Thursday 7 September 2017

The Spanish Civil War

Long term causes of the civil war: political instability (1820-1931)

1. Weakness of the government: constitutional monarchy, theoretically democratic

but technically corrupted by oligarchs, only two parties (Liberals and Conservatives)
that were actually identical, “at a superficial level, political stability, but beneath in
tremendous social instability” (Paul Preston)

2. Role of the Spanish Army: much political power, unpopular with the folk (brutal,
expensive, ineffective - war with America + Morocco (1906-26), need for reform - too
many officers (12,000 out of 160,000 men), conservative (extreme Africanistas)

3. Role of the Church: power guaranteed through state religion (Concordat 1851)/
education/economy, undermining the state, supporting conservatism, close to
aristocracy, resentment/protest amongst the poor

4. Economic causes:

• inefficient agricultural economy, not enough food, seasonal work, gap between rich
and poor/ latifundia and braceros (owed 40$/yr), riots suppressed by Civil Guard,
ununiform desire for land redistribution, some peasants joined Catholic Agrarian
Federation (—> Franco), other the anarchists (—> Republicans)

• need for industrial modernisation, low wages, long hours, bad living/working
conditions, growth of trade unionism (CNT-anarchists, UGT-socialists), no legal way
to improve, uprisings

• economic boom WWI (increase in exports) only temporary: shortages and inflation,
conflicts between employers and employees, mainly Catalonia

5. Role of the Regions: desire for decentralisation/independence/self-governing rights

(Basque region + Catalonia: separate language, culture, church, industrialised
economy) that had been taken away by Primo de Rivera, strikes suppressed (eg.
Barcelona 1909), 1000 people killed between 1918-21, separatist forces Luis
Companys help overthrow the king in 1931

6. Political opposition: Liberalism and Socialism oppose the Conservatism in place,

ideological division

• Liberals/Left: Socialists - popular in Basque region and north (PSOE, UGT, radicals
led by Caballero, moderates by Pietro), Communists after 1917, Anarchists -
popular with Catalonian workers (CNT trade union, FAIE bombings and
assassinations) - extreme, against democratic processes, redistribution of land

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7. Fall of monarchy and establishment of Second Republic:

• King Alfonso XIII: weakened by Morocco and post-WWI economic depression, 12

governments from 1918-23, overruled by Primo De Rivera’s coup, goes into
voluntary exile in 1931 due to popular San Sebastian Pact (1930)/ non-support from
Church/Army

• Primo De Rivera: right-wing military dictatorship with monarchy on background

1923-1930, dictatorship ends in 25 but he remains prime minister, resigns because
of support lack in 1930, smooth revolution from above
- PLUS: establishment of arbitration system for labour disputes, government
subsidies for housing/healthcare, infrastructure programmes eg. railways/roads/
electrification, irrigation schemes, better industrial production (X3), stopped
Moroccan war (1925)
- CON: massive debt worsened by Wall Street Crash, by trying to please both
poles lost support of all (Christopher J. Ross)

• Second Republic: established on April 1931, Left-wing coalition government,

provisional government, no-one except extremist minorities believed war was
necessary (Paul Preston)

Short-term causes of the Spanish Civil War: political polarisation

1) THE LEFT REPUBLIC (April 1931-1933)

- center-left won elections (right only 57 out of 473 seats), modernisation goal
- New constitution: Cortes election every 4 yrs, universal suffrage, president, freedom
of religion
- PM: Zamora, then Azana with president Zamora
- Attempts to reduce Church power:
• expulsion of Jesuits, no educative control, clergy payment by state stopped over 2
year period, legalised divorce/civil marriage, nationalised church property
(Association Laws 1933)

• expensive investment state into education: 7000 schools opened in 1931-2, training
of teachers
- Attempts to reduce Army’s power:
• reduce officer number through early retirement (50% of them accepted)

