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CHAPTER 1

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE FOR THE SALVAGE ENGINEER

1-1 INTRODUCTION

Ships are built for a wide variety of purposes, but all must meet certain fundamental requirements. They must have reserve buoyancy to enable
them to carry their designed loads and resist damage, stability to resist environmental forces or damage, and strength to withstand the stresses
imposed on their structure by their own weight, cargo, stores, and the sea. The following discussion provides the salvage engineer with the
basics of surface ship construction, stability, and strength. Submarine construction and stability are discussed in the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage
Manual, Volume 4 (S0300-MAN-A6-040).

Vessels are built to construction specifications based on stability and strength requirements, that are, in turn, based on intended service. Publicly
owned vessels (Navy, Coast Guard, etc.) are built to government specifications. Most Navy ships are built to the General Specifications for
Ships (GENSPECs), published by the Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA), although some auxiliaries are built to commercial specifications.
Stability standards for Navy ships are established by Design Data Sheet (DDS) 079 issued by the Naval Ship Engineering Center. Construction
rules and stability standards for commercial vessels are established by classification societies, the International Maritime Organization (IMO),
and government regulations for the country of registry; the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) and United States Coast Guard (USCG) establish
and enforce construction rules and stability standards for U.S. vessels. The U.S. rules are often based on IMO standards. The U.S. Maritime
Administration (MARAD) may place additional requirements on ships built with Federal financial assistance. MARAD also produces standard
designs for certain types of merchant ships. Stability and construction standards are discussed in Appendix C.

There is a basic difference in the way naval architects and salvage engineers approach the problems of ship stability and strength. Naval
architects, as designers, divide the subject into examinations of intact and damage conditions. The stability and strength of a proposed design
is examined in normal operating, or intact, conditions, which must, as matter of course, include free liquid surfaces in tanks. Damage stability
analysis examines a ship design in various hypothetical conditions of damage that include breaches in the immersed hull.

The salvage engineer on the other hand, deals with damaged stability and strength, i.e., ships in conditions of known or identifiable damage,
that may or may not include breaches in the immersed hull. There is a subtle distinction between damage and damaged stability. A salvage
engineer doesn’t really deal with damage stability, or for that matter, with intact stability either. He deals with damaged stability, and conditions
that can reasonably be attained from the initial damaged condition. While the salvage engineer also examines hypothetical conditions, those
conditions usually have as a point of departure an initial damaged condition. This chapter discusses ship stability in light of those factors that
provide and enhance stability, and those that impair or degrade.

Those familiar with standard naval architecture texts may feel that this handbook’s treatment of the subject glosses over the distinction between
intact and damage stability. This is true to some extent, because in the main, the distinction just doesn’t matter to salvage engineers; they deal
with stability—good, bad, or indifferent—as they find it. The fact that free surface occurs in intact ships does not obscure the fact that it always
impairs stability.

1-2 HULL FORM

A ship’s hull is a complex geometric form that can be defined accurately by mapping its surface in a three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate
system. If a Cartesian coordinate system is used, conventions usually set the Z-axis vertical, the X-axis longitudinal and the Y-axis athwartships.
Principal dimensions are measured along these axes. The hull form can be shown in two dimensions by a series of curves formed by the
intersection of the hull surface with planes parallel to these axes. The hull form, chosen by the designer, controls the stability and performance
characteristics of the ship in its normal environments.

1-2.1 Location of Points Within a Ship. Because a ship is a three-dimensional mobile object, references within the ship itself must be
established for locating points in, on, and about the ship. The position of any point in the ship can be described by measuring its position from
reference planes or lines. The following planes are most commonly used:

• Centerplane – A vertical plane passing fore and aft down the center of a ship; the plane of symmetry for most hull forms.

• Design Waterplane – A horizontal plane at which the hull is designed to float.

• Midship Plane – A transverse, vertical plane perpendicular to both the centerplane and the design waterplane, located at the
midpoint of the molded hull length between perpendiculars on the design waterplane.

• Baseplane – A horizontal plane passing through the intersection of the centerplane and the midships plane, or through the lowest
point of the molded hull.

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The intersections of the reference planes with specified locations on the hull create additional reference lines and points:

• Forward Perpendicular (FP) – A vertical line through the intersection of the stem and the design or load waterline (DWL, LWL).

• After Perpendicular (AP) – A vertical line at or near the stern of the ship. In naval practice, the after perpendicular passes through
the after extremity of the design waterline; in commercial practice, the after perpendicular usually passes through the rudder post,
or the centerline of the rudder stock if there is no rudder post.

• Midship Section ( or MS) – An intersection of the midship plane with the molded hull.

• Centerline (C
L or CL) – The projection of the centerplane in plan or end views of the hull.
• Baseline (BL or BL) – The projection of the baseplane in the side or end views of the hull. In ships with design drag where the
baseline passes through the intersection of the midships section and the keel, parts of the hull will be below the baseline. For ships
with flat-plate keels that float on an even keel, the baseline, bottom of the molded surface, and top of the keel plate coincide; if
the keel plate is an outside strake (lapped over the adjacent strakes rather than butt-welded to them), the top of the flat-plate keel
is below the bottom of the molded surface by the thickness of the strakes on each side of it (the garboard strakes). In vessels with
hanging bar keels, the top of the keel coincides with the bottom of the molded surface.

1-2.2 Location of Points. The position of any point in the ship can be described by its:

• Height above the baseplane or keel.

• Athwartships position relative to the centerplane.

• Longitudinal position relative to the midship section or to one of the perpendiculars.

1-2.3 Ship Dimensions. Molded dimensions, lines, etc., describe the fair surface defined by the framing and are principally of use to the
shipbuilder. Displacement dimensions and lines describe the surfaces wetted by the sea and are of principal interest to the naval architect and
salvage engineer in determining stability and performance characteristics. Extreme dimensions, such as extreme breadth, account for projections
such as overhanging decks, fender rails, etc. Molded dimensions differ from displacement dimensions by the plating, planking, or sheathing
thickness. In steel ships, this difference usually amounts to less than one percent of the total displacement. Displacement dimensions are not
usually tabulated as such; if desired, they are deduced by adding plating thickness to molded dimensions, or deducting appendage measurements
from extreme dimensions.

The principal dimensions of a ship are length, beam, and depth. Two other important dimensions are draft and freeboard. Figure 1-1 shows
the principal dimensions of a ship.

• Length between perpendiculars (L, LBP or Lpp), is used for the calculation of hydrostatic properties. Length overall (LOA) is
the maximum length of the vessel, including any extensions beyond the perpendiculars, such as overhanging sterns, raked stems,
bulbous bows, etc. Length on the waterline (LWL or LWL) may or may not be the same as LBP, depending on the location of the
perpendiculars; tabulated LWL is usually taken on the design waterline.

• Beam or breadth (B) is the width of the ship. Molded beam is measured amidships or at the widest section from the inside surface
of the shell plating. Maximum beam or extreme breadth is the breadth at the widest part of the ship, and is equal to the molded
breadth plus twice the plating thickness plus the width of fenders, overhanging decks, or other solid projections.

• Draft (T) is the vertical distance between the waterline and the deepest part of the ship at any point along the length. Drafts are
usually measured to the keel and are given as draft forward (Tf), draft aft (Ta) and mean draft (T or Tm). A ship’s forward and
after draft marks are seldom at the perpendiculars and mean draft is not necessarily amidships; the slight errors introduced by using
drafts at these points can be discounted if trim is not extreme. Molded drafts are measured from the molded baseline, while keel
drafts are measured from a horizontal line though the lowest point on the bottom of the keel extended to intersect the forward and
after perpendiculars. Navigational or extreme drafts indicate the extreme depth of sonar domes, propellers, pit swords, or other
appendages which extend below the keel, and are therefore not used to calculate hydrostatic properties. Draft scales for keel drafts
are usually placed on both sides of the ship at each end as near as practical to the respective perpendiculars. The external draft
marks are generally Arabic numerals, with height and spacing arranged so that the vertical projection on the vessel of the numeral
heights and vertical spacing between numerals are both six inches. The draft figures are placed so that the bottom of the figure
indicates the keel draft. Drafts can thus be read to the nearest quarter-foot (3 inches) in relatively calm waters.

• Freeboard (F) is the vertical distance between the waterline and the uppermost watertight deck.

• Depth (D) is the vertical distance between the baseline and the uppermost watertight deck and is the sum of freeboard and draft.
Molded depth is measured from the top of the outer keel to the underside of the main or freeboard deck at the side. Depending
on hull form and ship’s attitude, both freeboard and depth can vary along the length of the ship. Unless otherwise specified,
tabulated values for depth and freeboard are usually taken at midships or at the point of minimum freeboard.

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1-2.4 Lines. The shape of a ship is

developed to meet specific requirements of B
speed, seakeeping ability, and capacity for
the intended use of the vessel. The shape
MIDSHIPS
of the hull is defined by the plan shapes SECTION
produced by the intersection of three D
families of orthogonal planes and the hull
surface. Most hulls are symmetrical about
the vertical plane of the centerline. The
intersection of the ship’s molded hull T
surface with this and parallel planes is
called a buttock, or buttock line. The term
CL
buttock was formerly applied only to the AP FP
portions of these lines aft of midships; the
DWL
forward portions were called bow lines. A
plane parallel to the baseplane and LBP
perpendicular to the centerline plane is a LOA
waterplane. The intersection of
waterplanes and the molded hull are called
Figure 1-1. Principal Dimensions.
waterlines (WL). The intersection of
transverse planes perpendicular to both
waterplanes and buttocks are termed sections. The superimposed sections (body plan), waterplanes (halfbreadth plan), and buttocks (sheer plan)
form the lines plan or lines drawing for the ship. Like other engineering drawings, the lines plan is composed of views from ahead or astern,
from above, and from the starboard side. Figure FO-1 is the lines plan for an FFG-7 Class ship.

The lines plans for steel ships usually show the molded surface. For surface ships, the molded surface is the inside of the shell plating, while
the molded surface for submarines is the outside of the hull plating. For vessels with hanging bar keels, the line of the bottom of the keel is
shown on the sheer plan to complete the lower contour of the vessel; the keel line is not usually shown for vessels with flat-plate keels because
it lies so near the line of the bottom of the molded surface. Because of the greater hull thickness, wooden ships may have separate molded and
displacement lines drawings.

1-2.4.1 The Body Plan. The body plan shows the outline of the transverse sections of a ship at equally spaced stations or ordinates along the
length of the ship. The distance between perpendiculars is commonly divided into 10 or 20 equal spaces by 11 or 21 stations, including the
forward and after perpendiculars. More or fewer stations may be used depending on the complexity of the hull shape. Half-spaced stations
may be used when the shape of the hull form changes rapidly, such as near the bow and stern. As the transverse sections are normally
symmetrical about the centerline, it is conventional to show only half sections with the forward stations on the right and after stations on the
left. Stations are numbered from forward aft, with the forward perpendicular as station zero on U.S. Navy ships. Stations forward of the forward
perpendicular (if any) may be designated by negative numbers or letters. Commercial vessels, particularly foreign-built vessels, commonly
number stations from aft forward, with the after perpendicular as zero.

1-2.4.2 Halfbreadth Plan. Due to symmetry, it is conventional to show only half of the waterplanes in a halfbreadth plan. Waterlines are
designated by their height above the baseline. The waterlines define the shape and area of the waterplane and are spaced closely enough to
accurately define the waterplane at any draft.

1-2.4.3 Sheer Plan. Superimposed buttocks form the sheer plan. They are spaced as necessary to adequately define the ship’s form.

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1-2.4.4 Descriptive Terms. Certain other

geometric concepts are useful in describing ONE-HALF OF
a ship’s form. Figure 1-2 illustrates some MOLDED BREADTH
of the following definitions:
CAMBER TUMBLEHOME

• Parallel midbody – In many

modern ships, the form of the
hull’s transverse section in the
midships region extends with-
out change for some distance
fore and aft. This is called FREEBOARD
parallel midbody and may be
described as extensive or
short, or expressed as a
fraction of the ship’s length.
Even in ships without parallel MOLDED DESIGN WATERLINE
midbody, the form of the DEPTH
fullest transverse section DESIGN
changes only slightly for DRAFT
small distances forward or aft. MOLDED
DRAFT

• Forebody – The portion of DEADRISE

the hull forward of the mid-
ship section.
MOLDED
• After body – The portion of
SHEER
CL BASE LINE SHEER
the hull abaft the midship AFT FORWARD
section.

• Entrance – The immersed DEPTH

portion of the hull forward of
the section of greatest im-
mersed area (not necessarily
Figure 1-2. Hull Form Nomenclature.
amidships) or forward of the
parallel midbody.

• Run – The immersed portion of the hull aft of the section of greatest immersed area or aft of the parallel midbody.

• Deadrise – The departure of the bottom from a transverse horizontal line measured from the baseline at the molded breadth line
as shown in Figure 1-2. Deadrise is also called rise of floor or rise of bottom. Deadrise is an indicator of the ship’s form; full-
bodied ships, such as cargo ships and tankers, have little or no deadrise, while fine-lined ships have much greater deadrise along
with a large bilge radius. Where there is rise of floor, the line of the bottom commonly intersects the baseline some distance from
the centerline, producing a small horizontal portion of the bottom on each side of the keel. The horizontal region of the bottom
is called flat of keel, or flat of bottom. While any section of the ship can have deadrise, tabulated deadrise is normally taken at
the midships section.

• Knuckle – An abrupt change in the direction of plating or other structure.

• Chine – The line or knuckle formed by the intersection of two relatively flat hull surfaces, continuous over a significant length
of the hull. In hard chines, the intersection forms a sharp angle; in soft chines, the connection is rounded.

• Bilge radius – The outline of the midships section of very full ships is very nearly a rectangle with its lower corners rounded.
The lower corners are called the bilges and the shape is often circular. The radius of the circular arc is called the bilge radius
or turn of the bilge. The turn of the bilge may be described as hard or easy depending on the radius of curvature. If the shape
of the bilge follows some curve other than a circle, the radius of curvature of the bilge will increase as it approaches the straight
plating of the side and bottom. Small, high-speed or planing hulls often do not have a rounded bilge. In these craft, the side and
bottom are joined in a chine.

• Tumblehome – The inward fall of side plating from the vertical as it extends upward towards the deck edge. Tumblehome is
measured horizontally from the molded breadth line at the deck edge as shown in Figure 1-2. Tumblehome was a usual feature
in sailing ships and many ships built before 1940. Because it is more expensive to construct a hull with tumblehome, this feature
is not usually incorporated in modern merchant ship design, unless required by operating conditions or service (tugs and
icebreaking vessels, for example). Destroyers and other high-speed combatants are often built with some tumblehome in their mid
and after sections to save topside weight.

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• Flare – The outward curvature of the hull surface above the waterline, i.e., the opposite of tumblehome. Flared sections cause
a commensurately larger increase in local buoyancy than unflared sections when immersed. Flaring bows are often fitted to help
keep the forward decks dry and to prevent "nose-diving" in head seas.

• Camber – The convex upwards curve of a deck. Also called round up, round down, or round of beam. In section, the camber
shape may be parabolic or consist of several straight line segments. Camber is usually given as the height of the deck on the
centerline amidships above a horizontal line connecting port and starboard deck edges. Standard camber is about one-fiftieth of
the beam. Camber diminishes towards the ends of the ship as the beam decreases. The principal use of camber is to ensure good
drainage in calm seas or in port, although camber does slightly increase righting arms at large angles of inclination (after the deck
edge is immersed). Not all ships have cambered decks; ships with cambered weather decks and flat internal decks are not
uncommon.

• Sheer – The rise of a deck above the horizontal measured as the height of the deck above a line parallel to the baseline tangent
to the deck at its lowest point. In older ships, the deck side line often followed a parabolic profile and sheer was given as its value
at the forward and after perpendiculars. Standard sheer was given by:

sheer forward = 0.2L + 20

sheer aft = 0.1L + 10

where sheer is measured in inches and L is the length between perpendiculars in feet. Actual sheer often varied considerably from
these standard values; the deck side profile was not always parabolic, the lowest point of the upper deck was usually at about 0.6L,
and the values of sheer forward and aft were varied to suit the particular design. Many modern ships are built without sheer; in
some, the decks are flat for some distance fore and aft of midships and then rise in a straight line towards the ends. Sheer
increases the height of the weather decks above water, particularly at the bow, and helps keep the vessel from shipping water as
she moves through rough seas. Some small craft and racing yachts are given a reverse or hogged sheer to give headroom
amidships without excessive depth at bow and stern.

• Rake – A departure from the vertical or horizontal of any conspicuous line in profile, defined by a rake angle or by the distance
between the profile line and a reference line at a convenient point. Rake of stem, for example, can be expressed as the angle
between the stem bar and a vertical line for ships with straight stems. For curved stems, a number of ordinates measured from
the forward perpendicular are required to define the stem shape. Ships designed so that the keel is not parallel to the baseline and
DWL when floating at their designed drafts are said to have raked keels, or to have drag by the keel.

• Cut-up – When a keel departs from a straight line at a sharp bend, or knuckle, the sloping portion is called a cut-up. High-speed
combatants usually have a long cut-up aft (extending 13 to 17 percent of LWL) to enhance propeller performance and
maneuverability. Ice-breaking vessels often have a cut-up forward to allow the ship to ride up on the ice.

• Deadwood – Portions of the immersed hull with significant longitudinal and vertical dimensions, but without appreciable transverse
dimensions. Deadwood is included in a hull design principally to increase lateral resistance or enhance directional stability without
significantly increasing drag when moving ahead. Sailing craft require deadwood to be able to work to windward efficiently.
Skegs or fins are fitted on barges to give directional stability. Deadwood aft is detrimental to speed and quick maneuverability
and is minimized by use of cut-up sterns in high-speed combatants and by arched keels or sluice keels (with athwartships apertures)
in tugs and workboats.

• Appendages – Portions of the vessel that extend beyond the main hull outline or molded surface. Positive appendages, such as
rudders, shafts, bosses, bilge keels, sonar domes, etc., increase the underwater volume, while negative appendages, such as bow
thruster tunnels and other recesses, decrease the underwater volume. Shell plating, lying outside the molded surface, is normally
the largest single appendage, and often accounts for one-half to two-thirds of the total appendage volume. Appendages generally
account for 0.2 to 2 percent of total immersed hull volume, depending on ship size, service, and configuration. Paragraph 1-4.10.2
discusses methods for estimating appendage displacement.

• Hull Surfaces – Hull surfaces are either warped, consisting of smoothly faired, complex three-dimensional curves, developed,
consisting of portions of cylinders or cones, or flat. Hydroconic hulls are built up of connected flat plates rather than plates rolled
to complex curves. Hydroconic construction lowers production costs and may simplify fitting patches to a casualty.

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1-2.5 Coefficients of Form. Coefficients of form are

dimensionless numbers that describe hull fineness and Table 1-1. Typical Coefficients of Form.
overall shape characteristics. The coefficients are ratios of
areas or volumes for the actual hull form compared to
Block Midship Waterplane
prisms or rectangles defined by the ship’s length, breadth,
Type Ship Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient
and draft. Since length and breadth on the waterline as CB CM CWP
well as draft vary with displacement, coefficients of form
also vary with displacement. Tabulated coefficients are Navy Ships
usually based on the molded breadth and draft at designed
displacement. Length between perpendiculars is most often Aircraft Carrier (CV-59 Class) 0.578 0.984 0.729
used, although some designers prefer length on the Battleship (BB-61 Class) 0.594 1.000 0.694
waterline. Coefficients of form can be used to simplify
area and volume calculations for stability or strength Cruiser (CGN-38 Class) 0.510 0.810 0.780
analyses. As hull form approaches that of a rectangular Destroyer (DD-963 Class) 0.510 0.850 0.760
barge, the coefficients approach their maximum value of
1.0. The following paragraphs describe the most commonly Frigate (FFG-7 Class) 0.470 0.770 0.750
used coefficients. Table 1-1 gives sample coefficients for Replenishment Ship (AOR-1 Class) 0.652 0.981 0.777
different type ships.
Salvage Tug (ARS-50 Class) 0.542 0.908 0.791

1-2.5.1 Block. The block coefficient (CB) is the ratio of Commercial Vessels
the immersed hull volume (∇) at a particular draft to that
of a rectangular prism of the same length, breadth, and General Cargo (slow-speed) 0.800 0.992 0.880
draft as the ship:
General Cargo (medium-speed) 0.700 0.980 0.810
∇ General Cargo (high-speed) 0.576 0.972 0.695
CB =
BTL Tanker (35,000-ton DWT) 0.757 0.978 0.845

Large Tanker (76,000-ton DWT) 0.802 0.997 0.874

where:
VLCC (250,000-ton DWT) 0.842 0.996 0.916
∇ = immersed volume, [length3] Container Ship 0.600 0.970 0.740
B = beam, [length]
RO/RO 0.568 0.972 0.671
T = draft, [length]
L = length between perpendiculars, [length] Ore Carrier 0.808 0.995 0.883

Great Lakes Bulk Carrier 0.900 0.995 0.950

1-2.5.2 Midship Section. The midship section coefficient
(CM) is the ratio of the area of the immersed midship Passenger Liner 0.530 0.956 0.690
section (Am) at a particular draft to that of a rectangle of the Barge Carrier 0.570 0.950 0.820
same draft and breadth as the ship:
Large Car Ferry 0.530 0.910 0.680
AM Ocean Tug, Trawler 0.550 0.833 0.850
CM =
BT Offshore Supply Vessel 0.660 0.906 0.892

Harbor Tug 0.585 0.892 0.800

where:
Ocean Power Yacht (250 ft LWL) 0.565 0.938 0.724
AM = area of the immersed portion of the midships
section, [length2] Coefficients for commercial vessels are typical values; coefficients for specific ships will
B = beam, usually taken at the waterline, [length] vary. Coefficients of form for U.S. Navy ships can be obtained from Naval Sea Systems
T = draft, [length] Command, Code 55W. Coefficients for many merchant vessels are available from the
National Cargo Bureau, telephone (212) 571-5000. The builder’s hull number or name
If the vessel has bulges or blisters below the waterline, CM and type of vessel must be provided to access the data files.
may be greater than 1.

1-2.5.3 Waterplane. The waterplane coefficient (CWP) is

the ratio of the area of the waterplane (AWP) to that of a rectangle of the same length and breadth as the ship:
AWP
CWP =
LWL B

where:

AWP = area of the waterplane, [length2]

B = beam, [length]
LWL = length on the waterline, [length]

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1-2.5.4 Prismatic. The longitudinal prismatic coefficient (CP) is the ratio of the immersed volume to the volume of a prism with length equal
to the ship’s and cross-section area identical to the midship section:

∇ C
CP = = B
AM L CM

where:

∇ = immersed volume, [length3]

AM = area of the immersed portion of the midships section, [length2]
L = length between perpendiculars, [length]

If length between perpendiculars and length on the waterline are equal (as they are for Navy ships), the prismatic coefficient is equal to the block
coefficient divided by the midships section coefficient. The prismatic coefficient thus indicates the longitudinal distribution of the underwater
volume of a ship’s hull. For a given length, breadth, draft, and displacement, a low (fine) CP indicates a hull with fine ends. A large (full) value
for CP indicates a hull with relatively full ends. For this reason, the prismatic coefficient is sometimes called the longitudinal coefficient.

The vertical prismatic coefficient (CVP) is

the ratio of the immersed hull volume to 125
the volume of a prism having a length
equal to the ship’s draft and a cross section
identical to that of the waterplane:
∇
CVP = 100
AWP T

H
BREADTH; DEPTH; DRAFT, FT

where: DT
REA
∇ = immersed volume, 75
B
[length3]
AWP = area of the waterplane,
[length2]
T = draft, [length]

The vertical prismatic coefficient is equal to 50

PTH
the block coefficient divided by the DE
waterplane coefficient and indicates the
vertical distribution of the underwater T
DRAF
volume. A full CVP indicates a concen-
tration of volume near the keel and a fine 25
CVP, a concentration nearer the waterline.

1-2.6 Ship Proportions. Throughout this

handbook and many naval architecture
texts, relationships and approximations for 0
various hydrostatic and stability parameters 0 450 600 750 900
are given as applicable to ships of ordinary, LBP, FT
or normal form. With the broad range of
ship type, size, and service requirements, FROM ELEMENTS OF SHIP DESIGN, R. MUNRO-SMITH, 1975.
normal form is best defined by a range of
coefficients and dimension ratios. Table
1-1 gives typical coefficients of form and Figure 1-3. Approximate Ship Proportions.
Figure 1-3 shows approximate linear
relationships between length, beam, depth,
and service draft. The relationships given below, adapted from R. Munro-Smith’s Elements of Ship Design, and deadweight coefficients (defined
in Paragraph 1-3.3), are used to estimate ship dimensions during preliminary design and can help to determine whether a hull should be
considered normal.

Dimensional Ratios:

Ship type L/B B/T T/D

General Cargo 6.3 to 6.8 2.1 to 2.8 0.66 to 0.74
Tankers 7.1 to 7.25 2.4 to 2.6 0.76 to 0.78
VLCC 6.4 to 6.5 2.4 to 2.6 0.75 to 0.78

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Maximum block coefficient for service conditions:

Vk
CB ≤ 1.00 0.23 (general cargo ships)
L

Vk
CB ≤ 1.00 0.19 (tankers, bulk carriers)
L

Vk
CB ≤ 1.00 0.175 (VLCC)
L
where:

Vk = service speed, knots

L = length between perpendiculars, ft

Beam range:
L
+ 20 ft ≤ B ≤ L
+ 25 ft (cargo ships)
9 9

L
+ 15 ft ≤ B ≤ L
+ 21 ft (tankers, bulk carriers)
9 9

L
+ 39 ft ≤ B ≤ L
+ 50 ft, or
9 9

B ≈ L
46 ft (VLCC)
5

where:

B = beam, ft

Beam to length relationship:

B = Ln

where B and L are given in feet and:

n ≈ 0.61 to 0.64 for general cargo ships

≈ 0.66 to 0.68 for VLCC

Length-beam product to deadweight relationship:

DWT
0.0093LB = C
T
where:

L = length between perpendiculars, ft

B = beam, ft
DWT = deadweight, lton
T = draft, ft
C = 0.85 to 2.0 for general cargo ships
= 0.525 to 0.590 for tankers
= 0.446 to 0.459 for VLCC

1-2.7 Offsets. The hull form can be described in tabular format by a set of measurements known as offsets. Offsets are distances measured
from the centerline to the side of the ship at each station and waterline. Molded offsets are measured to the molded surface (inside of shell
plating for steel surface ships); displacement offsets are measured to the outer hull surface. Offsets define the hull proper, without appendages.
Supplementary appendage offset tables are sometimes available. Molded or displacement offsets are usually presented in a table in the form
feet-inches-eighths. The table of offsets for an FFG-7 Class ship shown in Figure FO-1 is typical. The waterline halfbreadth entry for station
4 at the 8' 0" waterline reads 10 - 2 - 3 indicating 10 feet, 23⁄ 8 inches. Since the station spacing is given as 20.4 feet on the plan (LBP = 408
feet, 408/20 stations = 20.4), this offset precisely locates the point on the skin of the ship 81.6 feet from the forward perpendicular (4 × 20.4),
eight feet above the baseline and 10 feet 23⁄ 8 inches from the centerline.

Lines drawings can be constructed from tables of offsets. Of more use to the salvor is the fact that offsets can be obtained from body or
halfbreadth plans and used to determine ship volumes and areas by numerical integration (described in Paragraph 1-4). Offsets can be scaled
from arrangement drawings, or in the worst case, measured on site.

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1-2.8 Wetted Surface. The area of all or part of a ship’s hull’s wetted surface is important to hydrodynamic resistance and pressure force
calculations. Wetted surface multiplied by average shell thickness calculates shell volume to be added to the molded volume to determine total
displacement. The area of complex hull surfaces can be calculated by numerical integration from offsets or the shell expansion plan, but this
is a tedious and time-consuming task. Wetted surface can be estimated by one of the following empirical relationships:

Denny-Mumford Formula:
Table 1-2. Taylor’s Coefficient.
∇
AS = 1.7L T = 1.7L T L B CB
T B/T C
3.5 16.0
Taylor’s formula:
4.0 16.5
5.0 17.5
A S = C ∆D L
8.0 20.5
9.0 21.3
Haslar formula for fine-lined ships: 10.0 22.2
11.0 23.0
 
= ∇  3.3 
2/3 L 12.0 23.8
AS 
 2.09 ∇1/3  13.0 24.5
14.0 25.1

where: 16.0 26.3

18.0 27.2
AS = wetted surface, ft2, at mean draft T, ft
L = length between perpendiculars, ft (immersed length)
∇ = displacement volume, ft3 = CB LBT
T = mean draft, ft
B = molded beam, ft
CB = block coefficient
∆D = displacement, ltons
C = a coefficient, ranging from 15.2 to 16.0 for vessels with 0.8 ≤ Cm ≤ 0.98 and 2.5 ≤ B/T ≤ 3.5. For shallow draft vessels, C is
expressed as a function of B/T in Table 1-2.

1-3 DISPLACEMENT AND BUOYANCY

A body immersed in a fluid will experience an upward force equal to the weight of the volume of fluid displaced. This force of buoyancy is
the resultant of the normal pressures exerted by the fluid on each element of the immersed body’s surface. Buoyancy is opposed by the
downward force of gravity, or the object’s weight. In order for equilibrium to exist, the two forces must be balanced. An object heavier than
an equivalent volume of water has negative buoyancy and will sink until it encounters a solid object or denser liquid, where its apparent weight
is decreased by the buoyant force acting on it. Similarly, an object less dense than water will exhibit positive buoyancy and will float with an
immersed volume such that the weight of the displaced water exactly equals the object’s weight. Deeper immersion requires the application
of force. An object whose density equals that of the surrounding water is said to have neutral buoyancy and will float at whatever depth it is
placed. A ship floats by enclosing large volumes of less dense material, principally air, in a watertight skin so that its average density is less
than that of the surrounding water. To be useful, a ship’s effective density must be much less than that of the surrounding water to allow the
ship to support not only its own weight, but also that of crew, cargo, stores, etc.

1-3.1 Ship’s Weight, Displacement and Capacity. An object’s displacement is the weight of the water it displaces; displacement represents
the force of buoyancy (B) acting on the object. For a ship in static equilibrium, floating free of any solid support, displacement (∆D) is equal
to the weight of the ship and everything in it (W), measured in long tons of 2,240 pounds. Displacement is usually given for either the
lightship—the weight of the ship without cargo or stores—or full-load conditions. A ship’s displacement is related to the volume of displaced
water, called the displacement volume or volume of displacement (∇ or V), by the weight density of water (ρg/gc).
∇ρg
∆D = = W
gc

If mass density is given in slugs per cubic foot, and g in feet per second per second (ft/sec2), ρg/gc gives weight density in pounds-force per cubic
foot. In a standard gravitational field (g = 32.174 ft/sec2) pounds-mass and pounds-force are numerically equal. Since the worldwide variation
of gravitational acceleration is slight, weight density in pounds-force per cubic foot (γ) can be taken as numerically equal to mass density, in
pounds-mass per cubic foot without significant error.

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With weight held constant, the product of displacement volume and water density must also be constant. For a given weight, displacement
volume varies inversely with the density of the surrounding water—displacement volume in water of known density can be related to
displacement volume water of any density:
∇1 ρ1
∇1 ρ1 = ∇2 ρ2 ⇒ ∇2 =
ρ2

The density of seawater varies with salinity and temperature, but is approximately 64 pounds per cubic foot; the density of fresh water is about
62.4 pounds per cubic foot. It is sometimes more convenient to use the inverse density, or specific volume (δ), of 35 cubic feet per ton of
seawater. The equivalent figure for fresh water is 35.9, commonly rounded to 36.
∇
W =
δ

∇sw ∇fw
W = =
35 36

 36 
∇fw = ∇sw  
 35 

Care must be exercised not to confuse displacement, measured in long tons, with gross, net, or register tonnage. Tonnage is a measurement
of the enclosed volume of a ship used to describe her cargo capacity and does not indicate displacement. Register tonnage (gross and net) is
measured according to the rules of the country of registry or international rules, and is used as a basis for port fees, canal tolls, and similar
charges. Measurement tons were formerly equal to 100 cubic feet, but the more recent international rules determine tonnage by formulas that
do not relate volume to tonnage directly. Gross tonnage is a measure of the internal volume of the entire ship—the hull plus enclosed spaces
above the main deck. Net tonnage is derived from a formula based on the molded volume of cargo spaces, the number of passengers carried,
molded depth, and service draft; net tonnage gives an indication of the ship’s earning capacity. Commercial vessels engaged in international
voyages are issued a Tonnage Certificate by the country of registry. Certain special tonnages, such as Suez or Panama Canal tonnages, are
calculated by somewhat different formulae and recorded on separate certificates.

Cargo capacity may also be given in conventional volumetric units. Tank capacities are usually specified in barrels, gallons, or cubic meters.
For petroleum products and other liquids subject to thermal expansion, practical capacity is less than net capacity, to ensure that a tank "filled"
with cold oil will not overflow as the oil warms. U.S. Navy practice sets oil tank operating capacity at 95 percent of net capacity; U.S. Merchant
Marine practice at 98 percent. Dry cargo capacity is specified in cubic feet or cubic meters. Bale capacity is the volume below deck beams
and inboard of cargo battens, that is free for the stowage of bags, barrels, crates, bales, pallets, etc. Grain capacity is the net molded underdeck
volume, after deductions for the volume of frames, floors, and other structure, that is available for the stowage of granular bulk cargo. Capacity
of container ships is expressed as the number of standard 8-foot-wide by 8-foot-high containers of specified length that can be carried, often
converted to 20-foot equivalent units (TEU), or 40 foot equivalent units (FEU). Capacity for roll-on/roll-off (RO/RO) cargo and vehicle carriers
may be expressed as the number of units that can be carried or as the area of the cargo decks, in square feet or square meters.

1-3.2 Standard Loading Conditions. Displacement and stability characteristics are often referenced to certain standard conditions of loading.

1-3.2.1 U.S. Navy Ships. Characteristics are usually tabulated for the following standard conditions of loading (from NSTM Chapter 096):

• Condition A - Lightship – The ship complete, ready for service in every respect, including permanent ballast (solid and liquid),
onboard repair parts, aviation mobile support equipment as assigned, and liquids in machinery at operating levels, without any
items of variable load (provisions, stores, ammunition, crew and effects, cargo, aircraft and aviation stores, passengers, saltwater
ballast, fuel and other liquids in storage tanks). Formerly Condition II.

• Condition A-1 - Lightship – Condition A without permanent ballast. Formerly condition II-A.

• Condition B - Minimum Operating Condition – A condition of minimum stability likely to exist in normal operation (following
the ship’s liquid loading instructions). For warships, Condition B approximates the ship’s condition toward the end of a hostile
engagement following a long period at sea. Liquids are included in amounts and locations that will provide satisfactory stability,
trim, and limitation of list in case of underwater damage. Formerly Condition V.

• Condition C - Optimum Battle Condition – As formerly applied to minor combatants, the ship loaded with full ammunition
allowance and two-thirds provisions, fuel, lube oil, etc. Fuel distribution and seawater ballast are in accordance with liquid loading
instructions, except that service tanks are assumed half-full and one pair of storage tanks per machinery box are assumed empty.
Formerly Condition LS. In current practice, this condition applies only to ships with extensive underwater defense systems, such
as aircraft carriers and battleships. Liquids are carried in the amounts and locations that provide the optimum resistance to
underwater damage.

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• Condition D - Full Load – Two different full-load conditions are defined:

(1) Full load (contractual) – The ship complete, ready for service in every respect; Condition A plus authorized complement of
personnel and passengers and their effects, full allowance of ammunition in magazines and ready service spaces, full allowance
of aircraft and vehicles with repair parts and stores, provisions and stores for the periods specified in design specifications,
sufficient fuel to meet endurance specifications, anti-roll tank liquid, liquids in tanks to required capacity in accordance with
liquid load instructions, and cargo in the amounts normally carried or a specified portion of full capacity. This condition is
used for weight estimates and reporting.

(2) Full load (departure) – Same as full load (contractual) except that fuel and lube oil tanks are 95-percent full, potable and feed
water tanks 100-percent full. Formerly Condition VI. This condition is used in inclining experiment reports.

• Condition E - Capacity Load – The ship complete, ready for service in every respect; Condition A plus the maximum number
of crew and passengers that can be accommodated, with their effects, maximum stowage of ammunition in magazines and ready
service spaces, full allowance of aircraft and vehicles with repair parts and stores, maximum amount of provisions and stores that
can be carried in assigned spaces, tanks filled to maximum capacity (95 percent for oil tanks, 100 percent for fresh water),
maximum amounts of cargo and supplies, with the provision that the limiting drafts not be exceeded.

Data is sometimes tabulated for special or unusual loading conditions, such as special ballast conditions for amphibious warfare ships. Details
for each condition of loading are found in the ship’s damage control book. Standard displacement is a condition defined by the Washington
Naval Conference of 1923 as "The displacement of the ship, fully manned, engined, and equipped ready for sea, including all armament and
ammunition, equipment, outfit, provisions and fresh water for the crew, miscellaneous stores and implements of every description that are
intended to be carried in war, but without fuel or reserve feed water on board." Standard displacement was defined primarily as an aid to
ensuring compliance to restriction on warship size and total naval tonnage under international treaties, but provides a convenient means of
comparing warships and is commonly given in published summaries of naval strength, such as Jane’s Fighting Ships. Characteristics for standard
displacement are not normally tabulated in damage control books or similar documents.

1-3.2.2 Commercial Vessels. Two major conditions of loading are referenced in dealing with commercial vessels:

• Lightship, Lightweight, or Light Displacement – The ship with all items of outfit, equipment, and machinery, including boiler
water and lubricating oil in sumps, but without cargo, provisions, stores, crew, or fuel.

• Fully Loaded – Lightship plus cargo, fuel, stores, etc., to settle the ship to her load line. Also loaded, load, or full-load
displacement. For ships designed to carry different classes of cargo, full-load conditions may be tabulated for each type of cargo.

The trim and stability booklet will normally tabulate stability data for ballasted and partly loaded conditions, and for end of voyage and
intermediate conditions with varying amounts of fuel and stores consumed.

1-3.2.3 Loading Instructions. Specific loading instructions are provided to help operating personnel avoid loading the ship so that her stability
is dangerously low or the hull girder is overstressed. The most basic instruction is that ships shall not be loaded so heavily that their load line
(merchant) or limiting draft marks (naval) are submerged. Detailed loading instructions are given in the trim and stability booklet for merchant
ships or the damage control book for Navy ships. In certain types of ships, such as container ships, RO/RO ships, barge carriers, and ferries,
improper loading can easily reduce stability to dangerously low levels. In other ships, such as tankers and ore carriers, improper loading can
seriously overstress the hull. Transient conditions created while loading or unloading can also degrade stability or overstress the hull. Load
and stability computers supplement or replace loading instructions on many tankers, bulk carriers, and other large ships or ships with unusual
stability problems. Load computers are briefly described in Paragraph 4-2.5.3.

1-3.3 Deadweight. Deadweight (DWT) is the load carried by a ship. It is the difference between the lightship displacement and total
displacement of the ship at any time. Maximum or load deadweight is the carrying capacity of a ship measured in 2,240-pound long tons, and
is the difference between the lightweight and fully loaded displacements. Deadweight includes fuel, provisions, munitions, crew and effects,
cargo, or any other weight carried. For a merchant ship, cargo deadweight, paying deadweight, or payload is the part of the deadweight that
is cargo and therefore earning income.

It is not uncommon for the deadweight of a merchant ship to be given, but not its full-load displacement. A deadweight coefficient (CDWT) can
be defined as the ratio of full-load displacement to total deadweight:
∆FL
CDWT = ⇒ ∆FL = DWT CDWT
DWT

where:

CDWT = deadweight coefficient

∆FL = full-load displacement
DWT = total deadweight

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Typical ranges for deadweight coefficient are given by R. Munro-Smith (Elements of Ship Design, 1979):

General cargo ship 1.39 – 1.61

Ore carrier 1.30 – 1.39
Bulk carrier 1.19 – 1.28
Oil tanker 1.16 – 1.25
Very large tanker, VLCC 1.28 – 1.32

1-3.4 Change in Draft. Draft is significant as the only principal dimension that varies routinely, while length and beam remain essentially
constant. Volume of displacement, and therefore draft, will change as a ship’s displacement changes due to loading or discharging cargo,
consuming or loading fuel or stores, or flooding. The new volumes and mean drafts can be computed by using the relationships shown. For
example: a box-shaped lighter 100 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 10 feet in depth, displacing 429 tons of seawater with zero trim. Because
waterplane area is constant at any draft, drafts can be found by:

∇ = δ W = 35 (429) = 15,015 ft3

∇ = L B T = 100 (30) T = 15,015 ft3

∇ 15,015
T = = = 5 ft
LB 100 (30)

where:

∇ = displacement volume, ft3 = LBTCB; for box-shaped lighter CB = 1.0

W = total weight of the barge, lton
δ = specific volume of seawater = 35 ft3/lton
L = length between perpendiculars, ft
B = beam, ft
T = draft, ft

If weight (displacement) is decreased to 350 tons, the new mean draft is given by:

∇ = 35W = 35(350) = 12,250 ft3

12,250
T = = 4.08 ft = 4 ft 1 in.
3,000

For a complex ship shape, drafts cannot be calculated directly. The change in draft (∆T) can be determined if certain assumptions are made.
The increase in volume can be considered to be a prism of uniform thickness with vertical sides and horizontal section with area equal to the
waterplane area. For a wall-sided vessel (one with vertical sides, like the box-shaped lighter), this is mathematically exact; it is sufficiently
accurate for most ships for small changes in draft. The thickness of the prism is determined by dividing its volume by the area of the
waterplane:

∆∇ ∆∇ (15,015) 12,250)
∆T = = =
AWP L B CWP (100)(30)(1.0)

= 0.92 ft = 11 in.

where:

∆T = change in draft, ft
∆∇ = change in displacement volume, ft3
AWP = waterplane area, ft2
CWP = waterplane coefficient

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The salvor may encounter ships in water of varying densities. The waters of harbors and estuaries might be salty, fresh or brackish; the salinity
and density of the water may depend on the state of the tide. The equalities shown can be used to relate displacement volume, draft and
displacement of any ship in water of any known density. Recalling that:

∇1 ρ1 = ∇2 ρ2

∇1 ∇2
=
δ1 δ2

L B T CB L B T CB
1 2
=
δ1 δ2

where:

∇ = displacement volume, ft3

ρ = water density, lb/ft3
δ = inverse density or specific volume, ft3/lton
L = length between perpendiculars, ft
B = beam, ft
T = draft, ft
CB = block coefficient

With length and breadth constant, and CB assumed constant for a small change in draft,

T1 T2
=
δ1 δ2

T1 δ1
∴ =
T2 δ2

and:

T1δ2
T2 =
δ1

δSW 35
For saltwater and fresh water: =
δFW 36

and:

 36 
TFW = TSW  
 35 

The difference between fresh water and seawater drafts may range from 6 inches for an FFG-7 to 1.2 feet for a large aircraft carrier, or more
on a large crude carrier. Differences encountered when dealing with brackish water will be correspondingly less, and may be dealt with by using
values for fresh water and saltwater as upper and lower boundaries if the water density is unknown or variable.

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1-3.5 Tons per Inch Immersion (TPI). The foregoing analysis can be carried a step further to determine the change in displacement (∆∆D)
required to cause a change in draft of one inch. For seawater:

∆∇ 35 ∆ ∆D
∆T = ; ∇ = 35∆D ⇒ ∆T =
AWP AWP

∆ T AWP
∴ ∆W =
35

Substituting 1 inch = 1⁄ 12-foot for ∆T:

AWP AWP
∆ ∆D = = = TPI
(35)(12) 420

where:

∆D = displacement, lton
∇ = displacement volume, ft3
ρ = water density, lb/ft3
35 = specific volume, ft3/lton
AWP = waterplane area, ft2
TPI = tons per inch immersion, lton/in.

Tons per inch immersion for water of any density can be obtained by a similar calculation.

1-3.6 Reserve Buoyancy. The watertight volume between the waterline and the uppermost continuous watertight deck provides the reserve
buoyancy to the ship. Although this volume does not actually provide any buoyancy, it is available to enable the ship to take on additional
weight. Freeboard is an indication of the reserve buoyancy remaining. Freeboard and draft can be considered opposite ends of a sliding scale,
with draft representing the buoyancy in use and freeboard the buoyancy remaining.

1-3.7 Center of Gravity. A homogeneous body’s center of gravity is located at its center of volume, or centroid. The center of gravity of
a ship is not so easily definable, but can be assumed to be located on the centerline near the midship plane in a ship floating without list or trim.
The center of gravity of a ship is a function of weight distribution; its position varies with loading. With all weights stationary, the center of
gravity remains fixed regardless of the movement of the ship. Its position relative to any of the three reference planes along a perpendicular
axis (n) is given mathematically by:

G =⌠
n dw nw
=
⌡ W w

where:

G = position of the center of gravity along any axis

n = distance from the origin to an incremental weight dw, or to an individual weight w
W = total weight = Σw

The location of the center of gravity greatly influences the stability characteristics of a vessel: the vertical location (VCG, or KG) influences
a vessel’s ability to resist heeling forces; the longitudinal location (LCG) relative to the longitudinal location of the center of buoyancy
determines trim; and a transverse location (TCG) off the centerline results in a list.

