Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter presents a review of related literature and studies. The research included foreign as

well as local literature and studies that have direct and indirect bearing on the subject matter under study.

These literatures were selected and reviewed by the researcher to provide sufficient basis for making

comparison. These are materials that could substantiate the information assisted in conceptualization of the

study.

Related Literature
Foreign
The cultivated rice plant, Oryza sativa, is an annual grass of the Gramineae family. It grows to

about 1.2 metres (4 feet) in height. The leaves are long and flattened, and its panicle, or inflorescence, is

made up of spikelets bearing flowers that produce the fruit, or grain. Many cultures have evidence of early

rice cultivation, including China, India, and the civilizations of Southeast Asia. However, the earliest

archaeological evidence comes from central and eastern China and dates to 7000–5000 BCE. With the

exception of the type called upland rice, the plant is grown on submerged land in the coastal plains, tidal

deltas, and river basins of tropical, semitropical, and temperate regions. The seeds are sown in prepared

beds, and when the seedlings are 25 to 50 days old, they are transplanted to a field, or paddy, that has been

enclosed by levees and submerged under 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 inches) of water, remaining submerged during

the growing season. (Zeidan, et. al., Britannica, 2011).

In addition to this, is one of the world’s most produced grains, feeding billions of people every

day. In fact, as many as 3 billion people in over 100 countries rely on rice as a staple food. Since 2000,

global production of rice has increased by nearly 25%. In 2016 alone, the world produced approximately

756 million tons or 1.6 trillion pounds of rice. Because rice is so versatile, it has traditionally been included

in many different cuisines. There are thousands of rice varieties grown worldwide. Two of the most

commonly consumed types are Oryza sativa (Asian rice) and Oryza glabberima (African rice). Some

popular Asian rice varieties include jasmine rice, basmati rice, tinawon rice, and black rice. Asian rice

varieties vary in color and grain length, and many have strong and fragrant flavor profiles. On the other
hand, most African rice varieties are dark in color, ranging from red to brown to purple. Though African

rice typically matures faster than Asian rice, it’s much more difficult to mill. Therefore, it’s not grown or

consumed as commonly as it was in the past. (Cecilia Snyder, MS, RD, 2020)

Linked to that, Various drying methods can be used to dry seeds. Sun drying is the traditional and

economical alternative for farmers, but, mechanical drying has some significant advantages over sun

drying. In sun drying it is difficult to control the temperature and the availability solar radiation depends

on nature’s whim. Because of these disadvantages of sun drying a number of artificial drying methods

have been tested for drying seeds by researchers. It was found that the difference in sun drying and

mechanical drying could cause dissimilar results in seed quality. Thin layer drying equations and

expressions for the drying parameters as a function of drying conditions are required for simulation of the

drying systems (Bala, 1997).

Rahman et. al. (2003) designed, tested and demonstrated BRRI multi-crop drier specially for paddy

seed and fruits. The flat bed size of the drier was 183 cm in length and 90 cm in width. This drier could

be converted into solar drier easily. Then it could be used for drying fruits, vegetables, spices, etc. The

cost of drying was higher (US$ 1.71 per quintal of paddy) for high initial moisture content and at the

higher depth (7.5 cm) of paddy. Average custom hire service charge for drying of paddy was as high as

US$ 2.92 per quintal.

In addition, Sodha et. al. (2000) mentioned that the systems with utilize solar energy in addition to

energy from conventional sources for drying purposes, known as hybrid drying systems. In addition to an

air heater, a drying chamber, a blower, the system consists of the two main components; Auxiliary unit;

since solar radiation is an intermittent source of energy, some auxiliary means of air heating must provide

for the continuous operation of the system during night-time as well as cloudy-rainy day-time hours. This

may be an electric heating system or an oil gas fired system. Storage unit; is occasionally provided to store

excess solar energy from peak radiation hours and then to deliver it to the ambient air during low-or no-

radiation hours. The system generally used for this purpose is the rock-bed, thermal storage type.
 Stated by, Basunia and Abe (December, 2008) show the performance study of a small engine waste

heated bin dryer in deep bed drying of paddy. Rough rice is ordinarily harvested at moisture contents

above safe storage levels, with a normal range from 18 to 30 % (w.b.). Sometimes it is even higher when

rice is harvested in wet weather. Unfortunately, the latter case seems to happen quite frequently in

Bangladesh and in other rice producing non-industrialized countries. The excess moisture, therefore, must

be immediately removed by some drying process, mainly to improve the storability of the grain. Proper

drying of freshly harvested paddy is necessary to maintain grain quality and minimize spoilage losses. In

tropical areas, humid weather makes the stored rice more susceptible to organisms and mold, especially

when the grain moisture exceeds a high level. Many experiments showed that when initial rice moisture

content after harvesting is 24 % or above, drying must start within 24 hours, with 21 to 23% within 48

hours, and with 18 to 20.9 % within three days. In order to avoid the danger of deterioration, the drying

operation should be carried out as soon as possible. Drying may be achieved by either the sun or a

mechanical drying method.

