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87

ENGINE-ROOM TOOLS, PART 2

91. Machine Screws.-The term "machine screw" is generally used to designate the
small screws that are used in tapped holes for the assembly of metal parts. The
types of machine screws that are ordinarily encountered are shown in Fig. 78. Most
of these screws are made of steel or brass, some being plated to resist corrosion.
They are also made of stainless steel.
 FIG. 78. MACHINE SCREWS.

88

There is a great variety of diameters, lengths, and head shapes manufactured. The
thread diameter, length in inches, head shape, material from which made, and the
type of finish, must therefore be included in a complete description of a machine
screw.

Occasionally machine screws with specially shaped heads, as shown in Fig. 79, are
used aboard ship. Most of these screws require special tools for driving and
removing. In some cases the tools are included in a kit that comes with the machine
on which the screws are used.
on which the screws are used.

FIG. 79. SPECIAL MACHINE SCREWS.

Machine screws are driven and removed with a screwdriver or wrench, depending on
the type of screw head. Hexagon, or hex, heads are turned with socket wrenches;
slotted heads are turned with plain screwdrivers; socket heads require an Allen-type
wrench; and Phillips heads require special Phillips screwdrivers. Holes for fillister-
head screws must be counterbored so that the head of the screw is flush with or
below the surface.

92. Cap Screws.-Cap screws, sometimes called "tap bolts," perform the same
functions as machine screws. They are generally used without nuts and are screwed
into tapped holes. Their sizes range up to 1 inch in diameter and 6 inches in length.

Cap screws may have square, hex, flat, button, or fillister heads, as illustrated in Fig.
78. Fillister heads are best for use on moving

89

parts because such heads are sunk into counterbored holes. Hex heads are usually
used where the metal parts do not move.

The strongest cap screws are made of alloy steel. Cap screws made of stainless
steel are often specified on machinery exposed to salt water, which would soon
corrode and "freeze" the threads of ordinary steel screws.

Some cap screws have small holes through their heads. A length of wire, called a
safety wire, is passed through the holes in all of the screws in a group and is
fastened at the ends, thus preventing the cap screws from coming loose.

93. Sheet-Metal Screws.-The screws shown in Fig. 80 are used to hold together
sections of sheet metal, fiber, plastic, etc., and are known as sheet-metal screws.
They are especially useful aboard ship when applying sheet-metal covering over
They are especially useful aboard ship when applying sheet-metal covering over
insulation. Type A has a sharp point and resembles a wood screw, except that the
threads extend to the head of the screw. Type Z screws have blunt points and may
be used with heavier material. A special "self-tapping" sheet-metal screw has a tap
end that cuts threads as the screw is inserted.

Holes for sheet-metal screws should be drilled or punched to about the same
diameter as the core of the screw used. The screws are available in a variety of
head shapes, as shown in the illustration.

FIG. 80. SHEET METAL SCREWS.

90

FIG. 81. COMMON TYPES OF BOLTS.

94. Machine Bolts.-Machine bolts, Fig. 81, are made in a variety of diameters,
lengths, thread pitches, and head shapes. They are furnished in three grades:
machine finished, semi-finished, and rough. Diameters range from 3/16 inch to 3/4
inch, and lengths from 1/2 inch to 30 inches. The larger bolts are usually made up to
inch, and lengths from 1/2 inch to 30 inches. The larger bolts are usually made up to
fit as needed instead of carrying them in stock.

Machine bolts are used to hold together frames and structures, particularly those
which must be easily dismantled. Some bolts have holes drilled near the end of. the
threaded part for cotter pins or safety wire. The nuts used on machine bolts may be
either square or hexagonal, and the bolt heads also may be of either type. Washers
are usually used with these bolts.

95. Stove Bolts.-Stove bolts are small, and were developed for use on stoves, as
the name suggests. They can be used for many other jobs, however, where great
accuracy and strength are not required and where there is no great amount of
vibration to shake the nuts loose. Stove bolts have special coarse threads which
make a free fit with the threads of the square nuts used on them.

96. Carriage Bolts.-Carriage bolts usually have round heads, with short square
shanks just under their heads. This square portion prevents the bolt from turning.
Their chief use is in wood structures, but they may be used with metal. Square nuts
and flat washers are used on carriage bolts and are supplied with them.