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1-3.8 Center of Buoyancy. The force of buoyancy, like gravity, can be resolved to act upwards through a single point. The center of buoyancy
(B) is located at the centroid of the submerged hull form. As the ship inclines, the shape of the underwater volume changes and the center of
buoyancy moves to the new geometric center. When a ship is at rest without list, the center of buoyancy is on the centerline directly below
the center of gravity. The location of the center of buoyancy responds directly to draft changes. As the ship’s displacement is increased or
decreased with a corresponding change in draft, the center of buoyancy will move to the new centroid of the redefined submerged hull form.

1-3.9 Metacenter. As shown in Figure 1-

4, vertical lines drawn through successive
centers of buoyancy (B1, B2, and B3) as the (HEEL ANGLES EXAGGERATED)
M
ship inclines slightly intersect at an
imaginary point on the centerline called the
metacenter (M). In a stable vessel, M is
located above the center of gravity. The
vertical location of M is one of the most
critical parameters affecting a ship’s initial
stability. WL2

WL G
1
1-3.10 Center of Flotation. The center of
flotation is the point about which the ship WL WL
trims and heels, and is at the geometric WL1
center of the ship’s floating waterplane. It
B2 WL2
is usually located aft of midships, although B1 B
it may be forward of midships in full-
bodied ships.

1-3.11 Bonjean’s Curves. Bonjean’s

Curves or Curves of Sectional Areas are a Figure 1-4. Relative Positions of M, B, and G During Small Inclinations.
collection of curves plotting sectional area
along the X-axis against draft on the Y-axis.
The curves are usually presented in one of the two formats shown in Figure FO-3. The section area curve may show area for either the whole
section, or for one side only, as noted on the drawing. The areas generally do not account for appendages, but may include shell plating, as
noted on the drawing. Section areas can be taken from the curves for any draft and any condition of trim or hull deflection. Section area is
converted to unit buoyancy by dividing by the specific volume of water (35 cubic feet per long ton per foot of length for seawater). Volume
of displacement and other hydrostatic properties can be determined by integration of section area or derived unit buoyancy ordinates by the
numerical methods described in Paragraph 1-4.

The rosette arrangement (Figure FO-3A), with all the curves drawn to a single set of axes, produces a more compact drawing and is favored
by some designers because lack of fairness in the hull will show itself with the curves lying side by side. Section areas are read from the
intersection of a horizontal line through the station draft on the center scale with the appropriate curve. When calculating buoyancies for varying
waterlines or wave profiles, it is sometimes more convenient to arrange the curves along the ship’s profile, with a vertical axis at each station
as shown in Figure FO-3B. With the section area curves arranged in this format, a trimmed waterline can be plotted as a straight line passing
through the forward draft at station zero, and the after draft at the after perpendicular, eliminating the need to determine draft at each station.
Section areas can be picked off by drawing a horizontal line from the intersection of the waterline with each vertical station marker to the
appropriate curves. If the Bonjean’s Curves are not available in this format, the curves and area scale can be traced from the rosette onto a hull
profile drawn on tracing paper. The horizontal length scale for the hull profile is not critical, but should be consistent throughout its length if
buoyancy is to be calculated on waterlines that are not horizontal.

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1-4 APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATIONS

The salvage engineer may be required to calculate hydrostatic data for a casualty when curves of form or other documents are not available;
for a casualty in an unusual condition, such as a ship floated upside down or on its side; or for portions of a ship that has been cut into sections.
A ship’s form consists of a number of intersecting surfaces, usually of nonmathematical form. Areas and volumes enclosed by these surfaces,
as well as moments of areas and volumes, and second moments of area, must be determined to calculate hull hydrostatic characteristics.

For a curve plotted on an xy coordinate system, the area under the curve and moments, second moments (moments of inertia), and location of
the centroid can be expressed as simple integrals. Since hull forms are seldom definable by mathematical equations, areas, moments, and
volumes are calculated by manual integration methods rather than by direct integration. Manual integration methods are also used to evaluate
any parameter that can be expressed as a curve of a function of some variable. For example, the total force, location of the center of effort,
and force moment of an unevenly distributed force (such as current forces) can be determined from a curve showing the force distribution.
Graphical and numerical manual integration methods are described in the following paragraphs.

1-4.1 Graphical Integration. An obvious way to calculate the area under a curve (or within a shape) is to plot the curve to scale on graph
paper and count the squares under the curve. This method can be extended to calculate the first moment of area, My = ∫xy dx, by multiplying
the height (number of squares, y) in each column by its distance from the origin (x), and summing all such products. In the same way, the
second moment is calculated by multiplying the height of each column by x2. By adopting sign conventions and adjusting the location of the
origin, moments can be calculated about any desired axis. Graphical integration of large, complex areas is very tedious, but can be very accurate
for even the most complex or discontinuous curves.

1-4.2 Numerical Integration. Numerical integration methods, or rules, are based on the same premise as graphical integration; that the area
under a curve can be closely approximated by breaking the area up into smaller shapes whose areas can be calculated or estimated easily, and
summing the areas of these shapes. Most rules depend upon the substitution of a simple mathematical form for the actual curve to be integrated.
The accuracy of the result depends upon the accuracy of the fit between the real and assumed curves.

1-4.3 Trapezoidal Rule. The trapezoidal

rule substitutes a series of straight lines for
a complex curve to allow integration of the y
curve in a simple tabular format.
Conceptually, the trapezoidal rule is the
simplest of the numerical integration rules. y1 y2 yn-1 yn
y3 .........................
y0
A curvilinear shape can be approximated by x
a series of n trapezoids bounded by n + 1 h
equally spaced ordinates, y0, y1, y2, y3, ...,
yn, (at stations x0, x1, x2, x3, ..., xn) as
shown in Figure 1-5. If the station spacing x0 x1 x2 x3 ......................... x n-1 xn
is h, the area (a0,1) of the first trapezoid is:
y0 + y1
a0,1 = h Figure 1-5. Curvilinear Figure Approximated by Series of Trapezoids.
2

The total area of the shape (A) is approximately equal to the sum of the areas of the trapezoids:
A = a0, 1 a1, 2 a2, 3 ... an 1, n

y0 y1 y1 y2 y2 y3 yn 1
yn
= h h h ... h
2 2 2 2
h
= y 2y1 2y2 2 y3 . . . yn
2 0
 
y yn 
= h 0 y1 y2 y3 ... 
2 2

This expression is called the trapezoidal rule, and can be used to calculate areas of any shape bounded by a continuous curve, simply by dividing
the shape into a number of equal sections and substituting the ordinate values and the station spacing, or common interval, into the rule. The
common multiplier for the trapezoidal rule is the common interval (h). If the common interval and common multiplier (CM) are separated into
two factors, the common multiplier for the trapezoidal rule is 1.

The factors by which each ordinate is multiplied (1⁄ 2, 1, 1, 1, ..., 1⁄ 2) are the individual multipliers (m). The products of the individual multipliers
and ordinates are called functions of area, ƒ(A). The area under the curve is thus expressed as:
A = ⌠y dx = h f (A)
⌡

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Because the trapezoidal rule substitutes a series of straight lines for the curve to be integrated, it is best suited for use with smooth, long-radius
curves such as the waterlines of a ship. The rule underestimates the area under convex curves, and overestimates the area under concave curves.
Accuracy increases as station spacing is decreased. If greater accuracy is required in regions of considerable curvature, e.g. at the ends of the
ship, stations are taken at half-divisions. When half-spaced stations are used, the individual multipliers for the half-stations and adjacent stations
must be adjusted. If, for example, a half-station is inserted between ordinates 1 and 2:
y0 y1 y1 y1.5 h y1.5 y2 h y2 y3 yn 1
yn
A = h h ... h
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

h
= y 1.5 y1 y1.5 1.5 y2 2y3 ... yn
2 0

1 3 1 3 1 
= h  y0 y1 y1.5 y2 y3 ... y
 2 4 2 4 2 n

The individual multiplier for the half-station is 1⁄ 2, and 3⁄ 4 for the station on either side of it. A similar analysis will show that if several
sequential half-stations are inserted (i.e., 21⁄ 2, 31⁄ 2, 41⁄ 2, etc.) the multipliers for all stations and half-stations between the first and last half-stations
is 1⁄ 2, and the multiplier for the two outlying whole stations is 3⁄ 4. It may be more convenient to use the first form of the rule, to avoid divisors
greater than 2, in which case all the individual multipliers are doubled.

1-4.4 Simpson’s Rules. The replacement

of a complex or small radius curve by a
series of straight lines limits the accuracy of y
calculations, unless a large number of ord- 2
+ bx + c
Y = ax
inates are used. Integration rules that re-
place the actual curve with a mathematical
curve of higher order are more accurate.
Simpson’s rules assume that the actual curve y0 y1 y2
can be replaced by a second-order curve
(parabola). Figures 1-6 through 1-8 demon-
strate the derivations of Simpson’s rules.
x=0 x=1 x=2
X
h h
1-4.4.1 Simpson’s First Rule. Figure 1-6
h
shows a curve of the form y = ax2 + bx + c. AREA = __ (y0 + 4y1 + y2 )
3
It is expressed by three evenly spaced
ordinates y0, y1 and y2, at x = 0, 1, and 2 Figure 1-6. Simpson’s Three-Ordinate Rule.
(station spacing = 1). The values of the
ordinates are:

y0 = a (0)2 b (0) c = c for x = 1

y1 = a (1)2 b (1) c = a b c for x = 1

y2 = a (2)2 b (2) c = 4a 2b c for x = 2

The area under the curve is:

ax 3 bx 2
A = ⌠ (ax 2
2 2 8
bx c) dx = cx = a 2b 2c
⌡0 3 2
0
3

Now c = y0 and y1 = y0 + a + b, and y2 = y0 + 4a + 2b. Substituting and solving for a and b:

y2 2 y1 = y0 2b 4a 2 y0 2b 2a = y0 2a
( y2 2 y1 y0 )
∴ a =
2
(y2 2y1 y0) 3 y2
b = y1 y0 a = y1 y0 = y 2 y1
2 2 0 2

1-17
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Area (A) is expressed as:

   
8 8  y2 2 y1 y0   3 y2 
A = a 2b 2c =   2 y0 2 y1  2 y0
3 3 2   2 2 
4 8 4 1 4 1
= 2 y0 3 y0 y2 4 y1 y y y = y y y
3 2 3 1 3 0 3 0 3 1 3 2

1
= y 4 y1 y2
3 0

For an ordinate spacing of h rather than unity:

h
A = (y 4 y1 y2 )
3 0
This relationship is Simpson’s first rule, or
3-ordinate rule, commonly called Simpson’s
rule. The rule calculates correctly the area
under a second order curve and will 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 STATION
approximate the area under any curve that
1 4 1 1 4 1 3-ORDINATE
passes through the same three points. The 1 4 1 MULTIPLIERS
accuracy depends on how closely the actual 1 4 2 4 2 4 1 SIMPSON’S
curve approaches the parabolic form MULTIPLIERS
assumed by the rule. Simpson’s Rule is the
numerical integration rule used most widely Figure 1-7. Simpson’s Multipliers for Long Curve.
for ship calculations.

The rule can be extended to calculate the area under a long nonparabolic curve such as a ship’s waterline. If the length of the curve is divided
into enough equal parts, as shown in Figure 1-7, it can be reasonably approximated by a series of parabolic segments. For a curve divided into
n equal parts, the area between the first (0) and third (2) ordinates would be given by:
h
A0 2
= (y + 4y1 + y2)
3 0
where:

A0-2 = area under the curve between the first and third ordinates
h = distance between ordinates = L/n
L = length of the curve
n = number of sections between ordinates = number of ordinates - 1

Similarly, the area between the third (2) and fifth (4) ordinates would be:
h
A2 4
= (y + 4y3 + y4)
3 2
The area between the fifth (4) and seventh (6) ordinates:
h
A4 6
= (y + 4y5 + y6)
3 4
and so on.

The total area is the sum of all the two section areas:
A = A0 2
A2 4
A4 6
... An 2 n

h
= y 4y1 2y2 4y3 2y4 4y5 2y6 ... yn
3 0
This is the general form of Simpson’s rule. Since the rule consists of a summation of areas over two sections of a curve divided into a number
of equal sections, the curve must be divided into an even number of sections (by an odd number of stations) to apply the rule. The common
multiplier (CM) is 1⁄ 3; the individual multipliers are 1, 4, 2, 4, 2, 4,..., 2, 4, 1. The derivation of the individual multipliers as a tabular summation
of the 3-ordinate rule multipliers for each two adjacent sections is shown in Figure 1-7.

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In regions where the slope of the curve changes rapidly, the accuracy of the rule can be increased by inserting intermediate (half-spaced) stations.
When half-spaced stations are used, the individual multipliers are modified. For example, a half-station could be inserted at 21⁄ 2 were there a
rapid change in form between the third and fourth stations of the curve in Figure 1-7. The area between the first and second stations is
calculated as before:
h
A0 2
= (y + 4y1 + y2)
3 0
With the insertion of the half-station (21⁄ 2), the 3-ordinate rule can be applied to the area between the third and fourth ordinates (A2-3), with an
ordinate spacing of h/2:
h
 
2 h y y 
A2 3
= y2 4y2.5 y3 =  2 2y2.5 3 
3 32 2

The area between the fourth and sixth stations (A3-4) is now:
h
A3 4
= (y + 4y4 + y5)
3 3
and so on. The total area is:
A = A0 2
A2 3
A3 5
... An 1 n

 
h y2 2y3 
=  y0 4y1 y2 2 y2.5 y y3 4y4 y5 ... yn
3 2 2 
h 1 1 
= y 4y1 1 y2 2y2.5 1 y3 4y4 2y5 ... yn
3 0 2 2 
Note that unless another half-spaced station is inserted, the number of sections (n) will be even, and the rule unworkable. Intermediate stations
can be inserted at any equal division of the station spacing (third-stations, quarter-stations, etc.) and multipliers deduced in a similar manner.
Intermediate stations can be inserted anywhere along the length of the curve so long as two rules are followed:

• An even number of intermediate stations must be inserted, so that the total number of segments remains even (total number of
ordinates is odd).

• Intermediate stations must be inserted so there are an even number of segments in each group of consecutive whole or partial
segments (each group of whole or partial segments includes an odd number of ordinates).

Intermediate stations are commonly used

near the ends of waterlines where the hull
form changes rapidly with respect to length.
The individual multipliers can be quickly
determined by tabulating and summing the
6 5-1/2 5 4 3 2-1/2 2 1 0 STATION
appropriate 3-ordinate rule multipliers as
shown in Figure 1-8. 1 4 1 1 4 1 3-ORDINATE
1/2 2 1/2 1/2 2 1/2 MULTIPLIER
1/2 2 1-1/2 4 1-1/2 2 1-1/2 4 1 SIMPSON’S
1-4.4.2 Simpson’s Second Rule. Rules MULTIPLIER
can be deduced, in a similar manner, for
areas bounded by different numbers of even- Figure 1-8. Simpson’s Multipliers with Half-Spaced Stations.
ly spaced ordinates, or by unevenly spaced
ordinates. For four evenly spaced ordinates:
3h
A = (y0 + 3y1 + 3y2 + y3)
8
This is Simpson’s second or three-eighths Rule. The general form is:
3h
A = (y0 + 3y1 + 3y2 + 2y3 + 3y4 + 3y5 + 2y6 + ... + yn)
8
Simpson’s second rule can be used with 4 + 3i ordinates, where i is a positive integer (i.e., 4, 7, 10, 13, etc.).

1-4.5 Applications. The derivations of Simpson’s rules and the trapezoidal rule were demonstrated with area computations to aid
conceptualization, but the rules can integrate any function that can be plotted on Cartesian coordinates. If, for example, the ordinates represent
sectional areas along a ship’s length for a given waterline, the products of the multipliers and ordinates are functions of volume, ƒ(V), and their
summation (integral of the curve) is the volume of displacement. Calculation of areas, moments, centroids, and second moments of areas by
the are described in the following paragraphs.

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1-4.5.1 Moments and Centroids. As

shown in Figure 1-9, the moment of an yy AREA a = ydx
elemental strip of area about some vertical
axis YY is xydx. To determine the moment
of a larger area about the axis, the integral x yn
M = ∫xy dx must be evaluated. Instead of 1/2 yn
multiplying the value of y at each station xx
by the appropriate multiplier, the value xy dx
is multiplied, where x is the distance from FOR SHADED STRIP: a = ydx
the station to the reference axis, and dx is ay2 y3dx
i = ___ = ____
the width of each strip, or the common 12 12
Myy = xa = x(ydx)
interval h. The value y dx = hyn is the area
of the strip an; the first moment of this area Iyy = x 2a = x2(ydx)
3
about some reference axis YY is: y2 y 2 ( ydx) _____
y dx
Ixx = __ a + i = __ +
2 2 12
MYY = xnhyn = xnan

Figure 1-9. Variables for Moment and Second-Moment Calculations.

The total moment is the sum of the
moments of all the strips, that is, the
integral of the incremental moments along
the length:

MYY = ⌠ xn an dx
L

⌡0

The integral can be evaluated numerically:

⌠x a dx = xn CMf (A) = CM xn f (A)
⌡ n n

where:

CM = common multiplier for the appropriate integration rule

ƒ(A) = function of area = mnyn
mn = common multiplier for the appropriate rule and station

If the reference axis is chosen to fall on an ordinate station, then the moment arms have the common interval (h) as a common factor, i.e., xn
= snh, where xn is the moment arm and sn is the number of stations from the reference axis to station n. The factor h can be brought outside
the summation:

MYY = CMh ∑ snƒ(A)

The products of the number of stations from the reference axis and the functions of area, snƒ(A), are the functions of moment ƒ(M):

MYY = CMh ∑ ƒ(M)

The distance from the centroid of the shape to the reference axis (x′) is the moment divided by the area:
MYY CM h f (M) f (M)
x = = = h
A CM f (A) f (A)

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The centroid of a symmetrical shape lies on the axis of symmetry, and its location can be defined by summing moments about a single axis
perpendicular to the axis of symmetry. To precisely locate the centroid of an asymmetrical shape, moments must be summed about another,
perpendicular, axis. The calculation can be performed by taking ordinates perpendicular to the first set and integrating with respect to y rather
than x. Moments about an axis XX can also be determined using y ordinates, but with slightly less accuracy. Referring again to Figure 1-9,
the moment about axis XX of the elemental strip dx is:
y y  y2
MX X =   a =   y dx =   dx
2 2  2 

where y is the height of the strip, and a its area. The total moment is the integral of the incremental moments along the length, and the integral
can be evaluated numerically:
⌠ Ly
⌡ n yn CM yn f (A)n
MX X = 0 an dx = CM f (A)n =
2 2 2

The product of the y ordinate and the function of area for each segment can be defined as the function of moment about x, ƒ(MXX):
f MX X = y f (A) = y 2 mn

CM
MX X = f MX X
2
where mn is the individual multiplier for the nth ordinate. The distance from the centroid of the shape to the axis XX (y’) is the moment divided
by the area:
CM
f MXX
MX X 2 f MXX
y = = =
A CM f (A) 2 f (A)

Moments can be summed about any axis, although it is simplest to sum them about an axis through x0 so that the number of stations from the
reference axis is simply the station number. For ship calculations, moments are often summed about the midships section to reduce the size
of the products and sums for manual calculation, and because the centers of flotation, buoyancy, and gravity normally lie near midships. When
moments are summed about a station other than an end station, a sign convention must be adopted so that distances to one side of the reference
axis (and therefore moments and functions of moments) are negative.

1-4.5.2 Second Moments of Area. The second moment of area (moment of inertia, I) of a plane shape about an axis YY parallel to the vertical
ordinates is given by:

IYY = ∫0L x2y dx

where:

IYY = second moment of area about some axis YY

x = distance from axis YY to elemental vertical strip of height y and width dx
L = length of the area whose second moment is desired, measured along an axis perpendicular to YY

An analysis similar to that taken for the calculation of first moments will show that the second moment of the area under a curve is calculated by:

IYY = CMh2 ∑ ƒ(IYY)

where:

CM = common multiplier
h = common interval
ƒ(IYY) = function of second moment about axis YY = sn2mnyn
sn = number of stations from axis YY to station n
mn = individual multiplier for station n
yn = height of the ordinate at station n

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

The second moment of an area (moment of inertia) is always smallest about an axis through its centroid, (the neutral axis in bending stress analysis).
If moment of inertia about some axis YY, parallel to the neutral axis is known, the moment of inertia about the neutral axis (INA) is found by the
parallel axis theorem:
INA = IYY - Ad 2
where d is the distance from axis YY to the neutral axis, and A is the total area of the section.

The second moment of area about an axis XX perpendicular to axis YY can be calculated by taking ordinates perpendicular to the first set and
integrating twice with respect to y rather than x. To determine the second moment about a horizontal axis of symmetry, such as the moment
of inertia of a waterplane about its centerline, the integration can also be performed using the original set of ordinates. In Figure 1-9 (Page 1-
20), y is the half-ordinate of an incremental strip of a waterplane measured from the centerline. The second moment of area of the incremental
strip about the centerline is:
 y 2  y 2  1  3 1 3
ixx =   a i0 = y dx     y dx =   y dx
2  2  12  3
where:

ixx = second moment of area of incremental strip about the centerline

a = area of the incremental strip
i0 = second moment of area of the incremental strip about a horizontal centroidal axis
= (1⁄ 12)y3dx if strip is assumed to be rectangular
dx = width of the incremental strip

The total second moment of half-waterplane area is:

L 1 1 L
IXX, half = ⌠   y 3dx =   ⌠ y 3dx
⌡0  3   3  ⌡0
The second moment of the total area is twice this amount, and this will be the second moment about the centerline, since the waterplane is
symmetrical about the centerline. The integration ∫y3dx can be performed numerically:
 CM h 
IX X = 2   f IX X
 3 
where:

CM = common multiplier
h = common interval
ƒ(IXX) = function of second
moment about axis XX = y0
mnyn3 0 0
mn = individual multiplier for
station n 1 1
yn = height of the half-ordinate 2 2
at station n
3 3
1-4.5.3 Volumes and Centroids of 4 4
Volume. Volumes are calculated by inte- y4 = 0 x0 x3
grating a curve of sectional areas. To cal- ORDINATES x1 x2
culate the volume of the tank shown in FOR AREA
INTEGRATION
Figure 1-10, the shape is first cut at several
stations to form section outlines. The area
of each section is calculated, and the areas ORDINATES
FOR VOLUME
taken as ordinates along the length of the INTEGRATION
tank. Integrating the area ordinates by the (AREAS) a0 a1 a2 a3
trapezoidal rule:

V = ∫a dx = h ∑ƒ(V) Figure 1-10. Determination of Volume by Numerical Integration.

where:

ƒ(V) = function of volume = mnan

mn = individual multiplier for station n
an = area of section at station n

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

The moment of volume about some axis YY is:

MYY = h2 ∑ ƒ(M)

where:

ƒ(M) = function of moment of volume about axis YY = snmnan

sn = number of stations from axis YY to station n

The distance of the centroid from axis YY:

h 2 f (M) f (M)
d = = h
h f (V) f (V)

These forms are exactly the same as those used to calculate areas and moments and centroids of areas; the only difference is that ordinate values
represent areas rather than linear distances. Integrations can be performed along additional axes to precisely locate the centroid of the shape.

1-4.5.4 General Forms for Area and Moment Calculations. Calculation of areas, moments, centroids, and second moments of area by
Simpson’s first and second rules can be expressed in general forms:

A = (CM) h f (A)

MYY = (CM) h f (M)

MXX = 
CM 
 f MXX
 2 

(CM) h f (M) f (M)

x = = h
(CM) f (A) f (A)
where:

A = area under a curve between selected stations

MYY = first moment of area about axis YY
MXX = first moment of area about axis XX
x′ = distance from centroid of area to axis YY
y′ = distance from centroid of area to axis XX
IYY = second moment of area about axis YY
IXX = second moment of area about centerline axis XX
CM = common multiplier for the appropriate rule (1, 1/3, 3/8, etc)
h = common interval
ƒ(A) = function of area = mnyn
ƒ(M) = function of moment about YY = snmnyn = snƒ(A)
ƒ(MXX) = function of moment about XX = mnyn2 = ynƒ(A)
ƒ(IYY) = function of second moment about YY = sn2mnyn = snƒ(M) = sn2ƒ(A)
3
ƒ(IXX) = function of second moment about XX = mnyn
s = number of stations from axis YY (or integration start point) to station n
m = individual multiplier for station n for the appropriate rule
yn = height of the ordinate at station n (half-ordinate for IXX)

Examples 1-1 and 1-2 demonstrate the use of the trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule to calculate waterplane functions for an FFG-7 Class ship.

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EXAMPLE 1-1

CALCULATION OF WATERPLANE PROPERTIES BY TRAPEZOIDAL RULE

Using 11- and 21-ordinate trapezoidal rules, calculate the waterplane area (AWP), location of the center of flotation (LCF), moment of inertia of the waterplane
about the centerline (ICL) and a transverse axis through the LCF (ICF), tons per inch immersion in saltwater (TPI), and waterplane coefficient (CWP) for the 16-foot
waterline of an FFG-7 Class ship. Compare these values with actual data.

Actual Properties:

L = 408 ft ICF = 135,888,480 ft4

Bmax = 45.6 ft ICL = 1,664,145 ft4
AWP = 13,860 ft2 TPI = 33 tons/in
LCF = 24.1 ft aft of midships = 228.1 ft from forward perpendicular CWP = 0.745

Since the waterplane is symmetrical about its centerline, areas and moments can be found by integrating one side of the waterplane along the centerline with
half-ordinates (halfbreadths) measured from the centerline, and doubling the results. Halfbreadths for the 16-foot waterline, in feet, inches, and eighths, are
taken from Figure FO-1. The integrations are best performed in a tabular format. To integrate on 11 ordinates, halfbreadths for stations 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,
14, 16, 18, and 20 are used.

Integration on 11 ordinates: Integration on 21 ordinates:

Station Ordinate, Multiplier ƒ(A) Lever ƒ(M) ƒ(IYY) ƒ(IXX) Station Ordinate, Multiplier ƒ(A) Lever ƒ(M) ƒ(IYY) ƒ(IXX )
y m m×y s s × ƒ(A) s × ƒ(M) m × y3 y m s
ft-in-1/8 ft ft2 ft ft3 ft4 ft4 ft-in-1/8 ft ft2 ft ft3 ft4 ft4
1
0 0-4-5 0.39 ⁄2 0.19 0 0.0 0.0 0.03 0 0 - 4 - 5 0.39 1/2 0.19 0 0.0 0.0 0.03
1 3 - 7 - 6 3.65 1 3.65 1 3.65 3.65 48.6
2 6 -10 - 5 6.89 1 6.89 1 6.89 6.89 327.1 2 6 -10 - 5 6.89 1 6.89 2 13.78 27.56 327.1
3 10- 0 - 2 10.02 1 10.02 3 30.06 90.18 1006.0
4 12-11 - 0 12.92 1 12.92 2 25.84 51.68 2156.7 4 12-11 - 0 12.92 1 12.92 4 51.68 206.72 2156.7
5 15- 6 - 1 15.51 1 15.51 5 77.55 387.75 3731.1
6 17- 9 - 2 17.77 1 17.77 3 53.31 159.93 5611.3 6 17- 9 - 2 17.77 1 17.77 6 106.62 639.72 5611.3
7 19- 6 - 7 19.57 1 19.57 7 136.99 958.93 7495.0
8 20-11 - 5 20.97 1 20.97 4 83.88 335.52 9221.4 8 20-11 - 5 20.97 1 20.97 8 167.76 1342.08 9221.4
9 21-11 - 5 21.97 1 21.97 9 197.73 1779.57 10604.5
10 22- 7 - 1 22.59 1 22.59 5 112.95 564.75 11527.9 10 22- 7 - 1 22.59 1 22.59 10 225.90 2259.00 11527.9
12 22- 8 - 3 22.70 1 22.70 6 136.20 817.20 11697.1 11 22- 9 - 4 22.79 1 22.79 11 250.69 2757.59 11836.8
12 22- 8 - 3 22.70 1 22.70 12 272.40 3268.80 11697.1
14 21- 8 - 4 21.71 1 21.71 7 151.97 1063.37 10232.4 13 22- 3 - 7 22.32 1 22.32 13 290.16 3772.08 11119.4
14 21- 8 - 4 21.71 1 21.71 14 303.94 4255.16 10232.4
16 19- 7 - 1 19.59 1 19.59 8 156.72 1253.76 7518.0 15 20- 9 - 5 20.80 1 20.80 15 312.00 4680.00 8998.9
16 19- 7 - 1 19.59 1 19.59 16 313.44 5015.04 7518.0
18 16- 8 - 6 16.73 1 16.73 9 150.57 1355.13 4682.6 17 18- 2 - 1 18.18 1 18.18 17 309.06 5254.02 6008.7
1
18 16- 8 - 6 16.73 1 16.73 18 301.14 5420.52 4682.6
20 12- 7 - 0 12.58 ⁄2 6.29 10 62.90 629.00 995.4 19 15- 1 - 0 15.01 1 15.01 19 285.19 5418.61 3381.8
20 12- 7 - 0 12.58 1/2 6.29 20 125.80 2516.00 995.4
168.34 941.23 6237.65 63969.9 338.18 3775.54 50052.98 128200.7

h = 408/20 = 20.4 ft
h = 408/10 = 40.8 ft
AWP = 2h ∑ƒ(A) = 2(20.4)(338.18) = 13,797.5 ft2
AWP = 2h ∑ƒ(A) = 2(40.8)(168.34) = 13,736.5 ft2
MFP = 2h2 ∑ ƒ(M) = 2(20.4)2(3775.54) = 3,142,457 ft3
MFP = 2h 2 ∑ ƒ(M) = 2(40.8)2(941.23) = 3,133,618 ft3
∑ ƒ(M) 3775.54
∑ ƒ(M) 941.23
x′ = ———— h = ———— (20.4) = 227.8 ft from FP = LCF
x′ = ———— h = ———— (40.8) = 228.1 ft from FP = LCF
∑ ƒ(A) 338.18
∑ ƒ(A) 168.34
IFP = 2h 3 ∑ ƒ(IYY) = 2(20.4)3(50,052.98) = 849,865,964 ft4
IFP = 2h 3 ∑ ƒ(IYY) = 2(40.8)3(6237.65) = 847,288,842 ft4
ICF = IFP - Ad 2 = 849,865,964 - 13,797.6(227.8)2 = 134,155,856 ft4
ICF = IFP - Ad 2 = 847,288,842 - 13,736.5(228.1)2 = 132,516,043 ft4
ICL = 2(h / 3) ∑ ƒ(IXX) = 2(20.4 / 3)(128,200.7) = 1,743,529 ft4
ICL = 2(h / 3) ∑ ƒ(IXX) = 2(40.8/3)(63,969.9) = 1,739,981 ft4
TPI = AWP / 420 = 13,797.6 / 420 = 32.9 tons
TPI = AWP / 420 = 13,736.5/420 = 32.7 tons
CWP = AWP / (LB) = 13,797.6 / (408 × 45.6) = 0.742
CWP = AWP / (LB) = 13,736.5/(408 × 45.6) = 0.738

Comparison:

Actual 11 Ordinate 21 Ordinate

Value Error, % Value Error, %
AWP, ft2 13,860.0 13,737.8 0.88 13,797.500 0.45
LCF, ft fm FP 228.1 228.1 0.00 227.800 0.13
ICF, ft4 135,888,480 132,502,924 2.49 134,155,856.000 1.28
ICL, ft4 1,664,145 1,739,981 4.56 1,743,529.000 4.77
TPI, tons/in 33 32.7 0.91 32.900 0.30
CWP 0.745 0.738 0.94 0.742 0.40

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EXAMPLE 1-2

CALCULATION OF WATERPLANE PROPERTIES BY SIMPSON’S RULE

Use Simpson’s first rule with 11 ordinates to calculate the waterplane properties that were calculated in Example 1-1. Compare the results with actual data
and the results by trapezoidal rule.

Ship dimensions and actual waterplane properties are the same as for Example 1-1. Halfbreadths for stations 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 from
Figure FO-1 are used to integrate on 11 stations. Integration:

Station Ordinate, Multiplier ƒ(A7) Lever ƒ(M) ƒ(IYY) ƒ(IXX)

y m m×y s s × ƒ(A) s × ƒ(M) m × y3
ft-in-1/8 ft ft2 ft ft ft4 ft4
0 0-4-5 0.39 1 0.39 0 0.0 0.0 0.06
2 6 -10 - 5 6.89 4 27.56 1 27.56 27.56 1308.3
4 12-11 - 0 12.92 2 25.84 2 51.68 103.36 4313.4
6 17- 9 - 2 17.77 4 71.08 3 213.24 639.72 22445.1
8 20-11 - 5 20.97 2 41.94 4 167.76 671.04 18442.7
10 22- 7 - 1 22.59 4 90.36 5 451.80 2259.00 46111.4
12 22- 8 - 3 22.70 2 45.40 6 272.40 1634.40 23394.2
14 21- 8 - 4 21.71 4 86.84 7 607.88 4255.16 40929.8
16 19- 7 - 1 19.59 2 39.18 8 313.44 2507.52 15036.0
18 16- 8 - 6 16.73 4 66.92 9 602.28 5420.52 18730.4
20 12- 7 - 0 12.58 1 12.58 10 125.80 1258.00 1990.9
508.09 2,833.84 18,776.28 192,702.4

h = 408/10 = 40.8 ft
AWP = 2
⁄ 3 h ∑ƒ(A) = 2
⁄ 3 (40.8)(508.09) = 13,820.1 ft2
MFP = 2
⁄ 3 h2 ∑ƒ(M) = 2
⁄ 3 (40.8)2(2833.84) = 3,144,882 ft3

∑ ƒ(M) 2833.84
x′ = ———— h = ———— (40.8) = 227.6 ft from FP = LCF
∑ ƒ(A) 508.09

IFP = 2
⁄ 3 h 3 ƒ(IYY) = 2
⁄ 3 (40.8)3(18,776.28) = 850,156,311 ft4
ICF = IFP - Ad2 = 850,156,311 - 13,820.1(227.6)2 = 134,508,685 ft4

ICL = ⁄ 3 (h/3) ∑ ƒ(IXX)

2
= 2
⁄ 3 (40.8/3)(192,702.4) = 1,747,168 ft4
TPI = AWP/420 = 13,820.1/420 = 32.9 tons
CWP = AWP/(LB) = 13,820.1/(408 × 45.6) = 0.743

Comparison:
Actual Value 11 Ordinate Simpson’s Rule Trapezoidal Rule Error, %
Value Error, % 11 Ordinate 21 Ordinate
AWP, ft2 13,860 13,820.1 0.29 0.88 0.45
LCF, ft fm FP 228.1 227.6 0.22 0.00 0.13
ICF, ft4 135,888,480 134,508,685 1.02 2.49 1.28
ICL, ft4 1,664,145 1,747,168 4.99 4.56 4.77
TPI, tons/in 33 32.9 0.30 0.91 0.30
CWP 0.745 0.743 0.27 0.92 0.40

The accuracy of an 11-ordinate Simpson’s rule compares favorably with that of a 21-ordinate trapezoidal rule. Simpson’s rule with 21 ordinates
is only marginally more accurate than with 11 ordinates for this waterplane shape. Note that Simpson’s rule calculates the moment of inertia
about the centerline with slightly less accuracy than the trapezoidal rule. The derivation of the form: ICL = (CM)(h/3) ∑ ƒ(IXX) assumes a constant
ordinate over the entire section (see Paragraph 1-4.3.3). The Simpson’s multipliers do not correct for this assumption. The constant-ordinate
assumption is essentially correct for very full ships and barges with extensive parallel midbody, and will yield very accurate values for ICL.
Accuracy of ICL calculations for fine-lined ships can be increased only by using very close station spacing or integrating along an axis
perpendicular to the centerline. The ± 5 percent accuracy shown here should be sufficiently accurate for most salvage work.

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1-4.6 Other Simpson’s Rule Forms. Simpson’s rules can be derived for numbers of ordinates for which the first two rules do not apply, and
to determine areas of "left over" segments at the ends of curves.
1-4.6.1 5, 8, Minus One and 3, 10, Minus One Rules. An additional Simpson’s rule, known as the 5, 8, minus one rule, is used to determine
the area between two ordinates when three consecutive ordinates are known. For ordinates y0, y1, and y2, the area between the first and second
ordinates is given by:
1
A0-1 = h (5y0 + 8y1 - y2)
12
The area between the second and third ordinates can be found by applying the rule backwards:
1
A1-2 = h (-y0 + 8y1 + 5y2)
12
The validity of the 5, 8, minus one rule can be verified by observing that the sum of the expressions for the two sectional areas is the 3-ordinate
rule:
1
A = A0 1 A1 2 = h 5y0 8y1 y2 y0 8y1 5y2
12
1
= h y0 4y1 y2
3
The 5, 8, minus one rule cannot be used for moments. The first moment of the area between the first and second ordinates (A1-2) about the first
ordinate is given by the 3, 10, minus one rule:
1 2
M1 = h (3y0 + 10y1 - y2)
24
These two Simpson’s rules are at times convenient, but are less accurate than the first and second rules.
1-4.6.2 Simpson’s Rules for Any Number of Ordinates. Simpson’s rules can be combined one with another to derive rules for numbers of
ordinates for which the first two rules do not apply. For example, the first rule can be used for 3, 5, 7, 9, ... ordinates, and the second rule for
4, 7, 10, .... ordinates. A rule can be deduced for six ordinates as shown below:
3
A0 3 = h y0 3y1 3y2 y3
8
1
A3 5 = h y3 4y4 y5
3
= A0 3 A3 5 = h  y0
3 9 9 3 1 4 1 
A y1 y2 y3 y3 y4 y5 
8 8 8 8 3 3 3 
1
= h 9y0 27y1 27y2 17y3 32y4 8y5
24
This is not the only rule suitable for six ordinates. By skillful use of the 5, 8, minus one rule, a rule with less awkward multipliers can be
deduced:
1
A0 3 = h 5y0 8y1 y2
12
3
A1 4 = h y1 3y2 3y3 y4
8
1
A4 5 = h y3 8y4 5y5
12

A = A0 1
A1 4
A4 5

= h 
5 25 25 25 25 5 
y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 
 12 24 24 24 24 15 
25
= h 0.4y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 0.4 y5
24
Substituting the same values for ordinates y0 through y5 in each rule will verify that they are equivalent. Rules deduced in this manner can be
used in the general forms described in Paragraph 1-4.4.4.
1-4.7 Other Integration Rules. Simpson’s rules and the trapezoidal rule are satisfactory for most manual calculations. The Newton-Cotes’,
Tchebycheff’s, and Gauss’ rules are more accurate, but require more tedious manual calculations. These rules are described in most general naval
architecture texts, such as Basic Ship Theory by K.J. Rawson and E.C. Tupper, or Muckle’s Naval Architecture by W. Muckle and D.A. Taylor.

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1-4.8 General Notes For Numerical Integration. The numerical integration rules presented have relative advantages and disadvantages. When
time and/or access to high-speed computers permits, the salvage engineer may select the optimum integration rule for a well-defined curve.
For curves where ordinates are tabulated for only certain stations, a rule appropriate to that number and spacing of stations must be adopted.
Some generalizations about the applicability of integration rules are listed below:

• The trapezoidal rule uses constant ordinate spacing and simpler multipliers than the other rules. Any number of ordinates can be
used. The rule can accommodate half-stations at any point, and the multipliers for half-stations are easily derived. For a single
integration (area calculation) of a gentle curve, the trapezoidal rule is nearly as accurate as the Simpson’s rules, but progressively
greater errors are introduced on successive integrations (for moments and moments of inertia).

• Simpson’s rules and the trapezoidal rule include the common interval as part of the common multiplier and can therefore calculate
areas or volumes, moments, centroids, and second moments of area (single, double, and triple integrations) directly.

• Simpson’s rules are the most commonly used integration rules because they are more accurate than the trapezoidal rule, but simpler
to use than the more accurate Newton-Cotes’, Tchebycheff’s, and Gauss’ rules.

• Simpson’s rules exactly integrate first-, second-, and third-order curves. Successive integrations produce progressively higher order
curves: the curve of area under a second-order curve is a third order curve, and the curve of the moment of areas is then a fourth-
order curve. Simpson’s rules will therefore exactly calculate the first moment of a second-order curve, or the second moment of
a first-order curve. Calculating the second moment of a second-order or higher curve involves integrating a fourth-order equation,
so some error is introduced even for a parabolic curve. Additional error may arise for an arbitrary curve. Experience has shown
that Simpson’s rule calculates moments and second moments of relatively smooth, continuous curves—such as those describing
ship forms—accurately if a sufficiently close station spacing is used.

• An even-ordinate Simpson rule is only marginally more accurate than the next lower odd-ordinate rule; odd-ordinate Simpson rules
are therefore preferred, and almost universally used in salvage.

1-4.9 Integration of Discontinuous Curves. The integration rules discussed are applicable to continuous curves. The area under a
discontinuous curve can be obtained by applying appropriate rules to the portions of the curve between discontinuities and summing the areas.
For curves with large numbers of closely spaced discontinuities, it is simpler to divide the curve into segments at the discontinuities, approximate
each segment by a rectangle, triangle, or trapezoid, calculate the area of each segment, and sum the areas to find the total area. The centroid
of each segment can be calculated or estimated. Moments, second moments, and the centroid of the entire area can be calculated by summing
the products of each area and the lever arm from its centroid to a selected axis in a tabular format. Replacing a segment of the curve between
discontinuities (stations) with a horizontal line at a value equal to the average ordinate creates a rectangle with area equal to the area under the
curve between the two stations. If the curve between stations can be reasonably approximated by a straight line, a horizontal line intersecting
the curve midway between stations has a y value equal to the average ordinate. Repeating this process along the length of the curve creates
a stepped curve. If the discontinuities, and subsequent stations, are evenly spaced, the curve can be integrated by a modification of the
trapezoidal rule:
A = ⌠y dx = h
n
y
⌡ 1 n

MYY = ⌠xy dz = h 2
n
sn 1/2 yn
⌡ 1

IYY = ⌠x 2y dx = h 3
n
sn 1/2 2 yn
⌡ 1

where:

A = area under a curve between stations 0 and n

MYY = first moment of area about axis YY
IYY = second moment of area about axis YY
h = common interval
sn = number of stations from axis YY (or integration start point) to station n
yn = height of the mid-ordinate between stations n and n-1

Weight distribution curves for ships are usually drawn assuming a constant weight distribution between stations as stepped curves. The addition
of the continuous buoyancy curve and stepped weight curve creates a discontinuous load curve. The load curve is usually stepped as described
above to facilitate integration along its length to define the shear curve. Alternatively, the buoyancy curve can be stepped before summing with
the weight curve. A stepped 10-segment (11-ordinate) buoyancy curve can be constructed from standard Navy 21-station Bonjean’s Curves by
taking unit buoyancy calculated from section areas for odd station as the average unit buoyancy for segments bounded by even stations—unit
buoyancy for segment 0–2 is based on section area for station 1, that for segment 2–4 on the area for station 3, etc. Example 1-4 includes an
integration of this type.

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1-4.10 Calculation of Hull Properties. Various integrations of a ship’s hull form are used to determine properties such as displacement,
locations of centers, tons per inch immersion, etc., known collectively as functions of form, hydrostatic functions, or hydrostatic data. Waterlines,
buttocks, and stations of lines drawings are spaced to support numerical integration, usually by Simpson’s or the trapezoidal rules. Halfbreadths
(offsets) taken along the length of a waterline provide ordinate values to define the waterplane shape; halfbreadths taken at different waterlines
at the same station provide ordinate values to define the station shape. Because ships are symmetrical about the centerline, integrations are
customarily performed for one side of the section or waterplane only, and doubled to give the total area or moment.

When working from offsets, sectional areas are usually calculated by vertical integration on horizontal ordinates from the centerline. An
integration up to a waterline gives section area corresponding to that waterline. Integrating the curve of areas along the ship’s length gives
volume of displacement; the centroid of the volume is the center of buoyancy.

Waterlines are integrated along the ship’s length to determine area of the waterplane, location of the centroid of the waterplane (center of
flotation), and moment of inertia of the waterplane about the centerline and about a transverse axis through the center of flotation. From these
properties, tons per inch immersion, location of the metacenter, etc., can be calculated. Displacement volume can be calculated by taking
waterplane areas as ordinates and integrating vertically.

Longitudinal position of the center of buoyancy (LCB) is obtained by longitudinal integration of the sectional areas. Height of the center of
buoyancy (KB) can be obtained by vertical integration of waterplane areas, or by calculating a vertical moment of area for each section. The sum
of all the vertical area moments divided by the sum of the sectional areas gives KB. Integrations of this form are included in Example 1-4 and
Appendix F.