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• military academy Saragossa closed
—> radicalised e.g. Africanistas, right remained
- Economic situation:
• Great depression, prices/export/industrial production (iron by third, steel by half)
falls, peasant unemployment

• Land redistribution programme with compensation (1932 Laws) fails: not enough
money, invisible change (only 7,000 families benefit in a year) upsets Left and Right
- Violence:
• Civil unrest, Assault Gard created, risings (eg. R: Sanjuro’s failed coup 1932, L:
Casas Viejas anarchists 1933, Assault Guard and Army loyal)

• Regionalism: Catalonia own parliament (1932), law, order and education dual
control, Right unsatisfied
- Political division:
• Right wing CEDA established, Gil Robles, Catholic, “accidentalism” policy,
increased violent opposition to Left reforms, the right was not going to give the
regime a chance anyways (Paul Preston)

End: Azana looses support due to repression of Anarchist uprising Casas Viejas (1933)
and resigns

2) THE RIGHT REPUBLIC (November 1933-February 1936)

- Elections of 1933: shift to the Right by small majority

- Gil Robles: minister of War
- Two black years = Bienno Negro:
• reforms reversed: Church control restored, land distribution and public spending
stopped

• more polarisation: Creation of Fascist Falange party (1934), Basque switch R-> L,
Left cooperation between Socialists, syndicalists, Communists —> extreme
ideologies related to European context

• more violence: Barcelona’s anarchist uprising (Dec. 1934) suppressed, Asturias

miners’ uprising (1934) taking away Catalonia’s independence

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• 3000 deaths
End: PM Lerroux involved in financial scandals resigns (September 1935)

3) THE POPULAR FRONT (February-July 1936)

- February 1936: elections won with small margin by anti-Fascist Popular Front coalition
(a.o. moderate socialists, anarchist, communists, liberals = republicans)
- Supported by Stalin/Comintern
- Azana PM and later president
• restoration of reforms, political prisoners freed
• No political consensus (anti-Fascist vs. anti-Communist): opposition right and
extreme socialists (Caballero), open conflict FAI and CEDA/Falange youth
movements, general strikes, seizure of land, general strike in May 36 called by CNT

• Coup planned by radical army officers (Sanjurjo, Mola, Franco), with catalyst the
murder of José Calvo Sotelo ( both July 1936), support from CEDA/Carlists/
Alfonsists/Falange, takes Morocco and northern Spain but fails to take Madrid/
industrial area because half of army stays loyal —> CIVIL WAR

Practices of war and their effect on the outcome

Type of war: CIVIL WAR

European limited war vs. Spanish total war, propaganda, atrocities, targeting civilians

No conditions for guerrilla warfare

Political camps during war

- Nationalists: Nationalist civilian + church support, middle and upper classes, peasants
in the North, 50% army, German and Italian support, Franco’s policy of terror (eg.
taking of city of Badajoz, 2000 killed), strategy occupying, purging and moving on
- Republicans: industrial resources, 50% loyal army, gold reserves, Loyalist civilian
support (workers, peasants in the South, Basques and Catalans) Stalin’s support,
internally divided (eg. struggle of Madrid 1939), killed priests, nuns, monks

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However, in fact the SCW was not really civil but “an international civil war” - Beevor —>
talk about foreign involvement

Technological developments

Nationalists: superior air control, modern equipment even more important than human
resources, Bombing of Condor Legion in Guernica (carpet bombing elaborated as
strategic bombing), messerschmitts 109 from Germans

Republicans: better tanks from USSR, but nothing else

Modern (airplanes, tanks, artillery) + traditional warfare (cavalry, battles on land), eg.
Teruel attack February 38

—> defined nature of warfare in WWII

Theatres of war - air, land and sea

AIR - war lasted so long because the air dominance wasn’t achieved, important in
crushing the 1937-38 Republican offensives, Condor Legion

LAND - sometimes similar to attraction warfare WWI, high casualties (especially around
madrid), also changing warfare like blitzkrieg (air bombardment to prepare advance),
defence easier than attack

