for the bambuco
and that of the chirimfaensemble.

Figure 14. Accompaniment patterns for the bambucoas played by the

Colombian string trio and the chirimiaensemble.

pAU 1 C.> r~~~~~~~>

.
>
,

Tiple "I

Guitar

Redoblante rra

Caja
> >> >

s- Cx - X - -
Bombo p p p
-4 o
Al I I I

Three main elements of the bambuco'saccompaniment are evident in both

ensembles:
1. A bass note on the first and third beats of the bar; there may be
one on the second as well but the first and the third are the most
important. These are played by the guitar in the trio and by the
tamborain the chirimia.
140 : John Varney

2. A running movement in quavers throughout the bar. This results

from the combined parts of the guitar and the tiplein the trio, and
is played on the redoblante and the cajain the chirimia.
3. An accented beat on the third and sixth quavers of the bar. In the
string trio these accents are provided by the rasgueadostrokes on
the tipleand in the chirimia,and are marked by the shell strokes on
the tambora.
Bambucosas played by the string trio and the estudiantinaensemble very
rarely include percussion instruments, but the performance of a rajalefa,a
relative of the bambucospecifically for dance music, may include a tambora
(or bombo,a double-headed frame drum). If a tamborais played, for ex-
ample, with a double bass and a requinto,the combination reinforces ac-
cents created by the bass notes and the requinto'srasgueadoaccents in the
following way.

Figure 15. How the tamborawould reinforce the rhythmic structurecreated

by the requintoand the double bass in the rajalena"Tierracaliente."
> 2
>. 25 >.

Requinto a
qu.?NV 3A ,[* .,
I I
, ? ?~.+ad
~ _
P nmt
~ ~. _~ ," SIS
] U UL - X I LJ J l

Bass
v 3 x_r
0 xx
Bombo 11
m" I X X
c _ F x )C - ;K
4 skin I _I
shell U

In the two ensembles dicussed here, the strongest accompanying rhythmic

figures are those of the 3/4 bass notes and the 6/8 accents, giving an overall
rhythmic accompaniment based on the following figure:

Figure 16. The fundamental rhythmic pattern of the bambucoaccompani-

ment.

I4P ' A I
 An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 141

Rhythmand AccentStructuresin Bambuco Melodies

An archetypal rhythmic structure for bambucomelodies may be defined

through the analysis and comparison of melodic phrases that occur in a
selection of bambucos.Analysis of a number of vocal bambucosgave the
following melodic rhythmic structure as the most representative for eight
syllable phrases:

Figure 17.The most representative rhythmic pattern for eight-syllable

phrases.

jfnlnflJ! J. I
When the line of song text is only seven syllables, the ending is different:

Figure 18. Excerpt from "El enterrador"showing differencesin the rhyth-

mic structureof the phrase endings for 8 (above) and 7 (below) syllables.

~
6l,i' hp |
1 J.
En- te- rra- ron por la tar - de
I >

h- l Jun Si- mJ
a la hi- ja de Juan Si- mon

This accent structure further specifies the octosyllabic phrase type as ex-
emplified by bambucoexamples as:

Figure 19. Octosyllabic phrase type displaying accent structure of phrase

ending.

| l, n ? n I J. I
The different ways in which two-bar phrases combine can be observed in
the bambuco"Agichate el sombrerito,"the firsttwo two-barphrases of which
conform to the model shown in:
142 : John Varney

Figure 20. The first 2-bar phrases of "AgachateEl Sombrerito."

[ > > > (>) > > 21 > (>)
^rr-rT
A- ga- cha- te'l som - bre-ri -
'rTto y
r- r. Imi-ra - mer I
U'r
por de - ba-jo

The accents placed over the note heads correspond to the accented syl-
lables of the text, which are also the accented notes of the melody.' The
accents in brackets occur through the interruption of the phrase. The con-
tinuation of the phrase after this interruption has the effect of a new rhyth-
mic event that creates another accent. The combination of these creates a
resultant pattern of melodic accents that distinguishes the bambucofrom all
other Latin American music and is found in dozens of sung bambucos based
on two-bar phrases. The rhythmic configuration of notes in the first bar of
the two-bar phrase can vary within an octosyllabic context, but the second
bar is almost always the same. The only exception is when the final syl-
lable is accented, when the second bar is composed of a crotchet followed
by a minim or by a quaver followed by a quaver tied to a minim. Bars nine
to twelve of the same song show how the rhythmic configuration can be
varied when a four-bar phrase occurs:

Figure 21. The 4-bar phrase from bars 9 to 12 of the melody of

"AgachateEl Sombrerito."
>'
y o u na(>) r [>] l h

y con u - na mi - ra- di - ta di lo que quie - ras ha- blar - me

To understandthe modifications of the basic two-barphrase that have taken

place to produce this four-bar phrase, it is necessary to reconstruct the
latter as two 2-bar phrases.

Figure 22. Bars 9 to 12 of the melody from "AgachateEl Sombrerito"as

two 2-bar phrases.
> > (') > ,
(>) > _

y con u- na mi- ra- di - ta di lo que quie- ras ha- blar - me

As can be seen, the three notes corresponding to the syllables "di lo que"
anticipate their normal placing by three quaver beats and the note corre-
sponding to the syllable "quie-"anticipates by two quaver beats. The con-
sequence of this is that these notes now coincide with the accented beats of
the instrumental accompaniment:
 _

An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 143

Figure 23. How the modification of note placement in the formation of

the 4-bar phrase leads to re-alignment of the shifted notes to coincide
with the accents in the accompaniment.
- > () > > ()
- k3
-- e T -
^ Lj.-Jr ,r r
r A
r
/r- Fpf -r
y- -L
y conu- nami- ra- di - ta / d, o qu quie-ras ha- blar - me

(I) > >) >

.~t.
7 .r r Ir
. ._J
-I -
Y r r'
y conu- nami- ra- di - ta di lo que quie - ras ha- blar - me

R, r J r. o
-__ _ r y
II I L I L I J I u
InstrumentalBambucos

The rhythmic elements in the accompaniment of the instrumental bambuco

are identical with those of the sung variety. The first apparent difference in
phrasing between the two lies in the fact that the instrumental melodies are
no longer tied to phrases of specific numbers of syllables and so longer
phrases and more varied rhythmic configurationsare possible in the melody.
No particularphrase dominates in the instrumental bambucosinthe same
way as the vocal examples, however, one may generalize on elements found
in these phrases. Two and four-bar phrases predominate, the former con-
stitutingfifty-six percent of the sample and the latter twenty-five percent of
the total number of phrases found in the combined vocal and instrumental
examples. In addition many of the three and five-bar phrases can be seen
to be extensions of two and four-barphrases respectively. Four-barphrases
are formed by joining together two 2-bar phrases, and the same applies for
six and eight-bar phrases, therefore two-bar phrases can be taken as the
basic phrase cell for a bambuco.Concerning the way phrases terminate,
that is the rhythmic structureof the second of this two-bar cell, 55 percent
of all phrases studied end in the eighth note/quarter note/dotted quarter
note-pattern. Taking into account the extreme variability of the first bar,
the two-bar phrase is and could be generically written as:

Figure 24. A possible representation of the rhythmic structure of a

generic 2-bar melodic phrase for the bambuco.

in n n J j eV
a
I
However, a measurement of the frequency of occurrence of notes in the first
bar of the two-bar phrase in the selection of examples shows the following:
144 : John Varney

Table 1. Occurrence of notes on quaver beats of first bar of bambuco's

characteristic2-bar phrase.

Quaver beat in first bar Percentage of phrases in which

of the 2-bar phrase the beat is occupied by a note

1 45
2 35
3 61
4 48
5 68
6 84

Taking into account the coincidence of accented syllables in texts of vocal

bambucos and the perceived accents in instrumental bambucos, the measure-
ment suggests a generic two-bar phrase of the following form:

Figure 25. A possible representation of the rhythmic structure of a

generic 2-bar melodic phrase for the bambuco,where normal notes
represent a highly likely occurrence and "diamond" head notes a less
likely occurrence.

iThDi444 I
This suggests that it will be more likely, in the case of a two-bar eight-note
phrase, to find, for example, a phrase of the form of Figure 26 rather than
that of Figure 27:

Figure 26. Probable 2-bar, 8-note bambucophrase.