1-4.10.1 Functions of Form. Functions of hull form are

usually calculated for each waterline so they can be plotted Table 1-3. Appendage Allowances.
as a function of draft as the ship’s Curves of Form, also
called Hydrostatic Curves, or Displacement and Other
Appendage allowance:
Curves (D & O Curves). Figure FO-2 is a reproduction of Ship Type
∆APP/∆FL
the curves of form for an FFG-7 Class ship. Hydrostatic data
is also recorded in the Functions of Form Diagram (Figure Single-screw, small combatant with keel sonar dome1 . . . . . . . . . 0.0167
B-1) for Navy ships and Hydrostatic Tables (Figure B-2) for Twin-screw, small combatant with keel sonar dome1 . . . . . . . . . . 0.0200
commercial vessels. The salvage engineer may be required Single-screw, small combatant with bow sonar dome1 . . . . . . . . . 0.0049
to calculate hydrostatic data when curves of form or other Twin-screw, small combatant with bow sonar dome1 . . . . . . . . . . 0.0060
documents are not available or for a casualty in an unusual Twin-screw amphibious warfare ships with well decks1 . . . . . . . . . 0.0106
condition. Whether functions of form are calculated for a shell plating only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0057
complete range of drafts or for only a few selected drafts de- all other appendages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0049
pends on the form of the ship and the nature of information Twin-screw LST1
without bow thruster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 0.0024
required by salvors. Manual calculations are best performed with tunnel bow thruster (negative appendage) . . . . . . . ... 0.0014
on organized tabular forms called displacement sheets. Single-screw merchant ships and auxiliaries of ordinary form,
less than 5,000 tons full load displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 0.0075
1-4.10.2 Appendage Displacement. Volumes and dis- shell plating only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 0.0060
placements (buoyancies) based on section areas taken from all other appendages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 0.0015
Bonjean’s Curves do not include appendage volume/ dis- Single-screw merchant ships and auxiliaries of ordinary form,
placement, although sectional areas from some Bonjean’s 5,000 to 15,000 tons full load displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 0.0050
shell plating only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 0.0040
Curves include shell plating. If known, appendage dis-
all other appendages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 0.0010
placements can be added to the integrated displacement; ef- Single-screw merchant ships and auxiliaries of ordinary form,
fect on LCB can be determined by moment balance. When greater than 15,000 tons full load displacement . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 0.0025
appendage buoyancy is unknown, appendage displacement Twin-screw merchant ships and auxiliaries of ordinary form . .
. . . 0.0081
can be estimated as a fraction of full load displacement, shell plating only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 0.0035
called an appendage allowance. Appendage allowances all other appendages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 0.0046
vary with ship size, type, and configuration. Warships VLCC, ULCC, very large bulk carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 0.0015
generally have more and larger appendages than auxiliaries
or commercial vessels. Vessels with high power-to-size Source: 1Jamestown Marine Services, 1990, unpublished; based on data from 22
ratios have larger screws and rudders than lower powered hull types entered into ship data files for the NAVSEA POSSE Program
vessels; appendage allowance increases with the number of
screws. Large bow sonar domes on combatants are faired
into the hull, and are included in Bonjean’s Curves and offsets; keel-mounted domes are appendages. For a given ship type and configuration,
appendage allowance generally increases as size decreases. Approximate appendage allowances for different ship types are given in Table 1-3.

Appendage displacement is essentially constant with draft, as most appendages (except shell plating) are low on the hull and will be emerged
only by extremely low drafts. Once determined, appendage displacement can be added to the integrated displacement for any draft that covers
the appendages to determine total displacement. Shell plating displacement can be adjusted for drafts less than full load by assuming that one-
half of the shell plating volume is concentrated in the bottom third of the draft range, and the remaining volume is evenly distributed over the
upper two-thirds of the draft range. It is usually safe to assume that LCB for the displacement with appendages is virtually the same as that
for the integrated (without appendages) displacement.

1-4.10.3 Station Spacing. In full-bodied ships (low-speed general cargo, large tankers, bulk carriers, etc.) the lengths of the waterlines between
stations in the midbody are nearly straight lines. In many modern full-bodied ships, the waterlines over the midbody are, in fact, straight lines,
forming a parallel midbody. Integration on 10 equal divisions of length (11 stations, 0-10) is sufficiently accurate for most purposes. If the
curvature of the waterlines increases sharply near the ends of the ship, half-spaced stations can be inserted to increase accuracy, for example,
at stations 1⁄ 2, 11⁄ 2, 81⁄ 2 and 91⁄ 2.

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Accuracy can be increased by reducing the station spacing throughout the length of the curve. This increases the number of calculations to be
performed, but avoids determining additional multipliers and may be simpler to program for computer calculation. For ship calculations, offsets
are usually tabulated for either 11 or 21 basic stations (10 or 20 equal divisions), with half-stations as necessary. Offsets for Navy ships are
normally tabulated for 21 basic stations, although additional tables may be prepared for very close station spacing. Offset tables for 2-foot station
spacing are available for the FFG-7, for example. Even when 21-station offset tables or Bonjean’s Curves are available, integration on 11
stations is sufficiently accurate for most hull volume calculations on any smooth hull form, including fine-lined warships.
1-4.10.4 Full Sections. In full, relatively
flat-bottomed sections, special care must be CL
taken in calculating the area from the base
to the lowest waterline to avoid error.
Figure 1-11 shows a section near midships
where the turn of the bilge fairs into a
straight line (the rise of floor line) at point
A. If the entire area below CD is
calculated using horizontal ordinates from
the centerline, very close ordinate spacing
must be used to avoid error because of the
rapid change of form in the shell line. The
area below CD can be calculated accurately
using vertical ordinates from CD, with half-
B
spaced ordinates inserted near the outboard D C
end, or by dividing the area into two
segments, as shown. The area KABC is a
trapezoid whose area can be calculated K
A
accurately when the position of A and rise
of floor can be determined. The area ADB
can be obtained by using Simpson’s rule,
either with horizontal ordinates measured Figure 1-11. Calculating Sectional Area Below the Lowest Waterline.
from AB, or with vertical ordinates
measured from BD.
1-4.10.5 Lowest Waterlines. When displacement volume is calculated by vertical integration of waterplane areas, the volume under the lowest
one or two waterlines is calculated separately. Since the form of the ship changes so rapidly near the keel, the volume under the lowest one
or two waterlines is calculated by integrating sectional areas along the ship’s length. This volume is added to the volume determined by
integrating waterplane areas from the lower waterlines upward to obtain the total volume of displacement.
1-4.10.6 Ends of Full Hull Forms. On
very full hulls, such as spoon-bowed SIMPSON’S RULE
barges, large tankers (VLCC, ULCC), and ASSUMED PARABOLIC
FORM
bulk carriers, the parallel midbody extends
nearly to the ends of the ship, where it WATERPLANE
joins to a short forebody or afterbody with OUTLINE
steep or sharply curving lines. The aft ends
of the lower waterlines of many fine-lined
ships also curve sharply. If the ordinate
adjacent to the end ordinate is some
distance away from the end of the parallel 2 1 FP STATIONS
midbody, the curve from this ordinate to TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
the end ordinate (which is 0 or very small) ASSUMED STRAIGHT LINE
assumed by Simpson’s rules or the
trapezoidal rule will fall well inside the Figure 1-12. Inherent Integration Error in Full Waterlines.
actual waterline as shown in Figure 1-12.
This will cause a serious underestimation of
area for the end sections that will lead to even greater errors in calculations of moments and second moments about axes near midships because
of the long lever arms. Intermediate stations should be inserted so that there are ordinates near the ends of the parallel midbody and at least
one or two ordinates in the forebody and afterbody. Alternatively, waterplane areas for the midbody, forebody, and afterbody can be calculated
separately and summed. The midbody area can be treated as a rectangle or integrated by a 3-ordinate Simpson or trapezoidal rule; the midbody
and forebody areas can be calculated by any convenient rule with appropriate ordinates.
1-4.10.7 Tank and Compartment Volumes. A compartment’s molded volume is greater than its floodable volume (the volume of liquid that
can be contained), because of the volume occupied by fittings and structure. Floodable volumes of filled holds, machinery spaces, living spaces,
etc., are estimated from molded volumes by use of permeability factors, as explained in Paragraph 1-9.1.1. Framing, sounding tubes, sea chests
and similar structures in ordinary skin tanks typically occupy about 21⁄ 4 to 21⁄ 2 percent of the molded volume in double-bottom tanks, about 1
percent in cargo tanks (i.e., permeability of empty tanks is 971⁄ 2 to 973⁄ 4 percent, and 99 percent, respectively). Heating coils, if fitted, usually
occupy an additional 1⁄ 4 percent of the molded volume. Flush tanks lie entirely within the ship’s framing and are externally stiffened, so flood-
able volume, or capacity, is essentially equal to molded volume. To calculate volumes and centroids of flush tanks, offsets are taken to the inner
surface of the tank, rather than the hull molded surface. Bale capacity of holds is calculated from offsets taken from sections showing the line
of cargo battens, line of the bottoms of deck beams, and the top of the hold ceiling (above the inner bottom) including any gratings, with deduc-
tions for stanchions and other obstructions. Grain capacity is the molded volume, less the volume of structure, hold ceiling, and shifting boards.

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1-5 TRANSVERSE STABILITY

W
Transverse stability is the measure of a
ship’s ability to resist rotation about its B
longitudinal axis and return to an upright
position after being disturbed by an upset-
ting force. The following paragraphs define W
the elements of transverse stability and B
provide methods to calculate the transverse (a) (c)
stability characteristics of a vessel.
CENTER OF
GRAVITY
1-5.1 Equilibrium and Stability. A ship
floating at rest, with or without list and
trim, is in static equilibrium; that is, the W
forces of gravity and buoyancy are equal
and acting in opposite directions in line W
with one another. Stability is the tendency
of a ship to return to its original position
when disturbed after the disturbing force is
removed. Stability can be described as
positive, negative, or neutral.
B B
(b) (d)
1-5.2 Internal Forces. The internal forces
affecting floating bodies are the forces of Figure 1-13. Stability of a Floating Object.
gravity and buoyancy. Both of these forces
act at all times on wholly or partially
submerged bodies. Figure 1-13 illustrates
the relationship between the forces of
buoyancy and gravity. Assuming the prism
floats with half its volume submerged, and
20˚ G
with the center of gravity located as shown, Z
the prism can come to rest in either
position (a), with the center of gravity B
directly above the center of buoyancy, or
(c), with the center of buoyancy above the
center of gravity. In either position, the
(a) INCREASING RIGHTING ARM (GZ)
forces of buoyancy and gravity act along
the same vertical line. If the prism is
inclined from (a) to (b), or from (c) to (d),
a couple, or righting moment, is developed 45˚
between the lines of action of buoyancy 37˚
and gravity that tends to move the body G Z G Z
back to its original position, i.e., the body
floats with positive stability in either B
position. In position (a), with the center of
gravity above the center of buoyancy, B
stability is provided by the body’s shape, or
form, and is termed form stability. If the
width of the prism is reduced while the (b) MAXIMUM RIGHTING ARM (c) DECREASING RIGHTING ARM
center of gravity remains on the centerline
at the same location, a situation arises in
which the center of buoyancy does not
move far enough to be to the right of the 80˚
61˚
center of gravity as the body is inclined
from (a) to (b). The body can then attain
positive stability only in position (c), with G
Z G
the center of buoyancy above the center of
gravity. Bodies floating with the center of
buoyancy above the center of gravity
B B
develop positive initial righting moments
regardless of shape. This mode of stability
is called weight stability. Sailing yachts
with deep weighted keels, spar buoys,
(d) RIGHTING ARM REDUCED
conventional ships with very low centers of (e) UPSETTING ARM (NEGATIVE GZ) TO ZERO (GZ = 0)
gravity, and submarines all exhibit weight
stability. Capsized ships floating upside
down very often have their centers of Figure 1-14. Development and Loss of Righting Arm.
gravity below the center of buoyancy, and
operate in a weight stability mode.

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The center of buoyancy of a ship moves as

the ship is inclined, in a manner that
depends on the shape of the hull near the W
W
waterline. The center of buoyancy initially
moves away from the centerline as the ship
is inclined, as shown in Figure 1-14. At
some angle of inclination, the center of
buoyancy begins to move back towards a
vertical reference line drawn through the B
B
original position of the center of buoyancy.
(a) (b)
The vertical line of action of the center of
gravity continues to move outward as the
ship is inclined. At some angle of
inclination, the line of action of gravity B B
moves outboard of the line of action of
buoyancy, creating an upsetting moment.
Ships that have slowly heeled through
progressively greater angles of inclination
will suddenly capsize when this angle of
zero righting moment (angle of vanishing W
W
stability) is passed. (c) (d)

In Figure 1-15, the prism is assumed to be

neutrally buoyant so that it is wholly Figure 1-15. Stability of a Submerged Object.
submerged but clear of the bottom. An
inclination from (a) produces an upsetting
moment that tends to rotate the prism away
from its initial position. Conversely, a M
inclination from (c) produces a righting
moment. A submerged object clear of the RIGHTING
MOMENT
bottom or other restraints can therefore
have positive stability in only one position,
that is, with the center of buoyancy above θ
the center of gravity. Submerged objects W1
Z
therefore operate in a weight stability G
mode. The difference in behavior of W L
floating and submerged objects is due to
the fact that the center of buoyancy of a θ
B1 L1
submerged object is fixed at the center of B
volume of the object, while the center of
buoyancy of a floating object will generally
shift when the object is inclined. Because
the center of buoyancy of a submerged CL
object is fixed, the righting moment cannot
change to an upsetting moment as the Figure 1-16. Righting Arm (GZ).
object inclines unless the position of the
center of gravity shifts. Stability of
submarines and other submerged objects is
discussed more completely in the U.S. Navy UPSETTING
MOMENT
Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 4 (S0300- G
Z
A6-MAN-040).
W1
Figure 1-16 shows how a stable ship
subjected to normal disturbances will M L
W
develop moments tending to return the ship
to its original position. A couple is formed θ
B1 B L1
as the lines of action of the opposing forces
of gravity and buoyancy are separated. The
arm of this couple, called the righting arm,
is the lever to which the ship’s weight is
applied to right the ship. Figure 1-17 CL
shows the upsetting arm developed when
unstable ships are disturbed.
Figure 1-17. Upsetting Arm.

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1-5.3 External Forces. Ships are inclined by various external forces:

• Wave action,

• Wind,

• Collision,

• Grounding,

• Shifting of onboard weights, and

• Addition or removal of weight.

Any inclination of a ship can be termed heel, but inclinations are broadly defined as heel, list, or roll depending on the duration and nature of
the forces causing the inclination.

• Heel – The term heel is specifically applied to noncyclic, transient inclinations caused by forces that may be removed or reversed
quickly. Such forces include wind pressure, centrifugal force in high-speed turns, large movable weights, etc.

• List – A list is a permanent, or long-term inclination, caused by forces such as grounding or offcenter weight that are not likely
to be removed suddenly.

• Roll – When an inclining force is suddenly removed, a ship does not simply return to its upright position, but inclines to the
opposite side and oscillates, or rolls, about its equilibrium position for some time before coming to rest. The natural rolling period
(period of roll assumed by a ship free of restraints and exciting forces) is a function of weight and buoyancy distribution. Rolling
is cyclic in nature and is induced or aggravated by short duration, repetitive or cyclic forces, such as wave forces.
1-5.4 Heights of Centers. The relative heights of the centers of gravity and buoyancy and the metacenter govern the magnitude and sense
of the moment arms developed as the ship inclines. They are, therefore, the primary indicators of a ship’s initial stability. Nominally, the
symbols KG, KB, and KM indicate the heights of the centers of gravity and buoyancy and the metacenter above the bottom of the keel, while
the symbols VCG and VCB indicate the vertical positions of the centers of gravity and buoyancy, measured from the baseline. In practice,
KG/KB and VCG/VCB are used almost interchangeably; in steel ships with flat plate keels, the difference in height above baseline and keel for
any point is generally less than two inches and is not significant.
1-5.4.1 Height of the Center of Gravity. The height or vertical
position of the center of gravity above the keel (KG or VCG) is defined Table 1-4. Approximate KG.
by weight distribution. KG can be varied considerably without change
of displacement by shifting weight up or down in the ship. Conversely,
KG
it is possible to add or remove weight without altering KG. In most
(D = depth
ships, the center of gravity lies between six-tenths of the depth above Ship Type
at midships)
the keel and the main deck:
0.6D < KG < D Merchantmen (KG at lightship)1:
Dry Cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.68D
where:
Passenger/Cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75D
D = hull depth, keel to main deck Insulated Cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.72D
Cross-Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.68D
For barges with raked or ship-shaped bows and cut-up sterns, lightship Oil Tanker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.69D
KG can be estimated as 0.53D. For tank barges, KG for full load varies
little from the lightship value. Naval ships (KG at full load)2:
Cruiser/Destroyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.55D
Table 1-4 gives very approximate values for the height of the center of Frigate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.61D
gravity for several types of merchant ships at lightship, and for some Amphibious Warfare without well decks (LST/LKA/LPH) . . . . 0.63D
naval ship types at full load. Calculation of KG can be a laborious and
Amphibious Warfare with well decks (LSD/LPD/LHA/LHD) . . 0.72D
time-consuming process, but ignorance of the height of a ship’s center
of gravity invites disaster. If the height of the ship’s center of gravity Fleet replenishment (AE/AOE/AOR/AFS/AO) . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.62D
is known for any condition of loading (lightship, for example), and the Tender/Repair Ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5D
location of added or removed weights is known, the new height of the
center of gravity can be calculated‘:
Source:
Wold KGold w (kg) 1
Applied Naval Architecture, R. Munro-Smith, 1967
KGnew = 2
Wold w Jamestown Marine Services, 1990

where:
KG = height of the ship’s center of gravity, G, above the keel
W = total weight of the ship and contents
w = individual weights added (+) or removed (-)
kg = height above keel of centers of gravity of added or removed weights, w

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Height of the center of gravity of cargo can generally be

obtained from the ship’s officers, usually the chief mate. Table 1-5. Approximate KG of Cargo in Full Holds.
In the absence of better information, the design
estimations proposed by R. Munro-Smith (Applied Naval
Hold/Space KG of Cargo (D = depth of hold)
Architecture, 1967) shown in Table 1-5 may be helpful.
No. 1 0.7D + depth of double bottom
1-5.4.2 Height of the Center of Buoyancy. The height No. 2 0.7D + depth of double bottom
of the center of buoyancy above the keel (KB) is solely
a function of the shape of the underwater volume. As No. 3 0.7D + depth of double bottom
the centroid of the underwater hull, the center of No. 4 0.7D + depth of double bottom
buoyancy is lower in flat-bottomed, full-bodied ships,
No. 5 0.7D + depth of double bottom
such as tankers and ore carriers, than in finer lined ships
like destroyers or frigates. Disregarding changes in the ’tween decks
height above keel to half depth of ’tween
shape of the immersed hull due to trim and heel, KB of deck at mid length of the space
any ship is a function of displacement, and therefore of
draft. The height of the center of buoyancy can be Based on full holds (homogeneous cargo) in general cargo ship with machinery amidships,
calculated by summing incremental waterplane areas three holds forward and two aft. In ships with extensive parallel midbody, it may be more
(aWP) multiplied by their heights above the keel (z) and appropriate to apply the expression for hold No. 3 to all holds in the parallel midbody, with
dividing the result by the displacement volume (∇): the expression for No. 1 or No. 2 (depending on fineness of forebody) applied to the
forward most hold. A similar analysis should be applied to holds aft of the machinery
1⌠ space, if any.
KB = a z dz
∇ ⌡ wp

This expression can be evaluated by numerical integration methods if accurate drawings or offsets are available. In practice, KB can be
approximated with sufficient accuracy for salvage work as 0.52T for full-bodied ships and 0.58T for fine-lined ships. At very light drafts, KB
is closer to the given waterline because the lower waterlines are usually much finer than the waterlines in the normal draft range. As a vessel’s
underwater hull form approaches a rectangular prism (CB = 1.0), KB approaches 0.5T. The following empirical relationships give estimates for
KB that are very close to calculated values for merchant vessels of ordinary form at normal drafts:

1  5T ∇ 

KB = (Morrish’s Formula)
3 2 AWP 
 
AWP
KB = Tm (Posdunine’s Formula)
∇
AWP
Tm

where:

Tm = mean draft, [length]

∇ = displacement volume, [length3]
AWP = waterplane area, [length2]

1-5.4.3 Metacentric Height. The transverse metacentric height (GMT), commonly called the metacentric height, of a ship is the vertical
separation of the center of gravity and the transverse metacenter (see Figure 1-4) and is a primary indicator of initial stability. A ship with a
positive metacentric height (G below M) will tend to right itself by developing righting arms as soon as an inclining force is applied. A ship
with a negative metacentric height (G above M) will list to either port or starboard with equal facility until the centers of buoyancy and gravity
are on the same vertical line, and thereafter develop positive righting arms. This condition, known as lolling, is a serious symptom of impaired
initial stability. Metacentric height is calculated by subtracting the height of the center of gravity from the height of the metacenter above the
keel:

GMT = KMT - KG

Transverse Metacentric Radius. The transverse metacentric radius (BMT) is the vertical distance between the center of buoyancy and the
metacenter. This distance is termed a radius because for small heel angles, the locus of successive centers of buoyancy approximates a circular
arc, with the transverse metacenter as its center. Metacentric radius is equal to the moment of inertia of the waterplane about its longitudinal
centerline (transverse moment of inertia, IT) divided by the underwater volume of the hull (∇):

IT
BMT =
∇

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

For a rectangular waterplane, IT = LB3/12, ∇ = LBT and:

LB 3
IT 12
BMT = =
∇ LBT

B2
=
12T

where:

L = length between perpendiculars, [length]

B = beam, [length]
T = mean draft, [length]

If the waterplane shape can be accurately defined, the moment of inertia can be determined by numerical integration. If not, the transverse
moment of inertia of most ships’ waterplanes can be approximated by:

IT ≈ CIT LB3

where CIT is the transverse inertia coefficient and is approximated by CWP2/11.7 or 0.125CWP - 0.045. These expressions for transverse inertia
coefficient are derived from the analysis of numerous ships, and are reasonable approximations for use in salvage for ships with CWP < 0.9.
For ships with CWP > 0.9, LB3/12 is a closer approximation of the transverse moment of inertia of the waterplane.

Height of the Metacenter. The height of the metacenter above the keel is calculated by adding the metacentric radius to the height of the center
of buoyancy above the keel:

KM = KB + BM

∴ GM = KB + BM KG
When denoting transverse metacenter, BM, KM, and GM, the subscript "T" is often omitted as understood.

Ships with large GM develop large initial righting arms and therefore respond to moderate disturbing forces with sharp, short-period rolling.
These ships are said to be stiff. Ships with smaller metacentric heights develop smaller initial righting arms and roll more gently in a seaway.
Ships with small metacentric heights are said to be tender. Insufficient initial stability results in constant rolling in even gentle seas, making
work difficult, and may allow extreme rolling in heavier seas, perhaps causing the ship to take on water or capsize. Excessive initial stability,
or stiffness, is also undesirable because it produces an uncomfortable ride, reduces personnel effectiveness, increases requirements on weapons
stabilization systems, increases lateral acceleration loads on topside cargo and equipment, and increases hull stresses. These matters usually
do not concern the salvage engineer, but very stiff rolling of a casualty under tow may damage sensitive equipment, loosen patches, or place
excessive loads on damaged structure. The term seakindly is used to describe a ship whose metacentric height is great enough to give adequate
stability, but not large enough to cause excessive stiffness.

The natural rolling period is a function of weight and buoyancy distribution and can be expressed as a function of GM and transverse radius
of gyration (k):

2πk
TR =
g GM

where:

TR = natural rolling period, seconds

k = transverse radius of gyration of the ship mass, [length]
= 0.4 to 0.5 times the beam, depending on depth and transverse weight distribution
GM = transverse metacentric height, [length]
g = acceleration due to gravity, [length/sec2]

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

If GM and k are expressed in feet, and g is taken as 32.174 ft/sec2, the rolling period formula reduces to:

1.108 k
TR =
GM

and:

 k 
2

GM = 1.108
 TR 


If the natural rolling period is known, GM can be estimated. Taking radius of gyration k as beam (B) multiplied by a coefficient (C), a
conservative estimate of GM can be made:

 2
≈ 
CB
GM 
 TR 

The coefficient C can be taken as 0.4 to 0.5 for naval surface ships (0.44 average), 0.4 to 0.45 for submarine hulls based on bodies of revolution,
and 0.32 to 0.37 for other submarines. Ships and Marine Engines, Volume IV, The Design of Merchant Ships (Schokker et al, 1953) gives some
experimentally derived values for commercial vessels: 0.425 for large cargo and passenger liners, 0.385 for smaller passenger liners, 0.390 for
a loaded passenger liner, and 0.405 for an ore ship in ballast. This same text references Laursen’s possibly more correct approach of expressing
radius of gyration as a function of both beam and depth:

k = C B2 + D2

where the constant C ranges from 0.35 to 0.39 for cargo ships of ordinary form.

The rolling period formula will not give an accurate estimate of GM for a ship rolling in a seaway because the rolling period is modified by
wave and wind forces. Significant changes in GM will be reflected by marked changes in rolling period; increased rolling period is a sign of
deteriorating stability. An empirically derived relationship holds that stability is adequate when:

TR ≤ 2 B

where:

B = beam, ft

1-5.5 Righting Arm. At equilibrium, the forces of gravity and buoyancy act equally in opposition along the vertical centerline. As the center
of buoyancy shifts with a heel, the two opposing forces act along separate and parallel lines. The forces establish the couple which tends to
return a stable ship to the upright position. The distance GZ between the lines of action of the center of gravity and the center of buoyancy,
as shown in Figure 1-16, is the righting arm. The sine of the angle of inclination (θ) is the ratio of GZ to GM.

GZ
sinθ =
GM

∴ GZ = GM sinθ

This relationship applies for heel angles so small that the waterplane shape is not appreciably changed, usually taken as less than 10 degrees
for wall-sided ships and 7 degrees for fine-lined ships. At greater angles of heel, the metacenter moves away from the centerline and the
relationship between GZ and GM no longer applies.

1-5.6 Righting Moment. The force applied to a righting arm (GZ) is the ship’s weight. The righting moment (RM) developed at any angle
of heel is given by:

RM = W × GZ

At any angle of heel, the stability of the ship is measured by the righting moment developed. Since the righting moment is equal to the righting
arm times displacement and displacement normally remains constant as the ship heels, the righting arm may also be used to measure stability
for a given condition of loading. This assumption lends itself to the use of the cross curves of stability as discussed in Paragraph 1-5.9.

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

1-5.7 Change of Displacement. Any change of displacement will affect the righting moments developed by the ship. An increased
displacement increases W in the expression RM = W × GZ, but also affects GZ by:

• Increasing draft and thereby KB.

• Increasing ∇, thereby reducing BM as I will not change significantly (BM = I/∇).

The height of the metacenter is normally reduced as displacement increases because the increase in KB is usually less than the reduction in BM.
The opposite effects will be noted when displacement is decreased. Additionally, the location of the added weight will affect the location of
the center of gravity and therefore GM and GZ. These effects are simultaneous but not normally compensatory. The net effect of a change
in displacement may be either an increase or a decrease in righting moments. In general, the addition of low weight or removal of high weight
will increase stability, but each change of displacement must be carefully analyzed to determine its exact effect.

1-5.8 List. List, a long-term inclination of

the ship to one side or the other, is caused 8 DD CV
by:
7

• Offcenter weight. 6

• Negative GM. 4

3
• A combination of offcenter 2
weight and negative GM.
1

Before attempting to correct a list on a

ship, the cause must be determined.
Inappropriate corrective measures will only 8 ARS AOR
aggravate the situation.
RIGHTING ARMS, FEET

6
A list caused by offcenter weight is
identified by the ship’s tendency to return 5
to its listing condition when an external 4
force is applied temporarily and then
3
removed. A list caused by negative GM is
identified by the ship’s tendency to loll, or 2

list to either side with equal facility, when 1

disturbed. A list caused by a combination
of offcenter weight and negative GM is
identified by the ship’s tendency to list with 8 LCC RO/RO
equal facility to either side, but with a
7
greater degree of list to one side. Negative
GM is the most serious condition that 6
causes a list and should be corrected first. 5
Paragraph 1-9.4 discusses the effects of
4
negative GM in greater detail.
3
1-5.9 The Stability Curve. The righting 2
arm GZ is the distance between the lines of
1
action of buoyancy and gravity at any
0
angle of heel. Since the expression GZ = 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
GM sinθ cannot be used at larger angles of INCLINATION, DEGREES
heel, the righting arm for a given heel
angle is determined by accurately locating
Figure 1-18. Typical Stability Curves.
the centers of gravity and buoyancy, and
measuring the separation between their
lines of action. If movable weights within the ship can be neglected, the center of gravity can be assumed to be fixed. As the ship heels, the
center of buoyancy will move to the new center of the underwater volume, which can be determined by numerical integration or graphical means.
As a ship heels, it also changes its trim to some extent to maintain constant displacement. This small change in trim can usually be disregarded
when calculating righting arms. Centers of buoyancy for various inclinations, and the resulting righting arms are determined by numerical
integration. These computations can be shortened somewhat by the methods described in Paragraph 1-5.11. A plot of righting arm against heel
angle is variously called a curve of statical stability, stability curve, righting arm curve, or GZ curve. Figure 1-18 shows typical stability curves
for various ship types.

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

1-5.9.1 Cross Curves of Stability. As a

ship’s displacement is variable, the SHIP WATERTIGHT TO MAIN DECK
designers prepare stability curves for a CENTER OF GRAVITY ASSUMED 19.00’ ABOVE
range of displacements. It is customary to BOTTOM OF KEEL AMIDSHIPS
plot righting arm values against 3
displacement for each of a number of 45˚
angles of inclination to create a group of
curves known as cross curves of stability. 60˚

RIGHTING ARM - FEET

By entering the cross curves with the 70˚
2
displacement of the ship and reading the
30˚
righting arms for each angle of heel, a
stability curve for any displacement can be
developed. Since height of the center of 20˚
gravity varies with loading, an assumed 1
position of the center of gravity was used
by the designer to develop the cross curves 10˚
of stability. Once the stability curve has
been corrected for the true location of the
center of gravity, the following stability 0
3,000 4,000
data can be obtained:
DISPLACEMENT IN SALTWATER - TONS

• Range of stability.
Figure 1-19. FFG-7 Class Cross Curves of Stability.
• Righting arm and moment at
any angle of inclination.

• Maximum righting arm and 5

moment. KG ASSUMED AT 19’
DISPLACEMENT = 3200 TONS
• Angle of the maximum right- 4
RIGHTING ARMS IN FEET

ing arm and moment.

• Metacentric height. 3

• Angle of deck edge im-

2
mersion.

The following examples use the FFG-7

1
Class cross curves of stability from Figure
1-19 to develop the initial and corrected
stability curves. Figure 1-20 is the stability
curve as taken from the cross curves for a 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
displacement of 3,200 tons. DEGREES OF INCLINATION

RANGE OF STABILITY

Figure 1-20. Statical Stability Curve.

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

1-5.9.2 Correction for Actual KG. If the

actual center of gravity lies above the
assumed center of gravity, the metacentric G1 Z1 = GZ - G G1SIN0
M
height is decreased and the ship is less G2 Z2 = GZ + G G2SIN0
stable; conversely, if the actual center of
gravity is below the assumed center, the 0
metacentric height is increased and the ship Z1
G1
is more stable.
Z 0
Figure 1-21 shows that the actual righting G
W1
arm, GnZn is equal to the assumed righting Z2 0
arm plus or minus the vertical distance G2
between the actual and assumed KG, W L
multiplied by the sine of the angle of heel:
L1
B
GnZn = GZ ± GGn sinθ

The actual, or corrected, stability curve can

be constructed graphically as a sine curve
correction.
CL

The GGn sinθ curve is plotted to the same

scale as the curve of statical stability as Figure 1-21. Assumed KG for Stability Curve.
shown in Figure 1-22. The ordinates of the
corrected curve are the differences between
the ordinates of the two curves and can be 5
picked off and plotted using dividers, as
shown, or determined by tabular
RIGHTING ARMS - FEET

4 GZ for KG = 191, ∆ = 3200 TONS

calculation.

If the actual height of the center of gravity 3

is less than the assumed height, the GG1sinθ = 2sinθ
correction curve is plotted below the
horizontal axis. 2

The assumed KG is sometimes called pole 1

height. It is a common practice, especially LOSS IN RIGHTING ARMS
DUE TO RISE IN G
with European designers, to develop cross
curves based on an assumed pole height of 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
zero. Since the assumed position of the
DEGREES OF INCLINATION
center of gravity coincides with the keel,
the resulting cross curves are termed KN 5
KG = 21’
curves. DISPLACEMENT = 3200 TONS
4
RIGHTING ARMS - FEET

1-5.9.3 Range of Stability. The range of

stability—the range of inclinations through
The new stability curve is again the dif- 3
ference between the two curves.which the
ship develops positive righting arms—is in-
2
dicated by the intersections of the stability G1Z1 = GZ - GG1 sinθ
curve with the horizontal axis. For the
corrected stability curve in Figure 1-22, the 1
range of stability is from 0 to 75 degrees.
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
DEGREES OF INCLINATION
RANGE OF STABILITY

Figure 1-22. Correction to Stability Curve, G Two Feet Higher Than Assumed.

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

1-5.9.4 Righting Arm and Righting Moment. The righting arm at any inclination is read directly from the curve. Because each stability curve
applies only to a specific displacement and KG, the righting moment can be obtained directly for any angle by multiplying the righting arm by
the displacement. Maximum righting arm, maximum righting moment, and angle of maximum righting moment can be determined by inspection
of the stability curve. From the corrected stability curve in Figure 1-22, maximum righting arm is approximately 1.1 feet at 51 degrees of
inclination, giving a maximum righting moment of 3,520 foot-tons (1.1 ft × 3,200 tons). Maximum righting arm and the angle at which it occurs
are important parameters when an upsetting moment is applied gradually or statically. Once the upsetting moment exceeds the maximum righting
moment, the ship will list past the angle of maximum righting arm. If the upsetting moment is not immediately removed, the ship will capsize,
because as the ship heels to progressively greater angles, righting moment, already less than the upsetting moment, will steadily decrease. How-
ever, ships can, and do, safely roll past their angle of maximum righting arm in response to short-term or cyclic upsetting forces.

1-5.9.5 Metacentric Height. GM is the measure of the slope of the GZ curve at the origin. The metacentric height is equal to the height of
the intersection of a tangent to the statical stability curve at the origin with a perpendicular to the horizontal axis at 57.3 degrees (one radian).
Although metacentric height can be approximated from a stability curve by this means, it is more common that GM is known and the intercept
is sketched to help draw the initial part of the stability curve. The corrected stability curve in Figure 1-22 indicates a GM of approximately
1.2 feet.

1-5.9.6 Angle of Deck Edge Immersion. For most hull forms, an inflection point in the curve corresponds roughly to the angle of deck edge
immersion. This point is not necessarily at or near the angle of maximum righting arm. The inflection results from the abrupt change in the
shapes of the waterplane and underwater volume as the deck edge is immersed. The rate of increase in righting arm has changed from positive
to negative—i.e., righting arms are still increasing, but at a slower rate. The angle of deck edge immersion varies along the length of the ship,
but lies within a relatively narrow range for the large midbody sections that have the greatest influence on the stability curve. The stability curve
in Figure 1-22 shows the angle of deck edge immersion to be about 38 degrees.

1-5.9.7 Righting Energy. The area under

the stability curve, (foot-degrees, meter-
radians), is a measure of the ship’s dynamic
stability—its ability to absorb energy
imparted by winds, waves or other external
forces. A ship with very little area
(righting energy) under its stability curve
could be rolled past its range of stability
and capsized by even a momentary
disturbance.

1-5.10 Effects of Hull Form on the

Stability Curve. While initial stability
INCREASED BEAM INCREASED DEPTH
(righting arms at small angles of heel)
depends almost entirely on metacentric
height, the overall shape of the stability
curve is governed by hull form. Figure 1-
23 shows how changing hull form increases
or decreases righting arm by altering the
position and movement of the center of
buoyancy. Figure 1-24 (Page 1-40)
illustrates how altering hull form affects the
stability curve as described in the following
paragraphs.

1-5.10.1 Beam. Of all the hull dimensions TUMBLEHOME AND FLARE FINING THE BILGES
that can be varied by the designer, beam
has the greatest influence on transverse LOCAL INCREASE IN IMMERSED VOLUME
stability. Metacentric radius (BM) was LOCAL LOSS IN IMMERSED VOLUME
shown to be proportional to the ratio B2/T
in Paragraph 1-5.4.3. BM, and therefore
KM, will increase if beam is increased Figure 1-23. Effects of Changing Hull Form.
while draft is held constant. If freeboard is
held constant while beam is increased, the angle of deck edge immersion is decreased; righting arms at larger angles and the range of stability
are reduced. If the depth remains constant, overall stability will be reduced because KB decreases, increasing BG, although this will be offset
at small angles by the increase in BM.

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

1-5.10.2 Length. If length is increased

proportionally to displacement, with beam INCREASED BEAM
and draft held constant, KB and BM are
unchanged. In practice, increasing length INCREASED LENGTH
DECREASED DRAFT
usually causes an increase in KG, reducing
initial stability. If length is increased at the INCREASED FREEBOARD
expense of beam, righting arms are reduced REFERENCE
over the full range of stability. If length is STABILITY CURVE
increased at the expense of draft, righting
arms will be increased at small angles, but
INCREASED LENGTH
decreased at large angles. DECREASED BEAM

1-5.10.3 Freeboard. Increasing freeboard

increases the angle of deck edge
immersion, increasing righting arms at
larger angles and extending the range of
stability. If draft is held constant,
REFERENCE
increasing freeboard causes a rise in the STABILITY CURVE
center of gravity, mitigating the benefits of FLARE
increased freeboard to some extent.
INCREASED
DISPLACEMENT
1-5.10.4 Draft. Reduced draft
proportional to reduced displacement
increases initial righting arms and the angle
of deck edge immersion but decreases EXTREME TUMBLEHOME
AND/OR DEADRISE
righting arms at large angles.
FROM STABILITY AND TRIM OF FISHING VESSELS, J. ANTHONY HIND, 1982.
1-5.10.5 Displacement. If length, beam,
and draft are held constant, displacement Figure 1-24. Influence of Hull Form on Stability.
can be increased only by making the ship
fuller. The filling out of the waterline will
usually compensate for the increased
volume of displacement, and BM, as a
function of I/∇, will increase. Height of
the center of gravity will also be decreased
by filling out the ship’s form below the
waterline. These changes will enhance
stability at all angles.
L 1
1-5.10.6 Side and Bottom Profile. As S
M
can be seen in Figures 1-13 and 1-25, the
increase in waterplane breadth and area W θ L
caused by inclining a wall-sided ship can Z
W1 G
be calculated by simple geometry. The
stability curve develops good early righting B1
B
arms and range of stability. Extreme dead-
rise (fining the bilges) or tumblehome in GZ = MS+GMsinθ
the vicinity of the inclined waterline re-
duces the increase in waterplane area and CL
outward shift of the center of buoyancy, re-
sulting in a shallow stability curve. Ships
Figure 1-25. Residuary Righting Arm.
with flaring sides develop large righting
arms because of the rapid increase in water-
plane area and large shift of the center of buoyancy as the ship is inclined. A round-bottomed ship with vertical sides beginning somewhat above
the water line, such as a tug or icebreaker, will roll easily to small angles of inclination but develop strong righting moments at large angles.
In the same way, flare or watertight sponsons some distance above the water line will have no effect on initial stability, but will cause a sharp
upward turn in the stability curve at larger angles of heel.

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1-5.11 Prohaska’s Method. As shown in Figure 1-25, the righting arm at large heel angles can be thought of as consisting of two parts:

GZ = MS + GMsinθ

The distance from the upright metacenter to the line of action of buoyancy (MS) is called the residuary stability lever. The GMsinθ term depends
principally on KG, while MS is essentially a function of hull form. For inclinations up to about 30 degrees in merchant hulls of ordinary beam
to draft ratio, MS can be approximated as:

BM 2
MS = tan θ sinθ
2

where:

BM = metacentric radius of the upright ship

A more accurate approach is to define a residuary stability coefficient (CRS):

MS
CRS =
BM

where :

BM = metacentric radius of the upright ship, [length]

GZ can now be defined in terms of GM, BM, and CRS:

GZ = (BM)CRS + GMsinθ

Using this basic approach, a regression analysis was performed using data from 31 warship hulls to obtain expressions for CRS in terms of other
hull parameters. The following expressions give reasonable estimates for CRS at 30 degrees of heel for fine-lined ships:

KB B
CRS = 0.8566 1.2262 0.035
T T

B
CRS = 0.1859 0.0315 0.03526 CM
T

KB
= 0.8109 0.2536 CM
T
where:

KB = height of the center of buoyancy above the keel, ft

T = mean draft, ft
B = beam, ft
CM = midships section coefficient

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1-6 LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

Longitudinal stability is the measure of a ship’s ability to resist rotation about a transverse axis and to return to its original position.
Longitudinal stability is particularly important when refloating stranded ships. The effects of weight shifts, additions, and removal may not be
apparent since a grounded ship is restrained from responding as a floating ship would. The effects must be calculated to ensure that the salvor
can accurately predict trim and longitudinal stability of the vessel when afloat.
1-6.1 Trim. Because the angles of inclination about transverse axes are quite small compared to typical angles of heel about a longitudinal
axis, trim is defined as the difference between the forward and after drafts:
t = Taft Tfwd
where:
t = trim
Regardless of the difference between forward and after drafts, if a ship’s waterline is parallel to the design waterline, it has zero trim. Most
ships are designed with equal forward and after drafts. Some ships are designed with a deeper draft aft, called keel drag, to keep the propellers
adequately submerged in all operating conditions, or with a slightly deeper forward draft. Drag or other designed differences in fore and aft
draft should not be confused with trim. For ships with drag, trim is defined as:
t = Taft Tfwd drag

Trim greater than one percent of the ship’s length is usually considered excessive. Excessive trim significantly alters the shape of the underwater
volume and can adversely affect transverse stability.
1-6.2 Longitudinal Stability Parameters. The longitudinal positions of centers of buoyancy, gravity, and flotation and their movements
influence the longitudinal stability characteristics of a ship. The height of the longitudinal metacenter, similar in concept to the transverse
metacenter, is the other major parameter of longitudinal stability.
1-6.2.1 Longitudinal Position of the Center of Gravity. The longitudinal position of the center of gravity (LCG) is determined by summing
weight moments about a vertical transverse reference plane, normally through one of the perpendiculars or the midship section.
1-6.2.2 Longitudinal Position of the Center of Buoyancy. The
longitudinal position of the center of buoyancy (LCB) is the longi- Table 1-6. Longitudinal Position of the Center of Buoyancy.
tudinal location of the centroid of the underwater hull. For most hull
forms, LCB lies near the midships section. For low-speed, full-bodied
cargo vessels, the optimum position of the center of buoyancy (from a CB LCB Relative to the Midship Section
hull resistance standpoint) is about 0.02LWL forward of midships. As 0.60 0.016L aft to 0.002L forward
speed increases, the optimum position moves aft. At a speed-to-length
√L) of 1.0 the optimum position is 1 to 2 percent of LWL aft
ratio (Vk/ 0.65 0.011L aft to 0.009L forward
of midships and about 4 percent aft of midships for Vk/ √L = 2. Table 0.70 0.002L aft to 0.020L forward
1-6 gives approximate ranges for the longitudinal position of the center
of buoyancy as a function of the block coefficient. 0.75 0.010L forward to 0.027L forward

0.80 0.015L forward to 0.030L forward

In a ship at rest, the longitudinal positions of the centers of gravity and
buoyancy lie on the same vertical line. LCB and LCG are therefore the
same distance from the midship section in a ship floating on an even From Ships and Marine Engines, Volume IV, Design of Merchant Ships,
keel. In a ship with trim, there is a small difference in the distances of Schokker et al, 1953
B and G from midships due to their vertical separation, but this
difference is so small that it can usually be ignored.
1-6.2.3 Longitudinal Position of the Center of Flotation (LCF). The center of flotation is the geometric center of the ship’s waterplane.
The ship trims about a transverse axis through the LCF. The location of the center of flotation is required to calculate final drafts after a change
in trim. This can be calculated if the shape of the waterplane is known. In ships of normal form, the center of flotation may lie either slightly
forward or slightly aft of midships. The center of flotation of fine-lined ships is usually about five percent of the ship’s length aft of midships.
A broad transom increases the relative proportion of waterplane area aft of midships and will tend to shift LCF aft. If unknown, the center of
flotation can be assumed to be amidships without introducing significant error to most salvage calculations.
1-6.2.4 Longitudinal Metacenter. The longitudinal positions of the centers of buoyancy and gravity are simply projections of these centers
onto the vertical centerplane. The longitudinal metacenter, in contrast, is a point distinct from its transverse counterpart. Its height is an
indication of the ship’s ability to resist trimming forces.
Longitudinal Metacentric Radius. The longitudinal metacentric radius (BML) is the vertical distance between the center of buoyancy and the
longitudinal metacenter. The longitudinal metacentric radius is calculated by:

IL
BML =
∇

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If the waterplane shape is defined by ordinate stations, the moment of inertia can be determined numerically. If not, the longitudinal moment
of inertia of most ships’ waterplanes can be approximated by:
IL ≈ B L 3 CIL
where CIL = tegression analysis derived longitudinal inertia coefficient, approximated by 0.143CWP - 0.0659. For a rectangular barge, IL =
B(L3)/12; the value of CIL for a rectangular waterplane (the limiting value) is 1/12 or 0.0833.