SEA - important for supplies, blockades, Italians very important in keeping Nationalist
supply routes open

Major Events defining outcome:

1. Bombing of Guernica - contributed to fall of Bilbao (AIR) - April 1937 —> first blow for
Republicans, chemical weapons

2. Battle of Brunete, Belchite (summer 1937) - failures of the Republicans, loose

morale, loose a lot of soldiers, can only apply defensive strategy

3. Nationalists take northern Spain (autumn 1937) —> no need for northern blockade,
only blockade on mediterranean

4. April 1938 - Nationalists reach Vinaroz (Mediterranean) - could cut communication

and supplies between two essential parts of Republican spain

5. Ebro Offensive —> fails, Republicans loose about half their forces, final blow

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Extent of mobilisation of human and economic resources
- Nationalists: could block the supplies of the Republicans in the north in spring of 1937,
in October captured Asturias coalfields, gaining coal, iron and armament industries,
Ebro offensive defeated because of the increased mobilisation of troops in the front
lines + superior airforce, Franco could merge the Carlists (70,000) and Falange (1
million) into one, fusion of army and militias preventing division, Army of Africa (most
effective and well trained), many junior officers, backed by business community -
credit to buy war supplies, by 1936 in control of main food-producing areas,
international trade and credit, 700$ million from USA to buy oil/rubber from US
companies, more and continuous aid of better quality (eg. Condor Legion - 10,000
troops, 800 aircrafts, 200 tanks; Italian 70,000-75,000 troops, 750 planes, 150 tanks;
20,000 Portuguese troops + open border), drafted (conscription) more aggressively at
start of war
- in 1937-38: armies equal (700,000); by mid 1938 Republicans 800,000 people -
Nationalists 880,000; by late February 1939 army was 400,000 (Republicans) vs.
double Nationalists; 900,000 Nationalists
- Republicans: had the gold reserves of Spain, important parts of military (airforce and
navy), cut in two by 1938 limited the mobilisation and communication of resources,
mobilisation of human resources limited by disunity and clashing ideologies within the
left (anarchism vs. communist, independent Basque, Catalonia, Asturias), increased
membership Communists (40,000 to 400,000 from 36 to 37), anarchist + Basque
militias refused to be led by central command structure, Basque refused to fight
outside their territory, no coherent army before end of 1936, production in Catalonia
fell 2/3 between 36-39, collectivities couldn’t supply war effort, food and raw material
shortages increased throughout the war, 300% inflation, NIC banned arms sale to
Republic (only USSR trade for ++ gold), blockaded resources by Nationalist fleet, no
soviet troops sent (only 1000 tanks, 750 aircrafts, advisers - not gratis), international
brigades (Comintern) - 35,000 volunteers, limited, went home in 1938; France ended
support, more aggressive conscription from 38 on, mobilised women = milicianas (in
contrast with Nationalists) both in rearguard and front lines that would perform equally
to men and a.o. confection bombs and do other “women” tasks

—> also talk about foreign involvement

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Outcome: Why did Nationalists win/ Republican loose?
Political + military situation
Economic situation
Foreign Assistance
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Nationalists
UNITY:
- Common aim
- Unified command: Franco as
political and military leader
- Support Church (“crusade”)
- Ideologies merged (Carlists +
Falange = FET)
- Propaganda/Terror to minimise
opposition (through church)
- fusion militias + army
- effective army of Africa
- good equipment and
communication
ADVANTAGE:
- support from business
community
- control of agricultural areas by
1936
- control of industrial areas by
1937
- International trade and credit
(eg. USA - 700 bln dollars)
- more and continuous
- strengthened by FA
- modern equipment
- Italy and Germany did not
undermine Franco, Franco did
not always accept their advice
Thursday 7 September 2017
Republicans
DISUNITY:
- divided according to ideology:
communism and socialism vs.
anarchism
- different idea about
revolution (A: now, SC:
after war)
- different aim (A:
revolutionary regime, SC:
strengthening 2nd Rep.)
- Barcelona May days (37):
fighting
- no unified command: militias
and army not fused, different
fronts, no trust in loyal army
commanders
PROBLEMS:
- collectivity impaired war effort
- food and raw materials
shortages
- fall in industrial production
- inflation
- ban on arm trade
- more limited
- good equipment from USSR/
Mexico but no troops, at high
price: not enough
- short and limited intervention
of IB, mostly raising morale
- half support of the USSR
- Early end of French support
due to NIC
 Thursday 7 September 2017
Foreign Intervention: “an international civil war” (Antony Beevor)
- conflict “became an international crisis whose solution was decided by external
circumstances” (Hugh Thomas)
- “Dress rehearsal for WWII”