A

Figure 27. Improbable 2-bar, 8-note bambucophrase.

A

Io
 An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 145

In fact the former of these examples occurs twenty-three times in the twenty
examples studied and is represented in both the vocal and instrumental
styles, while the latter does not occur at all.

HarmonicStructure

The analysis of the harmonic structureof a selection of bambucos shows that

harmonies chosen infrequently vary from dominant seventh to tonic inter-
spersed with a few subdominant and supertonic chords. Harmonic variety
is provided by numerous passing modulations to related keys within each
section. Of notable interest is the fact that almost all chord changes occur
on the second beat of the 3/4 bar.

Figure 28. Excerpt from "Palo Negro" showing how the chords change
on the second beat of the bar (50 Canciones n.d., 54).

Bn A7D,

-4^
: JJ..J ? a LL-JL-hf J
B6m F7 BkL

As these chord changes coincide with the strongest beat, the downward
rasgueado,of the tiple'srhythmic cycle, they reinforce this cycle to the point
that it provides a rhythmic point of reference in 6/8 beginning on the sec-
ond beat of the bar. This then rivals that in 3/4 created by the bass-line
accents on the first and third beats. The resultant rhythmic ambiguity will
be of particular significance when the notation of the bambucois discussed
later in this article. However, now it is possible to suggest a basic arche-
typal rhythmic structure for the bambucothat takes into account the two
accompanying rhythms and the melodic rhythm. Using the example of
the string trio, these three rhythms are performed by the guitar, the tiple,
and the bandolain the following way:
146: John Varney

Figure 29. Archetypal rhythmic structurefor the bambucoas played by

the Colombian string trio, which shows how, in the same twelve-quaver
period, occur a single bandolarhythmic cycle, four tiplecycles, and two
guitar cycles.
A
Bandola A J I! I l 1 1

Tiple is Qj>
.,r, >
, > >

Guitar inZx
ed
n
V -W
- n
py Y
V
n I

And similarly for the chirimiaensemble:

Figure 30. Archetypal rhythmic structurefor the bambucoas played by

the chirimfaensemble.
A
Cane flute Afl_IIE 1L I I

Caja m1.107W m rn
Tambora 11&3 x - x I x -x
I
"4w LJ

Notationof theBambuco

Rhythmic ambiguity created by the reinforcing of the tiple's rhythmic

pattern by the harmonic structureof the bambucosuggests that there might
be alternative ways of notating its time signature than previously men-
tioned. If the tipleand the harmonic base are taken as defining the rhyth-
mic pattern, then a 6/8 metre might be suggested, in which case the
relationship between the rhythmic role of the string trio instruments would
be as follows:
 An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 147

Figure 31. Alternative 6/8 notation for the basic rhythmic structuresof
the bambuco'smelody and rhythmic accompaniment.

- r r-r-e I L I
Bandola rA v;
I
<^JI I ,I f
1 2
I
J I 11
' 2
1 2

Tiple
t> > > >

An^
v l v II 1
J I 1
r"
I -la I nI
rm I J
Guitar

The possibility of a compromise notation may exist which takes its first
accent from the downward rasgueadoof the tiplebut still conserves the 3/4
of the traditional notation:

Figure 32. Alternative "shifted"3/4 notation for the basic rhythmic

structures of the bambuco'smelody and rhythmic accompaniment.
A
Bandola" J J 1!) I J.
A
Y Q I I I I i-I I i
* -i I i
Tiple
-e > > > >

Guitar 91 q

Choosing between these three possibilities has been the source of consid-
erable dispute between writers on the bambuco,leading Restrepo (1987, 43)
to refer to it as "the most delicate problem." In 1961 Andres Pardo Tovar
andJesfis Pinz6n Urrea published their study of Ritmicay mel6dicadelfolclor
chocoano (Rhythmic and melodic elements of the folklore of Choc6) in which
they included an appendix titled "Elbambuco y los aires tipicos del Choc6"
(The bambuco and folk melodies from Choc6). In the appendix the authors
declare their support for the use of the 6/8 time signature for the bambuco.
 148: John Varney

Their supportis based on the study of the melodies of two bambucos,

"Cuatro
preguntas" and "El trapiche," together with the comparison of melodic
elements of the bambuco,based on these two examples and folk genres
from the Choc6 region exemplified by the aguabajoand the jota chocoana.