Because the longitudinal moment of inertia is proportional to the cube of the ship’s length rather than beam, the longitudinal moment of inertia
and longitudinal metacentric radius are much greater than their transverse counterparts.

Height of the Longitudinal Metacenter. The height of the longitudinal metacenter (KML) is given by:

KML = KB + BML

Longitudinal Metacentric Height. The longitudinal metacentric height (GML) is the distance between the center of gravity and the longitudinal
metacenter.
GML = KML - KG
= KB + BML - KG
1-6.3 Trimming Arms and Moments. If
the center of gravity is displaced from its
longitudinal position in vertical line with W LCF G G1 L
the center of buoyancy, as shown in Figure
1-26, a trimming moment (MT) equal to B
GG1(W) tends to rotate the ship about a
transverse axis through the center of flo-
tation. As the ship inclines, the shape of
the underwater volume changes and the W
L1
center of buoyancy moves until it is again LCF G1
in line with the center of gravity. Simul- W1
B B1
taneously, the projection of the position of L
the center of gravity onto a horizontal plane
moves towards the high end of the ship.
For small trim angles, the horizontal trans-
Figure 1-26. Trim due to Shift in LCG.
lation of the position of the center of
gravity can be neglected. The trim result-
ing from a known trimming moment could
be determined precisely by iterative ML
numerical integration, but this would be a
tedious process. Simple methods to α
estimate trim with reasonable accuracy are
described in the following paragraphs.

A ship trims about an axis through its

center of flotation because LCF lies at the MT
centroid of the waterplane. The moments
of volumes of the wedges immersed and ZL L1
emerged as the ship trims are equal, W
LCF G α
L
B B1
although the volumes are not. Because the W1
volumes are not equal, the ships will settle
or rise slightly as it trims to maintain
constant displacment. LCF also shifts Figure 1-27. Trimming Moments and Longitudinal Metacenter.
slifhtly as the ship trims and changes draft.

1-6.4 Moment to Change Trim One Inch (MT1). A trimming moment applied to the ship in Figure 1-27 causes a longitudinal inclination
or trim angle, α. The immersion and emergence of the two wedges of buoyancy causes the center of buoyancy to move forward a distance BB1.
A longitudinal righting arm GZL develops. Because the small vertical separation between B and G is much less than the longitudinal metacentric
height, GZL and BB1 are approximately equal. The moment arm GZL can be related to the longitudinal metacentric height as in transverse
inclinations:
GZL
sin α = , GZL = GML sin α ⇒ Mt = W GML sin α
GML
where:

GZL = longitudinal righting arm, [length] Mt = trimming moment, [length-force]

GML = longitudinal metacentric height, [length] W = ship’s weight, [force]

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By similarity of triangles:
∆t
sinα =
L

where:

∆t = change of trim, [length] = ∆Tf ± ∆Ta

L = length between perpendiculars, [length]

Setting change in trim equal to one inch or 1⁄ 12-foot:

W (GML )
Mt =
12 L
where:

GML = longitudinal metacentric height, ft

Mt = trimming moment, ft-tons
W = ship’s weight, lton
L = length between perpendiculars, ft

This moment is called the moment to change trim one inch (MT1); in metric units, a moment to trim one centimeter (MTCM) is similarly defined.
MT1 is useful for evaluating the effect of trimming moments so long as the change in trim is not great enough to change the waterplane area
or shape appreciably:
Mt
∆t =
MT1
If longitudinal metacentric height (GML) is unknown, MT1 can be closely approximated by using metacentric radius (BML), since the difference
between GML and BML is small a percentage of their values:
IL ∇
(BML ) W ∇ 35 IL
MT1 ≈ = = (seawater)
12 L 12 L 420 L
This value is known as the approximate moment to trim one inch. MT1 can also be approximated less accurately by an empirical relationship:

30 (TPI)2
MT l =
B

where:

TPI = tons per inch immersion, lton/in

B = ship’s beam, ft

1-6.5 Drafts After a Change in Trim. As a ship trims about the center of flotation, the change in draft at the bow is proportional to the ratio
of the distance between the forward perpendicular and the center of flotation to the length of the ship:

∆ t df
∆ Tf =
L
New Tf = Tf ± ∆ Tf
Likewise, the change in draft aft:
∆ tda
∆ Ta =
L
New Ta = Ta ± ∆Ta
where:

∆Tf = change in draft forward

∆t = change of trim
df = distance from forward perpendicular to LCF
L = length between perpendiculars
∆Ta = change in draft aft
da = distance from after perpendicular to LCF

and distance, draft, trim, and length are measured in like units.

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1-6.6 Movement of LCB and LCG with Change of Trim. As discussed in Paragraph 1-5.3, movements of LCB and LCG accompany changes
of trim. From Figures 1-26 and 1-27:
BB1 GG1 ∆t
= = tanα =
BML GML l
BML t GML t
∴ BB1 = , and GG1 =
L L

where:

BML = longitudinal metacentric radius

GML = longitudinal metacentric height
∆t = change of trim
L = length between perpendiculars
α = trim angle

and trim and length are measured in like units.

The shift of LCG or LCB with a change in trim can be closely approximated by:
∆ t (MT1)
BB1 or GG1 =
W

where:

∆t = change of trim, in.

MT1 = moment to trim one inch, lton/in.
W = ship’s weight, lton

1-7 PARAMETRIC DETERMINATION OF HULL CHARACTERISTICS

The hull characteristics of a ship are determined and tabulated when the ship is designed and verified following construction. This information
is contained in a number of different documents, described in detail in Appendix B. The two most useful documents are the previously discussed
cross curves of stability and curves of form. In the absence of detailed stability information or the precise mapping of the hull form necessary
to develop hydrostatic characteristics by numerical integration, hull characteristics must be estimated. Methods of estimating some of the
required parameters have been presented in the previous sections. When information is extremely limited, an analytical method, based on a
parametric hull model, can be employed. This method has been shown to yield results within 10 percent of rigorously determined values for
most ship forms. The parametric method has its inception in a regression analysis of 31 commercial hull types published by Joseph D. Porricelli,
J. Huntly Boyd, Jr., and Keith E. Schleiffer in the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers Transactions, Vol.91, pp. 307-327, August
1983. Many of the relationships were subsequently refined though further regression analysis by Herbert Engineering Corporation as part of
the NAVSEA Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE) development work in 1990 (use of POSSE is detailed in Volume 2 of the Salvage
Engineer’s Handbook). At the same time, relationships for stability parameters and weight distributions applicable to warships and other fine-
lined ships were developed. The parametric factors for warships and naval auxiliaries were derived from analysis of U.S. Navy hulls and may
not apply precisely to ships of other navies. This is particularly true of amphibious warfare ships and fleet replenishment auxiliaries. U.S. Navy
amphibious warfare ships and replenishment auxiliaries are designed for a 20-knot service speed and are correspondingly finer than slower
auxiliaries and bow-door LSTs with typical speeds in the 10- to 16-knot range.

1-7.1 Parametric Model. The method creates a baseline parametric model of the hull, consisting of the following parameters for the full-load
condition:

Coefficients of form, CB, CWP, CP, CM

Displacement and weight, ∆D, W
Height of the center of buoyancy, KB
Height of the Metacenter, KM
Height of the Center of Gravity, KG
Metacentric radius, BM
Metacentric Height, GM
Tons per Inch Immersion, TPI
Moment to Trim One Inch, MT1
Longitudinal position of the center of buoyancy, LCB
Longitudinal position of the center of flotation, LCF
Longitudinal position of the center of gravity, LCG

Parameters for other conditions are extrapolated from the baseline, or full-load model.

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1-7.1.1 Required Information. This method requires only limited information:

Length between perpendiculars, L

Breadth, B
Depth, D
Maximum summer draft amidships, T
Design sea speed at normal service draft, Vk

This information is available from sources such as the ABS Record, Jane’s Shipping Registry, Lloyds Register of Shipping, etc., or may be
compiled from other sources, including the ship’s crew or agents.

1-7.1.2 Displacement and Coefficients of Form. To determine the necessary hydrostatic characteristics of a ship, the coefficients of form
are first estimated, starting with the block coefficient:
  V 
CB = f1 1.10736 0.550401  k  
  
  L 

where:

Vk = design sea speed at service draft, knots

L = length between perpendiculars, ft
f1 = 1.61 for destroyer type hulls (including cruisers based on destroyer hulls, such as CG-16, CG-26, CG-47, etc.)
1.41 for frigates
1.28 for cruisers
1.08 for bulk carriers
1.06 for liquid petroleum gas (LPG) carriers
1.04 for liquid natural gas (LNG) carriers
1.03 for ore-bulk-oil (OBO) carriers
1.03 for lumber ships
1.025 for product tankers/chemical carriers
1.01 for crude carriers
1.00 for breakbulk freighters and most barges with rake*
0.98 for cargo liners (16-18 kts)
0.97 for container ships
0.96 for Navy replenishment oilers (Vk ≥ 20 kts, AO/AOE/AOR)
0.95 for RO/RO ships
0.93 for Navy replenishment vessels other than oilers (Vk ≥ 20 kts, AE/AFS)
0.91 for amphibious warfare ships (LSD/LPD/LPH/LKA/LST)
0.89 for barge carriers, Navy repair ships/tenders (AR/AD/AS)

* In the context of the following discussions, the phrase "barges with rake" refers to ocean going barges with raked, ship-shaped or
spoon-shaped bows, and cut-up sterns, usually with skegs. It does not apply to box-shaped lighters or to barges designed for harbor
use with identical flat rake at bow and stern.

Waterplane coefficient:
CWP = k1 0.702 CB

where:

k1 = 0.360 for barge carriers and barges with rake

0.325 for container ships
0.336 for RO/RO ships
0.339 for naval repair ships/tenders
0.387 for destroyers, frigates, and cruisers
0.370 for well deck type amphibious warfare ships (LSD/LPD)
0.316 for Navy replenshishment ships and fast LKA, LST (20 kts)
0.306 for other merchant ship types and slow-speed naval auxiliaries

Longitudinal prismatic coefficient:

CP = 0.917 CB + k2

where:

k2 = 0.073 for merchant ships and naval auxiliaries

0.075 for barges with rake
0.147 for destroyers, frigates, and cruisers

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Midships coefficient:
CB
CM =
CP
With an estimate for block coefficient, displacement volume and displacement can be estimated:

∇ = L B T CB
L B T CB
∆ = = W
δ

where:

∇ = displacement volume at full load δ = specific volume of water = 35 ft3/lton for seawater
∆D = full-load displacement W = ship’s weight at full load

1-7.1.3 Heights of Centers. Height of the center of buoyancy (KB) is estimated by a form of Posdunine’s formula:

CWP
KB = T
CB + CWP

where:

CWP = waterplane coefficient T = mean draft

CB = block coefficient

Metacentric radius is equal to the transverse moment of inertia of the waterplane (IT) divided by the displacement volume (∇):

IT
BM =
∇

IT can be expressed as:

IT = L B 3 CIT

where CIT is the transverse inertia coefficient and is a function of waterplane shape. CIT is determined from the waterplane coefficient (CWP):

CIT = 0.125 CWP 0.045 for ships

= 0.125 CWP 0.043 for barges with rake

Transverse metacentric height for the full-load departure condition (corrected for free surface) is correlated to beam, or beam to depth ratio,
depending on ship type:
B
GM = 2.816   - 1.88 for cargo liners and container ships
D
B
= 15.86   - 19.62 for tankers in general
D
B
= 0.714   + 2.2 for cargo ships in general
D
= f2 B for other merchant ship types

T B2 
= f3  + - 0.53 D  for barges
2 12 T 
where:

f2 = 0.055 for barge carriers and RO/RO ships f3 = 1.18 for barges with rake
0.065 for bulk carriers = 1.00 for barges without rake
0.075 for OBO carriers

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From the estimates for KB, BM, and GM, KM and KG can be estimated:

KM = KB + BM

KG = KM - GM

Since the estimate for KG is based on the parameterized GM estimate, the value returned is the virtual, or effective KG (corrected for free
surface).

GM does not parameterize well for U.S. Navy hulls because Navy stability standards (described in Appendix C) do not include minimum GM
requirements. Uncorrected full-load KG does parameterize well, as a function of depth:

KG = f4D (Navy hulls)

where:

f4 = 0.55 for cruisers and destroyers

= 0.61 for frigates
= 0.63 for amphibious warfare ships without well decks
= 0.72 for amphibious warfare ships with well decks (LSD/LPD)
= 0.62 for fleet replenishment auxiliaries
= 0.50 for repair ships/tenders

For Navy hulls, GM (uncorrected for free surface) is calculated from the estimates for KB and KG. The parametric factors were derived from
an analysis of U.S. Navy hulls and may not apply precisely to ships of other navies.

1-7.1.4 Tons Per Inch Immersion. TPI is calculated directly, using the estimated waterplane coefficient to estimate waterplane area:
L B CWP
TPI =
420
where L and B are measured in feet.

1-7.1.5 Moment to Trim One Inch. A value for MT1 is found using estimates for longitudinal metacentric height or radius:

GML W BML W
MT 1 = ≈
12 L 12 L
where BML is given by:
IL IL IL
BML = = ⇒ MT1 =
∇ 35 W 420 L
The longitudinal moment of inertia, IL, of a ship-shaped waterplane can be expressed as:

IL = B L 3 CIL
where the longitudinal inertia coefficient, CIL, is given by:

CIL = 0.143 CWP - k3

where:

k3 = 0.0659 for merchant ships and slow-speed auxiliaries

0.0664 for replenishment auxiliaries
0.0643 for amphibious warfare ships
0.0634 for destroyers, frigates, and cruisers

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1-7.1.6 Longitudinal Positions of Centers. The distance from the forward perpendicular to LCF, LCB, and LCG can be estimated as follows.
LCF is estimated as a function of speed (Vk) and length (L):
 
 V 
LCF = 0.5L  k + 0.914 for tankers
 160 
 
 V 
= 0.485 L  k 0.9 for bulk carriers
 100 
 
 V 
= 0.5  k 0.924 for single-screw cargo ships and naval auxiliaries
 135 
 
= 0.5 L  1.03
0.95
for twin-screw cargo ships with transom sterns
 Vk 
   
  V  
= L 0.5  k 0.924 0.23  for twin-screw cargo ships with cruiser sterns
  135  
 
 V 
= 0.5 L  k 0.95  for barges with rake
 135 

where Vk is given in knots and L in feet.

LCB at full load and zero trim is approximated as a function of length (L) and prismatic coefficient (CP):

LCB = L 0.5 - 0.175CP - k4

where:
k4 = 0.125 for merchant ships and slow-speed auxiliaries
0.111 for replenishment auxiliaries
0.117 for amphibious warfare ships
0.126 for destroyers, frigates, and cruisers
0.146 for barges with rake
To estimate the longitudinal position of the center of gravity, trim must be known or estimated. If unknown, trim can be estimated from similar
ships as a percentage of length. Multiplying trim (t) in inches by MT1 gives the trimming moment Mt:
MT 1 (t) = Mt
Trimming moment divided by weight (W) gives the trim arm or lever (GZL):
Mt
= GZL
W
Since the trim arm is the horizontal separation between LCB and LCG prior to trimming:
LCB ± GZL = LCG
Upon trimming, LCB will relocate to a position in vertical line with LCG. LCG can be assumed to be directly above the estimated LCB for
a ship with zero trim at normal full-load departure condition.
1-7.2 Changes. The values calculated are for the full-load departure conditions, and must be corrected for other conditions. Floating or grounded
drafts can be observed on site. New floating displacement, drafts and location of center of gravity are determined by evaluating the effects of all
weight changes from the normal full-load departure condition. Hydrostatic properties are assumed to vary linearly with draft according to:
TPI2 = TPI1 TPI1 0.0075 T1 - T2
MT12 = MT11 MT11 0.025 T1 - T2
LCB2 = LCB1 LCB1 0.002 T1 - T2
LCF2 = LCF1 LCF1 0.004 T1 - T2

Where the subscript 1 denotes the full-load condition and the subscript 2 the new condition. The drafts T1 and T2 are taken at the LCF for each
condition.

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Longitudinal locations are referenced to the

forward perpendicular. These relationships Vk L B D
apply only so long as the change in draft or
trim does not cause a significant change in
the shape of the underwater hull form. KM CB T B L GM
does not vary significantly with draft until
draft is dramatically decreased, to CWP ∆
T B L
approximately two-thirds full-load draft,
after which it increases.
KB CT B L TPI
1-7.3 Calculation Hierarchy. Only CB,
GM (or KG), and LCF are calculated IT
directly from the basic input data (L, B, T,
D, Vk). Because other parameters are
successively calculated from previously BM
calculated parameters, basic data, and
empirically derived factors, there is a KM
hierarchy of accuracy among the calculated
parameters. This hierarchy is shown in the
two panels of Figure 1-28. Two panels are KG
used to reduce the complexity of the
diagram. The basic input parameters are
listed across the top of each of the two B T L Vk
panels.

1-7.4 Cautions. The parametric method

described in this paragraph was developed ∆
W, ∆ CB LCF
through regression analysis of typical,
conventional hull forms. The less typical a
particular hull, compared to ships of the
same type, the greater the error introduced
CM CP TPI CWP KB
by use of the relationships given.

As this method is based primarily on LCB LCG GZL MT MTI BML IL IT BM KM KG

analysis of the speed-to-length ratio, errors
will be larger for an underpowered
hull—for example, a hull designed for 20 Figure 1-28. Calculation Hierarchy.
knots but actually powered for only 16
knots.

Because of the interdependence among various parameters, changing any parameter (except LCF) creates a ripple effect that necessitates
recalculation of other parameters. Mixing bits of actual data with data calculated by the analytical method in a set of salvage calculations
without recalculating lower precedence parameters tends to give poorer results than complete sets of either calculated or actual data. Specifically,
hydrostatic properties and coefficients of form must be compatible.

Within the framework of these limitations, the parametric method yields results sufficiently accurate for salvage work, and provides a means
to evaluate a casualty’s condition when only limited information is available.

1-7.5 Applications to Salvage Calculations. The nature of the relationships in the analytical method dictates the methodology of their use.
From the input data, the method calculates parameters and creates a baseline ship model in the full-load condition. From the base condition,
parameters at other conditions are calculated by one of two approaches.

• The new condition is defined by drafts (for example, drafts on departure from last port). Change in block coefficient is calculated
first. With the new block coefficient, mean draft and trim, a new set of parameters is calculated. The difference between old and
new displacements gives the required weight change between the full-load and new condition. If the change in draft results from
stranding, the difference between old and new displacements is the ground reaction. This approach can also be used to determine
the amount and LCG of weight that must be added or removed to reach a desired draft and trim.

• The new condition is defined by change in weight (consumption of fuel and consumables, flooding, cargo discharge, etc.). The
sum of weight change and old displacement gives the new displacement. Change in draft is calculated from the total weight
change and TPI. For large weight changes, the change in draft is calculated incrementally, recalculating TPI for each intermediate
draft. Shift of LCG is calculated by moment balance. A new block coefficient is calculated from the new displacement and mean
draft. With the new block coefficient and mean draft, a new set of parameters is calculated as for the full-load condition, except
that the new LCB is calculated from the new LCG.

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1-8 WEIGHT AND STABILITY

The salvage engineer must fully appreciate the relationship between weight and ship stability. The addition and removal of weight is the most
common evolution affecting a ship’s stability and can be the result of onloading and offloading cargo and equipment, refueling, consuming stores
or fuel, ballasting, etc. Weight additions and removals have three effects:

• Change of displacement with attendant change of draft.

• Movement of the center of gravity.

• Development of trimming or inclining moments.

Displacement changes cause draft

changes and changes in the hull Table 1-7. Effect of Weight Movements.
characteristics. The change in the
transverse metacentric radius is
CENTER OF CENTER OF
particularly important because of its ACTION STABILITY METACENTER*
GRAVITY BUOYANCY
potential effect on stability. Both
weight additions and removals may Weight shift up Decrease Up No change No change
change the moment of inertia of the Weight shift down Increase Down No change No change
waterplane. Weight additions will Weight shift transverse Decrease Port/Starboard To low side No change
increase and weight removals will
decrease displacement volume. Table Weight added at G Decrease No change Up Down
1-7 illustrates the general effect of Weight added above G Decrease Up Up Down
weight changes on an intact ship. To Weight added below G Increase Down Up Down
evaluate a weight change, it is
simplest to assume that the weight is Down
Weight removed at G Increase No change Up
added or removed at the center of Down
Weight removed above G Increase Down Up
Down
gravity (G) for the purpose of Weight removed below G Decrease Up Up
calculating the effect on mean draft,
and then moved to its final location *Relative movement of metacenter is based on the relationship BM = I /∇ and assumption that
in a series of steps to account for the waterplane shape and area do not change appreciably for moderate changes of draft and
effects of its vertical, transverse, and displacement. As draft increases with added weight, the reduction in BM [I /∇] is greater than
longitudinal moments. the rise of B. Conversely, as draft and displacement decrease, the increase of BM is greater
than the lowering of B.
1-8.1 Weight Shifts. When weights
are moved about the ship,
displacement and mean draft remain constant; stability parameters that are functions of displacement or draft, such as height of metacenter, are
therefore unaffected. The distance the center of gravity moves when a weight is shifted is the product of the weight (w) times the distance
moved (d), divided by the total weight of the ship (W):
wd
GG1 =
W

This distance can be resolved into vertical, transverse, or longitudinal components. A single weight shift can cause any combination of
transverse, vertical, or longitudinal shifts of the center of gravity with attendant effects on longitudinal and transverse stability. Although they
occur simultaneously, each effect can be assumed to occur independently; the effects can be calculated separately as though they were occurring
sequentially. Change of KG alters GM and righting arms as discussed in Paragraph 1-5. The effects of longitudinal and transverse weight shifts
are discussed in the following paragraphs.

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1-8.1.1 Longitudinal Effects of Weight

Shifts. When a weight movement has a
longitudinal component, LCG shifts and the
ship’s weight acting through the new center M
of gravity and buoyancy acting through the
old center of buoyancy form a couple, or
trimming moment, as shown in Figure 1-26.
The magnitude of the trimming moment is: 0
Mt = W GG1

where:
W1
W = ship’s weight
Mt = trimming moment
W L
GG1 = longitudinal distance from
the old LCG to the new θ
Z L1
LCG G
G1
The trimming moment is also equal to the B
product of the weight moved (w) and the
longitudinal distance moved (d).

Mt = wd
CL
1-8.1.2 Offcenter Weight. The effect of
offcenter weight is to create an inclining
moment. This effect can be evaluated by Figure 1-29. List Due to Transverse Shift of G.
calculating the lateral movement of the
ship’s center of gravity off the centerline.
The magnitude of the inclining moment is:

MI = W(GG1) M

where:
0
GG1 = lateral (horizontal) shift
of center of gravity,
[length] W1
MI = inclining moment, [force-
length]
W = ship’s weight (including
the offcenter weight),
[force] W L
θ
since: Z T
wd Z1 0
GG1 = G L1
W G1
B
where:

d = lateral (horizontal) distance

that the weight w is moved, CL
[length]

then: Figure 1-30. Reduced Righting Arm due to Transverse Shift of G.

W GG1 = wd = MI

The inclining moment will cause the ship to list to an angle where the center of buoyancy is again in vertical line with the center of gravity.
The angle of list becomes the new equilibrium position; when disturbed, the ship will roll about the angle of list. The effect of a permanent
list is to reduce the righting arms and range of stability when the ship rolls towards the list, and increase them when the ship rolls away from
the list. For small angles of inclination (less than 7 to 10 degrees), list can be found by reference to the metacentric height. From Figure 1-29,
the list due to an offcenter weight can be seen to be:
GG1
tanθ =
GM
 wd 
∴ θ = tan 1  
 W GM 

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1-8.1.3 Stability Curve Correction for Offcenter Weight. Figure 1-30 shows a ship whose center of gravity has moved from G to G1. When
inclined towards G1 to some angle θ, the righting arm developed is not GZ, but a smaller arm, G1Z1. The reduction in righting arm (GT) is:

GT = GG1cosθ

As with the sine correction for actual KG, the offcenter weight correction, as a cosine curve, is plotted to the same scale as the curve of statical
stability as shown in Figure 1-31. The corrected stability curve is the difference between the two curves. The angle at which the corrected curve
crosses the horizontal axis is the angle of list caused by the offcenter weight. Extending the curve to the left of the origin shows the increased
righting arms developed on the side away from the list. In dynamic situations, the increase in righting energy on the side away from the list
does not increase stability because the ship will roll about the angle of list. If the ship is subjected to a constant upsetting force, such as a steady
beam wind, the increased righting arms provide additional stability if the ship is oriented so that the upsetting force heels the ship away from
the list, towards its strong side. The increased righting arms and energy must also be overcome if the salvage plan calls for the ship to be heeled
away from the list by external forces. It should also be remembered that if the ship is heeled towards its strong side, the area under the curve
from the point where the curve crosses the axis to the angle of heel represents stored energy. If this area is larger than the area under the
stability curve on the weak side, the ship could capsize if suddenly released.

3
COSINE
2 CORRECTION INITIAL STABILITY CURVE
RIGHTING ARMS IN FEET

CURVE FOR WITH KG OF 21’

GG1 COSθ OFFCENTER
1 WEIGHT

LOSS IN RIGHTING ARMS DUE

1 TO OFFCENTER WEIGHT

3
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE OF INCLINATION, θ

RANGE OF STABILITY
3 ROLLS TO STBD
RIGHTING ARMS IN FEET

2
CORRECTED
STABILITY CURVE
1 ANGLE OF LIST

RANGE OF STABILITY
1 ROLLS TO PORT

2
POSITIVE RIGHTING ARMS, STBD POSITIVE RIGHTING ARMS, PORT
3
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE OF INCLINATION, θ

Figure 1-31. Correction to Statical Stability Curve for Transverse Shift of G.

1-8.2 Weight Additions and Removals. Weight addition or removal at the center of gravity changes displacement without introducing
trimming or inclining moments. The increase or decrease in mean draft in inches (∆T) is approximately equal to the weight added or removed
(∆w) in tons divided by the tons per inch immersion (TPI):
∆w
∆T =
TPI

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1-8.2.1 Weight Changes Away From the Center of Gravity. When weights are added or removed at some distance from the center of gravity,
the center of gravity moves toward the added weight, or away from a removed weight, to a new position determined by the size and location
of the weight. The weight change can be treated as an addition (or removal) at the center of gravity, followed by a shift to the location where
the weight is added:
(Gg) (w)
GG1 =
(W1)

where:

GG1 = shift of ship’s center of gravity, [length]

Gg = distance between ship and added weight centers of gravity, [length] = the distance d that the weight is "shifted"
W1 = new total weight of ship, [force] = W ± w
w = weight added (+) or removed (–)

The new vertical, transverse, and longitudinal positions of the center of gravity can also be calculated directly, by summing moments. Height
of the center of gravity is given by:
W (KG) ± w (kg)
KG1 =
W ± w

where:

KG1 = height of the ship’s center of gravity after weight change, [length]
W = original weight (displacement) of the ship, [force]
KG = original height of the ship’s center of gravity, [length]
w = weight added (+) or removed (-), [force]
kg = height of the center of gravity of the added or removed weight above the keel, [length]

New transverse and longitudinal positions of the center of gravity can be determined by the same method.

A longtitudinal moment caused by weight addition or removal will not necessarily trim the ship. Most ships are not symmetrical about a
transverse axis; as a ship settles or rises, the change in buoyancy is weighted towards one end, causing LCB to shift towards the fuller end.
If the buoyancy moment generated by the shift in LCB equals the trimming moment, the ship will not trim. Conversely, a weight added directly
above or below the center of gravity may cause the ship to trim to keep the centers of buoyancy and gravity in vertical line. For any weight
addition or removal, a ship will assume the trim that brings the center of buoyancy directly under the new center of gravity. The trim resulting
from a weight change can be determined very precisely by calculating LCB for trimmed waterlines at the new displacement until a trim is found
that brings LCB under LCG. Simpler approximate methods to determine trim resulting from weight changes can be derived by determining
where weights must be added or removed from a ship to change draft without changing trim. These methods are described in the following
paragraphs, and are sufficiently accurate for virtually all situations.

1-8.2.2 Weight Changes Without Change of Trim. If a weight is to be added to a ship without changing trim, it must be added at a location
that will be in vertical line with the resultant upward force of the added buoyancy. If the rise or sinkage is parallel, the added buoyancy results
from the immersion of a layer of uniform thickness between the old and new waterplanes. The center of buoyancy of this layer is very close
to the midpoint of a line connecting the centroids (centers of flotation) of the old and new waterplanes.

For small draft changes through a ship’s normal range of drafts, the old and new waterplanes are very nearly the same size and shape. The line
connecting the centroids is therefore essentially vertical and the center of buoyancy of the immersed layer is in line with the centroid of the old
waterplane, or center of flotation. For moderate weight changes, causing small changes in draft, at locations other than the center of flotation,
trim can be closely approximated by:

a. Taking the distance from the added or removed weight to the LCF as the trimming arm,

b. Multiplying the trimming arm by the weight to determine trimming moment, and

c. Dividing the trimming moment by MT1 to find the resulting trim.

For larger weights whose addition or removal causes draft changes large enough to appreciably change hydrostatic functions, the trimming arm
is taken as the distance from the new LCG to the LCB at the new waterline. Since TPI varies with draft, an iterative solution is required, as
shown in Example 1-3.

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EXAMPLE 1-3

WEIGHT AND TRIM

This example calculates trim resulting from moderate (causing small changes in draft) and large weight additions at various locations on an FFG-7 Class ship.

a. Calculate the change of trim when a 100-ton weight is added to an b. Calculate the location for the center of gravity of 1,000 tons of weight to
FFG-7 Class ship at the following locations: be removed from an FFG-7 Class ship with initial drafts of 14 feet 6 inches
forward and aft without changing trim.
(1) Center of Flotation.
First estimate of new mean draft:
(2) Center of Gravity.
∆T = w/TPI = 1,000/32 = 31.25 ≈ 31 inches
(3) 50 feet abaft the forward perpendicular. Tnew = Told - ∆T = 14' 6" - 31" = 11 feet 11 inches

FFG-7 Curves of Form are given in Figure FO-2. Initial Second estimate of new mean draft:
drafts are 14 feet, 6 inches, forward and aft, LBP is 408 feet.
TPI at 11' 11" = 28.5
TPIavg = (32 + 28.5)/2 = 30.25
From the curves of form: ∆T = 1,000/30.5 = 33.06 ≈ 33 inches
Tnew = Tnew - ∆T = 14' 6" - 33" = 11 feet 9 inches
TPI = 32 LCF at 11' 9" = 14 feet abaft midships
LCF = 23.4 feet abaft midships
LCB = LCG = 1.4 feet abaft midships Center of buoyancy of immersed layer (lcb) is approximately midway
MT1 = 745 foot-tons between the old and new LCF,
W = 3,495 tons (23.4 + 14)
lcb = = 18.7 feet abaft midships
2
Calculate the increase in mean draft:
Removing the 1,000 tons so that the center of gravity of the removed
w 100 weight is approximately 19 feet abaft midships will cause no noticeable
∆T = = = 3.125 inches ≈ 3 inches
TPI 32 trim.
Tnew = Tnew ∆T = 14 feet 6 inches 3 inches = 14 feet 9 inches c. Calculate the change in trim for an FFG-7 Class ship with initial drafts of
14' 6" forward and aft if 1,000 tons are removed from the following
locations:
Calculate the change in trim for 100 tons added at:
(1) LCF.
(1) Center of Flotation
(2) LCG.
The change in draft is small, so adding the weight at
LCF causes no change of trim. This is verified by (3) 100 feet forward of midships.
observing that the LCF at the new mean draft of 14 feet
9 inches is 23.5 feet. The center of the new waterplane Tnew = 11' 9" (from part b.)
(LCF) is only 0.1 foot from the center of the old
LCB at 11' 9" = 6 feet forward of midships
MT1 at 11' 9" = 565 foot-tons
waterplane, so the center of buoyancy of the immersed
MT1avg = (745 + 565)/2 = 655
layer is essentially directly over the old LCF.
(1) 1,000 tons removed at original LCF
(2) Center of Gravity
GG1 = (Gg)(w)/(W + w)
Trim arm = distance from LCF to added weight Gg = 23.4 -1.4 = 22 feet
= 23.4 - 1.4 = 22 feet GG1 = (22)(1,000) / (3,495 - 1,000) = 8.8 feet forward
Mt = w(trim arm) = 100(22) = 2,200 foot-tons LCG1 = -1.4 feet (aft) + 8.8 feet (forward) = 7.4 feet
∆t = Mt / MT1 = 2,200/745 = 2.95 ≈ 3 forward of midships
inches by the bow trim arm = distance from new LCG to new LCB
= 7.4 - 6 = 1.4 feet (LCG is forward of LCB)
Mt = 1,000(1.4) = 1,400 foot-tons
(3) 50 feet abaft the forward perpendicular
∆t = Mt/MT1 = 1,400/655 ≈ 2 inches by the bow
50 feet abaft the forward perpendicular is 154 (204 -50) (2) 1,000 tons removed at original LCG
feet forward of midships
GG1 = 0
Trim arm = 23.4 + 154 = 177.4 feet LCG1 = 1.4 feet abaft midships
Mt = 100(177.4) = 17,740 foot-tons trim arm = 6 + 1.4 = 7.4 feet (LCG is aft of LCB)
∆t = Mt/MT1 = 17,740/745 = 23.81 ≈ 23 Mt = 1,000(7.4) = 7,400 foot-tons
inches by the bow ∆t = Mt / MT1 = 7,400/655 ≈ 11 inches by the stern

(3) 1,000 tons removed 150 feet forward of midships

Gg = 150 + 1.4 = 151.4 feet

GG1 = (151.4)(1,000)/(3,495 - 1,000) = 60.7 feet aft
LCG1 = 1.4 feet (aft) + 60.7 feet (aft) = 62.1 feet abaft
midships
trim arm = 62.1 + 6 = 68.1 feet (LCG is aft of LCB)
Mt = 1,000(68.1) = 68,100 foot-tons
∆t = Mt/MT1 = 68,100/655 ≈ 104 inches by the stern

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1-8.2.3 Point of Constant Draft. When a weight is added at some point away from the LCF, the ship trims as it sinks to a new mean draft.
Drafts on the opposite side of the LCF are reduced by the effect of trim, but increased by parallel sinkage. At some point the reduction in draft
caused by trim equals the increase in draft caused by parallel sinkage:

∆T due to parallel sinkage = ∆T due to change of trim

w
∆ Tparallel sinkage =
TPI
 
wd1 wd1  d2 
∆t = ⇒ ∆ Ttrim =  
MT 1 MT 1  L 
w wd1d2
=
TPI MT 1 (L)

where:

∆t = change of form, in.

d1 = distance from the LCF to the added or removed weight, ft
MT1 = moment to change trim one inch, ft-ton/in
L = length between perpendiculars, ft
TPI = tons per inch immersion, lton/in
d2 = distance from the point of constant draft to the LCF, ft
w = weight added or removed, lton

The relationship can be solved to determine the point of constant draft for weight added or removed at a known location. It is generally more
useful to solve for d1 to find the point where weight must be added or removed to keep draft constant at some point:
(MT1) (L)
d1 =
(TPI) (d2)

Note that w cancels out of the equation. So long as the weight change is not large enough to significantly alter MT1, TPI, or the position of
LCF, the amount of weight added or removed does not affect the location of the point where weight must be added or removed to keep draft
constant at another point.

1-8.3 Inclining Experiment. The predictable and measurable effects of offcenter weight are used to determine height of center of gravity in
an inclining experiment. By shifting a known weight a specified distance, the movement of the center of gravity can be determined. The
resulting inclination (heel) observed and the tangent formula (see Paragraph 1-8.1.2):
GG1 wd
tanθ = =
GMeff W (GM)
is solved for the as inclined, or effective metacentric height, GMeff:
GG1 wd
GMeff = =
tanθ W tanθ
Inclining experiment reports are an important source of data for ship characteristics, especially a baseline vertical position for the center of
gravity.

1-8.4 Sallying Ship. Sallying ship is a procedure in which the ship is rocked, or sallied, by rapidly shifting weights back and forth, by
rhythmically heaving on the deck edge with a crane, or by personnel running back and forth. If, after inducing rolling, all exciting forces are
removed, the ship will roll with the time of roll equal to her natural rolling period. It is impossible to remove all exciting forces, but if the ship
is sallied in calm water, is clear of the bottom throughout her roll, the number of mooring lines has been reduced to the minimum acceptable
and those remaining are slack, and the ship is free of any other significant restraints, her rolling period will closely approximate the natural
rolling period, TR. GM can be estimated by means of the rolling period formula:

 1.108 k  2  C B  2  0.44B  2
GM =   ≈   ≈  
 T  T   T 
 R   R   R 

To determine the rolling period accurately, the ship should be timed through several rolls and the result divided by the number of rolls to find
the average rolling period. A derivation of the rolling period formula, with constants for various ship types, is given in Paragraph 1-5.4.3.
Sallying ship is often performed in conjunction with an inclining experiment as a check on the accuracy of the experiment or to provide a means
to calculate an initial estimate of GM. The accuracy of the procedure is degraded by the influences of offcenter weights, free surfaces, and
exciting or restraining forces, such as personnel moving about the ship, unslackened crane hoists or mooring lines, hydrodynamic effects of water
entrained by the moving hull surface in confined basins, etc.

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1-8.5 Ballast. A ship’s loading varies considerably during a voyage as fuel and stores are consumed, and for merchant ships and auxiliaries,
from one leg of a voyage to another as cargo is taken on and discharged. Ballast, liquid or solid, is carried to maintain stability or seakindliness.
As fuel is consumed from double-bottom tanks, the ship’s center of gravity rises and metacentric height is reduced. Saltwater ballast taken into
low tanks restores metacentric height to a safe value. All ships require certain drafts, displacement, and trim for seakindliness, propulsion
efficiency, and steering control. Discharge of cargo from forward holds and tanks trims the ship by the stern. A light draft forward causes
pounding and slamming in a seaway, reduces visibility from the bridge, and makes steering difficult in beam winds. Fuel and cargo oil tanks
were formerly used alternately as sea water ballast tanks in most ships. Environmental protection standards now prohibit discharge of oily water
in most areas, so modern ships are usually designed with dedicated or segregated ballast tanks (SBT). Normal practice is to provide ballast
capacity such that the ship’s displacement in ballast is 40 to 60 percent of the full-load displacement. Cargo tanks are often piped for ballast;
if the tanks have been cleaned prior to taking ballast, the ballast is clean and can be discharged overboard; otherwise the ballast is dirty and
is discharged to receiving facilities ashore. Ballast tanks are distributed over the length of the ship to provide flexibility in controlling trim and
hull bending moments. In general cargo ships, the combined center of the ballast tanks is usually near or below the combined center of the fuel
tanks. Ships designed to carry dense cargo, such as stone and ore carriers, have an excess of volume that is taken up by wing ballast tanks.
Some of these vessels are very stiff in light condition, so high ballast tanks are fitted to reduce metacentric height. Fuel tanks are still commonly
piped for saltwater ballast for emergency use. Many warships are fitted with compensating fuel tanks that admit seawater through openings in
the bottom of the tanks as fuel is drawn off the top, maintaining nearly constant weight and center of gravity in the tank.

Solid ballast, usually consisting of loose stone or sand, river mud, or other dredge spoil, is sometimes carried by cargo ships. Decomposing
organic material in mud ballast can produce flammable and toxic gases, such as methane or hydrogen sulfide. Solid ballast, carried in holds
or ’tween decks, can degrade stability by shifting, as explained in Paragraph 1-9.3.

Fixed solid ballast is sometimes fitted, particularly after conversions involving addition of high weight and in submarines. Ordinary concrete
or special heavy aggregate concrete is commonly used. The U.S. Navy has used cast iron ingots or lead pigs weighing about 60 pounds each.
The cast iron ingots are sometimes covered with a layer of 3 to 4 inches of cement mortar. High density drilling mud stowed in double-bottom
tanks is also used as ballast.

Ballasting instructions, where applicable, are included in the damage control book for Navy ships, and in the trim and stability booklet or loading
instructions for commercial vessels.

1-9 IMPAIRED STABILITY

A ship’s afloat stability can be impaired or otherwise changed by any of the following:

• Addition, removal, or shift of weight, changing KG,

• Change in the shape of the submerged hull from grounding or battle damage changing KM,

• Free surface effect of loose liquids (FS), causing a virtual rise of G,

• Free communication with the sea (FC), causing a virtual rise of G, or

• Any combination of the above.

The first three conditions affect stability of the intact ship as well. Only free communication with the sea is predicated on damage to the hull.
As the primary indicator of initial stability, GM can be expressed as a function of the above effects:

GM = KM KG FS FC

The following paragraphs demonstrate the methods to calculate and apply the effect of these conditions on stability.

1-9.1 Flooding. Flooding can be caused by breaches in the hull, accumulating firefighting water, damaged saltwater systems, or any other
condition that admits uncontrolled amounts of liquid into the watertight envelope of the ship. Seawater flooding increases displacement and
reduces reserve buoyancy. Offcenter flooding causes list and reduces transverse stability. Major flooding towards the ends of the ship reduces
longitudinal stability, and in extreme cases may result in the loss of the ship by plunging. The effects of added weight on stability and trim
are addressed in Paragraph 1-8. In addition to the increased weight, loose water causes other serious consequences discussed in the following
paragraphs.

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1-9.1.1 Permeability. The effects of flooding are mitigated

by the contents of the flooded compartment. The space Table 1-8. Selected Permeability Factors.
occupied by solid objects or watertight volumes cannot be
occupied by floodwater, so total volume and weight of flood-
water admitted is reduced. This effect is called permeability, Miscellaneous Spaces on Naval and Commercial Ships1:
and a permeability factor, or ratio of the volume of
floodwater to the total volume of the space, can be defined:
Permeability, µ
available volume
µ = Full Load Minimum Operating
total volume Space
Condition
The volume of the water entering a flooded space can be
determined by calculating the volume of the space and Engine rooms (steam turbine)
multiplying by an appropriate permeability factor. The fully flooded 0.85 0.85
permeability of tanks can usually be taken as the percentage above mid height 0.90 0.90
of full capacity to which they are filled to calculate the below mid height 0.75 0.75
amount of floodwater admitted. Not using a permeability lower third 0.70 0.70
factor will result in overestimating the amount of water a Engine rooms (diesel and gas turbine) 0.85 0.85
space contains. If the exact quantity of floodwater cannot be Firerooms 0.90 0.90
determined, it is usually safest to err on the high side by Auxiliary machinery spaces 0.85 0.85
disregarding permeability. Permeability for cargo can be Pump rooms 0.90 0.90
calculated from cargo density or stowage factor, as explained Steering gear rooms 0.85-0.90 0.85-0.90
in Appendix E, U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 Shops 0.90 0.90
(S0300-A6-MAN-010); the appendix includes an extensive Offices, electronics spaces 0.95 0.95
list of material densities and cargo stowage factors. Living spaces 0.95 0.95
Permeabilities calculated from cargo stowage factors or cargo General stores 0.80-0.90 0.95
densities may not be entirely accurate for breakbulk cargo in Magazines
rigid watertight packaging (cans, steel boxes, etc.) as water Powder 0.60 0.95
will not be able to enter all void spaces in the cargo. Small arms 0.80 0.80
Permeability factors for some typical spaces and cargoes are Small arms ammunition 0.60 0.95
given in Table 1-8. Rocket stowage 0.80 0.95
Torpedo stowage 0.70 0.95
1-9.1.2 Downflooding. Downflooding occurs when a ship Handling rooms 0.80 0.95
heels sufficiently to immerse an opening above the normal Chain locker 0.65 0.65
waterline, such as an open door or holed shell plating. This
angle of heel is defined as the downflooding angle. Righting
arms are reduced as the water accumulates on the low side, Cargo Spaces:
and as an offcenter weight creates an additional upsetting
moment. A ship rolling so that it cyclically immerses a shell Space Permeability, µ
opening may assume a permanent list or increase the period
and angle of roll due to the free surface effect described in Tanks, empty, on molded volume2
the next paragraph. As roll angle and period increase, the Double-bottom tanks 0.97
time the opening is immersed increases, admitting greater Cargo tanks 0.99
amounts of water. Tanks of known capacity
Empty 1.00
1-9.1.3 Flooding into Liquid-filled Spaces. Tanks often With liquid contents 1 - percent full
contain immiscible liquids, such as fuel or cargo oil, with Bulk and breakbulk cargo (average)3 0.60-0.80
densities different from seawater. If an oil tank is holed, Container holds3 0.70
there may be either a net inflow or outflow of liquid. There RO/RO holds (average)4 0.85
may be an inflow even if the liquid level in the tank is above Liquids in cans or barrels1 0.40
sea level. If the density of the oil in the tank is low enough
that its head pressure at the hull penetration is less than the
seawater head pressure, water will flow into the tank. Head
pressure is a function of liquid depth and density: Notes:

h 1
From Naval Ship Engineering Center Design Data Sheet, DDS 079-1, Aug 75
Ph = γh =
δ
2
See Paragraph 1-4.10.7 for discussion.
3
See Appendix E, U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010) for
where: discussion of how to calculate permeability/volume of floodwater from cargo stowage
factor/density.
4
Ph = head pressure Permeability of hold around containers; does not include space inside containers/
γ = liquid weight density trailers.
δ = liquid specific volume = 1/γ
h = liquid depth at point in question

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The equilibrium liquid level in the tank is the level that will give the same head pressure as the seawater. When there is an outflow of liquid
from the tank, the equilibrium level can be determined simply:

γ1 h1 = γsw hsw
γ 
h1 =  sw  hsw
 γi 

where the subscripts i and sw denote properties of the liquid inside the tank and of the seawater outside the hull, respectively. Since specific
gravity γ is directly related to density γ, the ratio of seawater to product specific gravities can be substituted for the density ratio. The outflow
of liquid lightens the ship, and may trim or heel it, varying hsw, so an iterative solution is required.