97. Studs.-Studs, or stud bolts, have both ends threaded, but one end takes a nut
while the other is screwed into a tapped hole.

91

The use of a stud is really a safety precaution, because the nut may still be
removed, even if the end that is screwed into the casting is "frozen." Because studs
are commonly used in castings, they generally have coarse threads.

98. Stud Driver.-A stud driver, Fig. 82, is used to screw studs into place or to
remove them without damaging the threads. It is also very useful when working on
studs in inaccessible places. The driver consists of a square or hexagonal piece of
steel or other metal which has one end drilled and tapped to receive the stud and the
other end drilled and tapped for a setscrew.

FIG. 82. STUD DRIVER.

If the stud is to be installed in a hole, the stud should be screwed into the driver, and
If the stud is to be installed in a hole, the stud should be screwed into the driver, and
the setscrew tightened firmly against the stud. However, if the stud is already started
in the hole, screw the driver on the stud and tighten the setscrew. In both of these
operations the stud and stud driver are locked together, and a wrench is then used
on the body of the driver to turn the stud.

If a stud driver is not handy when needed, a substitute can be made by screwing 2
nuts on the stud, and locking them together by applying a separate wrench to each
nut. To unscrew the stud, a wrench should be applied to the inside nut. If the stud is
being tightened, a wrench is applied to the outside nut.

99. Screw Extractor.-At times a screw or stud will break off in a hole and must be
extracted. The best method of doing this is to use a screw extractor, or "easy out."
First drill a hole in the broken screw or stud a little smaller than its body diameter, so
that the thread will not be damaged. Then insert the extractor in the drilled hole,
tapping it lightly. (Extractors are marked with the size drill

92

with which they are to be used.) The screw extractor is tapered and has sharp
ridges, and when a wrench is applied and the extractor turned counterclockwise, the
ridges will grip the broken part so that it can be screwed out of the hole. A screw
extractor inserted in a broken stud is shown in Fig. 83.

FIG. 83. USE OF SCREW EXTRACTOR.

 FIG. 83. USE OF SCREW EXTRACTOR.

100. Nuts.-Several kinds of nuts are shown in Fig. 84. These must always be used
with some kind of bolt or stud, so that the two pieces, nut and bolt or nut and stud,
exert holding force by the strength of their threads. The combination is suited to
assemblies that may have to be removed or taken apart.

Square and hexagonal nuts are standard, but they are supplemented by special
nuts. One of these is the jam nut, or locknut, used above a standard hex nut to lock
it in position. It is about half as thick as the standard nut, and has a washer face.

Castellated nuts are slotted so that a cotter pin may be pushed

93

FIG. 84. NUTS.

through the slots and a hole in the bolt. This provides a positive method of
preventing the nut from working loose. They are usually used with machine bolts.

Wing nuts are especially useful where there is frequent occasion for hand
adjustment. Cap or acorn nuts are used where appearance is an important
consideration. They are usually made of brass, which is then chromium-plated.
Thumb nuts are knurled, so that they may be turned by hand for easy assembly and
disassembly.

Elastic stop nuts are used where it is imperative that the nut does not come loose.
These nuts have a fiber or composition washer built into them. When the nut is
tightened, the washer is compressed automatically against the screw threads to
provide holding tension.

101. Washers.-Washers are often placed under nuts or bolt heads to protect the
pieces being fastened or to make tightening up easier. Three kinds of washers are
shown in Fig. 85.

Flat washers are used to back up bolt heads and nuts and provide larger bearing
Flat washers are used to back up bolt heads and nuts and provide larger bearing
surfaces. They also prevent damage to the surfaces of the metal parts through
which a bolt passes.

FIG. 85. WASHERS.

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Split lock washers are used under nuts to prevent loosening by vibration. The ends
of these spring-hardened washers dig into both the nut and the work to prevent
slippage.

Shakeproof lock washers have teeth or lugs that can grip both the work and the nut.
After the nut has been tightened on this type of washer, half of the lugs are bent
against the nut and the other half bent in the opposite direction against the work, if
possible, thus obtaining the locking action. Several patented designs, shapes and
sizes are obtainable.

102. Threads.-Threads are helical ridges cut into screws, nuts, bolts, or in the walls
of a hole, so that the action of turning gives an endwise as well as a rotary motion. A
thread is either an outside (male) thread, or an inside (female) thread.