NATIONALISTS:

1) Britain:
- Sets up Non-Intervention Committee (Aug 1936), first meeting in London (Sept)
- neutral, though slightly favouring Nationalists: Gibraltar, trading agreement in 1936
- Fear of European war and damaging relations with Germany, Italy, Portugal, bad
conditions in the UK impair investment in armament
- Fact with France it recognises Franco in February already, puts moral down of
Republicans and makes Azana resign

2) USA:
- 700$ million in credit to Nationalists
- State: respecting Neutrality Act (ban on arm sales to belligerents in war)
- Private companies (eg. Texaco) supplied oil/cars
3) Germany:
- airlifted 24,000 experienced troops from Army of Africa to Spain —> kept Franco’s
aims/hopes alive

- Condor Legion (10,000 troops, 800 aircrafts, 200 tanks) helped siege of Madrid in
November 1936 - failed
- interests: stop communism, test Luftwaffe, iron ore, hinder Anglo-French maritime
communication
- Troops, aircraft (Messerschmitt 109s in 1937)
- Guernica bombing and decisive in taking of Catalonia
- Decisive impact: militarily and discouraging other powers to support to Republicans
4) Italy:
- Interest: fight Left, exerce influence, weaken France

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- Most support of all: 70 -75000 troops + equipment (150 tanks + 750 aircrafts - attack
on cities)
- Blockade of Republican supplies - submarines
- Failed at Guadalajara
- Italians key for Franco to consolidate in Andalusia (February 37)
5) Portugal:
- 20 000 troops, open borders, base of communication
- alliance with Britain

REPUBLICANS:

1) France:
- At first aided the Republicans, but because of its reliance on Britain, ended this
- Humanitarian assistance, organisation of IB, center of coordination for Soviet aid
- Recognition of Franco’s government on Feb 27, 1939
2) USSR:

- ideological half-support (IB, weapons) to Republicans: impairing emergence of Fascist

state and an alliance between B, F,G against communism, ended after Munich which
caused further downfall of Republicans
- sent very little troops, but 1000 tanks, 750 aircrafts and advisers
- Volunteers through comintern
- associated Republic with ‘Soviet Communism’, which impaired other kinds of support
- very important to not falling of Madrid in 1936
3) International Brigades:
- 32000 volunteers from 53 countries
- organised by Comintern
- war of ideology to them
- Withdrawal after Munich in 1938: 10000 killed, those who couldn’t go back got
Spanish citizenship
- very important to not falling of Madrid in 1936

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General effect of FI:
- Lasting and intense war
- Spanish problems submerged by other ones
- Nationalist victory
- decisive, as both camps had around same number of supporters within Spain
- “foreign non-involvement”

Effects of the civil war

- Successes and Failures of Peacemaking

- Failure: after struggle between Communists, trade unionists and anti-Communists
negotiated settlement with Franco was attempted, but he didn’t accept terms, took
Madrid
- Territorial Changes
- Catalonia and Basque region back to centralised Spain, tightly
- Political, Economic, Social, Demographic Impact, Change in role/status of
Women