When there is an inflow of seawater into the tank, a water bottom forms. If the tank is holed at its bottom, hi remains essentially constant, but
lies over the water bottom of depth hsw,i. Equilibrium head pressure at the hull penetration is now expressed:

γi hi + γsw hsw, i = γsw hsw

The inflow of seawater adds weight and may trim or heel the ship. It is possible that the liquid level will reach the tank top before equilibrium
is reached; the block of oil is held in place by sea pressure, and there can be no further weight addition, even if the ship continues to settle,
unless oil escapes through tank vents or other avenues.

Tankers carrying light oils that have suffered severe bottom damage may float in this manner, with much of the ship’s weight transmitted from
the tank tops to the water through the oil mass, rather than through the sides of the hull to the bottom structure. Since the lower level of the
liquid mass is above the hull penetration, and separated from it by a water bottom, there is little leakage in calm seas.

If the side of a tank is holed at a height such that the internal head pressure is less than the seawater head pressure, water will flow into the
tank. If the hole is low enough that it is covered by the water bottom, the situation is identical to that described above. If the hole is above
the top of the initial water bottom, there will be an ongoing oil-seawater exchange until the water bottom covers the opening.

The local seawater depth over a hull opening can vary with time as the ship rises, settles, trims, or lists in response to weight changes, or as
tide rises and falls around a stranded or sunken ship. Tanks may be subject to either inflow or outflow at different times. Heavily damaged
tanks will normally reach equilibrium in 20 minutes or less, although significant leakage will continue from casualties that strand at a tide that
is higher than subsequent low tides.

It is not always necessary to discharge a damaged tank completely to stop oil or other light liquids from leaking into the sea. The water bottom
formed when a tank is damaged near its bottom can prevent further discharge of liquids lighter than water. For example, in a tanker with a 50-
foot molded depth and a 30-foot draft, there is a 20-foot difference in head between sea level and oil level in full cargo tanks. If a full tank
is breached through its bottom plating, oil leaks out until the internal oil head balances the external seawater head. The depth of oil is
determined by converting the water head to an oil head. For the tanker described, and an oil specific gravity of 0.8:

γg, sw 1.025
hi = hsw = 30 = 38.44 ft
γg, i 0.8

where:

hsw = depth to tank penetration = local draft for bottom rupture = 30 ft

hi = oil depth with head equivalent to seawater head, ft
γg, sw = seawater specific gravity = 1.025
γg, i = oil specific gravity = 0.8

For fresh water, specific gravity is taken as 1.0, and oil depth is found by dividing the draft or penetration depth by specific gravity; for the case
described above, the equivalent oil head is 37.5 feet. As a practical matter, the equilibrium oil depth has been reached when the cargo pumps
begin to draw water instead of oil. The thickness of the water bottom can be increased by drawing oil from the top of the tanks with portable
pumps, allowing water to flow in through the breached plating. In the initial stages of a pollution incident, salvors should attempt to create or
increase water bottoms in damaged tanks, especially if pumping or storage capacity is limited and several tanks are leaking. As operations
continue, water bottoms can be systematically increased until the tanks are completely discharged. Liquid and solid pollutants can be removed
by the methods discussed in Paragraphs 3-3 and 3-4, and the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 5 (S0300-A6-MAN-050).

The effectiveness of water bottoms is limited for water-soluble liquids or liquids with a specific gravity very near one. Water bottoms cannot
be created at all under liquids with specific gravities greater than one. Many bulk chemicals fall into this category, as well as some crude oils
and bunker fuels. Many chemicals are also highly soluble in water and cannot be contained by water bottoms.

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1-9.2 Loose Water. Liquid in a partially flooded compartment is free to move as the ship inclines. The adverse effects of loose water result
from the unrestrained movement of masses of water. The movement of significant weights causes the ship’s center of gravity to move off the
centerline as the ship inclines.

1-9.2.1 Free Surface Effect. The

movement of the ship’s center of gravity
B
caused by loose water movement can be
related to the width of the free surface and M
the angle of inclination. The loss of
righting arm results from the weight of a W1
wedge of water transferred from the high to
the low side, as shown in Figure 1-32. For Gv
W 0 L
small angles, the volume of the wedge in a
rectangular tank can be calculated: 0
Z G2 L1
2
Vwedge = ⌠ dl = ⌠
y (y tanθ)
l l y tanθ
dl
⌡0 2 ⌡0 2 W
G
g
where: g
0

l = length of the tank CL

y = half-width of the tank
(from its centerline)
Figure 1-32. Free Surface Effect.
θ = angle of inclination

For a rectangular tank, the centroids of the wedges are at 2⁄ 3y from the centerline of the tank; the plan area of most tanks approximates a
rectangle sufficiently to assume that the centroid of the wedge lies 2⁄ 3y from the centerline. The centroid of the transferred wedge therefore
moves a total distance of 4⁄ 3y. The moment of volume of the transferred wedge is:
l y 2 tanθ
moment of volume = ⌠ d l × y = tanθ ⌠
4 l 2
y 3 dl
⌡0 2 3 ⌡0 3

The integral ∫0l 2⁄ 3y3 dl is the second moment of area (moment of inertia), i, of the liquid surface (see Paragraph 1-4.5.2 for a derivation).
Substituting:
moment of volume = i tanθ

The weight moment of the transferred wedge is:

weight moment = γf i tanθ

where γf is the weight density of the fluid in the tank.

The weight shift and accompanying moment will cause a shift of the ship’s center of gravity parallel to the inclined liquid surface (and the
inclined waterline) to a new position G2:
γf i tanθ γf i tanθ
GG2 = =
W γw ∇
Righting arms are reduced by the transverse shift of center of gravity; the transverse component of the shift GG2 is found by multiplying by
the cosine of the angle of inclination:
 γ i tanθ 
GG2 transverse = GG2 cosθ =  f  cosθ = γf i sinθ

 γw ∇  γw ∇

The righting arm with free surface is found by subtracting the transverse shift of G from the righting arm without free surface:
γf i sinθ
GZcorr = GZ GG2 transverse = GZ
γw ∇
where:

W = weight of the ship

γw = weight density of the water in which the ship is floating
∇ = volume of displacement
GZcorr = righting arm corrected for new position of the center of gravity, G2

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The free surface correction is applied to the basic statical stability curve by graphical or tabular means in the same way the sine correction for
increased KG is applied (see Paragraph 1-5.10.1). The effect on stability of a free surface can be much greater than the effect of the weight of the
floodwater. The total correction is the sum of the corrections for each free liquid surface.

The component of the weight moment causing the transverse shift of center of gravity, ρf isinθ, is called the moment of transference. For many ships,
moments of transference are tabulated for each tank, with γf expressed in long tons per cubic foot. Moments of transference are normally calculated
for a slack condition (50 percent full) and a full condition (100 percent for water tanks, 95 percent for Navy fuel tanks, 98 percent for commercial
vessel cargo tanks) for a series of heel angles. The free surface correction for each tank at each angle is obtained by dividing the moment of
transference by the ship’s displacement. Tabulated moments of transference are included in the damage control books of newer Navy ships.

Approximate moments of transference can be calculated by assuming a rectangular free surface:

  3
lb 3
sinθ =  
1 lb
moment of transference rectangle = γf i sinθ = γf sinθ
12 δ
 f  12

where:
L1
l = compartment length
b = compartment width W L

For seawater flooding, where δf is 35 cubic W1

feet per long ton, the expression reduces to:
l b 3 sinθ
moment of transference sw =
420 L1
where l and b are measured in feet.
W L
If a tank or flooded space is nearly full or
nearly empty, the liquid pockets when the W1
ship heels; that is, the liquid moves to
expose the deck or to cover the overhead, as
shown in Figure 1-33. Once the liquid Figure 1-33. Pocketing.
begins to pocket, the center of gravity, g, of
the liquid mass moves very little as heel
angle increases. The reduction in righting
arm is simply that of an offcenter weight of CL
known location. Model tests have shown b
that pocketing normally decreases free
surface effect by approximately 25 percent.

The angle at which pocketing occurs can be l1

predicted by geometry. As the tank shown
in Figure 1-34 is inclined, a wedge of liquid a
shifts from the high side to the low side.
The increase in water level on the low side b
_ tan θ = h
2
is equal to the decrease on the high side.
This distance (h) can be expressed as a y
function of the tank breadth (b) and the
w l
angle of inclination, θ: θ
b
h =   tan θ
2
Pocketing occurs at angles of inclination
where h is equal to or greater than the d
liquid depth in the tank (d) or the overhead
clearance (a) as shown in Figure 1-34. w1
Solving for θ:
 
 2h 
θp = tan 1  p 
 b 

where: Figure 1-34. Pocketing Angle.

θp = angle of inclination where

pocketing begins
hp = a or d, whichever is less

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Tabulated moments of transference

account for pocketing and tank shape. Table 1-9. Transference Factor – Tanks 50 Percent Full.
When using approximate moments, a
statical stability curve can be constructed
Ratio of Angle of inclination, deg
by applying a free surface correction for
depth to
angles up to θp, and an offcenter weight breadth 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(cosine) correction for larger angles.
Alternatively, the gradual diminishment 0.1 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.06 0.04 0.02
of the moment of transference can be 0.15 0.17 0.21 0.21 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.10 0.07 0.03
0.2 0.18 0.27 0.27 0.26 0.23 0.20 0.16 0.11 0.06
evaluated by defining the moment of
0.25 0.18 0.31 0.34 0.33 0.30 0.26 0.21 0.16 0.09
transference as the product of γf i and 0.3 0.18 0.35 0.40 0.40 0.37 0.33 0.27 0.21 0.14
some factor C that is less than sinθ: 0.4 0.18 0.36 0.50 0.53 0.51 0.47 0.41 0.33 0.24
0.5 0.18 0.36 0.57 0.65 0.66 0.63 0.56 0.47 0.38
moment of transference = ρf i C 0.6 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.74 0.80 0.79 0.74 0.65 0.54
0.7 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.83 0.94 0.96 0.92 0.85 0.74
where: 0.8 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.06 1.13 1.12 1.06 0.96
0.9 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.16 1.30 1.34 1.30 1.22
1.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.24 1.47 1.56 1.56 1.50
γf = fluid density (tank contents), 1.2 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.31 1.7 2.0 2.1 2.2
lton/ft3 1.5 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.31 2.0 2.7 3.1 3.4
i = moment of inertia of the 2.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.31 2.2 3.7 5.0 6.0
free surface, ft4 3.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.31 2.2 4.5 9.3 13.5
C = transference factor from 4.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.31 2.2 4.5 13.4 24.0
Table 1-9, 1-10, or 1-11 5.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.31 2.2 4.5 16.2 37.0
6.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.31 2.2 4.5 16.8 54.0
The moment of transference factor C 7.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.31 2.2 4.5 16.8 73.0
8.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.31 2.2 4.5 16.8 96.0
depends on the degree of fullness, ratio of
9.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.31 2.2 4.5 16.8 121.0
depth to breadth of the compartment, and 10.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.31 2.2 4.5 16.8 150.0
the angle of inclination. To simplify
evaluation of the factor C, tanks or flooded
spaces are assumed to be full or empty (no
free surface), half-full (worst case) or 95
Table 1-10. Transference Factor – Tanks 95 Percent Full.
percent full in naval practice or 98 percent
full in merchant practice (normal operating
condition). Tables 1-9 through 1-11, Ratio of Angle of inclination, deg
reproduced from the Society of Naval depth to
breadth 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Architects and Marine Engineers’
Principles of Naval Architecture, give 0.1 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00
factors for 50, 95, and 98 percent full 0.15 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01
tanks. These tables have been derived for 0.2 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01
rectangular tanks but will provide 0.25 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02
0.3 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03
sufficient accuracy for most tanks if certain
0.4 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05
adjustments are made to the entering 0.5 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.07
parameters of breadth and depth. 0.6 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.10
0.7 0.12 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.14
Tanks with substantial variation in 0.8 0.13 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.18
breadth, such as those that are 0.9 0.14 0.18 0.19 0.18 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.16 0.23
approximately trapezoidal in plan view, 1.0 0.15 0.19 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.18 0.28
usually have a small free surface effect; 1.2 0.16 0.22 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.23 0.41
the breadth at the narrow end should 1.5 0.17 0.25 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.31 0.64
2.0 0.18 0.30 0.35 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.39 0.45 1.14
generally be used to determine the depth
3.0 0.18 0.36 0.46 0.52 0.56 0.58 0.62 0.77 2.6
to breadth ratio. If greater accuracy is 4.0 0.18 0.36 0.53 0.64 0.71 0.78 0.87 1.12 4.6
required, breadth can be taken as: 5.0 0.18 0.36 0.57 0.74 0.85 0.96 1.12 1.5 7.1
6.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.80 0.97 1.14 1.36 1.9 10.3
3 7.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.85 1.09 1.30 1.6 2.3 14.0
12 i 8.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.16 1.46 1.9 2.7 18.2
b = 9.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.22 1.6 2.1 3.2 23.0
l
10.0 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.87 1.27 1.7 2.3 3.6 28.5

For tanks not rectangular in transverse section, the depth should normally be taken as the greatest depth. Accuracy can be increased by taking
depth as n times the distance from the free surface to the tank top, where n is 2 for tanks 50 percent full, 20 for tanks 95 percent full, or 50
for tanks 98 percent full. The tables should be entered with the next larger value for depth to breadth ratio unless interpolations are made. The
increase in accuracy gained by interpolation is usually insignificant.

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Computing moments of transference may

be time-consuming and tedious. Figure Table 1-11. Transference Factor – 98 Percent Full.
1-32 shows that an equivalent righting
arm Gv Z can be developed by extending Ratio of Angle of inclination, deg
the line of action of gravity back through depth to
the ship’s centerline. Raising the ship’s breadth 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

center of gravity to Gv has the same 0.1 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
effect on stability as shifting it to G2. 0.15 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00
0.2 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
The virtual rise in the center of gravity
0.25 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01
can be related to the actual transverse 0.3 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01
shift: 0.4 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02
GG2 = GGv sinθ 0.5 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03
0.6 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04
0.7 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.06
At small angles (less than 7 to 10 0.8 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.08
degrees), GZ = GMsinθ; the reduction in 0.9 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.10
righting arm is approximately GGvsinθ: 1.0 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.12
1.2 0.09 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.17
1.5 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.27
GZcorr = GM sinθ GGv sinθ 2.0 0.13 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.13 0.14 0.47
3.0 0.16 0.22 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.22 0.22 0.23 1.06
Setting the two expressions for GZcorr 4.0 0.17 0.27 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.34 1.9
equal: 5.0 0.18 0.30 0.35 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.45 2.9
6.0 0.18 0.33 0.40 0.44 0.46 0.46 0.48 0.58 4.2
γf i sinθ 7.0 0.18 0.35 0.44 0.49 0.52 0.54 0.58 0.70 5.8
GM sinθ GGv sinθ = GZ
γw ∇ 8.0 0.18 0.36 0.48 0.55 0.59 0.62 0.67 0.84 7.5
9.0 0.18 0.36 0.51 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.77 0.98 9.5
Noting that GMsinθ = GZ and canceling 10.0 0.18 0.36 0.54 0.64 0.71 0.78 0.87 1.12 11.8
common terms:
γf i δw i
Virtual rise of G = F S = GGv = =
γw ∇ δf ∇

γf i i
= =
∆ δf ∆
For flooding from the sea, the density ratio becomes one, and:

i
GGv =
∇

where:

GGv = virtual rise of the center of gravity from free surface effect
i = transverse moment of inertia of the free surface
∇ = volume of displacement

If free surface exists in several tanks or compartments, the virtual rise of G is calculated separately for each compartment and the results summed
to determine the total virtual rise. The virtual position of the center of gravity is then used to develop a corrected stability curve, as described
in Paragraph 1-5.9.1.

Treating free surface effect as a virtual rise of the center of gravity provides a relatively quick and easy estimate of the reduction in initial
stability. The method overestimates the reduction in righting arm at larger angles because it does not account for pocketing or the reduction
in lever arms of the transferred wedge as heel angle increases, but is acceptably accurate if the sum of i for all slack tanks in ft4 is less than
twenty times the displacement in long tons. When virtually all free liquid surfaces are subject to pocketing at small angles, as in ships with
nearly full fuel load or cargo tanks, it is common practice to determine the reduction in righting arm (by transference) at an arbitrarily selected
angle of 5 or 10 degrees, and translate the reduction in righting arm into loss of metacentric height by dividing by the sine of the angle.

Equipment, cargo, or stores that pierce the floodwater surface reduce the area and effect of the free surface; this effect is called surface
permeability. The surface permeability factor is the moment of inertia of the actual free surface divided by the moment of inertia of an unpierced
plane surface with the same outer perimeter. Surface permeability is very difficult to estimate accurately. An error in estimation can cause the
salvor to believe the ship is more stable than it actually is. If, on the other hand, surface permeability is neglected, the calculations will indicate
less stability than the ship actually possesses, erring on the safe side for the salvor.

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1-9.2.2 Cross-flooding. Situations exist where, by design or damage, liquids can freely transfer, or cross-flood, between athwartships tanks:

• Damaged longitudinal bulkheads.

• Cross-flooding ducts fitted between shaft alleys, voids, and similar spaces in small ships to prevent the large offcenter weight
moments that would result if only one side flooded.

• Faulty or inadvertently opened valves or valve manifolds, especially those connecting deep tanks where the liquid surface is above
the level of the valve.

• Anti-roll tanks consisting of two tanks, normally carried about half-full, on opposite sides of the ship connected by relatively small-
diameter sluice pipes.

The shift of liquid from one space to another is treated as a moment of transference between the two tanks to determine reduction in righting
arm. The effect on initial stability, as a loss of metacentric height, is calculated for each tank separately.

1-9.2.3 Liquids of Different Densities. A tank may contain two different liquids—one of them is usually seawater. Examples include ruptured
cargo or fuel tanks and compensating tanks with water bottoms. Even if the tank is filled with liquid, there is a free surface at the interface
between the two liquids that will remain parallel to the inclined waterline. There will be a wedge of volume on the low side where the denser
liquid displaces the less dense, and a corresponding wedge on the high side where the less dense liquid displaces the denser, causing the center
of gravity of the tank to shift. This effect can be evaluated by using the difference in densities for the value γf in the expressions for moment
of transference and virtual rise of G.

1-9.2.4 Bulk Cargoes. Bulk cargoes, such as grain and ore, and loose solid ballast, can produce an effect similar to that of free surface, but
the effect is modified by friction and inertia of the individual particles. In general, bulk cargo will begin to shift when the angle of inclination
is approximately equal to the angle of repose of the cargo. This is the angle between the horizontal and the slope of a granular bulk material
that is freely poured onto a horizontal surface. However, violent or cyclic ship motions or vibration can cause the cargo to shift at smaller
angles. A cargo that shifts during a heavy roll to one side will not necessarily shift back when the ship rolls to the opposite side. The tendency
to roll to greater angles on the low side can cause progressive cargo shifting that can lead to capsize. Some cargoes, especially certain ores,
may act like semi-liquid slurries in the presence of even a small amount of moisture, and shift readily when inclined.

Ships designed to carry bulk cargo, such as grain, are fitted with permanent or temporary longitudinal bulkheads in their holds that may be
supplemented with shifting boards to limit cargo movement. The cargo is normally pressed up to the tops of the holds and between the overhead
deck beams. If the cargo is not large enough to fill the hold, a portion of the grain is bagged and laid over the bulk grain to prevent shifting.
The cargo may also be tommed down by placing tomming boards, held in place by shores extending to the deck above, over the leveled cargo.

1-9.2.5 Free Communication Effect. A partially flooded, noncenterline space open to the sea introduces the effects of both offcenter weight
and free surface. In addition, floodwater is free to enter or leave the space as the ship inclines. The distribution and weight of floodwater varies
with time as the ship inclines. This creates virtual rise in the center of gravity, in addition to that caused by free surface:

Ay2
Virtual rise of G = F C = GGc =
∇1
where:

A = plan area of the flooded compartment

y = transverse distance from the center of the flooded compartment to the ship’s centerline
∇1 = volume of displacement to the after flooding to the waterline

Free communication exists only when the water level inside the damaged compartment remains the same as the sea level outside the hull. This
occurs only when the hull opening is relatively large compared to the volume of the space, and the compartment is vented.

1-9.3 Icing. Ice accumulation in freezing weather steadily adds high weight, increasing displacement and raising center of gravity. In severe
conditions, ice thicknesses of six inches or more can collect on weather decks in a short time. Ice builds up as spray or precipitation freeze
onto above-water structures. The rate of accumulation is therefore influenced by relative direction of winds and seas, and is seldom uniform
on both sides of the ship. The offcenter weight of accumulated ice will cause list that may cause increased ice accumulation on the low side,
especially if the primary source of ice is wind-driven spray.

High winds often accompany icing conditions; ice loading can severely degrade the ship’s ability to withstand heeling moments from beam
winds. As an example, a destroyer that has adequate stability for a 100-knot beam wind without ice meets the wind heel criterion (see Appendix
D) for only 80 knots with 200 tons of accumulated ice. The 200-ton ice accumulation corresponds to an average ice thickness of 5 to 6 inches
over those areas subject to icing. The effect is more severe on smaller vessels; 50 tons of topside ice on a 140-foot minesweeper reduces
maximum righting arm from 1.2 feet to 0.7 feet, and reduces maximum allowable beam wind from 85 to 40 knots.

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Once ice has started to form, it will continue to form as long as conditions favor icing. The only recourse is to remove the ice or leave the area
where ice formation is likely. Frequent heading changes can help prevent the accumulations of large weights of offcenter ice. Icing presents
particular difficulties to ships that are not free to maneuver, such as strandings and vessels under tow. The effects of accumulated weights of
ice (and snow) must be evaluated before refloating a heavily coated stranding. Removing ice from an unmanned vessel under tow may be
difficult or impossible; conditions favorable to icing are often also unfavorable for at-sea personnel transfers. At slow towing speeds, the time
needed to reach an area where conditions are significantly less favorable to icing may be considerable. Offcenter ice accumulation is likely on
towed vessels because tows follow a relatively steady course. It is important to ensure that a casualty has adequate stability under icing
conditions, or that heaters or other means to prevent icing be installed, if the casualty is to be towed through areas where icing is likely.
The U. S. Department of Commerce Publication Climatological and Oceanographic Atlas for Mariners provides guidance for expected winds and
icing conditions. In general, heavy to severe icing will occur when wind speed is greater than 30 knots and air temperature less than 28 degrees
Fahrenheit. Icing predictions can also be provided by Fleet Weather Centers and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
Damage control books for some Navy ships
include icing studies and limiting wind 9" ICE ON FOREDECK
velocity curves for various thicknesses of 90 5-100-3&4-F
accumulated ice. Figure 1-35 is the 85 5-250-1&2-F
limiting wind curve for an FFG-7 Class
5-116-0-W
ship with 9 inches of ice on the foredeck; 80 5-326-1&2-W
there are also curves for 6 inches and 12 5-32-0-W
WIND SPEED (KNOTS)

inches of ice. The fuel-ballast sequence 75

numbers refer to steps in the prescribed
70
tank emptying and ballasting sequence.
The plot is entered by reading vertically 65
from the appropriate fuel-ballast sequence
number to the solid wind heel curve, and 60
then horizontally to the maximum wind
speed for which the ship meets the Navy 55
wind heel criteria. The dashed lines show 50
the increase in allowable wind that can be
gained by ballasting the indicated tanks. 45
For example, at fuel sequence 6, the ship
40
has adequate stability to withstand 58-knot 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
beam winds with 9 inches of ice on the
foredeck. Continuing vertically along the FUEL BALLAST SEQUENCE NUMBER
sequence 6 line shows that the limiting
wind can be increased to 62 knots by Figure 1-35. FFG-7 Class Ship Limiting Winds for Icing Conditions.
ballasting tank 5-32-0-W, or 72 knots by
ballasting 5-32-0-W, 5-116-0-W, and 5-
326-1 and 2-W. If necessary, fuel tanks 5-
250-1 and 2-F, which are emptied by
sequence 4, can be ballasted to increase Table 1-12. Added Weight Versus Lost Buoyancy.
limiting wind to 83 knots.
Limiting wind curves from damage control
books are based on specific loading Item Added Weight Lost Buoyancy
conditions, and the assumption that the Change in displacement yes no
prescribed tank emptying/ballasting Change in volume of displacement yes no
sequence has been followed. They are not
valid for conditions that differ significantly Change in draft, trim, and list yes yes
from these assumptions.
Shift of center of gravity yes no
1-9.4 Added Weight Versus Lost Shift of center of buoyancy yes yes
Buoyancy. The foregoing discussions have
assumed that flooding, with or without free Shift of metacenter yes yes
communication, increases the weight of the
ship by the weight of the floodwater. This Free surface correction required yes no
method, called the added weight method, as- Free communication correction required yes no
sumes that none of the hull surface exposed
to the buoyant force of the water is lost.
An alternative method, called the lost buoyancy method, can be used where floodwater in free communication with the sea is assumed to remain
part of the sea, and the flooded portion of the ship no longer contributes buoyancy. The vertical pressure forces about the flooded compartment
are assumed to act on the sea rather than on the ship.
Flooding in free communication with the sea can be assessed by either method, but the two methods cannot be mixed during calculations. Table
1-12 itemizes the important points of the two methods.
The method used is a matter of personal preference, although the added weight method is more commonly used. Unless otherwise specified,
hydrostatic and stability calculations in this book are made by the added weight method. A more complete discussion of the lost buoyancy
calculation method can be found in the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers’ Principles of Naval Architecture.

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1-9.5 Loss of GM. Loss of GM can result

from added high weight (raised G) or in- POSITIVE RIGHTING ARMS, STBD
creased displacement (lowered M), or both.
New initial righting arms are calculated LOLLING RANGE
using the new value for GM. The stability
curve can be corrected for the new KG with 57.3˚
a sine curve correction as described in Par-
agraph 1-5.9. A ship with a very low
metacentric height will roll sluggishly. If
GM is negative, the ship is initially un-
stable and will loll to some angle where the 57.3˚
center of buoyancy has moved sufficiently NEGATIVE
ANGLE GM
to begin to develop positive righting arms. OF LIST
The ship will settle with equal facility to
the same angle of loll on either side. The POSITIVE RIGHTING ARMS, PORT
angle of loll may be estimated by:

2 GM
θ = tan 1
Figure 1-36. Stability Curve Showing Range of Instability (Lolling).
BM

Where GM is the absolute value of GM.

When GM is negative, the corrected stability curve will indicate the list or angle of loll and a measure of the stability remaining beyond the
angle of loll as shown in Figure 1-36.
A warship or laden merchant vessel with negative metacentric height is in a very dangerous condition. A positive metacentric height should
be restored immediately. In general, negative metacentric height is dealt with by one of three methods:
• Suppressing free surface to lower virtual height of the center of gravity,
• Shifting weight downward in the ship, removing high weight or adding low weight to lower the center of gravity, or
• Recovering lost waterplane to increase the transverse metacentric radius.
Free surface is suppressed by pumping from slack tanks directly overboard or by consolidating the contents of slack tanks to press up as many
tanks as possible. Partially flooded spaces should be dewatered if they can be made tight and pumped, or allowed to flood to the overhead.
When there are several slack tanks or partially flooded spaces, judicious selection of spaces to be pumped down can result in a simultaneous
suppression of free surface and a lowering of G. The effects of both the reduction of free surface and loss of low weight should be calculated
before emptying low tanks or spaces. In some cases, the net effect of pumping out is to raise the center of gravity unacceptably—flooding the
space from the sea would be more effective. The dewatering sequence should be arranged to avoid reducing GM dangerously while pumping
out. In ships with marginal stability, the transient free surface created while pumping down solid flooded spaces can cause loss of GM.
Shifting weights transversely to correct a list caused by negative GM will only aggravate an already dangerous situation. If enough weight is
shifted or added to bring the ship upright, it will list to the opposite side to an angle approximately twice that of the original list; the loll angle
is now added to the list due to offcenter weight.
1-9.6 Drydocking. A ship being drydocked is subject to an unusual loading situation; part of the ship’s weight is supported by keel blocks,
part by the surrounding water. This condition is complicated by changes in the size and shape of the submerged hull form as draft changes while
the dock is pumped out. This situation is analogous in many ways to that of a grounded ship, where part of the ship’s weight is supported by
the ground and part by water, and hull form changes with the state of the tide or passage of waves. The fundamental stability problem is to
determine whether the ship will remain stable from the time it first touches the blocks until it has completely settled, or landed, on them. On
undocking, the problem is whether the ship will be stable from the time it begins to leave the blocks until it is completely afloat. Positive GM
is taken as the indicator of adequate stability. The following discussion of docking stability is summarized from NAVSHIPS Technical Manual
(NSTM) 997, Docking Instructions and Routine Work in Drydock.
1-9.6.1 Block Reaction and Residual Buoyancy. When the keel of a ship begins to land on the blocks in a drydock, it pushes down with
an initial force w, causing a block reaction, P. A ship with trim, t, by the stern, will contact the aftermost keel block first. This block is called
the knuckle block because the ship pivots
on it. Strictly speaking, the knuckle re-
action is not the entire block reaction, but r1
r
can be assumed to be in most cases. The Gv
block reaction has two effects: a virtual W L
weight removal at the keel and a long- G
itudinal trimming moment. As the ship set- W1 B1 L1
P
tles on the blocks, P increases from zero
and is distributed over all the blocks. As
the water level falls, the distributed block
reaction increases until it equals the ship’s
weight, W. The actual or residual
buoyancy, B, is equal to W - P. It is the
residual buoyancy that determines the
ship’s hydrostatic characteristics. Figure 1-
37 diagrams the forces on a ship during Figure 1-37. Drydocking Forces.
drydocking.

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1-9.6.2 Docking Stability. Stability while

docking is analyzed either by evaluating the 17
effect of weight removal at the keel, or by
16

MEAN DRAFT, FEET

balancing moments about the point of first
contact. Draft at landing and draft at DRAFT AT LANDING
15 RESIDUAL BUOYANCY ≈ 14.9 FEET
instability (GM = 0) are determined and MOMENT B1 r1
compared. Figure 1-38 shows sample plots 14
for an FFG-7 Class ship.
Draft at Landing. Summing longitudinal 13
WEIGHT MOMENT, Wr
moments about the knuckle block: 12 = 3,769(118.4)
≈ 446,250 FOOT-TONS
ML = Wr B1r1 11
2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
where:
MOMENT, FOOT-TONS x 10 5
W = ship’s weight DRAFT AT LANDING
r = distance from knuckle block to
LCG, as shown in Figure 1-38 17
B1 = residual buoyancy of the ship W(KG)=
at current draft 16
MEAN DRAFT, FEET

=3,769(18)
r1 = distance from knuckle block to =67,842 KM1 B 1
15
LCB, as shown in Figure 1-38 FOOT-TONS
14
The weight moment (Wr) is constant while
the residual displacement and LCB vary 13
with draft. The draft at landing is the draft DRAFT AT INSTABILITY
where ML is zero with the keel parallel to 12 ≈ 13.25 FEET
the tops of the keel blocks; that is, where
the weight and buoyancy moments are 11
equal, with B1 and r1 determined for the ship 5 6 7 8 9 10
4
with her keel parallel to the keel blocks. MOMENT, FOOT-TONS x 10
Buoyancy moments can be calculated for a DRAFT AT INSTABILITY
range of drafts and plotted as shown in
Figure 1-38. The draft at landing is
indicated by the intersection of the weight Figure 1-38. Drydocking Plots.
moment and buoyancy moment curves.
Draft at landing can be estimated by:
P
T1 = Tm -
12(TPI)
where:
Tl = draft at landing, ft TPI = tons per inch immersion, lton/in
Tm = mean draft on entering the dock, ft

The block reaction at landing, PL, is given by:

t (MT1)
PL =
h
where:
t = trim on entering the dock, in h = distance from application of P (knuckle block) to LCF, ft
MT1 = moment to trim one inch, ft-lton/in

A rule of thumb for estimating draft at landing is:

2
T1 = Tmax - (t)
3
where Tmax is the deepest draft on entering the dock, and Tmax and t are given in consistent units.
Draft at Instability. After touching the keel blocks, GM is given by:
GM1 = KM1 - KGv

where:
GM1 = metacentric height after touching blocks KGv = virtual height of the center of gravity
KM1 = height of the metacenter after touching blocks

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The center of gravity undergoes a virtual rise due to the addition of negative weight at the keel. The height of the virtual center of gravity is:

w(kg) W(KG) ( P) (0) W(KG)

KGv = = =
w W P B1

It is useful to plot GM1 for various drafts to visualize the relationship between the metacentric height and draft while the ship is on the blocks.
The draft at instability is found by setting GM1 equal to zero:

W(KG)
0 = KM1 KGv = KM1
B1
W(KG)
KM1 =
B1
KM1 (B1) = W(KG)

By considering the products as moments and plotting moments against drafts as shown in Figure 1-38, the draft at instability is shown by the
intersection of the two curves. If this draft is less than the draft at landing by a comfortable margin, the ship should remain stable until firmly
supported by the keel blocks, or when it begins to leave the blocks on refloating. Example 1-4 illustrates the stability calculations for an FFG-7
Class ship entering drydock.

EXAMPLE 1-4

An FFG-7 Class ship with initial conditions as shown is to be drydocked. B1r1 as a function of draft:
Determine draft at landing and whether the ship will remain stable
throughout the docking. r1 = 330 - [408/2 - LCB*]

Initial conditions: Tm B1 LCB* r1 B 1r 1

ft ltons ft ft ft-tons
L = 408 ft
Tf = 14 ft 3 in 15.17 3,769 -3.18 122.82 462,909
Ta = 16 ft 1 in 15.0 3,660 -2.6 123.42 451,644
Tm = 15 ft 2 in 14.0 3,290 -0.08 125.92 414,277
W = 3,769 tons 13.0 2,910 2.6 128.6 374,226
LCG = 7.6 ft abaft midships 12.0 2,550 5.32 131.32 334,866
KG = 18 ft 11.0 2,210 8.1 134.1 296,361

The knuckle block will contact the keel at a point 330 feet abaft the forward * from midships, negative values aft and positive forward
perpendicular.
Wr and B1r1 are plotted as functions of draft in Figure 1-38, showing a
From the Curves of Form (FO-2): draft at landing of approximately 14.9 feet.

LCB = 3.2 ft abaft midships c. Draft at instability:

LCF = 23.8 ft abaft midships
MT1 = 773 ft-tons KM1(B1) = W(KG)
TPI = 32.5 tons W(KG) = 3769(18) = 67,842 foot-tons

a. Initial estimates for draft at landing: KM1(B1) as a function of draft:

Tm B1 KM1 KM1B1
h = 330 
408 
 23.8 = 102.2ft ft ltons ft ft-tons
 2 
t (MT1) 22 (773) 15.17 3,769 122.82 84,049
P = = = 166.4
h 102.2 15.0 3,660 123.42 81,764
P 166.4 14.0 3,290 125.92 73,992
T1 = Tm = 15.17 = 14.74 ft 13.0 2,910 128.6 65,882
12 (TPI) 12 (32.5)
12.0 2,550 131.32 58,089
11.0 2,210 134.1 50,609
or
W(KG) and KM1(B1) are plotted as functions of draft in Figure 1-38,
Tl = Tmax - 2/3(t) showing a draft at instability of approximately 13.25 feet.
t = 22 in = 22/12 ft
Tl = 16.08 - [2/3(22/12)] = 14.86 ft d. Margin between draft at landing and draft at instability:

b. Draft at landing by plotting: Draft at landing - Draft at instability = 14.9 - 13.25 = 1.65 feet

Ml = Wr - B 1r 1 Draft at landing exceeds draft at instability by 1.65 feet; the ship will be
r = 330 - [408/2 - (-7.6)] = 118.4 completely settled on the docking blocks well before the residual
Wr = 3769(118.4) = 446,249.6 ≈ 446,250 foot-tons buoyancy ceases to provide adequate stability.

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1-10 SHIP CONSTRUCTION

Vessels are built to construction

specifications based on intended service.
Publicly owned vessels (Navy, Coast
Guard, etc.) are built to government
specifications. Most Navy ships are built to
General Specifications for Ships
(GENSPECs), although some auxiliaries are
built to commercial specifications.
Construction rules for commercial vessels
are established by classification societies
and government regulations for the country
of registry; the American Bureau of
Shipping (ABS) and United States Coast
Guard (USCG) establish construction rules
for the United States.

The hull structure consists of a watertight

grillage of stiffened plates supported by a
framework of mutually supporting
longitudinal and transverse members. The INNER BOTTOM
framework and shell plating work together
to carry imposed loads. The framework
carries imposed loads and stiffens the shell
plating to allow it to function effectively as
a strength member under edge and lateral
loading. The arrangement of the structural
members is dictated by the framing system.
Structural members, with the exception of CENTER
GIRDER
shell plating and stanchions, are categorized MARGIN PLATE (KEEL)
as either longitudinal, with their long axes
approximately parallel to the ships
centerline, or transverse, with their long
axes athwartships or vertical, approximately
BOTTOM DETAIL:
perpendicular to the longitudinal members. SLOT
In a general context, any structural stiffener FLOOR
can be called a frame, although the term is
usually reserved for the transverse frames
described in Paragraph 1-10.3.1. FLAT
BAR
1-10.1 Framing Systems. While ships
vary considerably in the details of their FLOOR
LONGITUDINALS AT NONWATERTIGHT FLOOR
construction, most conform to one of two
basic framing systems. Some reflect a
THROUGH
combination of the two systems. With BRACKET
longitudinal and transverse structural SHORT FLOOR
LENGTH LONGITUDINAL
members crossing at right angles, only one
can be continuous. In the longitudinal
system, shown in Figure 1-39, this conflict
is resolved by the use of closely spaced
CONTINUOUS LONGITUDINAL LONGITUDINAL CUT AT
continuous longitudinal members with AT WATERTIGHT FLOOR WATERTIGHT FLOOR
intercostal transverses. The transverse
system, shown in Figure 1-40 (Page 1-70),
uses closely spaced continuous transverse Figure 1-39. Longitudinal Framing.
members with intercostal longitudinals.

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In wooden ships and riveted steel

construction, continuity of the intercostal
members depends on the strength of the MAIN DECK GUNWALE
STRINGER ANGLE
joining connections; the intercostal
members contribute less direct strength to
the framing grillage and serve primarily to
stiffen the longitudinal members and shell
plating. With good alignment and modern ’TWEEN DECK SHEER
welding practices, full strength can be WATERTIGHT DECK BEAMS STRAKE
maintained, regardless of the previous BULKHEAD
assembly continuity of members. In
modern, welded-construction ships, framing
systems are distinguished by the relative
BEAM
size, number, and spacing of transverse and DECK GIRDER KNEE
longitudinal members. Longitudinally WATERTIGHT
BULKHEAD
framed ships have many small, closely STANCHION FRAMES
spaced longitudinals, with fewer, larger,
and more widely spaced transverses; INNER BOTTOM
transversely framed ships have many small,
closely spaced transverses, with fewer,
larger, and more widely spaced WATER-
longitudinals. For average merchant ships, TIGHT
FLOOR
typical close spacing is 2 to 4 feet, typical
wide spacing is 10 to 15 feet. TANK
SIDE
Merchant ships and naval auxiliaries may BRACKET
CENTER SIDE GIRDER MARGIN PLATE
use either longitudinal or transverse GIRDER
framing, depending on the service of the LIGHTENING HOLE
ship. Generally, the same system is used PLATE FLOOR AIR HOLE
throughout the ship. Most naval FLOOR
combatants (except submarines) are
longitudinally framed, with transverse LIMBER HOLE
framing near the bow and stern. Because
naval ships require a greater reserve of
BRACKET REVERSE BAR BRACKET
strength to provide damage resistance, their
frame members are generally deeper and/or BRACKET
more closely spaced than those of similarly FLOOR
sized merchant vessels. Appendix B
describes the construction and
FRAME BAR
characteristics of different types of ships.

1-10.1.1 Longitudinal Framing. Longi-

Figure 1-40. Transverse Framing.
tudinal framing systems (Figures 1-39A and
1-39B) are more efficient structurally, pro-
viding greater strength for the same weight; they are, however, less efficient in the use of internal space because of the deep web frames
supporting the longitudinals. Longitudinal framing has been widely used in tankers and bulk carriers where the disruption of internal spaces
caused by the web frames is unimportant. Modern practice tends increasingly towards longitudinal framing, or a combination system, in most
types of ships.

1-10.1.2 Transverse Framing. Transverse framing (Figure 1-40) is most often found in dry cargo vessels where deep web frames would
interfere with cargo stowage. Wooden ships are transversely framed. Given the load-carrying capacity of wood, the lack of longitudinal strength
of this system limits the maximum length of wooden vessels. Conversely, this system provides good resistance to racking stresses caused by
lateral forces that tend to distort a vessel’s cross section.

1-10.1.3 Combination Systems. There are framing systems that combine elements of both longitudinal and transverse framing. Figure 1-41
shows two common combination framing systems. The combination framing system was introduced to overcome the disadvantages of
longitudinal framing for dry cargo vessels. Longitudinal strength is provided by longitudinal framing in the double bottom and under the strength
deck; transverse framing is used along the side plating where longitudinal bending stresses are smaller. Plate floors and heavy transverse beams
are fitted at intervals to support the main deck and bottom longitudinals and increase transverse strength.

Cantilever framing is a modification of the combination framing system with some special features. It was developed to facilitate the building
of ships with very long and wide hatchways where the remaining deck structure provides insufficient transverse and longitudinal strength.
Transverse strength is maintained by the use of special web frames, or cantilevers, at frequent intervals abreast the hatchways. The ship is
strengthened longitudinally by heavier than normal sheerstrakes and deck stringer plates. The side plating may be extended upward at the
sheerstrake as a heavy bulwark, in place of the usual light bulwark or rails. Hatch side coamings are deep and may be continuous through the
length of the hatch deck. If the ship has two hatches abreast, a deck girder or longitudinal bulkhead is fitted on the centerline.

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1-10.1.4 Connections. In riveted

construction, a variety of plates, angles, and LONGITUDINALS
scarfs were used to create strong and rigid HATCH COAMING
joints between structural members. In
welded construction, most connections STRONG BEAM BETWEEN HATCHWAYS TRANSVERSE
between plates and shapes are made BEAM
directly through butt or fillet welds,
although brackets and angle bars are used CANTILEVER BEAM
in some joints for extra stiffness.
TRANSVERSE
1-10.2 Longitudinal Members. SIDE FRAME
Longitudinal structural members resist
LONGITUDINAL
bending about athwartships axes. LONGITUDINALS
FRAMING
IN BOTTOM
1-10.2.1 Keel. The keel is a major
longitudinal member that runs the length of
the ship’s bottom along the centerline. In
CANTILEVER FRAMING COMBINATION SYSTEM
large ships, the keel normally consists of an
outer flat keel, the inner (plate) keel, a
vertical keel (sometimes called the center Figure 1-41. Combination Framing Systems.
vertical keel, or CVK), and a horizontal top
flange called the keel rider plate. In small
vessels, the outer keel, vertical keel, and rider plates may consist of an I- or H-beam, while in large vessels, the keel is a built-up section. Duct
keels are flat-plate keels with two center girders, instead of one, on either side of the keel plates. Duct keels are commonly used forward of
propulsion machinery spaces to provide a pipe tunnel. The keel usually varies in cross section along the length of the ship. Some newer vessels
have no distinct keel. Instead, there is a cellular double bottom consisting of a grillage of heavy stiffeners plated over top and bottom. In this
system, the center girder is generally distinguishable from the side girders only by location. In very large, broad vessels, specially strengthened
longitudinals, called docking keels, are fitted at some distance to either side of the center keel. The docking keels help distribute docking loads
as the ship rests on three rows of keel blocks. In smaller vessels and some older merchant vessels, an outer vertical keel or bar keel is fitted.
In wooden vessels, the keel is usually a large timber, or series of timbers scarfed together. A timber keelson may be fixed atop the keel to
increase strength. In glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) vessels, the keel may be a wooden or metal member firmly bonded to the GRP skin, or may
consist of a multiple-fiber layup.