An understanding of the terms used in connection with screw threads is extremely

important. The following definitions are therefore given, and refer to Fig. 86.

Angle of thread. The angle of thread is the angle included between the sides of the
thread, measured in an axial plane.

Half angle of thread. The angle included between a side of the thread and the
normal (90° from the axis), measured in an axial plane.

Lead. The distance a screw thread advances axially in one turn.

Major diameter. The largest diameter of the thread of the screw or nut.

Minor diameter, or root diameter. The smallest diameter of the thread of the screw or
nut.

Pitch diameter. On a straight screw thread, the diameter of an imaginary cylinder,

the surface of which would pass through the threads at such points as to make equal
the width of the threads and the width of the spaces cut by the surface of the
cylinder.

Pitch. The pitch of a thread is the measured distance from the crest of one thread to
the crest of the next adjacent thread. The number of threads per inch, such as 8, 10,
the crest of the next adjacent thread. The number of threads per inch, such as 8, 10,
12, etc., is equal to 1 divided by the pitch, in inches. The diameter and the pitch (or
number of threads per inch) must be known in specifying or cutting threads.

103. Threads having major diameters of less than 1/4 inch are used on machine
screws. The diameters range from 0.060 inch for

95

FIG. 86. SCREW THREAD TERMS.

size "0," to 0.216 inch for size 12, and vary 0.013 inch from one size to the next.

Threads having major diameters of 1/4 inch to 5/8 inch vary in diameter by 1/16 inch
from size to the next. Threads with diameters of 5/8 inch to 1 1/4 inches vary in
diameter by 1/8 inch. Table I includes data concerning standard threads up to 1 1/4
inches in diameter.

104. Thread Forms.-The four most common types of screw threads are the V-
104. Thread Forms.-The four most common types of screw threads are the V-
thread, the American National thread, the Square thread, and the Acme thread. The
same rules for diameter and pitch apply to all types of threads.

The sharp V-thread, Fig. 87, has serious disadvantages and is

96

TABLE I.

AMERICAN NATIONAL THREADS

(Thread and Tap Drill Sizes)

Size and Thr'd Major Root Tap drill to Decimal

Threads series diameter diameter produce equivalent
per inch (inches) (inches) approx. of tap drill
75% full thread
0-80 N. F. 0.0600 0.0438 3/64 0.0469
64 N. C. 0.0730 0.0527 53 0.0595
72 N. F. 0.0730 0.0550 53 0.0595
2-56 N. C. 0.0860 0.0628 50 0.0700
64 N. F. 0.0860 0.0657 50 0.0700
3-48 N. C. 0.0990 0.0719 47 0.0785
56 N. F. 0.0990 0.0758 45 0.0820
4-40 N. C. 0.1120 0.0795 43 0.0890
48 N. F. 0.1120 0.0849 42 0.0935
5-40 N. C. 0.1250 0.0925 38 0.1015
44 N. F. 0.1250 0.0955 37 0.1040
6-32 N. C. 0.1380 0.0974 36 0.1065
40 N. F. 0.1380 0.1055 33 0.1130
8-32 N. C. 0.1640 0.1234 29 0.1360
36 N. F. 0.1640 0.1279 29 0.1360
10-24 N. C. 0.1900 0.1359 25 0.1495
32 N. F. 0.1900 0.1494 21 0.1590
12-24 N.C. 0.2160 0.1619 16 0.1770

28 N. F. 0.2160 0.1696 14 0.1820

1/4-20 N. C. 0.2500 0.1850 7 0.2010
28 N. F. 0.2500 0.2036 3 0.2130
5/16-18 N. C. 0.3125 0.2403 F 0.2570
24 N. F. 0.3125 0.2584 I 0.2720
3/8-16 N. C. 0.3750 0.2938 5/16 0.3125
24 N. F. 0.3750 0.3209 Q 0.3320
7/16-14 N. C. 0.4375 0.3447 U 0.3680
20 N. F. 0.4375 0.3726 25/64 0.3906
1/2-13 N. C. 0.5000 0.4001 27/64 0.4219
20 N. F. 0.5000 0.4351 29/64 0.4531
9/16-12 N. C. 0.5625 0.4542 31/64 0.4844
18 N. F. 0.5625 0.4903 33/64 0.5156
5/8-11 N. C. 0.6250 0.5069 17/32 0.5312
18 N. F. 0.6250 0.5528 37/64 0.5781
3/4-10 N. C. 0.7500 0.6201 21/32 0.6562
16 N. F. 0.7500 0.6688 11/16 0.6875
7/8-9 N. C. 0.8750 0.7307 49/64 0.7656
14 N. F. 0.8750 0.7822 13/16 0.8125
1-8 N. C. 1.0090 0.8376 7/8 0.8750
14 N. F. 1.0000 0.9072 15/16 0.9375