SPAIN
- Human cost:
- 70 000 Nationalists
- 100 000 Republicans, 40-200 000 during white terror, ++ exiles,
concentration camps, Republican children taken away, division and hatred
- 500,000 people killed in total between 36-39
- Economic effect:
- lower incomes by 28% (35 vs. 39), 70% machinery in Madrid + tram network +
communications system destroyed, 1/3 merchant shipping out, 10-15% of
wealth destroyed, inflation due to printing money, cost of new infrastructure,
inefficient agricultural economy, periodic unemployment, debts inhibiting foreign
loans, lack of skilled workers and of labour

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- WWII: trade agreements with France and Britain, German exploitation of
Spanish resources, debt remained, isolation, famine in 1946, industrial output
lower than 1918, aid from Peron (Argentina)
- Reforms 50-60s, development of strong industry and capitalist economy
- Political effect:
- Franco and authoritarian, Catholic and conservative dictatorship
- Republican persecution: White Terror, Law of the Political Responsibility
(1939), Civil guard, confiscation of land, death sentence, large fines —>
“country occupied by victorious army” (Paul Preston)
- Restore privileged class, control the working class, intellectuals left: wages cut,
industrial political activism outlawed, trade unions outlawed, inequality
- “Era of the national church”, Republican reforms reversed
- Regionalism ended, centralised control, Basque, Catalan, Galician languages
banned

—> “behind rhetoric of national + social unity, until Franco’s death every
effort was made to maintain division between victors and
vanquished" (Paul Preston)
- defeat of Fascists in WWII weakened Franco, restored king, army lost
eminence, lost Morocco (1956), 1975 Franco dies and democracy restored
- Social effect:
- Change in role and status of women:
- Republican area - militiawomen (milicianas) - fighting equally to men, key
in industrial production (eg. confection of bombs), political positions - eg.
Dolores Ibarruri, public welfare+health+transport —> emancipation, deep
effect on gender dynamics, but still injustice (especially on front),
Catalonia, a marriage code was passed which gave women equal rights
with men in issues of marriage and divorce
- Nationalist area: the prohibition of divorce and civil marriage, prohibition on
mixed-gender classrooms, education for girls focused on domestic work
and motherhood.

- Reverse of emancipation under Franco: head shaved, public humiliation,

tortured and beaten in prisons
- Education: children of Republicans taken away to convents, indoctrination

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- large-scale social division
INTERNATIONAL
- USSR and Communism
- lost lot of intellectual sympathy in West
- increased Russo-German hostility, but also outlawed Russian+French+British
alliance (reasons: appeasement), so increased Stalin’s interest in possible
Russo-German deal —> Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939)
- Hitler’s Germany and Mussolini’s Italy
- Hitler: useful military test (importance of air power, air cover for ground troops,
blitzkrieg, bombing of civilians, bullet-resistant fuel tanks needing radio contact)
—> used in 1939-40
- closer Italo-German relations, weaker reconciliation changes of Stresa Front,
Rome-Berlin Axis (36), Pact of Steel (39), strengthened by appeasement/non-
intervention policies of France+Britain
- Distraction from German expansion into Austria and Czechoslovakia
- Provided good relations with Franco used during WWII (base for refuelling U-
boats + planes, trade)
- Italy: expensive with Ethiopia, weakened to the point of remaining neutral in 1939
- Britain and France
- increased support for appeasement (reasons: horrors of air strikes, polarised
nature of foreign involvement)
- Weakness of Britain and France changed Hitler’s perception of Britain,
strengthened Hitler
- USA
- neutral and isolationist during war, Quarantine the Aggressors speech 1937 by
Roosevelt
- After WWII, UN put economic sanctions on Spain, excluded from post-war
recovery package (Marshall aid)
- Reverse in 1950s because of anti-communism in Spain: direct economic aid such
as first American grant in 1951 vs. use of air bases in Spain, allowed to join UN

—> significant as cause of WWII (vs. A.J.P. Taylor - “without significant effect”)

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