1-10.2.2 Other Longitudinal Members. Structural members that run the length of the vessel along shell plating or decks are variously termed
stringers, girders, or longitudinals. These members stiffen the entire structure against longitudinal bending loads, and reinforce shell and deck
plating against local loads. They may be built-up sections or standard structural sections. In the U.S. Navy, longitudinal members along the
side plating are called stringers; those along the bottom plating, longitudinals; and those under decks, girders. In large ships, heavy, deep, bottom
longitudinals may be fitted at some distance to either side of the keel. These members are often sized and located to carry the vertical loads
imposed by side blocks when dry docking. The heavy longitudinals are variously called sidegirders, keelsons, or docking keels.

Bilge keels may be fitted externally at the turn of the bilge to improve seakeeping by resisting rolling. Bilge keels are not usually structural
members; if they are attached by load carrying connections and extend for a significant length of the ship, they may contribute to the ship’s
longitudinal strength.

1-10.3 Transverse Structural Members. Transverse members are fitted primarily to stiffen the hull and enable it to resist shear and torsional
loads.

1-10.3.1 Frames. Transverse frames are analogous to ribs extending from the backbone of the keel inside the shell plating. They may continue
to the upper decks in their full cross section or be reduced in size at some height above the keel. Frame spacing and dimensions often vary
throughout the length of the ship to compensate for variations in loading. Intermediate partial frames may be added for local strengthening.
Web frames—deeper-than-normal frames with heavy flanges—are often placed at intervals of several frame spaces, to stiffen and strengthen
the hull. Frames connect the longitudinal members and maintain spatial relationships in the face of shear and torsion. They also strengthen
the plating against bending under hydrostatic and dynamic loads or buckling under hull shear and bending, and act as ring stiffeners. U.S. Navy
practice is to number frames from the forward perpendicular (frame 0) aft; most foreign and many U.S. commercial vessels number frames from
aft forward. Frames forward of the forward perpendicular are designated by letters or negative numbers.

1-10.3.2 Floors. The portion of the frame from the keel to the turn of the bilge is a floor. Floors that do not continue into frames are
sometimes used for local strengthening or machinery foundations. Deep floors—deeper than the standard floors—are used at the ends of the
ship and in high-load areas.

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1-10.3.3 Beams. Athwartships deck

stiffeners are called beams. They WEB
strengthen the deck against local loads,
SHELL PLATING
including hydrostatic loads for weather
decks, and contribute to overall ship
BREASTHOOK
strength by increasing rigidity. Deck beams COLLISION
normally join directly to frames at their BULKHEAD
outboard ends, forming a continuous frame
ring. Triangular brackets, called beam
brackets or beam knees, are fitted to stiffen
the joint, or the beam is faired in to the
frame in a smooth arc to form a continuous
RABBET
structure, as shown in Figures 1-39, 1-40,
and 1-41.
STEM WRAPPER
1-10.4 Shell Plating. Shell plating is the BAR PLATES
side and bottom plating; i.e., those portions PLATE STEM
of the ship’s skin that hold back the sea.
Bottom plating extends from the keel to the SCARF
turn of the bilge, side plating from the turn
of the bilge to or slightly beyond the upper SCARF FOR
or main deck edge. Shell and deck plating KEEL PLATE
is arrayed in longitudinal strips called GARBOARD FLAT
STRAKE PLATE
strakes.
KEEL
The strake adjacent to the keel is called the FORE-
garboard strake. The outer keel may be FOOT
CASTING
incorporated into a keel strake. Strakes are CASTING
lettered from the keel outboard, starting
with the garboard strake as A. The strake BAR STEM
at the turn of the bilge is the bilge strake. (OLDER, RIVETED, CONSTRUCTION)
The uppermost strake, which joins to the
strength deck plating, is the sheer strake.
The keel, garboard, bilge, and sheer strakes
contribute significantly to longitudinal BULBOUS BOW
strength, and are usually constructed of
heavier or stronger plate.

1-10.5 Decks. Decks subdivide the vessel

into horizontal levels; weather decks also
close the top of the hull and maintain the
ship’s watertight integrity. Decks add
significant strength and rigidity to the Figure 1-42. Stems
structure as a whole and limit the extent of
flooding after damage, provided they are or
can be made watertight. Decks may be steel or aluminum plating or wooden planking, and may be covered or sheathed with wood, tile,
linoleum, or other materials. The main deck is the highest continuous watertight deck and is usually the strength deck or upper flange of the
hull girder. Because of the main deck’s significance to hull strength and watertight integrity, it is used as the reference for numbering other
decks. The outboard strake of main deck plating is normally designated the main deck stringer and is either heavier or reinforced to provide
longitudinal strength. The connection of the deck to the sheer strake is critical to hull strength. Deck to sheer strake connections are often made
by means of a welded T-joint which may be backed up with an angle called the deck stringer angle or gunwale bar. Alternatively, the
connection may be made by means of a riveted gunwale bar, or the sheer strake may be rounded and butt-welded to the deck stringer. The U.S.
Navy uses the following definitions:

• Platform or Platform Deck – Deck extending less than the full length of the ship below the lowest complete deck; sometimes
called an orlop deck.

• Flats – Noncontinuous platforms between deck levels.

• Half-Deck – A partial deck above the lowest complete deck and below the main deck.

• Forecastle Deck – A partial deck above the main deck at the bow.

• Poop Deck – A partial deck above the main deck at the stern.

• Upper Deck – A partial deck above the main deck in the midships region, or one extending from the waists to either bow or stern.

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Decks above the main deck are called superstructure decks and may be referred to as levels. The term level also refers to nonwatertight
horizontal subdivision, usually by gratings of very deep compartments; for example, the upper level of a machinery space. In merchant ships
and auxiliaries, ’tween decks are often fitted to provide one or two levels above the hold bottom to allow cargo to be subdivided or carried high
to prevent stiff rolling.

1-10.6 Bulkheads. Bulkheads further subdivide levels or decks into compartments of varying size. Bulkheads may extend through one or several
decks and may be classed as structural, watertight, or joiner (also called partition or screen) bulkheads. Structural bulkheads are those that, by
design, contribute significantly to the ship’s strength. They stiffen the hull by resisting racking and torsional stresses and distribute vertical loads.
Watertight bulkheads are designed to withstand significant hydrostatic loads and are installed to increase the ship’s resistance to damage by
containing flooding. Transverse watertight bulkheads extend upward to a specified deck called the bulkhead deck. Bulkheads are strengthened
by angle or bar stiffeners where necessary, or are constructed of corrugated plate. Joiner or partition bulkheads separate and subdivide living,
working, storage or other spaces, but impart no watertight integrity or significant strength to the ship’s structure. Bulkheads often fit into more
than one class, although all bulkheads act as partitions. In practice, watertight bulkheads are almost always structural, while structural bulkheads
are often watertight.

1-10.7 Other Structural Members. The Stem Assembly (Figure 1-42) forms the bow of the ship. In its original and simplest form, still used
in wooden ships and boats, the stem or stem post consisted of a heavy, rectangular timber which is, in essence, an upward continuation of the
keel to which the side planking was attached. In ships of iron or steel construction, the stem was a rectangular forged bar attached at its base
to the keel, usually through a forefoot casting. This type of bar stem has been largely superseded by the plate stem, built up of curved wrapper
plates, although bar or heavy pipe stems are still commonly used on Great Lakes bulk carriers. The sharper portions of the stem are formed
by welding the side plates to an ordinary stem bar or length of round bar or tube, or by butt-welding the plates together. The entire assembly
is reinforced by a closely spaced network of deep floors, frames, stringers, and horizontal plate breasthooks. Vertical centerline stiffeners are
fitted in stems of large radius and bulbous bows.

Stern Assemblies, seen in Figure 1-43, close

the aft end of the hull and must accom- STERN CANT FRAMES
modate propeller shafts and rudder as-
semblies, as well as resist the dynamic
loads imposed by the rudders. In single-
rudder ships, a stern post or frame is fitted
at the aft end of the keel. It is generally
constructed of castings and forgings ar- SIDE
GIRDER
ranged to allow for the propeller shaft and
rudder stock bosses. The upper part of the
stern which extends past the rudder post is TRANSOM
supported by a special arrangement of FLOOR
framing. This framing is carried by the
transom consisting of a deep, heavy tran-
som floor in conjunction with a transverse
FLOORS
transom frame and beam. In counter sterns STERN CENTER
(also called ordinary, overhanging, or el- FRAME GIRDER
liptical sterns), which may be found in RUDDER
older merchant vessels, a system of cant TRUNK
CRUISER STERN
framing radiates from the center of the tran-
som like the spokes of a wheel. Cruiser
sterns have a system of transverse frames TRANSOM
and longitudinal girders with a number of PLATE
cant frames fitted abaft the aftermost trans-
FRAME
verse frame. Transom sterns are similar to
cruiser sterns, but end in a flat plate, called
the transom, and have no cant frames. In
twin-rudder vessels, the stern post is CRUTCH
omitted and the reinforced stern structure
STIFFENERS
extends forward of the rudder posts.

A double bottom may be fitted to increase

strength and resistance to underwater FLOOR
damage. The inner bottom plating is laid
over the grillage of floors and longitudinals,
forming spaces often used as tankage for
TRANSOM STERN
bunker fuel or other liquids. The outer
strake of the inner bottom is called the
margin plate, which may extend in a Figure 1-43. Stern Assemblies.
horizontal line to the side plating, or be
inclined downward near the turn of the
bilge to form the side of the double bottom. The double bottom may or may not be continuous over the length of the ship. Large combatants
such as aircraft carriers and battleships may have more than one inner bottom.

Stanchions or pillars are used to support decks, distribute vertical loads, and stiffen the hull structure between bulkheads.

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1-10.8 Superstructures and Deckhouses. The term superstructure is applied to a portion of a ship’s structure above the main or upper deck
extending the width of the ship and forming an integral part of the main hull. A deckhouse is a lighter structure, usually not extending the width
of the ship, that is placed on the hull rather than forming a part of it. In practice, the two terms are often confused or used interchangeably.
In naval combatants and passenger liners, deckhouses or superstructures may extend for most of the vessel’s length; in most other types, they
occupy a small portion of the ship’s length. These structures generally house accommodation, communications, navigational, or control spaces.
They may house workshops or specialized machinery; in warships, weapons control spaces and weapons mounts are often located on or in the
superstructure or deckhouse. Deckhouses are not normally designed to contribute to overall hull girder strength, but being rigidly attached to
the hull, they carry some stresses. Superstructures, as an integral part of the hull, are normally designed to carry hull stresses.

1-10.9 Damage-resistant Features of Ships. While the entire structure of a ship is designed to resist some damage, certain features are
incorporated into ships specifically to prevent loss of the ship when damaged. Loss may result from flooding or structural failure of the hull
girder. Features enhancing a ship’s ability to resist damage are described in the following paragraphs.

1-10.9.1 Subdivision. Subdivision, or compartmentation, is a ship’s primary means of resisting damage. A system of watertight decks,
bulkheads, and an inner bottom limits the spread of flooding, fire, blast effects, weapon fragments, and fumes or gases. Extensive subdivision
is an inconvenience to everyone; production cost is increased, cargo storage is complicated, access and movement around the ship is hampered.
The degree of subdivision is therefore a compromise between safety and other requirements. Factors considered include the following:

• Ability to resist battle damage.

Table 1-13. Standards of Subdivision.
• Ability to survive underwater damage.
• Ability to resist bow collision damage. Type Ship Standard of Subdivision
Navy Ships (without side protection systems)1
• Ability to resist damage from stranding. Seagoing craft under 100 ft in length 1 compartment

• Protection of vital spaces against flooding. Ships 100-300 ft in length 2 compartments

• Ability to resist spread of fire, smoke, and
airborne contaminants.
• Interference of subdivision with arrangements.
• Interference of subdivision with access and
systems.
• Provisions for carrying liquids.
1-10.9.2 Flooding. A principal concern in many casualty
situations is limiting flooding. Floodwater may be admitted
to the ship by collision, grounding, weapons strike,
firefighting, or other means. However flooding occurs, it
is necessary to limit its extent to minimize the following:
Ships over 300 ft in length:
Combatants and Personnel
Carriers, such as Hospital Ships
and Troop Transports
All other ships
Coast Guard Standards for Commercial Vessels2
Tankers over 738 ft in length
Tankers between 492 and 738 ft in length
Tankers less than 492 ft in length
Withstand rapid flooding from a shell opening equal
to 15% of length between perpendiculars at any
point fore or aft
Withstand flooding from an opening equal to 12.5%
of the length between perpendiculars
Withstand solid flooding from a shell opening with
length equal to the lesser of 0.495L2/3 or 47.6 ft,
width equal to the lesser of B/5 or 37.74 ft, from the
keel upwards without limit, at any point between
perpendiculars
Withstand flooding from damage described above at
any point except at an aft machinery room bulkhead
Withstand flooding from damage described above at
any point between main transverse bulkheads,
except to an aft machinery room

• Loss of transverse and longitudinal stability.

Great Lakes dry bulk carriers Withstand solid flooding from a shell opening with
length equal to the lesser of 0.495L2/3 or 47.6 ft,
width of 4.2 ft, from the keel upwards without limit,
• Loss of reserve buoyancy. between any two main transverse bulkheads
Barges carrying very hazardous materials Withstand flooding from damage with length of 6 ft,
• Damage to cargo and ship systems. width of 30 in, from the keel upwards without limit,
at any point, including the intersection of a
Ideally, a ship should be able to sustain increasing amounts transverse and longitudinal bulkhead
of flooding until it founders from loss of reserve buoyancy. Barges carrying moderately hazardous Withstand flooding from damage described above at
Loss of transverse or longitudinal stability can cause a ship materials any point, except on a transverse watertight bulkhead
to capsize or plunge, even when a sizable reserve buoyancy 1
Naval Ship Engineering Center Design Data Sheet, DDS079-1, Stability and Buoyancy of
remains. Offcenter flooding and its serious effects on 2
U.S. Naval Surface Ships, 1 Aug 75
Title 46, US Code of Federal Regulations (46 CFR), Subchapter S. Requirements have
transverse stability can be avoided by using transverse been simplified. Additional definitions and exceptions apply. Subdivision requirements
subdivision only. Complete avoidance of longitudinal for passenger ships are especially diverse.
watertight boundaries is not always possible or advisable,
but most modern ships follow a general pattern of transverse watertight subdivision, at the expense of admitting a larger volume of floodwater.
Some longitudinal subdivision is necessary to reduce free surface effect, especially in tanks. This subdivision normally takes the form of a
centerline bulkhead dividing the inner bottom into port and starboard tanks, or use of wing tanks smaller than the adjacent centerline tanks.
Sills, seen in Figure 1-44, or baffle plates are sometimes used to reduce the free surface effects of rolling or shallow flooding but are ineffective
against unchecked flooding. Transverse watertight bulkheads near the extremities of the ship limit flooding, and prevent the large and dangerous
trims that large amounts of floodwater at the ends of the ship would produce. Additional transverse watertight bulkheads are spaced to permit
the ship to remain afloat after a specific number of adjacent compartments, usually 1, 2, or 3, are flooded. The number of compartments that
can be flooded without causing foundering is the ship’s standard of subdivision or standard of flooding. For example, the FFG-7 Class frigate
shown in Figure 1-45 can remain afloat if any 3 of its 13 major watertight compartments are flooded—it is said to be a 3-compartment ship.
Progressive flooding is defeated by carrying each watertight bulkhead intact from the bottom plating to a height above the expected flooding
water level. Watertight bulkheads are normally carried watertight to a specified deck, called the bulkhead deck. The bulkhead deck on most
designs is the main or weather deck and may be either a continuous or stepped deck. For the FFG-7 Class ship shown in Figure 1-45, the main
deck is the bulkhead deck. Standards of subdivision for Navy and commercial ships are given in Table 1-13.

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Ships are assigned a minimum freeboard based on the reserve buoyancy required to sustain flooding to their standard of subdivision without
foundering. This freeboard is measured from a margin line that represents the highest allowable waterline in a damaged condition. The margin
line is usually established near the bulkhead deck or a designated freeboard deck. Load lines for cargo ships and tankers or limiting draft marks
for warships are marked at a distance below the margin line corresponding to the required freeboard. If the load line or limiting draft mark is
not immersed before damage, and flooding is equal to or less than the standard of subdivision, the ship will remain afloat at a waterline at or
below the margin line after damage. Salvors may not be able to restore a ship’s required minimum freeboard; reduced freeboard must be
recognized as a loss of reserve buoyancy and damage resistance. This is particularly important if the casualty is to be towed some distance to
safe haven. In such a case, a salvage engineer may wish to calculate the standard of subdivision for the ship in its actual condition.
1-10.9.3 Likely Damage. Certain features
are incorporated into ships to isolate
common or likely forms of damage.
Because the ends of the ship are more
vulnerable to damage from collision or
grounding, a collision bulkhead is required
at about five percent of the ship’s length
from the bow, along with an afterpeak
bulkhead near the stern, enclosing the
propeller shaft penetration into the hull. A
second collision bulkhead may be required
in large ships. Watertight double bottoms
are required in some classes of vessels to
provide protection against grounding and Figure 1-44. Effects of a Sill.
limited protection against underwater
weapons. Machinery spaces are segregated
from the rest of the ship by watertight bulk- MAIN DECK SECOND DECK (DC dk)
heads that (1) protect the ship from intense (BULKHEAD DECK)
machinery space fires, and (2) protect vital
equipment located in the machinery spaces
from flooding in other parts of the ship.
Sheer can prevent or delay progressive
flooding through deck openings when trim
is extreme, as shown in Figure 1-46. AP 368 328 292 250 212 180 140 100 84 64 32 20 FP

Wing tanks, common in tankers, ore

carriers, and large combatants, limit flood-
Figure 1-45. FFG-7 Transverse Subdivision.
ing from damage to the sides. The effect
of offcenter flooding can be mitigated by
constructing the wing tanks with volumes
that are small compared to the center tanks
or holds, or by keeping wing tanks filled at
least to the waterline. A system of wing
tanks combined with a double bottom
produces, in effect, a double hull.
1-10.9.4 Structural Damage. Structural SHIP WITHOUT SHEER
failure is resisted by the use of materials of
consistent and known strength, and by build-
ing in reserve strength. Ships’ scantlings are
selected to result in bending stresses on the
order of 15,000 to 22,000 pounds per square
inch, considerably less than the yield stress
of shipbuilding steels (32,000 psi or greater).
This stress level is often contingent on SHIP WITH SHEER TRIMMED TO SAME DEGREE
specified loading sequences and conditions,
particularly in very large tankers or bulk
carriers. Hull strength is addressed in greater Figure 1-46. Sheer Defeating Progressive Flooding.
detail in Paragraph 1-11.
1-10.9.5 Additional Features of Naval Ships. Both naval and merchant ships use the damage-resistant features previously described. Naval ships,
intended to go "in harm’s way," incorporate additional damage-resistant features in their construction. Naval ships will usually have more extensive
subdivision than merchant vessels, although some naval auxiliaries are built to classification society standards. Combatants are built with a much
greater degree of subdivision and greater reserve of strength than auxiliaries or merchant ships of the same size. Naval vessels often have multiple
machinery spaces segregated by watertight bulkheads, as well as auxiliary machinery spaces located remotely from the main machinery rooms.
Additional vital spaces, such as ship control stations or weapons spaces, are designated and protected by watertight subdivision. In all commissioned
vessels of the U.S. Navy, a damage control (DC) deck is designated. The DC deck, on which damage control equipment and stations are located,
is considered a vital space and is made watertight where feasible. Remote operators for certain vital piping and electrical systems are located on
the DC deck. The damage control deck is located high in the ship and is usually covered; fore and aft access is provided through watertight openings
in the main transverse bulkheads. Doors and nonwatertight fittings in main transverse bulkheads are not permitted below the DC deck. Doors
through transverse bulkheads into shaft alleys are not allowed; no penetrations are allowed through the collision bulkhead. In addition to armored
decks and side armor, large combatants, such as aircraft carriers and battleships, are fitted with underwater defense systems (also called side protective
or torpedo protection systems) consisting of layered wing and bottom tanks. These are alternately empty or liquid-filled to absorb the shock of
underwater explosions. The tank boundaries form a series of barriers that must be breached before major spaces are flooded.

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1-11 SHIP STRENGTH

1-11.1 Stresses in Ships. Ships, like all

structures, are subject to load-induced stress
and the resulting strains. Simple beam
theory is employed to predict ship
responses to various conditions of loading
by treating assuming the ship’s structure as PRIMARY
a built-up box girder bearing an distributed
load (weight of the ship and contents) and
supported by a distributed reaction
(buoyancy). Of principal concern are the
compound bending and shear stresses
resulting from the ship’s loading and wave
action. Torsional stresses are also
SECONDARY
important, and can be severely aggravated
by grounding in large ships. Stresses may
be divided into three groups:

• Primary or Structural –
Affecting the hull girder. TERTIARY

• Secondary or Local –
Affecting major substructures Figure 1-47. Deflections from Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Stresses.
or definable areas of the hull,
such as a hold or bulkhead.

• Tertiary – Very localized,

affecting small areas of BUOYANCY
plating or single stiffeners.

The distinctions among primary, secondary,

WEIGHT
and tertiary stresses are illustrated by the
character of the accompanying structural
deflections, as shown in Figure 1-47. The
total stress on any portion of structure is
the sum of primary, secondary and tertiary
stresses that may tend to either reinforce or
cancel one another.

1-11.1.1 Structural Stresses. The

principal structural stresses are caused by HOGGING
the following conditions:

• Weight and Buoyancy Distri- WEIGHT

bution. Differences in buoy-
ancy and weight distribution BUOYANCY
cause longitudinal bending
stresses and accompanying
shear stresses. An excess of
buoyancy in the midships
region with an excess of
weight near the ends of the
ship places the deck in ten-
sion and the keel in compres-
sion. The resulting convex
deflection is called hog or
hogging. An excess of SAGGING
weight in the midships region
and excess buoyancy near the Figure 1-48. Hull Girder Bending.
ends places the deck in com-
pression and the keel in ten-
sion. The concave deflection is called sag, or sagging. Long waves can impose hogging or sagging conditions as shown in Figure
1-48. Bending stresses are resisted by the longitudinal strength members, particularly those of the strength deck, sheer strake and
bottom. Bending stresses are normally greatest in the midships region of an intact ship, while maximum shear stresses occur in
the quarter length regions.

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• Water Pressure. The dis-

tributed force of buoyancy, as
water pressure, is resisted by
the side and bottom plating
WATER PRESSURE
stiffened by a network of
frames, floors, longitudinals,
etc. All weight loads are
ultimately transmitted through
the ship structure to be borne
by water pressure. The dif-
ferences in weight and water
pressure distribution produce
varying loads as shown in
Figure 1-49.

• Racking. Transverse waves

alter the water pressure dis- WEIGHT LOADS
tribution around the ship, as
shown in Figure 1-50. The
unequal pressure distribution
tends to bend side plating and
transverse frames about a
horizontal longitudinal axis.
The transverse distortion is
called racking and is resisted
by shear stresses in the ship’s
structure. Racking stresses DEFLECTION
are highest on the corners of (EXAGGERATED)
a ship’s cross section.
Racking is resisted by trans-
verse bulkheads and frame
ring, particularly the corner
brackets.

• Drydocking. Ships supported

Figure 1-49. Water Pressure.
by a single line of drydock
keel blocks will hog trans-
versely. A cellular double
bottom stiffens the hull DEFLECTION
against such hog, but ad- (EXAGGERATED)
ditional lines of side blocks
WATER
are more effective. PRESSURE

• Stranding. Stranding WAVE

PROFILE
changes the bending stress
distribution in the hull girder
by altering the buoyancy dis-
tribution and introducing con-
centrated loading along the
bottom. Point loads similar
to those caused by docking
blocks, but naturally much
less predictable, result if the
ship strands on uneven or
rocky ground. Large ships
may sag transversely if
stranded over a narrow width
near the centerline. Figure 1-50. Racking.

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1-11.1.2 Local Stresses. Secondary and tertiary stresses result from localized loads such as the following:
• Panting. Panting is an oscillatory motion of the shell plating, principally near the bow and stern of a ship, caused by uneven water
pressure as the ship passes through waves. The fore-end (and sometimes the after) structure is reinforced with a system of panting
beams, panting stringers, panting frames, breasthooks, and deep floors to withstand panting loads.
• Pounding or slamming. Pounding occurs when the bows of a pitching ship clear the water and come down heavily. Pounding
is most severe in full-bowed ships in the bottom structure in the forward quarter length of the ship. In this pounding region,
plating and bottom stiffeners are often heavier and/or more closely spaced than in the rest of the ship.
• Local Loads. Local strengthening enables the ship structure to carry loads caused by large local weights, such as machinery or
cargo. Similar measures are used to strengthen structure in way of fittings that transmit high loads, such as padeyes, winch
mounts, and kingpost foundations. The geometry of portions of the hull or fittings may cause stress raisers, requiring local
reinforcement to increase load-carrying capacity. Figure 1-51 shows some forms of local reinforcement.
• Vibration. Vibration from engines, propellers, etc., causes stresses in various parts of the ship. Vibration-induced stresses are
resisted by local stiffening of areas in way of vibration sources.
1-11.1.3 Weapons Effects. Impact and
shock effects of airborne, underwater, and
contact explosions can cause severe and not
wholly predictable loads on ship structure.
Warships are constructed with this kind of
loading in mind, and are therefore strength-
ened to withstand blast and impact loads
over much of their structure. The exact
nature of this strengthening varies from
ship to ship but generally consists of closer FREE-EDGE STIFFENING
stiffener and bulkhead spacing than would
be found in an equivalent-sized merchant
ship or auxiliary. Weapons effects are
discussed in greater detail in the U.S. Navy FACE STRAP
Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 3 (S0300-
A6-MAN-030).
1-11.2 Longitudinal Bending Stress. The
magnitude of the longitudinal bending
stresses in the hull girder is a function of the
total bending moment, cross-sectional area
distribution. The bending moment is a PLATE STIFFENING
function of the shear force distribution along
the ship’s length, which is in turn a function
of the ship’s load distribution. The hull is TRIPPING
assumed to be a statically loaded beam that BRACKETS
behaves in accordance with the theory of
flexure (see Paragraph 2-3). The downward
loads on the beam are the weights of the GUSSET
component parts of the ship and any weights
carried on the ship. Upward loads are the
forces of buoyancy (and ground reaction or
block reaction for stranded, beached, or dry
docked ships). Bending moment is
calculated by a double integration of the DOUBLER PLATE
static load curve. The steps in the
longitudinal stress calculation are: MACHINERY DEEP
FOUNDATION FRAME
• Determine longitudinal BILGE
weight and buoyancy KEEL
distributions.
• Statically balance the ship on
still water or a wave.
• Develop the longitudinal load
Figure 1-51. Local Strengthening.
distribution or curve.
• Integrate the load curve to give shear forces.
• Integrate the shear curve to give bending moments.
• Determine which structure in sections of interest is effective.
• Determine moment of inertia, section modulus and location of the neutral axis for sections of interest.
• Calculate bending and shear stresses in sections of interest.

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These steps are examined separately in the following paragraphs. Amplifying information can be found in the Naval Ship Engineering Center
Design Data Sheet DDS 100-6, or any good naval architecture text. Examples 1-5, F-3, and F-5 demonstrate longitudinal strength calculations.

1-11.2.1 Load Curve. The load on the hull girder at any point is the difference between the buoyant force and weight at that point. This is
graphically represented by superimposing buoyancy and weight curves. The areas under the curves represent total buoyancy and total weight.
For a floating ship, the two areas must be equal, with their geometric centers in vertical line. Figure 1-61 shows the load curve developed for
Example 1-5. For the shear and bending moment integrations to close properly, the ship must be statically balanced; that is, weight and
buoyancy, as calculated by integration of the respective curves, should be within 0.5 percent, and LCB and LCG should be within one foot of
each other.

It is important to adopt sign conventions for the directions of forces and distances, and carry them through subsequent calculations. The
calculations in this handbook follow the intuitive convention that downward forces (weight) are negative and upward forces (buoyancy) are
positive, resulting in load curves that are predominantly positive over the middle portion for hogging hulls, and predominantly positive at the
ends for sagging hulls.

1-11.2.2 Buoyancy Curve. The magnitude of the buoyant force at any point is a function of the cross-sectional area below the water line and
the water density. The buoyancy curve will therefore follow the curve of areas. Areas of sections are most easily obtained from Bonjean’s
Curves, shown in Figure FO-3 and described in Paragraph 1-3.11. Lines drawings, offsets, or general plans can also be used to determine
sectional areas by numerical integration. The still water buoyancy curve is developed by dividing sectional areas by 35 (cubic feet per long
ton of seawater) to convert to unit buoyancy (tons per foot) and plotting these values as ordinates.

A buoyancy curve based on ordinates taken from Bonjean’s Curves will not include appendage buoyancy. If known, appendage buoyancies
can be added to the basic curve as rectangles or trapezoids. When appendage buoyancy is unknown, a simpler and generally adequate solution
is to assume that an appropriate appendage allowance (a fraction of full-load displacement) is distributed over the length of the ship. Final buoy-
ancy ordinates are determined by an appendage allowance adjusted for the ship’s condition, i.e., the appendage allowance divided by actual dis-
placement. Buoyancy ordinates multiplied by the adjusted appendage allowance plus one give adjusted buoyancy ordinates. Integrating the
adjusted buoyancy ordinates should give a correct total buoyancy equal to total weight. Appendage allowances are discussed in Paragraph
1-4.10.2.

As part of the regression analysis described

in Paragraph 1-7, Porricelli, Boyd, and
Schlieffer developed a method of
approximating the buoyancy curve for y3 y3
merchant and auxiliary hulls with a series
of trapezoids. The method is reasonably
accurate for full-bodied ships (CB > 0.6). y4
The ship is first divided into three
segments: the parallel midbody (pmb), the y2
y5
forebody (fb), and the afterbody (ab). The
forebody and afterbody are then divided y1
into two sections each. A uniform
buoyancy distribution is assumed for the b5 b4 b3 b2 b1
parallel midbody and represented by a Lab L pmb Lfb
rectangle. Ordinates are plotted at the AP FP
forward and after perpendiculars and the L pmb = (1.74CB - 1.002)L b1 = (0.61 - 0.615 CB)L y1 = 0.04y3
boundaries of the sections of the hull and
connected by straight lines to form the Lfb = (1.186 - 1.17CB)L b2 = Lfb - b1 y2 = CB y3
buoyancy curve. Buoyancy of the parallel Lab = L - Lpmb - Lfb b3 = Lpmb y3 = Bpmb /Lpmb
midbody (Bpmb), lengths of sections (Ln, bn)
Lpmb B Tm Cm b4 = Lab - b5 y4 = CB y3
and heights of ordinates (yn) are calculated
B pmb =
as shown in Figure 1-52. 35 b = 0.2L
5 y5 = 0.08y3

To facilitate summing weight and buoyancy

curves to develop the load curve, the Figure 1-52. Approximate Buoyancy Curve for Full-Bodied Ship.
buoyancy curve is often stepped, that is,
approximated by a series of horizontal segments at a height corresponding to the mean buoyancy ordinate for that segment. The procedure for
stepping a curve is described in Paragraph 1-4.9. It is not necessary for the buoyancy curve to have the same number of segments as the weight
curve, although it is convenient for all of the bounding stations for the curve with fewer segments to coincide with stations on the other curve.
The load curve resulting when the two curves are summed will have the same number of segments as the curve with the most segments.

1-11.2.3 Weight Curve. Weight distribution tables or curves are often difficult to obtain, even though they are developed during the design
of the hull girder. For U.S. Navy ships, a Longitudinal Strength and Inertia Sections drawing is prepared, showing weight distribution, usually
for full load. A portion of the longitudinal strength drawing for FFG-7 Class ships is reproduced in Figure FO-4. The complete drawing in-
cludes section scantlings, similar to Figure 1-58, for a number of stations along the ship’s length. Format and content of longitudinal strength
drawings for Navy ships are more completely described in Appendix B.

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Weight distributions for Navy ships are tabulated or drawn for 20 standard ship segments between perpendiculars, plus one segment forward
of the forward perpendicular and one aft of the after perpendicular (22 segments). The segments forward and aft of the perpendiculars extend
from the perpendiculars to the ends of the ship and are not necessarily the same length as the segments between perpendiculars. Segments are
identified by the stations that bound them, numbered from 0 at the forward perpendicular to 20 at the after perpendicular. Weight distribution
is assumed to be uniform within each segment, producing a stepped curve. For cargo ships, tankers, etc., where loading may vary by
compartment, it may be more convenient to segment the ship by compartments. Weight distributions for a number of Navy ships are given in
Appendix B.

The weight curve from a longitudinal strength drawing or other source must be corrected for the ship’s actual weight distribution, including any
major alterations (SHIPALTS). Often this information is not available and weight change estimates must be made until the weight distribution
sums to the known ship displacement. If detailed weight curves are not available, weight distribution can be estimated by one of the methods
described in Paragraph 1-11.13.

1-11.2.4 Shear and Bending Moment Curves. A fundamental principle of beam theory is that at any point in an elastic beam:

dS d 2M
P = =
dx dx 2
S = ⌠ Pdx and M = ⌠ Sdx = ⌠ ⌠ Pdx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡⌡

where:

P = load
S = shear
M = bending moment

Vertical shear at any section is the sum of

the vertical forces to one side of the W >B
section; the shear curve is therefore SAGGING SHIP
developed by integrating the load curve (the
sum of the weight and buoyancy curves) B >W B >W
along its length, starting from either end of S = 0, M AT
LOAD, P
the ship. The total positive area under the LOCAL MAX
shear curve should equal the total negative
area for static equilibrium. Shear is zero at
the ends of the ship; for most ships, shear AP FP
will be maximum near the quarter-lengths
and change signs near midships.

Bending moment at any section is the sum SHEAR, S

of force moments about the section. The
bending moment curve is developed by P AT MAX, MOMENT, M P = 0, S = LOCAL
integrating the shear curve along its length. S AT INFLECTION MAX/MIN, M AT
Bending moment is zero at the ends of the INFLECTION
ship, and is maximum where shear changes
sign. The load and shear curves cannot be
defined mathematically, so graphical or
numerical methods are used to perform the
integrations, as shown in Paragraph 1-4 and AP FP
Appendix F. Several important relation-
ships between the load, shear and bending
moment curves, illustrated in Figure 1-53,
act as checks on the completed curves:
B >W B >W

• When P is 0, S is a maximum or HOGGING SHIP

minimum and M is at an
inflection point. W >B

• When P is a maximum, S is at an Figure 1-53. Load, Shear, Bending Moment Curve Relations and Conventions.
inflection point.

• When S is 0, M is a maximum or minimum.

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The load and shear curves can be integrated from either end. Each integration should close to zero at the end opposite the beginning. Small
errors in closing are unavoidable if the areas under the weight and buoyancy curve are not precisely equal, and LCG and LCB are not coincident.
It is sometimes useful to integrate each curve twice, once in each direction, and compare the results. If the integrations close to zero, integrating
in the opposite direction will reverse the sign of the ordinate at each station, but will not change the magnitude. If the integrations do not close
precisely, integrating in the opposite direction will change the magnitude of the shear and moment ordinates at each station, and is a means of
estimating the error range of the calculated values. If the shear curve does not close, the sections of maximum shear and bending moment will
also shift somewhat when integrating in the opposite direction. For small errors in closing, the magnitude of the shear and bending moment
ordinates in the middle portion of the curve will be fairly reliable, but the ordinates near the ends of the ship should not be trusted.

A useful convention is to integrate the load curve from left to right (from aft forward) to develop the shear curve, and the shear curve from right
to left (from forward aft) to develop the moment curve. Following this convention, along with taking downward forces as negative, will result
in shear and moment curves with the features shown in Figure 1-53:

• For sagging hulls:

(1) Positive shear on the left side of the plot (aft).

(2) Negative shear on the right side of the plot (forward).

(3) Negative (convex downwards) bending moment.

• For hogging hulls:

(1) Negative shear on the left side of the plot (aft).

(2) Positive shear on the right side of the plot (forward).

(3) Positive (convex upwards) bending moment.

This convention is useful because the bending moment curves superficially resemble a sagging or hogging hull, as appropriate. Other
conventions may be encountered in ship design data. Shear curves that are the mirror image of the convention described above are common
and result when both shear and moment integrations are run in the same direction. U.S. Navy longitudinal strength drawings disregard the sign
of bending moments and shear forces and show all curves above the axis to save space. Example 1-5 calculates still water bending moment
and shear curves for an FFG-7 hull; the curves are illustrated in Figures 1-62.

1-11.3 Variations in Loading. Any change in weight or buoyancy distribution will alter the load curve.

1-11.3.1 Changes in Weight Distribution. Changes in weight distribution generally result from deliberate actions, such as taking on or
discharging cargo, ballasting, launching or recovering aircraft and boats, use of fuels or other consumables, or shifting weights. Weight
distribution can also be changed in a casualty by:

• Flooding.

• Major fires which consume flammable materials.

• Spilled cargo.

• Loss of structure or fittings.

Weight additions or removals change total weight, and therefore affect total buoyancy and buoyancy distribution. Weight shifts that significantly
alter trim also affect the buoyancy distribution.

Buoyancy distribution can change without an accompanying change in weight distribution. Such changes result from:

• Waves.

• Grounding.

• Drydocking.

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1-11.3.2 Wave-induced Buoyancy

Distribution. In all but the stillest water, STILL WATERLINE
buoyancy distribution changes constantly in
proportion to the variations in draft along
the ship’s length as successive wave trains
pass. A wave-induced buoyancy curve is
developed by superimposing a wave profile,
or series of profiles, on the ship profile, DECREASED BUOYANCY
instead of using a horizontal waterline, to WAVE PROFILE
determine drafts at stations. An infinite INCREASED BUOYANCY
number of waves are possible; in practice,
it is usually sufficient to examine only
worst-case situations. Maximum midships
bending moments result from the two
situations shown in Figure 1-48. Ships are
designed to carry the stresses imposed by
these conditions, based on a trochoidal or
sinusoidal wave form with length equal to
the ship’s length (L). Standard wave
SECTIONAL AREAS WAVE PROFILE
heights were formerly taken as L/20, and BONJEAN’S CURVES
then 1.1√L as ship size increased, but with
steady increases in ship length, these
formulae yield unrealistically large waves. Figure 1-54. Wave-Induced Buoyancy.
More recent ABS construction rules specify
different formulae for different ranges of
length, although Navy design practice still
uses the 1.1√L wave. Although artificial,
these assumed conditions have proven R
adequate for design work; they are used h r
here to illustrate the procedures for
analyzing wave-induced stresses in ships.
The salvage engineer who finds it necessary L
to evaluate the strength of a casualty
exposed to wave action should base his
worst cases on observed or expected waves r2 EQUAL AREAS
2R
and the actual loading and structural
condition of the casualty.
Total bending moment is sometimes spoken
of as the sum of a still water bending
moment and a wave-induced bending
LINE OF
moment. The total bending moment is CENTERS
simply the bending moment resulting from
r2
the load distribution at that instant. The 2R
bending moment can be evaluated by
adding to or subtracting from the still water
buoyancy curve or by starting from scratch STILL
by superimposing a wave profile over the WATER-
Bonjean’s curves to develop the buoyancy LINE
curve, as shown in Figure 1-54. As before, INITIAL PLACEMENT OF WAVE ON HULL PROFILE
the area under the buoyancy curve must
equal the area under the weight curve.
Figure 1-55. Trochoidial Wave Form.
To ensure that shear and bending moment
integrations close, the ship must be
statically balanced on the wave; that is, the waterline must be adjusted until weight equals buoyancy and the center of buoyancy is in vertical
line with the center of gravity. When using Bonjean’s Curves in the profile format, this is most easily accomplished by plotting the wave profile
to the same vertical and horizontal scales as the Bonjean’s Curves on a piece of tracing paper. The wave profile is laid over the Bonjean’s
Curves, with either the crest or trough at the midship station, as appropriate. Section areas are picked off as ordinates to a trial buoyancy curve,
which is integrated to determine buoyancy and LCB. If the first guess does not match buoyancy and weight within limits, successive calculations
are made, moving the wave up and down and trimming it until a position is found where buoyancy is within one percent of weight, and LCB
is within one foot of LCG. When the final position of the ship on the wave is determined, the section areas are converted to unit buoyancies
to plot a precise buoyancy curve that is used to determine the mean unit buoyancy over each segment of the ship’s length. Buoyancy and weight
curves are then summed to calculate the load curve; shear and bending moment integrations are conducted as for the still water condition. When
the rosette format Bonjean’s Curves are used, drafts at each station must be determined by interpolation so the section areas can be read from
the curves. Alternatively, rosette format curves can be traced onto a profile of the ship. The horizontal scale of the ship profile (not the same
as the Bonjean’s Curve area scale) is not critical, but should not be more than twice the vertical scale; if the horizontal scale is too great, portions
of the wave profile will be steep enough that small errors in plotting will cause significant errors in reading sectional areas.

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A trochoid is the curve traced by a point inside a circle as the circle rolls along a horizontal line, as shown in Figure 1-55. Coordinates for the
trochoidal wave form are developed from the relationships:
φ sinφ
x = L + h
360 2

1 cosφ
y = h
2

The relationships are not linear, so there is no fixed φ interval that will match the x interval to station spacing; x and y coordinates are
determined for values of φ from 0 to 360 at convenient increments, such as 30 degrees. Because the ordinates to the trochoidal wave do not
fall on Bonjean’s stations, it is important to plot the curve carefully to minimize error. The area under a sagging trochoid is less than the length
multiplied by half the height, so the line of centers (see Figure 1-55) must be placed above the still water line for buoyancy to equal ship’s
weight (for a hogging wave, the line is placed below the still waterline). The area under a trochoid is equal to that of a rectangle with the same
length and an upper boundary formed by a line r2/2R below the line of centers. Since the circle describing the trochoid makes one revolution
in the ship’s length, L = 2πR, and 2R = L/π. For an L/20 wave, r = L/40, and:

 L 2
 
r 2
 40  L2 π πL  L 
= = = = 0.00196 L  wave 
2R L 1,600 L 1,600  20 
π

As an initial estimate, the line of centers of the trochoidal wave should be placed 0.00196L above the still waterline.

√L, L will cancel out of the ratio, giving no solution. For a 1.1
If r is expressed as 0.55 √L wave, r is expressed as h/2, and:

h 2
 
r2
2 πh 2 0.785 h 2
= = = 1.1 L wave
2R L 4L L
π

For manual calculations, it is often simpler to use sinusoidal waves (y = Lsinφ), as they are not horizontal-scale dependent. The full wave form
is developed in 180 degrees, and ordinates calculated at even increments of φ are plotted at evenly spaced stations. If increments of φ are set
equal to 180 divided by the number of segments, the wave ordinate stations correspond to the Bonjean’s curve stations, simplifying determination
of section areas. Sinusoidal waves are somewhat steeper than trochoidal waves. For fine-lined ships, maximum hogging moments will be lower
and maximum sagging moments higher than moments based on trochoidal waves of the same length and height. For full-bodied ships, both
hogging and sagging moments will be higher when based on sinusoidal waves. For a ship with block coefficient of 0.46, the standard 1.1 √L
sine wave bending moment is 6 percent less than trochoidal for hogging and 2 percent higher for sagging. For a block coefficient of 1.0, the
standard sine wave bending moment is 11 percent higher for hogging and 9 percent higher for sagging.

1-11.4 Curve Scales. It is sometimes convenient to draw the load, shear, and bending moment curves on the same plan. To standardize
drawing size and simplify manual integration, the U. S. Navy has adopted the following scaling criteria for longitudinal strength drawings like
that shown in Figure FO-4.

• Base length for all curves is 20 units. Base length corresponds to the length between perpendiculars, so the horizontal scale is
one unit = L/20 feet.

• The mean heights of the weight and buoyancy curves are three units for the full load condition. Vertical scale for weight,
buoyancy, and load curves is one unit = W/3L tons per foot of length.

• One square unit of area under the weight, buoyancy, or load curves represents L/20 × W/3L = W/60 tons.

• The shear curve is drawn so that one unit of ordinate represents two square units of area under the load curve; the vertical shear
scale is one unit = W/30 tons.

• One square unit of area under the shear curve represents L/20 × W/30 = WL/600 foot-tons.

• The bending moment curve is drawn so that one unit of ordinate represents three square units under the shear curve; the vertical
moment scale is one unit = WL/200 foot-tons.

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Navy drawings use one inch as the base unit, but any convenient unit or multiple can be used. When there is no requirement to plot curves
on the same plan, it is more convenient to make all the integration calculations in the base units without scale conversions.