Figure 33. The aguabajo"Allaviene una canoa" (Pardo Tovar 1961, 36).

-- h' ' 1 J Lh4J

.ip-
,,|fi^,. fTpJ
A- 11 vie-ne u- na ca- no- a- llaevie-ne u-na ca-no- a,
en la na-riz va A-ga- pi- to en la na-riz a A-ga-pi-

N
C T
a to- da
r ij lie-
ni-
J ta de lo- na:
Ii
to yen la pa- ti- Ila, Car- mo- na.

From the first phrase of the aguabajo"Allaviene una canoa" and similarly
from the jota "La prisionera," Pardo Tovar and Pinz6n Urrea derive simi-
lar melodic phrases:

Figure 34. Rhythmic patterns found in the melodies of an aguabajoand a

jota (Pardo Tovar 1961, 51).
Aguabajo

I BI I It 1 I I I ' 1 11
-
Z
--,F I , jfs 1 a- 1,

Jota

fQIYi,T! L'j bl I
These phrases can be compared with the notation in 6/8 of the archetypal
bambucophrase shown in Figure 31 revealing a marked similarity with the
characteristicbambucomelodic rhythm. Pardo and Pinz6n then analyze the
melody of "Cuatro preguntas"with respect to the accents of the texts:
 An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 149

Figure 35. Comparison of accented syllable in the text of the first two
lines of "Cuatro preguntas" with their placing within the accent structure
of the 3/4-time signature.
13

^y pml
17 SNh - 9? con h1 lo quehi - g -to y mis

,
sos- e -chas t a- om -bran

It can be seen that with the 3/4 notation none of the text accents fall on
strong beats of the bar. This is compared with the same excerpt from the
melody rewritten in 6/8:

Figure 36. Comparison of accented syllable in the text of the first two
lines of "Cuatro preguntas" with their placing within the accent structure
of the 6/8 time signature.
13
a II;' r1'rzJz
1 con 61
____ I4I " r
i2 -gas lo quehi - i -te y mis

i "' ' , i , Ii
sos - t -chas tea - som -bran

Now it can be seen how at least some accented syllables of the text fall on
accented beats of the 6/8 bar. Similarities between the melodic structureof
the aguabajo,jota, and bambuco,are then referred to by the authors who
propose that if the first two are generally accepted as being in 6/8 then so
should the third. Uribe Bueno's support for notation of the bambucoin 6/8
is based on the difficultieshe faced attempting to record bambucosinMexico
using his own scores notated in 3/4 (Restrepo 1987, 51). In his experience
as a musical director of Sonolux, one of Colombia's most important re-
cording companies, as a composer of Colombian Andean music, and as a
flautist and saxophonist in many important Colombian ensembles, Bueno
had been a defender of the 3/4 notation but changed his opinion. (The
reasons for this are included as a section in Restrepo 1987, 62-83).
150 : John Varney

Uribe Bueno observes how the bambucofollowed the tradition set by the
guabina,and other Colombian Andean genres which were
pasillo, torbellino,
all notated in 3/4. He states that while this may have been appropriate for
these genres, its adoption for the bambuco has created the following defects.
1. Notation in 3/4 caused a "desynchronization"of the melodic, har-
monic and rhythmic structure through "the addition of an extra
beat." If one considers the melody of "Cuatropreguntas"in figure
36, Uribe probably means that the song begins on the first note
with the text "Nie-"whereas in the transcriptionthe music begins
on the first beat of the bar, and the song one beat later. He states
that this creates an imbalance on the part of the executing musi-
cian and therefore inhibits his expression.
2. Arrangers and composers are "traumatized"by this method of
notation which stifles their inspiration and so puts them at a disad-
vantage with respect to contributing new ideas to the bambuco.
3. Natural accents in the text are repressed by the preceding beat in
the bar. He cites the bambuco"Chatica linda" in which the text
which should be accentuated:
Ven pa-CA,mas pa-LLA,Te que-RRE,Co-ra-ZON
(3/4 eighth,eighth,half\ eighth,eighth,half\ eighth,eighth,half)
becomes:
Ven PA-ca,mas PA-11a, Te QUE-rre,Co-Ra-z6n
4. Notation in 3/4 cuts the bar in half by placing the changes of har-
mony in the middle of the bar, creating "a sensation of rhythmic
insecurity."
5. Conductorsperforming a bambuco from a score are faced with read-
ing a score in triple time while listening to a performance in duple
time.
6. The bambucoin 3/4 cannot be analyzed properly because of the
inconsistencies in its notation.
I agree with most of Uribe Bueno's observations but some are incorrect.
For example the accentuation of the excerpt from "Chaticalinda" does not
become:
Ven PA-ca,mas PA-lla,Te QUE-rre,Co-RA-z6n
but:
VEN pa-ca,MASpa-lla,TE que-rre,CO-ra-z6n
where the upper-case bold syllables are strong accents, and the lower-case
bold are weaker accents. Furthermore,a performer aware of the accents in
the text would make the following accentuations:
 An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 151