Yadollahinia et.al. (2008) designed and fabricated of experimental dryer for studying agricultural

products. Because of the importance of rice cracking in milling process, precision control of drying

conditions is important. For this purpose, it is necessary to determine drying kinetics and obtain the

moisture change during the drying process. In this paper, design, fabrication and testing of an automated

thin-layer dryer is presented. Experiments on the drying kinetics of rice paddy (Fajr cv.) were conducted

at five drying air temperatures, ranging from 30 to 70, in four air velocities, ranging from 0.25 to 1.0 ms -

1 and three replicas (60 runs altogether) with initial moisture content of 25% (d.b.) at the start of all runs.

During drying, the mass loss was measured continuously. Experimental curves of the drying rate versus

time grouped by air temperature showed the strong dependence of drying rate with temperature revealed

that: drying rate increased when air temperature increased and moisture transfer occurred during the falling

rate period of drying. However, when the curves of moisture ratio verses time were grouped by air velocity,

very weak dependence of moisture ratio with velocity was observed. Increase in air velocity from 0.25 to

1 ms -1 had little effect on the drying period paddy. Drying curves obtained from the experimental data,
fitted to eight thin layer models and compared with three statistical parameters, showed that two terms

model can predict moisture change with greater accuracy than other models.

Zareiforoush et. al. (2009) show the effect of moisture content on some physical properties of

paddy grains. The moisture-dependent physical properties of agricultural grains are important to design

post harvest equipment of the product. In their study, various physical properties of two different paddy

cultivars were determined at five moisture content levels of 8, 11, 14, 18 and 21% (d.b.).He concluded, all

the physical properties of paddy grain varieties are dependent on their moisture contents and the moisture

content of paddy grain increased from 8 to 21% (d.b.), the average length, width, thickness, equivalent

diameter, surface area, volume, `sphericity, thousand grain mass and angle of repose increased for both

the Alikazemi and Hashemi varieties.

With the decrease of the relative humidity level of the ambient atmosphere. Results further indicate

that the two drying constants can be attributed to two diffusion processes, one which occurs within the

seed and the other across the husk.

Inappropriate drying condition may cause seed injury and vast economic loss. A number of

researchers have tried to determine the optimum drying condition for production of good quality seeds.

Different kinds of seeds may have dissimilar optimum drying conditions. Hebblethwaite (1980) pointed

out that the response of seed grain to hot air drying depends on species and variety, moisture content,

exposure time and the drying technology. McDonald and Copeland (1997) suggested that a drying air

temperature of 43 °C is accepted as the safe upper limit for drying most seeds without damage.

Furthermore, according to Soponronnarit (1997), the temperature of drying air for seeds should not be

over 43 °C. Arora et.al. (1973) investigated the effect of drying air temperature on the viability of shelled

maize seeds. They established that in the 17-25% moisture content range the germination does not decrease

below 90% during 30 minutes of drying if the air temperature is limited to below 60 °C. Navratil and

Burris (1984) tested the viability of several maize hybrids after drying the seeds at different seed moisture

contents and temperatures. Small but significant differences were observed between hybrids. McDonald
and Copeland (1997) recommended that the drying temperature for rice seed should not exceed 35 °C.

Likewise, Madamba and Yabes (2005) studied the effect of drying air temperature in the range of 35-55

°C on the germination percentage of rice seeds.

Many studies were conducted on drying of paddy seeds at different universities and research

institutes in India, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and other countries.

Local

The Republic Act No. 7607, known as the ‘Magna Carta of Small Farmers’, provides for the

provision of at least one storage facility and a multipurpose pavement in each of the nation’s rural

barangays/villages (Cabanilla et al. 2002)

Under the administration of President Benigno S. Aquino III, the flagship Program Agrikulturang-

Pinoy (Agri-Pinoy) Rice Program was launched to uphold agricultural development programs through

government interventions and initiatives aiming for food security and self-sufficiency, resource

management and support services from farm to table (da.gov.ph,2014).