1-11.5 Section Modulus. From beam

theory, the bending stress (σ) at any point
is given by: A A
LONGITUDINAL BULKHEAD
My BELOW
σ =
I DECK
OPENING
where:
1:4 SLOPE
M = bending moment at the
section in question
y = vertical distance from the TRANSVERSE BULKHEAD BELOW
neutral axis to the fiber
(element) in question PLAN VIEW
I = moment of inertia of the
section in question about the SHADOW SHADOW
neutral axis IN DECK IN DECK
DECK OPENING
This relationship shows that the maximum
tensile and compressive stresses will occur SHADOW IN
in the beam elements furthest from the EFFECTIVE BULKHEAD
neutral axis. The distance from the neutral BULKHEAD STRENGTH DECKS
axis to the outer fibers is designated c. The
term I/c is sometimes calculated separately
and called the section modulus (Z or SM). 1:4 SLOPE BRACKET
Substituting: NONSTRENGTH DECK

Mc M
σmax = =
I Z TRANSVERSE BULKHEAD

If, as is common, bending moment is ex- SECTION A-A

pressed in foot-tons, moment of inertia in
in2-ft2, and distances from the neutral axis
in feet, the calculation yields bending stress Figure 1-56. Ineffective Shadow Zones at Discontinuities.
in long tons per square inch. It is best to
convert tons per square inch to pounds per square inch for comparison with material strengths (normally tabulated in psi) and to avoid confusion
between long, short, and metric tons.

1-11.5.1 Effective Structure. Calculating the moment of inertia for a simple girder is straightforward; the relatively complex cross section
of a ship is another matter. Judgement must be used to determine which elements of the ship’s structure effectively contribute to longitudinal
strength. Elements that are subject to buckling, tripping and other forms of load shirking, or that are inadequately joined to the overall structure,
cannot be assumed to contribute to longitudinal strength. As load shirking by panels with a width-to-thickness ratio greater than 70 is likely,
contribution of unsupported plating panels should be limited to 70 times the thickness. Material not structurally continuous for at least 40 percent
of the length of the ship about the section being examined is assumed to be ineffective.

Only the net cross-sectional area of longitudinally continuous components of longitudinal strength members, excluding openings and ineffective
shadow areas forward and aft of openings or other discontinuities, are included when calculating the moment of inertia. The shadow area of
an opening is the area forward and aft of the opening between converging lines drawn tangent to the radiused corners at a slope of one transverse
unit to four longitudinal units, as shown in Figure 1-56. All structures, including longitudinal framing and other connected structures within
this area, are considered ineffective. For openings caused by damage or with sharp corners, lines bounding shadow areas should be drawn
tangent to points outside the area of wrinkled or upset plating, or at a distance equal to 30 times the plating thickness from the edge of the
opening, whichever is greater. Shadow areas adjacent to discontinuities such as the ends of longitudinal bulkheads, strength decks, and inner
bottoms, are bounded by lines with a 1:4 slope, as shown in Figure 1-56.

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1-11.5.2 Calculating Section Modulus. After the elements to be included have been selected, moment of inertia, I, is calculated by summing
second moments of area (ay2) of individual elements about an arbitrary axis. It is most convenient to sum moments about the keel (some
authorities prefer to use an assumed neutral axis). Moments of inertia (i) of elements with significant vertical dimensions are added to the
summed second moments of elemental areas. Moment of inertia about the keel (IK) is then:

IK = (ay 2) (i)

where:

IK = moment of inertia of section about the keel, in2-ft2

a = area of individual section element, in2
y = height of centroid of section element above the keel, ft
ay2 = second moment of area of individual section element, in2-ft
i = moment of inertia of individual section elements, in2-ft2

Measuring areas in square inches and vertical distances from the axis in feet gives second moments of area (moments of inertia) in in2-ft2, rather
than the in4, ft4, cm4, etc., customarily used in other branches of engineering. Moment of inertia of a rectangle is equal to bh3/12, where h is
the height and b the breadth of the rectangle:

bh 3 (bh) h 2 ah 2
i = = =
12 12 12

If area is given in square inches, and height

in feet, the units of moments of inertia of REFERENCE AXIS
individual elements are consistent with the
units of ay2.

Individual moments of inertia for inclined y

or curved plates with significant vertical
dimensions are determined by calculating y
the square of the radius of gyration (k) as h
shown in Figure 1-57. Moment of inertia
can then be calculated from the definition g
of radius of gyration.

i = ak2

To obtain i in in2-ft2, a must be given in

square inches, and k in feet. If the h g
inclined flat-plate section shown in
Figure 1-58 is 5⁄ 8-inch thick, 54 inches h2
k2 = 12 i = ak2
wide, and inclined so that h is 40 inches,
then:

h2 402
k2 = = = 133.33 in2 Figure 1-57. Moment of Inertia for Inclined Plates.
12 12
133.33
= = 0.926 ft2
144

 5
i = a k 2 = 54 ×  (0.926) = 31.25 in2 ft2
 8
Since the neutral axis of the ship’s section passes through the centroid of the section, height of the neutral axis above the keel is found by
dividing the first moment of areas by the sum of areas of the section. The moment of inertia about the neutral axis is found by the parallel axis
theorem:
INA = IK Ad 2

where:

INA = moment of inertia about the neutral axis, in2-ft2

IK = moment of inertia about the keel, in2-ft2 = Σ(ay2) + Σ(i)
A = total area of individual section elements, in2 = Σ(a)
d = height of the neutral axis above the keel, ft = Σ(ay2)/Σ(a)

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Once INA and height of the neutral axis are known, section modulus (INA/c) is easily calculated. The neutral axis is not usually equidistant from
the top and bottom flanges of the hull girder (strength deck and keel), so each flange has its own value for c and therefore Z. The summations
required to find height of the neutral axis and moment of inertia can be methodically performed in a tabular format. Table 1-14 is a sample
section modulus calculation for the ship section shown in Figure 1-58.

In an intact ship of uniform cross section, maximum bending stress occurs at the location of maximum bending moment. A vessel’s cross section
is not normally uniform throughout its length, but the scantlings at each section are selected by the designer to keep bending stresses within
acceptable limits based on the anticipated bending moment.

5 x 4 x 6.00#T

5 x 5 3/4 x 13.0#T 2’ 7-1/2" x

CL
.500 PL HY-80
SHELL
20.5’ 8’ DOUBLER
5.75’

15.3# 2’ 6"x0.75"
PL HY-80
30 SHELL
SHADOW DOUBLER
25.5# PL HY-80 L 20
30.0’ ABV BL
6 x 6 1/2 x 13.0#T L 19
"E"-20.4 PL
25 HY-80#
L 18
5 x 4 x 6.00#T
7.65# L 17
4 x 4 x 5.00#T

20 SHADOW SHADOW
10.2# PL L 16
21.0’ ABV BL
L 15
6 x 4 x 7#T
L 14
FEET

15 6 x 4 x 8.00#T
L 13
"D"-12.75# PL
L 12
6 x 6 1/2 x 13.0#T
L 11
10 7 x 6 3/4 x 15#T
L 10
18 x 7 1/2 x 50#I-T
L9
8 x 7 x 22.5#T
L8 "C"-15.3# PL HY-80
5
9 x 7 1/2 x 25#T L7
L6
25 x 13 x 162# L5
I-T CVK L4
L3 "B"-20.4# PL
0 BL
L1 L2
2’ 9" x 0.75 PL M.S.
35.7# PL F.K. SHELL DOUBLER
"A"-38.25# PL HY80

NOTE:
I - T SHAPES ARE FORMED FROM W SHAPES BY
CUTS CUTTING LOWER FLANGE FROM WEB, USUALLY
WITH TWO VERTICAL CUTS

Figure 1-58. Frigate Hull Section at Station 10.

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Table 1-14. Section Modulus for FFG-7, Station 10.

Component Dimensions a y ay ay2 h or k* i = ah2/12

(in2) (ft) (in2 ft) (in2 ft2) (ft) or ak2*
(in2 ft2)
Mn Dk Girders, Inbd (7) - T 5 × 4 × 6# 12.39 29.613 366.91 10865.16
Mn Dk Grdrs, Outbd (4) - T 5 × 5.75 × 13# 15.24 26.613 405.58 10793.76
2nd Dk Girders, (10) - T 4 × 4 × 5# 14.80 20.746 307.04 6369.87
Mn Dk Plating, Inbd, less shadow zones (246 - 75) × 0.375 64.13 30.000 1923.75 57712.50
Mn Dk Plating, Outbd 84 × .625 52.50 30.000 1575.00 47250.00
2nd Dk Plating, Inbd, less shadow zones (225 - 90) × .25 25.31 21.000 531.56 11162.81
2nd Dk Pltg, Outbd 51 × .25 12.75 21.000 267.75 5622.00
"E" Strake 93 × .3125 29.06 17.875 519.49 9285.92 7.75 145.45
"D" Strake 162 × .3125 50.63 16.500 835.31 13782.66 12.50 659.18
"C" Strake 84 × .375 31.50 7.000 220.50 1543.50 1.88* 111.33*
"B" Strake 93.25 × .5 46.63 3.000 139.88 419.63 0.42* 8.23*
"A" Strake 96 × .75 72.00 0.875 63.00 55.13 0.26* 4.87*
"E" Doubler, upper 31.5 × .5 15.75 28.000 441.00 12348.00 2.63 9.04
"E" Doubler, lower 30 × .75 22.50 26.500 596.25 15800.63 2.50 11.72
"A" Doubler 33 × .75 24.75 0.500 12.38 6.19
Side Stringers
L20 - T 6 × 6 × 13# 3.82 28.000 106.96 2994.88
L19 - T 6 × 6 × 13# 3.82 26.500 101.25 2682.60
L18 - T 5 × 4 × 6# 1.77 24.500 43.37 1062.44
L17 - T 5 × 4 × 6# 1.77 22.750 40.27 916.09
L16 - T 6 × 4 × 7# 2.08 19.250 40.04 790.77
L15 - T 6 × 4 × 7# 2.08 17.500 36.40 637.00
L14 - T 6 × 4 × 8# 2.36 16.000 37.76 604.16
L13 - T 6 × 4 × 8# 2.36 14.750 34.81 513.45
L12 - T 6 × 6.5 × 13# 3.82 12.500 47.75 596.88
L11 - T 6 × 6.5 × 13# 3.82 11.750 44.89 527.40
L10 - T 6 × 6.5 × 13# 3.82 9.000 34.38 309.42
L9 - T 6 × 6.5 × 13# 3.82 7.500 28.65 214.88
L8 - T 6 × 6.5 × 13# 3.82 6.250 23.88 149.22
Bottom Longitudinals
L7 - T 7 × 6.75 × 15# 4.42 5.500 24.31 133.70
L6 - T 7 × 6.75 × 15# 4.42 4.500 19.89 89.51
L5 - I - T 18 × 7.5 × 50# 10.60 4.25 45.05 191.46 1.33* 18.75*
L4 - T 8 × 7 × 22.5# 6.63 2.750 18.23 50.14
L3 - T 8 × 7 × 22.5# 6.63 2.000 13.26 26.52
L2 - T 9 × 7.5 × 25# 7.33 1.500 11.00 16.49
L1 - T 9 × 7.5 × 25# 7.33 1.000 7.33 7.33
CVK (1/2) I - T 25 × 13 × 162# 16.38 1.500 24.57 36.85 2.08 3.18‡
Flat Keel (1/2) 14 × .875 6.13 0.073 0.45 0.03
Totals 598.95 8989.85 215549.69 971.75

d = Σ(ay)/Σa = 8,985.85/598.95 = 15.01 ft

IK for half-section = Σ(ay 2) + Σi = 215,549.69 + 971.75 = 216,521.44 in2 ft2

INA for half-section = IK - Ad 2 = 216,521.44 - (598.95 × 15.012) = 81,577.95 in2 ft2

INA for full section = 2INA for half-section = 2(81,577.95) = 163,155.90 in2 ft2

cDK = Depth - d = 30 - 15.01 = 14.99 ft

ZDK = INA/c t = 163,155.90/14.99 = 10,884.32 in2 ft
cK = d = 15.01 ft
ZK = INA/c b = 163,155.90/15.01 = 10,869.81 in2 ft

Notes: Areas and centroids for T-shapes taken from AISC Manual for Steel Construction, 8th Edition.
‡ i of vertical web only

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Q = FIRST MOMENT OF AREA OF STRUCTURE OUTSIDE

AXIS WHERE STRESS IS DESIRED

τ
B B
τMAX
NEUTRAL
VERTICAL SHEAR AXIS

b = TOTAL THICKNESS OF HULL PLATING AND CROSS-SECTION

HORIZONTAL SHEAR EFFECTIVE LONGITUDINAL BULKHEADS SHEAR STRESS
DISTRIBUTION
I NA = MOMENT OF INERTIA ABOUT NEUTRAL AXIS

S = SHEAR ON SECTION

SQ
τ = ISQb τMAX = I MAX
NA NAb

Figure 1-59. Shear Stress in the Hull Girder.

1-11.6 Shear Stress. Shear stresses result from vertical shear, caused by the uneven force distribution along the ship’s length, and horizontal
shear, caused by longitudinal bending and racking, as shown in Figure 1-59. The shear force is distributed over the section, each element
contributing to the total. Shear stress distribution can be modeled by the theory of thin-walled sections, as explained in the Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers’ Principles of Naval Architecture, but this method requires the evaluation of indefinite line integrals, and may
be too tedious for field calculations. For salvage calculations, shear stress, τ, along any horizontal axis BB can be adequately approximated by
the expression:
SQ
τ =
INA b

where:

τ = shear stress
S = shear at the section in question
Q = first moment of area about the neutral axis of the area of effective structure above axis BB
= ∑ay
a = area of individual structural element
y = vertical distance of individual structural elements from neutral axis
INA = moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis
b = total width of material resisting shear along axis BB, in

Moment of inertia is obtained as part of the section modulus calculation. The first moment of area, Q, is determined by summing the products
of areas and their distances from the neutral axis in the same manner that Σay about the keel is determined in the section modulus calculation.
The material width, b, is normally twice the shell-plating thickness (to account for both sides), plus the thickness of effective longitudinal
bulkheads, i.e., those that extend from the strength deck to the bottom of the ship and are firmly anchored at both top and bottom. Consistent
units must be used, along with appropriate conversion factors. If moment of inertia and first moment of area are in the customary units of in2-ft2
and in2-ft, a conversion factor of 12 must be applied to obtain stress in units of force per square inch:

SQ
τ =
12 INA b

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

SHEAR
STRESSES

SHEAR
ELEMENT

TRANSVERSE
FRAMES

SHEAR
FORCE, S LONGITUDINALS

SHEAR STRESSES

SHEAR WRINKLES IN PLATE PANELS

Figure 1-60. Shear Stress.

Shear is normally determined in long tons, giving shear stress in long tons per square inch; shear stress, like bending stress, is converted to
pounds per square inch by multiplying by 2,240 pounds per long ton.

Shear stresses act in pairs, are equal on all four faces of a plane element, and are maximum on planes parallel and perpendicular to the shear
force, as shown in Figure 1-60. Because the paired stresses tend to change the angle between faces of an element and lengthen the diagonal,
shear yield in plating panels is evidenced by diagonal wrinkles.

The form of the expression implies that shear stress in any section is zero at the deck and keel and maximum at the neutral axis, where Q is
maximum:
SQmax
τmax =
12INAb
where:

Qmax = first moment of the area above neutral axis about the neutral axis

Although shear stress in the deck is very low, and may approach zero near the centerline, shear stress is not usually zero at the deck edge; the
expression does estimate shear stress in the middle portion of the side shell (where it is normally of greatest concern) accurately.

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

EXAMPLE 1-5

STILL WATER BENDING MOMENT CALCULATION

This example illustrates the detailed still water strength calculations for an Tank Weight lcg fm Comments
FFG-7 Class ship, including steps to reconcile inconsistent data, and to midships
balance weight and buoyancy. Examples 4-5 through 4-12 in the U.S. Navy tons ft
Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010) illustrate simplified
calculations for a simple barge. Clean Ballast: Saltwater ballast tanks listed
5-34-0-W 32.04 161.8 as empty for full load
For an FFG-7 Class ship in the 1/3 Consumed Stores loading condition, 5-116-0-W 53.56 80.0
calculate: 5-328-1-W 19.62 -141.1
5-328-2-W 19.62 -141.1
Deck and keel bending stresses for stations 3 through 17
Maximum shear stress
Oily Ballast: Fuel/ballast tanks, filled with fuel
From the Damage Control Book (DC Book) loading summary (Appendix F): 5-100-3-F 9.47 92.3 for departure full load. Listed weights
5-100-4-F 9.47 92.3 are differences between weights of equal
1/3 Consumed Stores, Sequence 6 Fuel/Ballast: 5-250-1-F 9.9 -59.8 volumes of fuel and seawater
5-250-2-F 9.9 -59.8
Tf = 14' 8"
Miscellaneous Holding Tanks:
Ta = 15' 8"
TLCF = 15.23' (LCF 23.79 ft abaft midships)
5-132-0-F 19.21 68.4 Contaminated Oil Settling Tank
W = 3748.15 tons
5-164-0-F 44.00 36.9 Waste Oil Retention Tank
LCG = 5.53 ft abaft midships 5-170-0-F 16.31 29.0 Oily Waste Water Holding Tank
LCB = 3.06 ft abaft midships 4-170-0-W 11.84 29.7 Sewage Collection, Holding and Transfer
MT1′ = 769.01 ft-tons (CHT) Tank
Full-load Displacement = 3,951.79 tons Total 254.94 tons

From Curves of Form (FO-2) for TLCF = 15.23': W = 4,224.83 - 254.94 = 3,969.89

W = 3,750 tons The difference between the corrected longitudinal strength drawing
LCB = 3.1 ft abaft midships displacement and the full-load departure displacement from the DC Book is:
LCF = 23.8 ft abaft midships
MT1" = 770 ft-tons 3,969.89 - 3,951.79 = 18.1 tons

From Longitudinal Strength and Inertia Sections Drawing (FO-4): or 4.6 percent. The discrepancy cannot be resolved further without
additional data. It is not necessary to constuct a corrected full-load curve
W = 4,224.83 tons that would then be corrected for the actual loading condition. The two
corrections can be made simultaneously.
Scale Factors:
b. Initial Weight Curve for 1/3 Consumed Stores condition (3,748.15 tons)
Length 1 in. = 408/20 = 20.4 ft
Weight Ordinates 1 in. = 4,224.83/3L = 3.45 tons/ft The weight curve is created by deducting the weight differences between the
Weight Area 1 in2 = 4,224.83/60 = 70.41 tons full-load condition and the actual condition from the full-load curve at their
Shear Ordinates 1 in. = 4,224.83/30 = 140.83 tons locations. The corrections to the full-load curve described in Paragraph a.
Shear Area 1 in2 = 4,224.83(408)/600 = 2,872.88 ft-tons above are deducted at the same time. Examination of the DC Book loading
Moment Ordinates 1 in. = 4,224.83(408)/200 = 8,618.65 ft-tons summaries for the full load and 1/3 consumed stores conditions reveals the
following weight differences:
a. Resolution of discrepancies in raw data
Item Full Load 1/3 Consumed Difference lcg from
The data from the DC Book and Curves of Form are in good agreement. Weight Weight Midships
tons tons tons ft
However, at equilibrium, LCB and LCG must be aligned vertically. The
Curves of Form give LCB for the ship with 0 trim. Assuming the same to be
Provisions and Stores
true for the DC Book, the initial trim arm (BGL) is 2.47 feet (5.53 - 3.06).
The resulting trim would be:
Dry provisions 13.95 9.29 4.66 9.0 fwd
Frozen 4.84 3.23 1.61 20.0 fwd
t = W(BGL)/MT1 = 3,748.15(2.47)/769.01 = 12.04 in by the stern Chill 4.79 3.19 1.60 20.0 fwd
Clothing, Small Stores 0.31 0.21 0.10 145.5 fwd
This is consistent with the tabulated drafts. In constructing the weight and Ship Stores 3.49 2.33 1.16 4.0 fwd
buoyancy curves, it will be assumed that the actual centers of gravity and General Stores
buoyancy are on a vertical line 5.53 feet aft of midships.
Deck Gear 2.37 1.58 0.79 81.3 fwd
There is a discrepancy of 273 tons between the full-load weights as given Flammable Liq & Paints 3.77 2.51 1.26 115.5 fwd
by the DC Book (3,951.79 tons) and the longitudinal strength drawing Bosun Storeroom 4.13 2.75 1.38 137.1 fwd
(4,224.83 tons). This discrepancy must be resolved as completely as Medical Stores 1.00 0.67 0.33 -176.0 aft
possible before proceeding. The longitudinal strength drawing is prepared Misc Storerooms 7.46 4.98 2.48 -68.5 aft
for the most extreme loading conditions. It is therefore likely that items of
weight were included that are not included in the operating full-load Potable Water
departure condition described in the DC Book. The most probable items
that would be included for the longitudinal strength drawing but deleted from 5-292-3-W 8.73 8.71 0.02 -94.4 aft
the operational full load are saltwater ballast and waste-holding tanks that 5-308-1-W 7.88 2.37 5.51 115.8 fwd
would be presumed empty for the departure condition. An examination of 5-308-2-W 7.88 2.37 5.51 115.8 fwd
the full-load condition and tank capacity tables from the DC Book reveals the
following potential weights.

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Segment Ordinate Length Area lcg from FP Moment

Item Full Load 1/3 Consumed Difference lcg from y l y×l at midordinate lcg × area
Weight Weight Midships in. in. in2 in. in2
tons tons tons ft
Lubricating Oil -1.4-0 0.15 1.40 0.21 -0.70 -0.15
0-1 0.62 1.00 0.62 0.50 0.31
3-272-2-F 3.50 2.35 1.15 -70.7 aft 1-2 1.37 1.00 1.37 1.50 2.06
3-278-2-F 4.00 2.68 1.32 -77.9 aft 2-3 1.59 1.00 1.59 2.50 3.98
3-286-2-F 2.75 1.84 0.91 -85.0 aft 3-4 2.93 1.00 2.93 3.50 10.26
3-208-4-F 0.95 0.63 0.32 -6.0 aft 4-5 3.12 1.00 3.12 4.50 14.04
3-236-1-F 1.05 0.70 0.35 -33.9 aft 5-6 3.11 1.00 3.11 5.50 17.11
3-236-2-F 1.05 0.70 0.35 -33.9 aft 6-7 3.56 1.00 3.56 6.50 23.14
3-292-8-F 0.92 0.61 0.31 -89.3 aft 7-8 2.86 1.00 2.86 7.50 21.45
8-9 2.01 1.00 2.01 8.50 17.08
Fuel Oil, Storage 9-10 3.76 1.00 3.76 9.50 35.72
10-11 3.76 1.00 3.76 10.50 39.48
5-100-3-F 32.12 0.00 32.12 92.3 fwd 11-12 3.49 1.00 3.49 11.50 40.14
5-100-4-F 32.12 0.00 32.12 92.3 fwd 12-13 1.99 1.00 1.99 12.50 24.88
5-116-1-F 65.69 63.60 2.09 75.5 fwd 13-14 4.21 1.00 4.21 13.50 56.84
5-140-1-F 28.43 22.21 6.22 51.8 fwd 14-15 3.55 1.00 3.55 14.50 51.48
15-16 2.57 1.00 2.57 15.50 39.84
5-250-1-F 33.60 0.00 33.60 -59.8 aft
16-17 2.40 1.00 2.40 16.50 39.60
5-250-1-F 33.60 0.00 33.60 -59.8 aft
17-18 1.88 1.00 1.88 17.50 32.90
18-19 2.35 1.00 2.35 18.50 43.48
Fuel Oil, Service
19-20 1.95 1.00 1.95 19.50 38.03
20-20.6 0.49 0.60 0.29 20.30 5.97
5-204-2-F 46.47 23.18 23.29 -4.0 aft
3-240-2-F 2.54 0.53 2.01 -40.9 aft Totals 53.58 557.59
3-292-6-F 1.21 0.25 0.96 -89.3 aft
5-201-3-F 1.33 0.28 1.05 1.7 fwd W = area × scale factor = 53.58(70.41) = 3772.85 tons
centroid = moment/area = 557.59/53.58 = 10.41 in fm FP
JP-5 LCG = centroid × scale factor = 10.41(20.4) = 212.28 ft fm FP
= 212.28 - 204 = 8.28 ft aft of midships
5-344-0-J 29.81 8.54 21.27 -150.9 aft
LCG of the curve is more than one foot from the known LCG (5.53 ft aft of
Miscellaneous Tanks midships), so the curve must be adjusted to move the LCG forward. The
initial buoyancy curve is developed for comparison before correcting the
5-132-0-F 0.00 9.61 -9.61 68.4 fwd weight curve.
5-170-0-F 0.00 4.08 -4.08 29.0 fwd
5-164-0-F 0.00 2.12 -2.12 37.0 fwd c. Initial Buoyancy Curve for 1/3 Consumed Stores condition (3,748.15
tons)
Total: 203.64
The buoyancy curve ordinates are calculated by determining section areas
W1/3 = 3,951.79 - 203.64 = 3,748.15 for each station from the Bonjean’s Curves (FO-3), dividing the area by 35
to convert to unit buoyancy (tons per foot), and dividing the unit buoyancy
The ordinates for the weight curve are calculated by consolidating the by the scale factor (3.45). Drafts at each station are calculated assuming
differences by weight segments, distributing the weight difference over the no hog or sag. Before calculating ordinates from the section areas, the area
length of the segment, and dividing the distributed weight difference by the curve is integrated to compare total buoyancy and LCB with total weight and
scale factor (3.45). The new weight curve ordinates are calculated in the LCG from the weight curve. The integration is performed by Simpson’s rule
following table: on 21 stations:

Segment Old Weight Dist Load Ordinate New Ordinate Station Draft Ordinate Multiplier f(V) Lever f(M)
Ordinate Difference wt diff/20.4 Difference Old ord - diff T (Section Area)
dl/3.45 y m y×m s s × ƒ(V)
in. tons tons/ft in. in. ft ft2 ft3 ft ft4

-1.4-0 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0 14.67 2 1 2 0 0

0-1 0.62 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.62 1 14.72 55 4 220 1 220
1-2 1.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.37 2 14.77 131 2 262 2 524
2-3 2.05 -32.14 -1.58 -0.46 1.59 3 14.82 205 4 820 3 2,460
3-4 2.95 -1.38 -0.07 -0.02 2.93 4 14.87 270 2 540 4 2,160
4-5 3.29 -12.28 -0.60 -0.17 3.12 5 14.92 326 4 1,304 5 6,520
5-6 4.29 -83.18 -4.08 -1.18 3.11 6 14.97 379 2 758 6 4,548
6-7 4.50 -66.04 -3.24 -0.94 3.56 7 15.02 428 4 1,712 7 1,1984
8 15.07 471 2 942 8 7,536
7-8 2.95 -6.22 -0.30 -0.09 2.86
9 15.12 499 4 1,996 9 1,7964
8-9 2.95 -65.95 -3.23 -0.94 2.01
10 15.17 515 2 1,030 10 10,300
9-10 3.90 -10.08 -0.49 -0.14 3.76
11 15.22 519 4 2,076 11 22,836
10-11 4.10 -23.61 -1.16 -0.34 3.76
12 15.27 500 2 1,000 12 12,000
11-12 3.50 -0.70 -0.03 -0.01 3.49
13 15.32 470 4 1,880 13 24,440
12-13 3.25 -89.01 -4.36 -1.26 1.99 14 15.37 418 2 836 14 11,704
13-14 4.28 -4.95 -0.24 -0.07 4.21 15 15.42 357 4 1,428 15 21,420
14-15 3.58 -2.20 -0.11 -0.03 3.55 16 15.47 285 2 570 16 9,120
15-16 2.57 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.57 17 15.52 215 4 860 17 14,620
16-17 2.96 -39.24 -1.92 -0.56 2.40 18 15.57 153 2 306 18 5,508
17-18 2.18 -21.27 -1.04 -0.30 1.88 19 15.62 95 4 380 19 7,220
18-19 2.35 -0.33 -0.02 0.00 2.35 20 15.67 41 1 41 20 820
19-20 1.95 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.95
20-20.6 0.49 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.49 Sums 18,963 193,904

The weight curve is integrated on these ordinates to determine total area h = 20.4
(weight) and longitudinal position of the centroid (center of gravity). The V = (h/3) × ƒ(V) = (20.4/3)(18,963) = 128,948.4 ft3
integration is carried out in a tabular format: W = V/35 = 128,948.4/35 = 3684.24 tons
LCB = h∑ƒ(M)/∑ƒ(V) = 20.4(193,904)/(18,963) = 208.6 ft fm FP
= 208.6 - 204 = 4.6 ft aft of midships

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

d. Adjusting Weight and Buoyancy Curves LCG of the initial weight curve is moved forward by transferring strips of
uniform thickness from segments in the after half of the curve to the
The weight and buoyancy curves disagree by 88.61 tons on total area. This corresponding segments in the forward half, and by reducing some
error is undesirable, but probably tolerable. The 3.68-foot separation ordinates in the after half to lower total weight slightly. The thickness of the
between the centers of gravity and buoyancy is excessive and must be strips are determined by trial and error. After several iterations, ordinates
corrected. The ordinates of both curves must be adjusted to bring the were determined and integrated as follows:
centers of gravity and buoyancy to within one foot of each other and within
one foot of the point 5.53 feet abaft midships. Segment Ordinate Length Area lcg from FP Moment
y l y×l at lcg × Area
Total buoyancy is corrected first by gradually increasing the area curve
Midordinate
ordinates until the buoyancy (area under the curve divided by 35) equals
in. in. in2 in. in2
total weight. There is a greater probability of error in reading the section
areas for the middle stations because the Bonjean’s Curves for the middle
stations slope more gently than those near the ends. The corrections are -1.4-0 0.15 1.40 0.21 -0.70 -0.15
therefore weighted towards the center of the curve. LCB is then moved aft 0-1 0.66 1.00 0.66 0.50 0.33
by transferring a strip of uniform thickness from the forward half of the curve 1-2 1.41 1.00 1.41 1.50 2.12
to the aft half. The thickness of the strip is determined by trial and error. 2-3 1.63 1.00 1.63 2.50 4.08
After several iterations, the following section areas were determined: 3-4 2.97 1.00 2.97 3.50 10.40
4-5 3.16 1.00 3.16 4.50 14.22
Station Ordinate Multiplier f(V) Lever f(M) 5-6 3.15 1.00 3.15 5.50 17.33
(Section Area) 6-7 3.60 1.00 3.60 6.50 23.40
y m y×m s s × ƒ(V) 7-8 2.90 1.00 2.90 7.50 21.75
ft2 ft3 ft ft4 8-9 2.05 1.00 2.05 8.50 17.42
9-10 3.80 1.00 3.80 9.50 36.10
0 0 1 0 0 0 10-11 3.72 1.00 3.72 10.50 39.06
1 54 4 216 1 216 11-12 3.45 1.00 3.45 11.50 39.68
2 134 2 268 2 536 12-13 1.95 1.00 1.95 12.50 24.38
3 204 4 816 3 2,448 13-14 4.17 1.00 4.17 13.50 56.30
4 274 2 548 4 2,192 14-15 3.51 1.00 3.51 14.50 50.90
5 329 4 1,316 5 6,580
15-16 2.53 1.00 2.53 15.50 39.22
6 379 2 758 6 4,548
16-17 2.36 1.00 2.36 16.50 38.94
7 430 4 1,720 7 12,040
8 475 2 950 8 7,600 17-18 1.82 1.00 1.82 17.50 31.85
9 510 4 2,040 9 18,360 18-19 2.29 1.00 2.29 18.50 42.37
10 524 2 1,048 10 10,480 19-20 1.86 1.00 1.86 19.50 36.27
11 524 4 2,096 11 23,056 20-20.6 0.49 0.60 0.29 20.30 5.97
12 509 2 1,018 12 12,216
13 479 4 1,916 13 24,908 Totals 53.49 551.90
14 429 2 858 14 12,012
15 369 4 1,476 15 22,140 W = area × scale factor = 53.49(70.41) = 3766.51 tons
16 299 2 598 16 9,568 centroid = moment/area = 551.90/53.49 = 10.32 in fm FP
17 229 4 916 17 15,572 LCG = centroid × scale factor = 10.32(20.4) = 210.53 ft fm FP
18 167 2 334 18 6,012 = 210.53 - 204 = 6.53 ft aft of midships
19 109 4 436 19 8,284
20 59 1 59 20 1,180 The adjusted weight and buoyancy curves are shown in Figure 1-61.
Sums 19,387 199,948 e. Shear and Bending Moment Curves
h = 20.4
Ordinates to the load shear and bending moment curves are determined by
V = (h/3) ƒ(V) = (20.4/3)(19,387) = 131,831.6 ft3
a continuous tabular calculation. Curve segments are identified by the
W = V/35 = 131,831.6/35 = 3,766.62 tons
LCB = h∑ƒ(M)/∑ƒ(V) = 20.4(199,948)/(19,387) = 210.4 ft fm FP bounding stations in the first column. The weight ordinates are written in the
= 210.4 - 204 = 6.4 ft abaft midships second column. The mean buoyancy ordinates for each segment are
written in the third column. The load ordinate in the fourth column is found
Now that the total buoyancy and location of LCB are both acceptably near by subtracting the weight ordinate (column 2) from the mean buoyancy
the known values, the buoyancy curve ordinates are calculated: ordinate (column 3). The load curve is integrated along its length by
keeping a running total of the area under the load curve in the fifth column.
Section Unit Buoyancy Ordinate In keeping with the convention of integrating the load curve from left to right,
Station Area B = A/35 B/3.45 the area total is run from bottom to top in this table. The area for each
ft2 tons/ft in. segment is the ordinate multiplied by the segment length (1 inch for all but
the two end segments). The area total is the area up to the forward station
0 0 0.00 0.00 of the segment. The shear ordinates in the sixth column are determined by
1 54 1.54 0.45 dividing the areas in column 5 by two. The shear curve defined by these
2 134 3.83 1.11 ordinates is shown in Figure 1-62.
3 204 5.83 1.69
4 274 7.83 2.27 The shear ordinates are carried into the following table and written in the
5 329 9.40 2.72 second column, next to the appropriate station (column 1). It is necessary
6 379 10.83 3.14 to interpolate the x intercept (station 10.41) to properly integrate the curve
7 430 12.29 3.56
and to determine the section of maximum bending moment. The mean
8 475 13.57 3.93
shear ordinate for each segment is written in the third column. The shear
9 510 14.57 4.22
10 524 14.97 4.34 curve is integrated along its length from forward aft (top to bottom); the
11 524 14.97 4.34 running total is written in the fourth column. The shear areas are divided by
12 509 14.54 4.22 3 and written in the fifth column as the moment ordinates. The resulting
13 479 13.69 3.97 bending moment curve is shown in Figure 1-62. Bending moments for use
14 429 12.26 3.55 in the bending stress calculations are determined by multiplying the moment
15 369 10.54 3.06 ordinate by the scale factor, 8,618.65 ft-tons/in.
16 299 8.54 2.48
17 229 6.54 1.90
18 167 4.77 1.38
19 109 3.11 0.90
20 59 1.69 0.49

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

1 2 3 4 5 6
5 5
Segment Weight Mean Load Cum. Area Shear BUOYANCY
Ordinate Buoyancy Ordinate under Ordinate 4 4
w Ordinate b - w Load Area/2 3 3
in. b in. Curve in.

SCALE IN INCHES
in. in2 2 2
-1.4-0 0.15 0.00 -0.15 -0.02 -0.012 WEIGHT
0-1 0.66 0.23 -0.43 0.19 0.093 1 1
1-2 1.41 0.78 -0.63 0.62 0.308
2-3 1.63 1.40 -0.23 1.25 0.623 0 0
3-4 2.97 1.98 -0.99 1.48 0.738
4-5 3.16 2.49 -0.67 2.47 1.233
5-6 3.15 2.93 -0.22 3.14 1.568 2 2
6-7 3.60 3.35 -0.25 3.36 1.678 LOAD
7-8 2.90 3.75 0.85 3.61 1.803 1 1
8-9 2.05 4.07 2.02 2.76 1.378
9-10 3.80 4.28 0.48 0.74 0.368 0 0
10-11 3.72 4.34 0.62 0.26 0.128 -1 -1
11-12 3.45 4.28 0.83 -0.36 -0.182
12-13 1.95 4.09 2.14 -1.19 -0.597
13-14 4.17 3.76 -0.41 -3.33 -1.667 AP 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FP
14-15 3.51 3.31 -0.20 -2.92 -1.462 STATIONS
15-16 2.53 2.77 0.24 -2.72 -1.362
16-17 2.36 2.19 -0.17 -2.96 -1.482
17-18 1.82 1.64 -0.18 -2.79 -1.397 Figure 1-61. Buoyancy, Weight, and Load Curves for FFG-7.
18-19 2.29 1.14 -1.15 -2.61 -1.307
19-20 1.86 0.69 -1.17 -1.46 -0.732
20-20.6 0.49 0.00 -0.49 -0.29 -0.147

1 2 3 4 5 6
Shear Mean Area Moment Moment 10.4
Station Ordinate Shear under Ordinate Mom. Ord 5 5
Ordinate Shear Shear x 8618.65 4 4
Curve Area/3 MOMENT
in. in. in2 in. ft-tons 3 3
-1.4 -0.120 0 0.00 0 SHEAR
SCALE IN INCHES

0.41 2 2
0 0.093 0.57 0.19 1,629
0.62
1 0.308 1.19 0.40 3,407 1 1
0.47
2 0.623 1.65 0.55 4,745
0.68 0 0
3 0.738 2.33 0.78 6,700
0.99
4 1.233 3.32 1.11 9,531
1.40 -1 -1
5 1.568 4.72 1.57 13,554
1.62 LOAD
6 1.678 6.34 2.11 18,217
1.74 -2 -2
7 1.803 8.08 2.69 23,217
1.59
8 1.378 9.67 3.22 27,787
9 0.368
0.87
10.55 3.52 30,295 -3 -3
0.18
10 0.128 10.73 3.58 30,823 -4 -4
0.06
10.4 0.000 10.76 3.59 30,899
-0.09
11 -0.182 10.70 3.57 30,744 -5 -5
-0.39
12 -0.597 10.31 3.44 29,625
-1.13
13 -1.667 9.18 3.06 26,373
-1.56 AP 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FP
14 -1.462 7.62 2.54 21,879
-1.41
15 -1.362 6.20 2.07 17,822 STATIONS
-1.42
16 -1.482 4.78 1.59 13,737
-1.44
17 -1.397 3.34 1.11 9,601
-1.35
18 -1.307 1.99 0.66 5,717 Figure 1-62. Still Water Load, Shear, and Bending Moment Curves for FFG-7.
-1.02
19 -0.732 0.97 0.32 2,788
-0.44
20 -0.147 0.53 0.18 1,526
-0.07
20.6 0.000 0.46 0.15 1,314

f. Bending Stresses
Since the ship is hogging, the deck is in tension and the keel in
Bending stresses are calculated using the tabulated moments of inertia from compression. All weight and buoyancy forces were given in long tons, so
the Longitudinal Strength and Inertia Sections Drawing (FO-4): the stresses are in long tons per square inch. Stresses are converted to psi
by multiplying by 2,240. Deck and keel bending stresses are plotted in
Station Moment INA cdeck σdeck ckeel σkeel Figure 1-63 (Page 1-94). Note that the maximum bending stresses do not
M Mc/I Mc/I occur at the section of maximum bending moment.
2 2
ft-tons in -ft ft tons/in2 ft tons/in2
g. Maximum Shear Stress
3 6,700 110,681 15.09 0.91 20.58 1.25
4 9,531 112,994 15.68 1.32 18.84 1.59 S(Q)
τ =
5 13,554 102,384 14.18 1.88 19.27 2.55 12 INA b
6 18,217 136,770 15.32 2.04 17.23 2.29
7 23,217 130,123 15.37 2.74 16.38 2.92
8 27,787 138,267 15.53 3.12 15.59 3.13
9 30,295 159,477 15.36 2.92 15.21 2.89 Shear stress is a function of shear force (S), moment of inertia (I), and plat-
10 30,823 170,416 14.62 2.64 15.45 2.79 ing thickness (b), and is maximum at the neutral axis for any section. Maxi-
10.4 30,899 161,280 14.90 2.85 15.02 2.88 mum shear occurs at station 7. Moments of inertia for adjacent stations and
11 30,744 167,165 14.16 2.60 15.51 2.85 other stations of high shear are equal to or greater than that for station 7.
12 29,625 156,553 14.27 2.70 15.10 2.86 Side-plating thickness at the neutral axis is constant between stations 3 and
13 26,373 135,444 15.00 2.92 14.27 2.78 17 (information taken from the section drawings of the Longitudinal Strength
14 21,879 110,066 12.87 2.56 15.29 3.04 and Inertia Sections drawing - not reproduced in this handbook). Maximum
15 17,822 89,467 11.70 2.33 14.83 2.95 shear stress can therefore be assumed to occur at or near station 7 at the
16 13,737 69,084 10.12 2.01 14.32 2.85 neutral axis. The first moment of area about the neutral axis and shear
17 9,601 57,188 9.46 1.59 13.07 2.19 stress for station 7 are calculated in a tabular format as shown on the
following page.

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Component Dimensions a y ay 10.4

9 9
in. in2 ft in2ft
Mn Dk Girders 8 8

STRESS, TONS/IN2
5 x 4 x 6# 15.93 15.100 240.54 7 7
(12)
2nd Dk 6 6
4 x 4 x 5# 10.66 6.062 64.61
Girders (11) 5 5
Mn Dk Plating, 4 4
192 x .25 48.00 15.370 737.76
Inbd
3 3
Mn Dk Plating,
84 x .375 31.50 15.370 484.16 2 2
Outbd
2nd Dk 1 1
202.5 x .1875 37.97 6.312 239.66
Plating, Inbd
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
2nd Dk Pltg,
52.5 x .25 13.13 6.312 82.85 STATIONS
Outbd
"D" Strake 105 x .375 39.38 10.995 432.93 MAIN DECK
"C" Strake
above N.A. 84 x .3125 26.25 3.500 91.88 10.4
(16.33') 9 9
"D" Doubler 8 8
STRESS, TONS/IN2

30 x .75 22.50 11.750 264.38

Side Stringers 7 7
L20 6 x 4 x 7# 1.67 13.625 22.77 6 6
L19 6 x 4 x 7# 1.67 11.750 19.64 5 5
L18 5 x 4 x 6# 1.33 9.875 13.11
4 4
L17 5 x 4 x 6# 1.33 8.125 10.79
L16 6 x 4 x 7# 1.67 4.625 7.73 3 3
L15 6 x 4 x 7# 1.67 2.875 4.80 2 2
L14 6 x 4 x 8# 1.96 1.250 2.45 1 1
Totals 270.5 2856.2
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
Qhalf-section = ∑ay = 2,856.2 in2-ft STATIONS
Qwhole section = 2(2,856.2) = 5,712.4 in2-ft
KEEL
INA = 130,123 (from Longitudinal Strength
and Inertia Sections drawing)
b = 2 × plate thickness @ NA = 0.625 in.
S = 1.803 x 140.83 = 255.61 tons Figure 1-63. Still Water Bending Stresses for FFG-7.
τ = S(Q)/12INAb = 1.5 tons/in2
= 1.5 × 2,240 = 3,360 psi

1-11.7 Bending Stress in Inclined Ships.

If a ship is inclined, as shown in Figure 1-
64, the depth of sections is increased and P
bending stresses at the "corners" may be Y
increased. For a ship heeled to an angle θ, X
the new axis of bending is parallel to the X
water line. The bending moment, M, can Y
N
be resolved into Mcosθ about the old
(horizontal) neutral axis and Msinθ about NEU
T
the centerline of the ship. Each component AXI RAL
S
produces stress as if it acted independently, HORIZONTAL θ
and the total stress at some point P, with
coordinates (x,y), is: O 0

D
My cosθ Mx sinθ OL RAL
σt = U T
INA ICL NE AXIS N

where:

σt = total bending stress at (x,y)

CL
y = distance from the old
neutral axis to the point in
question
Figure 1-64. Stresses in Inclined Ships.
x = distance from the center-
line to the point in
question
INA = moment of inertia about the old neutral axis
ICL = moment of inertia about the centerline

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Since the section is not symmetrical about its new bending axis, the neutral axis is not parallel to the waterline (horizontal) but is inclined to
it by some angle φ, as shown in Figure 1-64. The angle, φ, between the new neutral axis and the horizontal can be found from:
INA
tanθ = tan φ
ICL

If the point farthest from the neutral axis has coordinates (x1, y1) referenced to the centerline and the old neutral (horizontal) axis, maximum
bending stress in the section is:

My1 cos θ Mx1 sinθ

σmax =
INA ICL

Tabulated section moments of inertia about the centerline are not normally available to the salvage engineer, and must be calculated. Calculating
ICL is somewhat simpler and shorter than calculating INA because the incremental second moments are taken about a known axis (the centerline).
There is therefore no need to sum first moments about an arbitrary axis to locate the neutral axis. For intact sections, only the incremental
second moments of area for one side need be summed; the moment of inertia is twice the sum for one side. Distances from the centerline are
scaled from section drawings.

Maximum bending stresses in an inclined ship may be 20 percent greater than when the ship is upright.

1-11.8 Combined Stresses. The bending (tensile or compressive) and shear stresses in a ship or other beam combine to form the principal
stress at any point. It can be shown that:

s (s σ) = τ2

where:

s = principal stress at any point

σ = simple tensile or compressive stress at the point in question
τ = shear stress at the point in question

This relationship does not solve for s so iterative or trial and error methods are used to determine principal stress.