97
 FIG. 87. SHARP V AND AMERICAN NATIONAL THREADS.

seldom used. The sharp crests and roots are hard to cut accurately; the crests are
easily dented and chipped; and the roots become clogged with dirt and bits of metal.

The American National thread, also shown in Fig. 87, resembles the sharp V-thread,
except that the crests and roots are flat. The length of this flat portion, of both crest
and root, is 1/8 of the pitch distance. Because of the design, American National
threads are not easily damaged and the roots are easily cleaned. This type of thread
is the one generally used on the many bolts and nuts found in a ship's installation.

America National threads are standardized into 2 series, National Coarse (N.C.) and
National Fine (N.F.). The coarse thread

Fig. 88. SQUARE AND ACME THREADS.

98

series is used for rough work on heavy materials, while the fine thread series is used
on small bolts, machine screws, adjusting mechanisms, etc.
The Square thread, shown in Fig. 88, is strong and efficient. It is used on the
tightening screws of vises, clamps, and jacks.

The Acme thread is a heavy-duty thread whose sides form an angle of 29 degrees
with each other. This type of thread can withstand heavy strains and loads, and is
easier to machine than Square threads.

105. Most threads are right-hand threads, that is, they advance when turned
clockwise. Left-hand threads, however, are required by some machines and
installations. They advance when turned counterclockwise. Left-hand threads are
often labeled so that they will not be turned the wrong way. Right-hand taps and dies
cannot be used to cut left-hand threads; a special left-hand tap and die is necessary.

106. The fit of threads depends on the clearance between the threads of mating
parts, the four different fits being as follows:

No. 1.-Loose fit; No. 2.-Free fit; No. 3.-Medium fit; No. 4.-Close fit.

The No. 1 and No. 2 fits have considerable play and are used on stove bolts and
bolts used for rough construction.

The No. 3 fit is the one specified for machine parts, engine bolts and most threaded
parts. If a matching bolt and nut have very little play and can just be turned with the
fingers, the threads probably have a No. 3 thread. However, if it is necessary to use
a wrench without much pressure, it is a No. 4 close fit. This fit is used for the
threaded parts of mechanisms that must be extremely accurate.

Thread fits are often stated on blueprints, together with the thread's major diameter,
the threads per inch, and thread series. Such a note would appear as -3/8-16 N.C.-
3. The first number indicates the diameter, in inches; the second number, the
number of threads per inch; and the last number, the thread fit.

The number of threads per inch of a bolt or screw may be determined by using a
screw pitch gage, shown in Fig. 89. This gage

99
 FIG. 89. SCREW PITCH GAGE.

has a number of pivoted, knife-like blades whose edges are cut to represent the
various thread pitches. To use the gage, select and try the blades in turn until one
fits the thread exactly, then read the number stamped on that blade.

107. Taps and Dies.-Taps and dies are tools used for cutting screw threads. Taps
are used to cut inside threads and dies to cut outside threads.

Taps and dies can be classified under the following headings: 1. Type of thread
formed, such as N.F. or N.C.; 2. Diameter of the screw formed or hole tapped; 3.
Number of threads per inch.

The two kinds of taps in common use are known as standard hand taps and
machine screw taps. Standard hand taps are made for cutting threads from 1/16 inch
up to 4 inches in diameter; machine screw tap diameters are designated by numbers
ranging from No. 0 (smallest) to No. 30 (largest) to fit the corresponding sizes of
machine screws.

In order that there may be enough metal in the hole to provide material into which
the threads can be cut, the hole must be drilled smaller than the major diameter of
the tap threads. The size of the drill to be used can be computed by taking 75% of
the difference between the major and minor diameters, and subtract this amount
from the major diameter. The resultant thread is

100

known as a "75% thread," and is generally used because it is only 5% less efficient
than a full depth thread.

The most convenient method of determining the size of tap drill to be used is to
consult a tabulation of thread and tap drill sizes such as that given in Table I.