Linked to that, (Terrazola, Casayuran 2018) Recto also pointed out that need for more drying

equipment, so that farmers would not use the roads. But he noted that the allocation of Philippine Center

for Postharvest Development and Mechanization (PhilMech), under the 2019 National Expenditure

Program was a “mere” P310 million, of which only P62 million would be allocated for capital outlays.

Recto said in a statement about the drying, the solutions range from building more drying pavements, to

concreting of farm roads, to more mechanical dryers, to the simple distribution of drying mats to farmers.

He added without these, then farmers will really be forced to dry along national highways. The solution is

not to jail or fine them, but give them alternatives where they can dry their harvest.

According to Abas (2016), attainment of self-reliance in rice production is extremely an important

goal that small farmers in every farm community should achieve to ensure food security, such that rice is

always accessible and affordable to all. At present, Bataan province contributes almost 5% of the region’s
total production of rice in Central Luzon. Despite of this short production level, most of its residents

nevertheless are dependent on rice farming which serves as one of the chief sources of livelihood aside

from fishing and fish processing.

The introduction of the high-yielding seed varieties and the adoption of advanced production

technology has created extra problems in drying grain in the wet season. Sun drying is no longer adequate

to dry large quantities of wet palay especially at the peak of the harvest. In the 1990s, 58% of palay and

65% of maize were harvested in the wet season (Mangabat et al. (2002), from BAS sources).

There are also transactions in dry (14% m.c.) palay, which is sold to the marketing intermediaries

mentioned above and to the National Food Authority, which buys dry palay to an average of about 4% of

total production. There is a 2–5 pesos per kilogram difference in the buying price of dry palay and price

of wet palay (Hughes and Daglish 2005).

Mangabat et al. (2002). They reported two surveys of 161 farmer cooperatives in 30 provinces in

1997 and 1998. Between 1991 and 1997, 161 flash dryers had been distributed to these cooperatives but

very few had in-store dryers to enable them to implement the two-stage drying process. The surveys were

conducted at the time of an El Niño event and so the traditional sun-drying technology was attractive.

Only two of the cooperatives were recipients of both a flash dryer and an in-store dryer, the components

of the two-stage drying technology.

Koirala, Mishra and Mohanty (2013), tropical and semi-tropical Asia contributed 90% of the global

rice production. In spite of being produced on small and marginal farms in many of these countries, the

production of rice has increased faster than population over the last three decades. Southeast Asia produces

about 25 percent of global rice output. Rice production has increased by about 18 percent between 2000

and 2010, which is 1.6 percent increase in every year. Rice is the staple food for about 80% of Filipinos,

which accounts for 46% and 35% of their caloric intake and protein consumption, respectively. Rice is the

single most important agricultural crop in the Philippines, and is therefore a major source of income for

millions of Filipino farmers.

Related Studies

Foreign

Ibrahim, M.N. Natural convection solar grain dryer. United States: N. p., 1983. Web.Design

parameters and procedure for developing a small to medium capacity grain (rice) dryer, with natural

convection air flow and using solar heat, was established by theoretical consideration, simulated

performance evaluation, and some experimental work. A mathematical model was derived expressing the

air flow rate through the grain bed in relation to the grain bed depth, the stack height, and the differential

densities between that of ambient air and stack air. By using this model, characteristic operational curves

were generated for the proposed system operating under the weather and grain conditions prevailing in

Malaysia. A specific system with corresponding average operating conditions to meet the drying

requirements of a desired amount of grain was then selected from these curves. The expected performance

of the selected system was evaluated by simulating its actual operation under varying solar energy input

by using the simulation procedure developed in this study. The operation and performance of a simplified

dryer under near constant drying air temperatures and the resulting air flow rate achievable by natural

convection was illustrated by the experimental stack-dryer system used in this study. A specific design of

the proposed system was selected for construction on a prototype scale for field evaluation under

Malaysian conditions. Bunyawanichakul (2006)

Linked to that, Every year large volumes of high quality seeds are lost for planting purpose because

of excess moisture. Seed moisture content is one of the factors which determine whether or not seed can

be stored safely without loss of germination and vigor. When moisture content is too high the seed may

heat and various moulds can grow. Therefore it is absolutely vital to ensure that harvested seed is at safe

moisture content before putting it into store or other purposes. Quality seed can alone increase 15-20%

yields of the crops. So, Optimum drying temperature of paddy seeds is necessary and at 440 C drying

temperature is completely safe for paddy seeds. The maximum average germination percentage and

viability of dried paddy seed were 86% and 98% respectively after drying paddy seeds at 440 C.
 The hybrid drier provided with a flat plate concentrating solar collector and an air heater performed

better than sun drying method as well as any other solar drier. The average air temperatures at collector

outlet and inside the drier were found about 22.71°C and 17.22°C higher than the average ambient air

temperature, respectively. The collector efficiency varied from 20% to 32% depending on the global solar

radiation. The experimental data was fitted to nine thin layer drying equations. A non-linear regression

analysis was used to fit the thin layer drying equations. The models were compared using the coefficient

of determination, mean relative percent error, root mean square error and the reduced chi-square. The Page

model showed a better fit to the experimental data as compared to other models. Here, the highest R2