Ven pa-CA,mas pa-LLA,Te que-RRE,Co-ra-ZON

The rhythmic figure chosen by Uribe Bueno (3/4 eighth, eighth, half\eighth,
eighth, half\eighth, eighth, half) is somewhat rare in bambucos,
so the choice
of song is not good if one wishes to arrive at a meaningful general conclu-
sion. If one considers a vocal bambucothat includes a large proportion of
standard phrases as seen above, the results may be more relevant. Such a
vocal bambucois "El Vaquero." Observing the first sixteen bars notated in
3/4, it can be seen that very few (two only) accented syllables (accented
notes with bold text) fall on the strong beat of the bar:

Figure 37. The first sixteen bars of "El vaquero" notated in 3/4.

voice a, j ,- .I r r I Jr r. :
El va- que-ro va to- can - do en su flau * t cam- pe-sl - na

u- na m - si- ca ar- gen- ti - na que u-nahis - to - ria va na- rran - do

9

i4'h}ib^U J. IpP r ^f-

AL
? i
Es un pa - sio- nal ex- ce - so que seen flo raenel am- blen - te
13
r > ,

,ray de-
i>b la
I rjJ-r
r
,
fI> 4
F .~
D
j
I
j.
I
Ca- e -
len ta- men - te co- mo el mur - mu - llo deun be - so.

When the same excerpt is notated in 6/8, it can be noted that a clear two-
bar phrase structure emerges wherein an accented syllable almost always
falls on the first beat of the bar (seven cases) and is followed by another
accented syllable on the first syncopated note in the phrase, the final qua-
ver note of the first bar (eight cases). Other accents fall on the fifth quaver
beat of the second bar (two cases), the third quaver beat (one case), and the
fourth quaver beat (one case).

Figure 38. The first sixteen bars of "El vaquero" notated in 6/8.

voiceFt J > r
El va- que - ro
5 >'-riarlr3
>
va to- can
> v do en
>su >..I
flau - ta cam-pe- si-
>
na u- na mu- si - caar-gen- ti - na que u-nahis- to- ria va na-rran-

do Es un pa-sio - nal ex-ce - so que seen -ra en el ar. blen

te y de-Ca-e len- t- men -te co moel mur- mu - lo deun be - so.

 152: John Varney

Although this would appear to solve some problems from the point of
view of the melody, the harmonic structure,and the tipleaccompaniment,
the guitar accompaniment now becomes dubious, as at no time does it
coincide with a 6/8 configuration:

Figure 39. Alternative 6/8 notation for the bambuco.

A

Bandola I
j-7 1-II I I II I h I ~'
-
-0 . >> -

Tiple
TEI$ I I 1 > >
t r
> >
-

Guitar Mvv ~'

as vI I
,2'1 I I
, n m

The grouping of two quavers, the first of which is occasionally accented, at

the end of each second bar in "El vaquero," may suggest that a 3/4 nota-
tion shifted one beat forward might be an appropriate notation:

Figure 40. First sixteen bars of "El vaquero" notated in 3/4 but shifted
forward by one crochet beat.