The presence of shear in the hull girder distorts the sections so that the conditions on which simple beam theory are based are not strictly
fulfilled (see Chapter 2 for an explanation of basic beam theory). This alters bending stress distribution across the section from that predicted
by beam theory. Analysis of this problem is beyond the scope of this book, but the general effect is to increase bending stress at the corners
of the section, i.e., the deck edges and the bilge, and reduce bending stresses at the center of the deck and bottom. This effect is appreciable
only when the ratio of length to depth is small.

1-11.9 Acceptable Stress Levels. The stress that any material can withstand without failure is a function of the properties of that material and
the definition of failure. Fracture is an obvious and final form of failure. Permanent or plastic deformation, or unacceptable extents of deflection
or elastic deformation can also be considered failure.

1-11.9.1 Failure Definition. In many engineered systems, deflection or deformation of a component in excess of certain limits interferes with
the operation of the mechanism and is considered failure. Plastic deformation is often considered failure because of the discontinuous behavior
of the material as it yields. Plastic behavior may be acceptable in components subjected to in-line, tensile loading where elongation will not
cause interference with any other components. The deformation may render the component unsuitable for continued use, but many salvage
evolutions are one-time events. Plastic behavior or excessive deflection/deformation should be carefully examined, as such deformation in
components can alter stress levels in other components in unforeseen or unpredictable ways. Plastic failure in ship hulls is unacceptable because
it unpredictably alters load responses.

Failure of a given component must be defined accurately, so that limiting stress values for that component can be set. The limiting stress values
define limiting loads for components; the degree of load sharing among components will define system load limits.

1-11.9.2 Factors of Safety. Use of an appropriate factor of safety keeps stresses well below the failure point and allows for manufacturing
defects and inconsistencies in loading. Safety factors are specified by various regulatory agencies, depending on intended use of systems and
components. In salvage it is not always possible to use a standard safety factor, so reduced factors of safety must often be accepted. This does
not mean that salvors can disregard safety factors. Each situation must be examined to determine acceptable stresses and loads. A reduced
safety factor represents an increased chance of failure. The consequences of failure must be considered and precautions taken.

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1-11.9.3 Common Materials. The most commonly used shipbuilding materials are:

• Steel and Iron.

• Aluminum.

• Wood.

• Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP).

• Copper and Copper Alloys.

In addition to encountering these as components of a ship, the salvor may use any of them in on-site repairs or fabrication of salvage systems,
along with concrete or other materials. The ultimate or yield stresses of many materials vary depending on whether tensile, compressive or shear
stress is experienced. This is an important factor in salvage operations, where components may be loaded in ways other than those anticipated
by the designer. The mechanical properties of commonly used materials are given in Appendix E.

Steel, in the form of rolled plate, rolled or forged structural shapes, or complex castings, is the most commonly used shipbuilding material.
Shipbuilding steel meeting ABS and Navy specifications has a yield stress of not less than 32,000 psi and an ultimate stress of 58,000 -70,000
psi. In the United States, structural shapes and plates for general use are usually manufactured to American Society for Testing of Materials
(ASTM) Standard A36, requiring a tensile yield strength of not less than 36,000 psi. Unless otherwise specified, mild steel can be assumed to
have a yield strength of about 30,000 psi, although some alloys have yield strengths as low as 20,000 psi.

Plating thickness is often specified by weight per square foot. Steel weighs approximately 490 pounds per cubic foot, so a 40.8-pound plate
is approximately 1-inch thick. Iron weighs 480 pounds per cubic foot, so 1-inch iron plate weighs exactly 40 pounds per square foot. In
common usage, the decimal fraction is often dropped when naming steel plate; 1-inch steel plate is called 40-pound plate, quarter-inch steel plate
is called 10-pound plate, etc. This practice can sometimes lead to confusion—steel plate and shapes are sometimes fabricated to dimensions
specified by weight per area or linear dimension. The thickness of plate so manufactured will be slightly less than assumed by dividing the
weight by 40. Table E-15 correlates steel-plate thickness to weight per square foot.

Major load-bearing members, such as sheer and garboard strakes, main deck stringers and bottom girders, etc., and submarine pressure hulls
are frequently fabricated of high-stength steels. High-strength steels are designated by an "HY" (high yield), "HSLA" (high-strength, low-alloy)
or number, i.e., HY80, HSLA80, HY100, HY140, etc.; the number specifying the nominal yield stress in thousands of pounds per square inch.
High-strength steels are difficult to weld and cut. Intermediate-strength steels, with yield stresses in the 35,000 - 45,000 psi range, are often
used for the major strength members of larger merchant hulls to provide the required strength with lighter scantlings. These steels have been
called high-tensile (HTS) or higher strength steels by classification societies to avoid confusion with truly high-strength steels.

Corrosion-resistant steels (CRES), sometimes called stainless steels, are used extensively where corrosion or appearance are important factors.
Strength and other properties vary widely, depending on composition. Because of their resistance to oxidation, corrosion-resistant steels are
considered nonferrous metals, and are difficult to cut with oxygen-fuel or oxygen-arc cutting equipment. Low magnetic signature alloys are
sometimes used on mine countermeasures ships.

Cast iron is used occasionally for complex shapes not subject to tensile loads. Wrought iron is more malleable and corrosion-resistant than mild
steel, and nearly as strong. Wrought iron is no longer produced in the United States, but was formerly used in place of steel in ship
construction, and may be encountered in older ships. Wrought iron stud-link chain is found occasionally.

Aluminum is used extensively in small ships, boats, and landing craft. The yield stress of pure aluminum is about 5,000 psi, but some alloys
have yield stresses as high as 78,000 psi. Aluminum alloys used in shipbuilding have yield stresses in the range of 12,000 - 20,000 psi. Because
of aluminum’s low density, aluminum alloy members are lighter, but bulkier, than steel members of the same strength; aluminum is often used
in superstructures to reduce topside weight.

Wood is used in the construction of mine countermeasures ships and small craft. The hardness and density of wood vary with species and water
content. Green wood contains varying amounts of water as sap; wood absorbs water in humid climates or when immersed. The strength
characteristics of wood vary with species and type of stress; all species are much stronger against normal stresses than against shear; most are
stronger in tension than in compression.

Glass Reinforced Plastic is used in the hulls of small craft and some mine countermeasures ships, in piping systems, as sheathing over wooden
hulls and in joiner bulkheads. It is also frequently used as a patching material for other materials. Strength varies depending on the orientation
of the glass fibers and plastic resins used.

Copper and its alloys, such as brass, bronze, monel, and copper-nickels, are used in piping systems, propellers, and fittings where corrosion
resistance or low magnetic signature are required. Although certain copper alloys are very strong, they are seldom used as structural members
or fittings, except on mine countermeasures ships, because of their high cost.

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1-11.10 Hull Girder Deflection. Hull

girder deflection is a function of the fourth
integral of the load curve with respect to SECOND
ship length, and girder stiffness, indicated INTEGRAL
by the product of moment of inertia (I) and
modulus of elasticity (E). Deflection is DEFLECTION AT B
determined by double integration of the
curve of bending moment divided by EI.
FIRST
Since I, and sometimes E vary along a INTEGRAL
ship’s length, M/EI is calculated at several
stations to construct an M/EI curve. The
curve is integrated from left to right to
determine the ordinates to the first integral AP B FP
xB __
M
curve, which is again integrated from left to EI
right to determine ordinates to the second
integral curve. A straight line is drawn
between the ends of the second integral
curve, as shown in Figure 1-65. The
vertical separation between the straight line
and the second integral curve at any station
DEFLECTION AT B
is the deflection at that station. As shown
in Figure 1-65, the straight line in the
deflection plot corresponds to a straight line Figure 1-65. Hull Girder Deflection Determination.
connecting forward and after drafts in a
floating ship, i.e., deflection is assumed
zero at the fore and after perpendiculars.
Table 1-15. Hull Deflection.
The hull deflection of a stranded or
damaged casualty is readily observable; a CONTAINER SHIP
salvage engineer does not usually calculate Ship Type: FFG-7 T-AO 187 VLCC
(1400 TEU)
hull deflection unless unusually extreme
loadings are contemplated and the degree of Characteristics:
hull deflection may affect salvage work or
CB 046 0.56 0.87 0.49
conditions. Observed deflection is a rough
indicator of hull stress; a first estimate of LBP, ft 408 650 1050 673
stress can be obtained by comparing a Beam, ft 47 97.5 175.9 105.7
casualty’s deflection with the stress
Depth, ft 30 50 90.5 66.5
corresponding to similar deflections in ships
of similar form and size. Table 1-15 gives
Deflection conditions: Stresses and Deflections:
stresses and deflections calculated for four
different ships in various conditions. Full Load

Maximum stress, ksi 5.6 -3.4 15.6 -4.3

1-11.11 Approximate Strength Cal-
Maximum deflection, in. 2.4 2.5 6.2 -1.1
culations. Lack of detailed ship data or
time for rigorous calculations may Ballast
necessitate the approximation of all or part Maximum stress, ksi 5.5 -11.1 13.0 10.3
of the strength calculations. The following Maximum deflection, in. 2.3 5.9 5.3 8.1
paragraphs describe methods to estimate
Full load w/hogging wave
weight distribution, section properties, and
still water or wave bending moment. Maximum stress, ksi 17.8 -18.7 29.3 23.4

Maximum deflection, in. 7.2 10.6 17.7 11.2

1-11.12 Weight Curve Approximations.
Stranded on one pinnacle (hogging) – deflection at 34 ksi 10.6 14.0 17.7 11.0
There are a number of empirically derived
approximations for weight distribution, Stranded on two pinnacles (sagging) – deflection at 34 ksi -20.3 -27.2 -42.3 -20.4
none of which is equally applicable to all
ship types. The station coefficient method,
presented below, is probably the most Note: Positive stresses indicate tension, negative stresses compression
accurate, but is applicable to only three
From Hull Deflection Versus Bending Moment Study for Supervisor of Salvage, U.S. Navy, Herbert Engineering
ship types at present. Less accurate, but Corporation, 5 March 1991
more generally applicable methods are
presented in the following paragraphs.

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1-11.12.1 Station Coefficient Method.

This method was developed as part of the Table 1-16. Station Coefficients, CSN.
Pouricelli-Boyd-Schleiffer regression
analysis discussed in Paragraph 1-7 and
Station CSN Station CSN
provides a means to approximate lightship
A B C A B C
weight distribution of three types of
merchant hulls: AFT AFT
20.5-21 0.006303 10-10.5 0.023068 0.022542 0.024942
20-20.615 0.015807 9.5-10 0.023068 0.022542 0.024942
• Breakbulk (general) cargo 20-20.5
19.5-20
0.012377
0.014333
0.010676
0.015049 0.01793
9-9.5
8.5-9
0.023068
0.023068
0.022542
0.022542
0.024942
0.024942
ship with engine room 19-19.5 0.022157 0.017975 0.021114 8-8.5 0.023068 0.022542 0.024942
and accommodations 18.5-19 0.020875 0.020387 0.034267 7.5-8 0.023068 0.022542 0.024942
three-quarters aft of the 18-18.5 0.020875 0.022831 0.038513 7-7.5 0.023068 0.022542 0.024942
17.5-18 0.020875 0.02476 0.039536 6.5-7 0.023068 0.022542 0.024942
forward perpendicular. 17-17.5 0.021516 0.028169 0.034267 6-6.5 0.022157 0.022542 0.024942
16.5-17 0.022157 0.029616 0.025321 5.5-6 0.021516 0.022542 0.024942
• Container ship with 16-16.5
15.5-16
0.023472
0.032612
0.025243
0.025243
0.025321
0.025321
5-5.5
4.5-5
0.020875
0.020201
0.022542
0.022542
0.024942
0.023199
forward and aft accommo- 15-15.5 0.033252 0.038845 0.024942 4-4.5 0.019560 0.022542 0.022668
dations. 14.5-15 0.041076 0.038845 0.024942 3.5-4 0.018919 0.021834 0.021606
14-14.5 0.053453 0.040774 0.024942 3-3.5 0.018245 0.021352 0.021114
13.5-14 0.055409 0.042736 0.024942 2.5-3 0.017604 0.022349 0.020052
• Tanker with engine room 13-13.5
12.5-13
0.052172
0.028025
0.043701
0.022542
0.024942
0.024942
2-2.5
1.5-2
0.016963
0.016289
0.021834
0.021352
0.019522
0.018991
and accommodations aft. 12-12.5 0.023068 0.022542 0.024942 1-1.5 0.015142 0.020387 0.01793
11.5-12 0.023068 0.022542 0.024942 0.5-1 0.014333 0.017493 0.017399
The length between perpendiculars (LBP) is 11-11.5 0.023068 0.022542 0.024942 0-0.5 0.013692 0.016496 0.016338
10.5-11 0.023068 0.022542 0.024942 -0.55-0 0.013051
divided into 20 basic segments. The break- FWD FWD
bulk cargo ship has a segment forward of the Ship A – Breakbulk cargo ship - engine room and accommodations three-quarters aft from FP
forward perpendicular and the tanker and Ship B – Container ship with forward and aft accommodations
container ship each have segments aft of the Ship C – Tanker with engineroom aft
aft perpendicular. Station coefficients (CSN)
from Table 1-16 for the appropriate ship type
are used to determine the weight ordinate
(OSN) for each half segment:
OSN = CSN W1s
Osn

where:
Wls = lightship weight
The weight ordinates are plotted as shown AP FP
in Figure 1-66 to develop the lightship BREAK-BULK CARGO SHIP-ENGINE ROOM AND ACCOMMODATIONS
weight curve. Variable weights (cargo, THREE-QUARTERS AFT FROM FP
flooding, etc.) are added as rectangles or
trapezoids at the appropriate station for the
ship’s actual load condition.
1-11.12.2 Bare Hull Estimates. For ship
types other than the three mentioned above,
Osn

the lightship weight curve is approximated

in three steps:

• The hull steel weight is

calculated or estimated by
deducting weights of AP FP
machinery, propellers, and CONTAINERSHIP WITH FORWARD AND AFTER ACCOMMODATIONS
superstructure from the
lightship weight, or by the
methods described below.

• The bare hull weight dis-

Osn

tribution is estimated by
one of the methods de-
scribed in the following
paragraphs.

• The deducted items are

AP FP
added at their locations to
TANKER WITH AFT ENGINEROOM
complete the lightship
weight curve.
Figure 1-66. Station Coefficient Weight Curves.

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After the distribution of the hull weight of

the ship has been estimated, the variable 280
weights of fuel, stores, cargo, boats,
aircraft, ballast, ammunition, crew and 260
effects, etc., are added by superimposing
rectangles or trapezoids on the curve at 240
their locations.

Hull steel weight for commercial vessels 220

can be estimated by the two relationships
shown below: 200
DIRECT DRIVE DIESEL

POWER DENSITY LB/SHP

W H ≈ L B D k 1, or, NUCLEAR
180 STEAM TURBINE
WH ≈ L (B 2D) k2 REHEAT STEAM TURBINE
160 GEARED DIESEL
COMBINED DIESEL AND
where: GAS TURBINE
140 GAS TURBINE
REGENERATIVE
WH = hull weight, ltons
L = length between perpendicu- 120
lars, feet
B = molded beam, feet 100
D = molded depth, feet
k1 = weight coefficient
80
= 0.0027 for welded con-
struction
= 0.0030 for riveted con- 60
struction
40
k2 = weight coefficient
= 0.0433 for welded con- 20
struction 4 6 8 10 12 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42
= 0.0558 for riveted con- SHP RATING OF PROPULSION PLANT (THOUSANDS)
struction COMPILED FROM VARIOUS SOURCES, INCLUDING SHIPS AND SHIPBUILDING OF TOMORROW,
SCHÖNKNECKT, LÜSCH, SCHELZEL & OBENHAUS, 1983; SHIP DESIGN AND CONSTUCTION,
Weights of machinery and outfits can TAGGART, 1980; MARINE ENGINEERING, HARRINGTON, 1955 AND MANUFACTURERS DATA
sometimes be obtained from the ship’s
information book (SIB), operating and Figure 1-67. Machinery Weight.
technical manuals, or manufacturers’ data.
Machinery weight for commercial vessels
can be estimated very approximately by use of the "power density" factors taken from Figure 1-67.

There is no standard definition of what is included in the term machinery weight, so figures given in ship’s data must be investigated to
determine what items are included. Values taken from the curves in Figure 1-67 include the weight of main propulsion units, shafting, bearings,
propellers, boilers, stacks, condensers, generators, switchboards, and pumps; all piping, floors, ladders and gratings in the machinery spaces;
water in boilers, engines, and piping; and refrigerating and steam heating systems for a normal vessel. Weights of steering gear, deck machinery,
and piping outside the machinery spaces are not included. Machinery weights are subject to variation, depending on the ship type and service.
In ship types that require particularly rugged or reliable machinery, machinery weight will be about 10 percent higher than the values from Figure
1-67. Different makes of diesel engine of the same horsepower will
vary in weight by as much as 50 percent. Total machinery weight in
specialized vessels will include items not fitted on ordinary ships, or Table 1-17. Machinery Weights for Combatants.
larger numbers of common items. Examples are the refrigeration plant
on a refrigerated cargo ship, additional pumps and generators on
salvage and service vessels, dredge machinery, etc. BB, CV 50-60 pounds/SHP
CG, CL, CA 35-40 pounds/SHP
Because of their high speed and correspondingly powerful machinery, DD, FF 27-30 pounds/SHP
the weight of machinery of naval combatants is a large portion of the DD, FF, CG (gas turbine) 20-25 pounds/SHP
total weight of the ship. Emphasis on machinery weight savings during
design results in lower weight per horsepower than in the average
commercial vessel. Machinery dry weight for different types of
combatants can be taken from Table 1-17.

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Table 1-18 gives weights of bronze propellers as a function of shaft horsepower and rpm. Table 1-19 gives summarized weight lists for different
types of ships to illustrate general trends in weight distribution. Additional weight summaries are included in Appendix B.

Table 1-18. Weights of Bronze Propellers (lbs).

Shaft RPM
SHP 100 120 140 160 180 200 250 300 350
500 3,415 2,775 2,315 2,030 1,785 1,585 1,255 970 750
1,000 6,545 5,270 4,475 3,880 3,460 3,150 2,445 1,915 1,520
2,000 12,080 9,830 8,265 7,140 6,350 5,730 4,630 3,670 2,975
3,000 17,410 14,105 11,680 10,360
5,000 24,905 20,495 17,190 14,545
10,000 55,100 35,705 29,315 24,245
15,000 62,155 50,030 40,335 32,400
20,000 50,910 40,115

From Ships and Marine Engineers, Volume IV, The Design of Merchant Ships, Schokker, Newerburg, Bossnack, and Burghgracf, The Technical Publishing
Company H. Stam, 1953

Table 1-19. Lightship Weight Summaries.

Ship Type

Combination
Mariner Barge- Barge-
Passenger/ Passenger Container
With Added General Container carrying carrying Small
Item Reefer Tanker6 Ore Carrier7
Features, Cargo Ship1 Ship3 ship Ship Freighter8 Vessel9 Ship
Container
1962 (LASH)4 (SEABEE)5
Ship2
Steel 5,115 5,011 5,482 10,282 9,588 12,983 11,519 12,137 2,248 11,850 4,557
Outfit 2,586 2,230 3,959 2,525 2,937 2,979 1,844 1,600 574 6,875 1,739
Machinery10 1,039 867 982 1,911 1,105 1,421 831 980 398 2,525 837
Fixed Ballast --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 3,329
Lightship 8,746 8,108 10,4235 14,718 13,630 17,383 14,194 14,717 3,220 21,250 10,452

Weights in Long Tons

From Ship Design and Construction, Amelio M. D’Arcangelo; Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 1969 and Princples of Naval Architecture,
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Second Edition, 1967 and Third Edition, 1988

Notes:
1
573’ LOA, machinery and house 3⁄ 4 aft, 6 holds, 2 ’tween decks, 24,000 SHP, 23 Kts.
2
574’ LOA, machinery and house midships, 19,800 SHP, 20 Kts.
3
752’ LOA, machinery 3⁄ 4 aft, house forward, 1,920 TEU, 60,000 SHP, twin screw, 27 Kts.
4
820’ LOA, machinery 3⁄ 4 aft, house forward, 79 LASH barges, 32,000 SHP, 27.5 Kts.
5
824’ LOA, machinery 3⁄ 4 aft, house forward, 38 SEABEE barges, 36,000 SHP, 20 Kts.
6
810’ LOA, machinery and house aft, single bottom, 5 center and 8 wing tanks, 19,000 SHP, 17 Kts.
7
765’ LOA, machinery and house aft, 7 holds, 19,000 SHP, 16.5 Kts.
8
390’ LPB, two deck, three-island design, 3,150 SHP, 13 Kts.
9
661’ LPB, ten deck, 1,200 passenger, 650 crew, 30,000 SHP, 20 Kts.
10
Steam turbine plants in all cases, single screw unless otherwise noted.

Table 1-20. Prohasha’s Ordinates for the Coffin Diagram.

Type of Ship Prohaska’s ordinates Type of Ship Prohaska’s ordinates

a&c b a&c b
Tanker 0.75WH / L 1.125WH / L Fine-lined cargo ships with erections 0.45WH / L 1.275WH / L
Full-bodied cargo ships w/o erections 0.65WH / L 1.175WH / L Small passenger ships 0.40WH / L 1.30WH / L
Fine-lined cargo ships w/o erections 0.60WH / L 1.20WH / L Large passenger ships 0.30WH / L 1.35WH / L
Full-bodied cargo ships with erections 0.55WH / L 1.225WH / L

where: WH = Hull weight, ltons (less propelling machinery)

L = Length overall, ft

Reproduced from Applied Naval Architecture, R. Munro, 1967

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1-11.12.3 Coffin Diagram. Bare hull

weight distribution for ships with parallel
midbody can be approximated by a line
diagram, commonly called a coffin
diagram, consisting of a rectangle over the b b
length of the midbody and trapezoids at the
bow and stern. Three hull weight
distribution methods are based on the coffin c
a
diagram. The Biles and Prohaska methods
each divide the length overall into three
equal segments as shown in Figure 1-68. A
L/3 L/3 L/3
third method, that may be termed the AP FP
general parallel midbody method, divides BILES METHOD ORDINATES
the length into three segments based on the W
observed length of the parallel midbody. a = 0.566 __H
L
W
Biles method ordinates for ordinary cargo b = 1.195 __H
L
and passenger vessels are shown in the
Figure 1-68, Prohaska method ordinates for W
c = 0.653 __H
different ship types are given in Table 1-20. L
WHERE WH = HULL WEIGHT (LESS MACHINERY)
The centroid of the Biles diagram is
0.0056L abaft midships. Small adjustments FROM APPLIED NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, R. MUNRO-SMITH, 1967.
can be made to the end ordinates so that
the centroid of the diagram corresponds to Figure 1-68. Coffin Diagram.
the longitudinal position of the center of
gravity of the hull. LCG of the bare hull is
not at the same location as the light ship
LCG. The position of the centroid of the __
7 L
9
coffin diagram must be chosen so that LCG
will shift to a known or estimated position
as weights are added, corresponding to the
condition where LCG is known.

By shortening one end ordinate and

lengthening the other by an equal amount, x x
a triangle is transferred from one trapezoid
to the other, as shown by the dotted lines in G G1
Figure 1-69. The centroid of each triangle
lies one-third of its length from its base:
1 L L L/3 L/3 L/3
  = AP FP
3 3 9 54(WH )GG1
x = ____________
where L is the length of the diagram, corres- 7L2
ponding to length overall (LOA) of the ship.
The shift of the centroid of the total area is
Figure 1-69. Adjusting LCG of the Coffin Diagram.
therefore (7/9)L. If the base of the triangle
is taken as x, and its height as L/3, then,
 1  L  xL
Area of triangle =     x =
 2  3  6

 xL   7L  7xL 2
Moment of the shift =     =
 6  9  54

The shift of the centroid of the diagram, representing the LCG of the hull is thus:
7 L2
Shift of LCG =   ( x )
 54  WH

where WH is the bare hull weight. The triangle base, x, required to give the desired shift of LCG is:
54 (WH) (desired shift of LCG)
x =
7L 2

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In the general parallel midbody method, the

beginning and end points and length of the 1.4
parallel midbody are determined by
inspection. The middle ordinate (b) is b
defined as shown in Figure 1-70. The end
ordinates are chosen so that the centroid of
the entire diagram corresponds to the bare l
hull LCG. Figure 1-71 shows how to select 1.3 W
__H
b = b1 x
end ordinates for a trapezoid to place the L
center of the trapezoid in a desired location. W = Hull Weight

1-11.12.4 Ships Without Parallel l = LENGTH OF TANK SECTIONS

Midbody. An approximate weight curve OR PARALLEL MIDDLE BODY

b1
for ships without parallel midbody can be 1.2
L = LENGTH OF SHIP OVERALL
constructed as a parabola over a rectangle,
with the area under each representing half
the bare hull weight (Cole, reproduced in
Applied Naval Architecture, R. Munro-
Smith, 1967). The ordinate for the
rectangle is WH/2L; the maximum 1.1
(midships) ordinate for the parabola is
3WH/4L, as shown in Figure 1-72. LCG of
this figure is amidships. Correction for
LCG lying forward or aft of midships is
made by swinging the parabola.
1.0
A line parallel to the base is drawn through 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
l
__
the centroid of the area under the parabolic L
curve. A second line is drawn from the
base of the parabola at its midlength to FROM PRINCIPLES OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, SNAME, 2ND EDITION, 1967.
intersect the first line at a distance from the
midships ordinate equal to twice the desired Figure 1-70. General Parallel Midbody Weight Curve.
shift in LCG. This line is extended beyond
the contour of the parabola. The
intersection of this line with a horizontal
line drawn from the center of the parabolic l = LENGTH OVER WHICH THE WEIGHT IS DISTRIBUTED
curve defines one point on the new curve. x = LONGITUDINAL DISTANCE FROM THE SMALLER
Parallel lines drawn at other ordinates END OF THE TRAPEZOID TO ITS CENTER OF GRAVITY
a = AREA OF THE TRAPEZOID
define other points on the new curve, as = TONS FOR WEIGHT AND LOAD CURVES
shown in Figure 1-72. b1, b2 = END ORDINATES

For ships without parallel midbody, a bare

hull weight curve can also be generated by
assuming that two-thirds of the hull weight
follows the still water buoyancy curve and
distributing the remaining one-third in the
form of a trapezoid so arranged that the b2
g
center of gravity lies above the center of
buoyancy, as shown in Figure 1-73. This
method has been found to yield close b1 X
approximations to the hull weight
distribution for large warships.
1-11.13 Wave Bending Moment with
Nonstandard Waves. The salvage
engineer must often assess the ability of a
damaged casualty to withstand wave l
bending loads, either during the salvage
operation or during transit to a repair __ (2 - 3x
b1 = 2a __ ( 3x
__ ); b = 2a __ -1)
2 l l
facility. Because of the tedious nature of l l
the calculations, the usual first task is to
determine the stresses imposed by a
Figure 1-71. Centroid of a Trapezoid.
standard L/20 or 1.1 √L wave with length
equal to ship’s length. If the ship can carry
loads imposed by a standard wave, no further calculations need be performed in most cases. If, however, the stresses imposed by the standard
wave are excessive, calculations must be performed for trial wave heights and lengths until the maximum acceptable wave is determined, unless
bending moment caused by waves with differing length and height can be correlated to those caused by the standard wave.

1-102
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A 1991 analysis by Herbert Engineering

Corporation of five hull forms with block ORIGINAL WH
CURVE a + b = 1.25
coefficients ranging from 0.46 to 1.0 L
developed factors that relate nonstandard CORRECTED
CURVE 3WH
b=
wave bending moments to normalized 4L
2X
standard bending moment. The factors are
2
functions of block coefficient, wavelength, 5
b
and wave height.
WH
X a=
BASE LINE 2L
The analysis revealed that for fine-lined
ships, maximum wave bending moment X = DESIRED SHIFT
OF LCG
occurs at wavelengths slightly less than the FROM APPLIED NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, R. MUNRO-SMITH, 1967.
ship’s length (approximately 0.75L), and
may be as much as 15 percent higher than
Figure 1-72. Parabolic Weight Curve.
bending moment for the standard wave.
Figure 1-74 shows the relationship between
wavelength and bending moment for an
FFG-7 Class ship (CB = 0.46) for a 1.1 √L
PARALLEL TO
wave height. Figure 1-75 (Page 1-104) STILL WATER
shows the relationship between standard BUOYANCY CURVE
wave bending moment and maximum wave 2/ W
3 H
bending moment as a function of block
coefficient.
1/ W
3 H
Figure 1-76 (Page 1-104) shows normalized
maximum and standard hogging and AP FP
sagging moments as a function of block FROM BASIC SHIP THEORY, RAWSON AND TUPPER 3RD EDITION, 1983.
√L
coefficient. All curves are based on 1.1
trochoidal waves. The normalized bending
Figure 1-73. Alternate Weight Distribution for Ships Without Parallel Midbody.
moment is given by:

WBM 35
NBM =
L 2Bh
NORMALIZED MOMENT VS. WAVELENGTH (Cb = 0.46)

0.015

where:
0.01
NBM = normalized wave
HOG

bending moment, 0.005

dimensionless
WBM = wave bending moment, 0
ft-lton
35 = standard seawater
-0.005
specific gravity, ft3/lton
L = length between
SAG

perpendiculars, ft -0.01
B = beam, ft
h = wave height, ft = 1.1 √L -0.015

Figure 1-76 (Page 1-104) can be entered -0.02

with block coefficient to get an estimate of 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
the standard bending moment (waveheight LOCATION FROM FP (X/LBP)
= 1.1√L, wavelength = L). L = 1.0 LBP L = .50 LBP L = 1.0 LBP L = .50 LBP

L = .75 LBP L = .25 LBP L = .75 LBP L = .25 LBP

L = LENGTH OF TROCHOIDAL WAVE
FROM WAVEHEIGHT AND WAVELENGTH VERSUS BENDING MOMENT STUDY FOR SUPERVISOR
OF SALVAGE U.S. NAVY, HERBERT ENGINEERING CORP., 20 FEBRUARY 1991

Figure 1-74. FFG-7 Bending Moment with Varying Wavelength.

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

The plots in Figures 1-77 and 1-78 are

entered with wavelength expressed as a 1.16
function of ship length to determine the
ratio between wave bending moment for the 1.14
wavelength and the standard wave bending
moment. The ratio is then applied to wave 1.12

MOMENT RATIO
bending moment determined from Figure 1-
76 or by rigorous calculation to estimate 1.1
wave bending moment for the nonstandard
1.08
wavelength. Figure 1-79 (Page 1-106)
gives normalized bending moments for 1.06
wavelengths equal to L with nonstandard
waveheight. 1.04

1-11.14 Murray’s Method for Approxi- 1.02

mating Maximum Bending Moment. An
approximation of determining maximum 1
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
bending moment has been developed by J.
M. Murray, former Chief Ship Surveyor to HOG BLOCK COEFFICIENT SAG
Lloyd’s Register of Shipping. Murray’s FROM WAVEHEIGHT AND WAVELENGTH VERSUS BENDING MOMENT STUDY FOR SUPERVISOR
method computes still water bending OF SALVAGE U.S. NAVY, HERBERT ENGINEERING CORP., 20 FEBRUARY 1991
moment by taking moments of weight and
buoyancy about midships. Wave bending Figure 1-75. Ratio of Maximum to Standard Wave Bending
moment is calculated by use of empirical Moment as a Function of Block Coefficient.
coefficients. The sum of the two gives
total bending moment at midships, which
can be taken as the maximum bending 0.025
moment in most cases. The method is
reasonably accurate for ships floating at a 0.02
NORMALIZED BENDING MOMENT

trim of less than one percent of their

0.015
length.
0.01
1-11.14.1 Still Water Bending Moment.
Still water bending moment (SWBM) is 0.005
given by:
0
SWBM = MW MB
-0.005

where: -0.01

-0.015
MW = mean moment of
weight -0.02
Mwf + Mwa -0.025
= __________ 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
2
BLOCK COEFFICIENT
Mwf = moment of weight MAX. HOG MAX. SAG
forward of midships, STD. HOG STD. SAG
ft-lton or m-tonne FROM WAVEHEIGHT AND WAVELENGTH VERSUS BENDING MOMENT STUDY FOR SUPERVISOR
= Wf(LCGf) OF SALVAGE U.S. NAVY, HERBERT ENGINEERING CORP., 20 FEBRUARY 1991
Mwa = moment of weight aft of
midships, ft-lton or m- Figure 1-76. Normalized Wave Bending Moment as a Function of Block Coefficient.
tonne
= Wf, a(LCGfa)
Wf, a = weight of the forebody or afterbody, lton or m-tonne
LCGf, a = LCG of the forebody or afterbody, measured from midships, ft or m
Mbf + Mba
MB = mean moment of buoyancy = _________
2
Mbf = moment of buoyancy forward of midships, ft-lton or m-tonne
= B f (LCBf )
Mba = moment of buoyancy aft of midships, ft-lton or m-tonne
= Ba(LCBa)
Bf,a = buoyancy of the forebody or afterbody, lton or m-tonne
LCBf, a = LCB of the forebody or afterbody, measured from midships, ft or m

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

1.25
WAVE MOMENT / STANDARD WAVE MOMENT

1
0.75
0.5
HOG
0.25
0
0.25
SAG
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
WAVELENGTH / LBP
FROM WAVEHEIGHT AND WAVELENGTH VERSUS BENDING MOMENT STUDY FOR SUPERVISOR
OF SALVAGE U.S. NAVY, HERBERT ENGINEERING CORP., 20 FEBRUARY 1991

Figure 1-77. Ratio of Wave Bending Moment to Standard Bending Moment, CB = 0.46.
WAVE MOMENT / STANDARD WAVE MOMENT

0.8

0.6

0.4
HOG
0.2

0.2
SAG
0.4

0.6

0.8
1
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
WAVELENGTH / LBP
FROM WAVEHEIGHT AND WAVELENGTH VERSUS BENDING MOMENT STUDY FOR SUPERVISOR
OF SALVAGE U.S. NAVY, HERBERT ENGINEERING CORP., 20 FEBRUARY 1991

Figure 1-78. Ratio of Wave Bending Moment to Standard Bending Moment, CB = 1.0.

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Since total weight and buoyancy moments are mean moments, they are numerically equal to the product of the mean weight or buoyancy and
the mean lever arm:
 
Mwf + Mwa  W + Wa 
MW = =  f  LCGm
2  2 

 
Mbf + Mba  B + Ba 
MB = =  f  LCBm
2  2 
where:
0.025
LCGm = mean distance from
midships of the centers 0.02
of gravity of the fore and NORMALIZED BENDING MOMENT
after bodies 0.015
LCBm = mean distance from
midships of the centers 0.01
of buoyancy of the
0.005
fore and after bodies HOG
0
Since the sum of the weights of the fore
SAG
and after bodies is equal to the total weight, -0.005
which is equal to displacement, which is
similarly equal to the sum of the -0.01
buoyancies of the fore and after bodies, still
water bending moment can be expressed: -0.015

∆ -0.02
SWBM = (LCGm LCBm)
2 -0.025
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
If the mean of the centers of gravity is WAVE HEIGHT / STANDARD WAVE HEIGHT
greater than the mean of the centers of Cb = 0.46 Cb = 0.58 Cb = 0.78 Cb = 0.84 Cb = 1.0
buoyancy, the weight levers are longer than
the buoyancy levers, and the net moment is FROM WAVEHEIGHT AND WAVELENGTH VERSUS BENDING MOMENT STUDY FOR SUPERVISOR
OF SALVAGE U.S. NAVY, HERBERT ENGINEERING CORP., 20 FEBRUARY 1991
hogging, as shown in Figure 1-80. If the
mean of buoyancy centers is greater, the
net moment is negative, and sagging. Figure 1-79. Normalized Wave Bending Moment as a Function of Wave Height.
Forward and after weight moments are de-
termined by summing the moments of
individual weights. Weights and centers of LCGm
variable weights can be obtained from ship’s
officers or estimated with reasonable ac-
curacy. Machinery weight can be approx- GF GF
imated from the factors given in Paragraph BA BF
1-11.12.2; machinery lcg is determined by
inspection. Hull weight can be estimated as
described in Paragraph 1-11.12.2. The mean LCBm
distance from midships of the centers of
MEAN DISTANCE TO FORE AND AFT LCGs GREATER
gravity of the forward and after bodies of the THAN MEAN DISTANCE TO LCBs - HOGGING
hull can be expressed as a portion of length
between perpendiculars:
mean lcg = aL
where: GA GF
BA BF
a = an empirical coefficient
= 0.223 for a cargo ship with
forecastle and poop; deck-
house and machinery MEAN DISTANCE TO FORE AND AFT LCBs GREATER
amidships THAN DISTANCE TO LCGs - SAGGING
= 0.24 for a tanker with fore-
castle, bridge, and poop
= 0.233 for a cargo ship with Figure 1-80. Determination of Still Water Bending Moment by Murray’s Method.
machinery aft
Values of a for different configurations can be estimated from those given above. For example, 0.225 might be used for a cargo ship with
machinery slightly aft of midships.

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Mean buoyancy moment can be estimated as:

∆ Table 1-21. Coefficient c for Mean LCB in Murray’s Method.
MB = cL
2
Draft c
where: 0.06L 0.179CB + 0.063
0.05L 0.189CB + 0.052
∆ = total buoyancy (displacement), lton or tonne 0.04L 0.199CB + 0.041
cL = mean position of LCB, ft or m 0.03L 0.209CB + 0.030
L = length between perpendiculars, ft or m
c = empirical coefficient based on block coefficient and L = length between perpendiculars, block coefficient, CB is taken at draft equal to 0.06L
draft from Table 1-21

EXAMPLE 1-6

CALCULATION OF STILL WATER BENDING MOMENT BY MURRAY’S METHOD

Calculate the still water bending moment for a cargo ship with machinery Weight moments, after body:
and accommodations three-quarters aft with the following characteristics: item Weight lcg from Moment
lton midships ft-lton
length between perpendiculars 570 feet ft
beam 80 feet Hold 4 6,800 95 A 646,000
molded depth 55 feet Hold 5 3,700 250 A 925,000
full load draft 35 feet
O.F. (double bottom) 435 85 A 36,975
block coefficient 0.71
Feed water 20 170 A 3,400
displacement 32,400 lton
Potable water 250 122 A 30,500
deadweight 23,800 lton
hull weight 6,250 lton Machinery 1,200 147 A 176,400
weight of propulsion machinery 1,200 lton Crew & effects, stores 75 165 A 12,370
center of machinery room 145 ft aft of midships Total: 12,480 1,830,645

Variable Weight Distribution: Weight moments, fore body:

Weight lcg from item weight lcg from midships moment
item lton midships lton ft ft-lton
ft Hold 1 3,000 231 F 693,000
Cargo: Hold 1 3000 231 F Hold 2 4,200 142 F 596,400
Hold 2 4200 142 F Hold 3 6,100 60 F 366,000
Hold 3 6100 60 F O.F. (deep tank) 370 200 F 74,000
Hold 4 6800 95 A Total: 13,670 1,729,400
Hold 5 3700 250 A
Oil fuel in deep tank 370 200 F Total weight moments:
Oil fuel in double bottom tanks 435 85 A item weight moment
Feed water 20 170 A lton ft-lton
Potable water 250 122 A hull 6,250 819,375
Crew & effects, stores 75 165 A after body 12,480 1,830,645
fore body 13,670 1,729,400
Calculation: Total: 32,400 4,379,420

Mean distance from midships of centers of buoyancy Mean distance from midships of centers of gravity:

The load draft of 35 ft is approximately 0.06L, CB = 0.71, LCGm = Total moment/total weight
= 4,379,420/32,400 = 135.2 ft
c = 0.179CB + 0.063 = 0.190
Still water bending moment:
cL = 0.19(570) = 108.3 ft = LCBm
SWBM = ∆/2 (LCGm - LCBm)
Hull weight moment = WHaL (take a to be 0.23)
= (32,400/2)(135.2 - 108.3)
= 6,250(0.23)(570) = 819,375 ft-lton = 435,780 ft-lton

LCGm is greater than LCBm; the net moment is positive, or hogging

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1-11.14.2 Wave Bending Moment. Wave bending moment,

for a standard wave with length equal to the ship’s length, Table 1-22. Wave Bending Coefficient for Murray’s Method.
can be estimated as:

bL 3B L
WBM = for wave height = Wave bending coefficient
1,000,000 20 b
Block Coefficient
2.2 b L 2.5 B CB
= for wave height = 1.1 L
100,000 Hogging Sagging
(wave crest at midships) (wave trough at midships)
where:

WBM = wave bending moment, ft-lton 0.80 25.00 28.00

L = length between perpendiculars, ft 0.78 24.25 27.25
B = beam, ft 0.76 23.55 26.50
b = empirical coefficient based on block 0.74 22.85 25.70
coefficient and wave position, from Table
0.72 22.10 24.90
1-22
0.70 21.35 24.10
1-11.15 Section Property Design Rules. In the absence of 0.68 20.65 23.35
better information, empirical relationships and construction 0.66 19.90 22.60
standards can be used to estimate section modulus or moment 0.64 19.20 21.80
of inertia. The following design rules are taken from Applied 0.62 18.45 21.05
Naval Architecture, R. Munro-Smith, 1967.
0.60 17.75 20.30
A first approximation of the midships section moment of
inertia can be made from:
CB taken at draft = 0.06L
I = cBD3

where:

I = moment of inertia, ft4 or m4

B = molded beam, ft or m
D = depth to strength deck, ft or m
c = empirical coefficient, ranging from 0.14 to 0.16
≈ 0.18 for cargo ships
≈ 0.22 for large tankers
≈ 0.175 to 0.21 for small tankers

An estimate for section modulus and/or moment of inertia can be made by reference to preliminary design expressions for maximum shear force
and bending moment, and assuming the ship was built to withstand that force and moment.
∆ ∆
≤ Smax ≤
12 9

∆L LBTCD L L 2BTCB
Mmax ≈ = =
C 35 C 35C

where:

Smax = maximum shear, lton

∆ = displacement, lton
Mmax = maximum bending moment, ft-lton
L = length between perpendiculars, ft
CB = block coefficient
C = a constant, generally ranging from 20 to 40
≈ 35 for most auxiliaries, merchant ships, and vessels with large longitudinal prismatic coefficient ⇒ Mmax = LBT/1600 (CB taken
as 0.75)
≈ 20 for destroyers, and vessels with small longitudinal prismatic coefficient ⇒ Mmax = LBT/1490 (CB taken as 0.47)

These relationships give a good approximation for the full-load condition on a standard hogging wave. For most merchant ships, hogging
moments are greater than sagging moments.

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1-11.16 By Rule Section Modulus. Classification society rules set minimum standards for midships section modulus. Midships section
modulus of an in class ship will not be lower than the minimum standard, and is unlikely to be much higher. Bending stresses in the midships
region can be roughly estimated without determining section modulus rigorously, provided the following are true:

• The ship was built to classification society standards or other specifications requiring minimum section modulus, and is currently
in class.

• The minimum section modulus standards are known.

• The ship has not suffered damage that will reduce section modulus in the sections where stresses are to be determined.

A summary of section modulus requirements established by the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) is given in Appendic C.

1-11.17 Strength Considerations in Salvage Operations. A ship is designed and constructed to withstand expected shear forces and bending
moments. In an intact floating ship, maximum bending moment occurs in the midships region and maximum shear near the quarter-length points.
These sections are designed to ensure that stresses remain below acceptable limits. Three conditions common to salvage operations may require
that the stress levels be examined at other points:

• The ship may be loaded in ways not foreseen by the designer. Because of flooding, grounding or other unusual conditions of
loading, maximum bending moment can occur at some section other than midships. Similarly, maximum shear may be at some
point other than at the quarters.

• Damage can alter the stress distribution at a section so that maximum stress can occur in some section other than where maximum
bending moment or shear occurs. Damage, even over a short distance, disrupts the continuity of longitudinal members and reduces
the section modulus for some distance on either side of the damaged section.

• Local damage or distortion can render plating and stiffeners more susceptible to tripping, buckling, or other forms of load shirking,
thereby reducing effective moment of inertia.

The load, shear, and bending moment

curves of a casualty must be carefully
examined: MAXIMUM MOMENT, DECK
8
BENDING MOMENT, FOOT-POUNDS x 10

• Stresses should be determined

wherever shear or bending
3
moment are maximum or the
effective moment of inertia is
reduced.

• The effects of salvage actions 2

on load, shear and bending
moment should be examined MAXIMUM MOMENT, KEEL
before taking the action.

• Accesses should not be cut in 1

locations that will reduce the
section modulus or strength
member continuity.

A useful salvage technique is to calculate

and plot the maximum acceptable shear and 17 16 15 14 13 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
bending moments along the length of the STATIONS
ship. The bending moments and shear MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS BASED ON ASSUMED
resulting from planned actions can be MATERIAL YIELD OF 32,000 PSI WITHOUT SAFETY FACTOR
compared with the allowable limits to
determine if the planned action is safe.
Figure 1-81 shows maximum acceptable Figure 1-81. Maximum Bending Moment for FFG-7.
bending moments for an FFG-7 Class ship.

1-109 (1-110 blank)