(close to 1) and the lowest RMSE values indicate the highest grade point and highest average grade point

ranked first. Samples dried in the hybrid drier were completely protected from insects, rain and dusts, and

the dried samples were hygienic. HASSAN (2010)

The rice kernel is modelled as a two water compartment system and as a whole concerning heat

and quality. The external transfers are governed by Fick and Fourier laws. The compartmental approach

is mainly used to render the internal resistance in the most efficient way on the computer. Mass transfer

coefficients were adjusted with the help of constant condition drying kinetics. A primary validation of the

model was observed when compared to experimental kinetics with transient phenomena. A secondary

validation was done at the thick layer level. A simple PI controller with system linearization was designed

and tested on the simulator. The latest results concern the simulation of a large scale semi-industrial dryer

for both steady and transient states. The controller was tested successfully on the simulator. Results have

shown a robust behavior for such a non-linear system. On the other hand, performance is highly defendant

upon the dryer setpoint. Previous work on corn dryers has shown that improving this performance wasn't

realistic for practical reasons (e.g. lack of knowledge about the zeros of the system). The resulting model,

in its two (steady and transient state) versions, is available as a cross-platform software and also on

internet. The validity range for the model is 15–80 Celsius, 0–100%HR and 0–1 m/s. ( F.Courtois,

et.al.,2001)
 Local

The Industrial Technology Development Institute (ITDI) [Taguig, Bicutan, Metro Manila,

Philippines] gasifier-combustor which produces clear blue flame at a temperature of 650-750 deg C could

be used for paddy drying and brick firing. Exploratory tests were conducted by ITDI to adopt the

combustor in flat-bed dryer. However, the temperature is difficult to control, the method is inefficient and

may cause accident particularly when it is windy. The study was conducted to pursue the adaption and

optimize the design feature of the ITDI Rice Hull Gasifier-Combustor for paddy drying. Modifications

were made to optimize drying operations. A simple heat exchange was installed between the blower and

the rim to the plenum to move air temperature to within acceptable limits. A baffle plate was attached at

the tubular outlet of the combustor to reduce the flame temperature. Evaluation of the combustor cum

batch dryer at PhilRice showed that a drying temperature of 40-45 deg C was attainable in the plenum. An

average moisture reduction of 1.4 percent per ha. was attained during drying tests. Germination analysis

of the paddy samples ranged from 95.3-98.6 percent. Milling and head rice recoveries ranged 59.1-64.3

percent and 76.5-91.1 percent, respectively. Test results indicated the potential of the combustor as heat

source for batch driers. An economic analysis showed that an annual savings of P7,579.00 will be obtained

with the use of the combustor instead of a kerosene burner. (E.C. dela Cruz, et.al., 2005)

The current status of the sun-drying in the Philippines remain traditional method which involves

the use of materials under the sun. With the current status of drying, there are problems that are being

encountered like it was being mixed with the small stones or dust and passed by people or transportation

in the streets. In order to improve the drying of rice grain, the researchers develop an Automatic Rice

Grain Dryer also to lessen the space in drying. Moreover, the contamination of dust in the rice grained will

be lessened. The process in the drying of rice grains will be much more comfortable and convenient due

to the rice grain dryer. The user will consume much lesser time in checking the rice grain now and then

due to the rice grain dryer. The farmers are still using the traditional sun drying, and the barangay has no

owned mechanical dryers and even have a small space for drying rice grain. (Lucentes et.al., 2018)
 Stated by (REH.B. Exell 2008) considerable losses, ranging from 10 % to 25 0 0, can occur during

natural sun drying in the field due to various causes, such as rodents, birds, spillage, and contamination.

Moreover, rewetting and over drying in variable weather can produce cracking of the rice grains and a

poor yield of full sized kernels after the milling process.

Justification of the Study

The difference of study to others is that we build an palay dryer powered by a electricity in

drying rice grains with heating element and mixer for keeping the quality of grains. In addition it can dry

in any seasons to support farmers can’t afford drying equipment.