Voice
V J I; J r - i I-- I n
El va- que - ro va to- can do en su flau - ta cam - pe- si-

1j 5 > > > > >

>'
na una mu - si- caar- gen-t - na que u-na his - to - ra va na- rran-

[t j.y .ii_ 1.- -r n^; -E.< m

am- blen-
do Es un pa - sio-nal ex-ce - so qu seen flo - raenel

te y de-ca- e len - ta-men - e comoel mur- mu - llo de un be - so.

There do exist some published bambucosthat have been notated in this

manner. Two examples are "Las Brisas del Pamplonita" (50 Canciones,
n.d., 74) published in 1894 and "El Sotarefio" (Mazuera 1957,22). Dancers
mark the first beat of their dance on the first downward rasgueadoof the
tipleand count their steps in duple time so support the 6/8 notation (Arias
1997). Lubin Mazuera (1957) suggested the use of alternating bars of 3/4
and 6/8.
Simha Arom (1991, 248) analyzes "rhythmicoddity" patternswith refer-
ence to music from the Central African Republic, showing that some are
 An Introductionto the ColombianBambuco : 153

built upon patterns based around sequences of two and three beats. These
sequences build up in a well-defined manner, and can be described by the
formula 3+[(n+1) x 2]+3+[(n) x 2], where n is an integer. The application of
this formulagives, as examples of a twelve-beat cycle, the following rhythmic
patterns,as they would be notated in standardEuropean notation:

Figure 41. 12 beats: 3+2+3+2+2(n=1), shown here also as 2+2+3+2+3

and 2+3+2+2+3.

The two bar 6/8 or 3/4 bambucorhythmic cycle could be considered as a

twelve-beat cycle. If one takes an African rhythmic pattern such as Arom's
as the rhythmic basis of the bambuco,2 prevailing over the 6/8 or 3/4 bar
system, then this rhythmic basis could be interpreted as a subdivided 82
bar: 82= 4/8+3/8+2/8+3/8. If the bambuco"El vaquero" were to be no-
tated according to a 12subdivision in this manner [ 4+3 +2+3], the result would
be the following:

Figure 42. "El vaquero" notated according to a subdivided 12/8 time

signature.

A', n J
El va- que- ro va to-can- do en su flhu - t cam-p - si-
r
>
>
na

u- na mi - si-caar-gen-
g t - na queu-nahis- to - a va na - rran - do
5 > > >

Es un pa- slo-nal ex - - so e
quo nfio - i - n to

Ty a
de - ca - "-J r -
er-ta- men
len- 1e -
to co-mod mur - mu - Io
No doun be - *o.

It is immediately evident that, when compared with the conventional no-

tation, there now exists an almost complete coincidence of accented syl-
lables with accents in the rhythmic phrasing implied by the notation.

Figure 43. Excerpt from "El vaquero" in standard conventional notation.

4 I i> ._
1-i4u,_
El va
quo rt
va to- can do
El va - quo- mc va to- can - do n su -
en su flau - ta
ta cam-
t)f
cam - pe-s
r
ps-al - na
na
154 : John Varney

Perhaps it must be accepted that the bambucois polyrhythmic, and there is

no single time signature that can satisfy the needs of all instrumental parts.
A musician needs to develop aural familiarity with the bambucoto be able
to read it fluently.Definitely there exists a sensation when reading a bambuco
in the standard traditional 3/4 notation that what one is hearing differs
from what is being read. This author finds it easier to transcribe bambucos
using the shifted 3/4 initially then to re-write them in the conventional 3/4
notation and has found that very accomplished classical musicians have
had difficulty placing the beats in the bar of bambucoswith either of the
3/4 notations even after considerable contact with the music. It is worth
noting that also skilled Latin American exponents of Andean music from
Peru and Bolivia can experience difficulty finding the beats in bambucos.
The 12
8
= 4/8+3/8+2/8+3/8 subdivision may be a solution in cases where
an accurate sight-reading is necessary without the time for musicians to
become accustomed aurally to the bambuco.However, it is unlikely to sway
convention and the standard 3/4 notation will probably prevail.

Notes

1. This is not necessarily always the case. In music of the Andean region
south of Colombia, it is often the unaccented final syllables of the text
which correspond to the accented notes of the melody.
2. The fairly expansive reasoning behind this is set out in the full thesis
version of this article accessible at http://www.gu.edu.au/ins/lils/adt/
public/adt-QGU2000.0021/index.html

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