108. Sets of taps.-Hand taps are usually provided in sets of three for each diameter
and thread combination, as shown in Fig. 90. Each set contains a taper tap, a plug
tap, and a bottoming tap. The taps in each set are identical in diameter and cross
section.
 FIG. 90. TAPS.

The taper tap may be used for internal threading where the work permits the tap to
be run entirely through. When the taper tap cannot be run through the work, the
diameter will be so small near the bottom of the tapped hole that the screw or bolt
will not screw down as far as it should. In this case a plug tap is used after the taper
tap is removed. If full diameter threads are desired all the way to the bottom of the
hole, the plug tap is followed by a bottoming tap, which is the same diameter its
entire length.

109. Use of Taps.-Taps are held in tap wrenches while they are being used. There
are two types of wrenches, the T-handle for small taps and restricted spaces, and
the adjustable tap wrench for general use and larger taps. Examples of tap
wrenches are shown in Fig. 91.

101
 FIG. 91. TAP WRENCHES.

When starting to tap a hole, secure the work in a vise, if possible. The best
arrangement is one in which the tap can be operated in the vertical position. It is also
very important to start the tap straight and keep it so throughout the work, because
taps, especially small ones, will break if bent or strained. After a tap starts to cut, it is
not fed into the hole with much pressure, as its threads will tend to pull it in at the
proper rate. Also, a tap should not be turned continuously. The best method is to
turn it forward about 1/4 turn, and then turn it back until the chips break loose, before
continuing to turn it forward. This process should be repeated for each 1/4 turn
forward.

Taps work better if they are kept cool. When tapping steel or bronze, the tap should
be well lubricated, preferably with lard oil. The oil also helps the chips to flow out of
the hole and from the flutes of the tap.

102

Cast iron is drilled, tapped, and reamed dry. Soft metals, such as brass, can also be
tapped dry.

It should be noted that some small taps, up to the 3/8-inch size, have large shanks
which should not be turned beyond the surface of the work being tapped, as these
shanks exert a reaming action which would cut out the threads.

110. Removal of Broken Tap.-Taps will sometimes break off, even when used with
care. There are two ways of satisfactorily removing the broken part of a tap from a
hole: (1) by means of a tap extractor; (2) by using a chisel or punch.

A tap extractor having 4 "fingers" that slip along the flutes of the tap is shown in Fig.
92. This tool is turned with a wrench, which must be used carefully to prevent
damage to the long thin fingers of the extractor.
 FIG. 92. USE OF TAP EXTRACTOR.

Broken taps can often be removed by using a blunt cold chisel or a taper punch, as
shown in Fig. 93. If done carefully, this will frequently start the tap. The job can then
be completed with a tap extractor as previously described. Taps often shatter when
they break; the broken pieces should be picked from the hole with a small prick
punch or a magnetized scriber before any attempt is made to remove the tap.
Removing a broken tap by any method is often a long, tedious job which requires
time, skill, and patience. It is therefore wise to avoid breakage by being as careful as
possible.

111. Cutting Outside Threads.-Outside threads are usually cut by the use of some
type of die held in a die stock for turning leverage. The complete assembly of a stock
and solid die is shown in Fig. 94. Solid dies are not adjustable.

Round dies similar to the one shown in Fig. 94, but with an adjustable slot, are
usually found aboard ship. By adjusting the

103

FIG. 93. REMOVING BROKEN TAP WITH PUNCH.

width of the split or slot, the diameter and fit of the thread can be controlled. Some of
the dies are equipped with guides, which help to start the cut and keep the threads
straight.

Dies for larger diameters are made in two parts, and are removable, replaceable,
Dies for larger diameters are made in two parts, and are removable, replaceable,
and adjustable. The two parts slide in a groove and are adjusted with a screw. Two
types of adjustable dies are shown in Fig. 95.

The procedure for using dies correctly is similar to that for

FIG. 94. STOCK AND DIE.

104

FIG. 95. ADJUSTABLE DIES.

tapping. The work should be held firmly in a vise, and any burr on the end of the
piece to be threaded should be removed. The die will start the cut more readily if the
end of the piece of material is chamfered slightly to provide a starting place for the
die. The chamfer can be cut with a file or a grinder. To start the thread, place the
large side of the opening in the die over the work and press down firmly on the
large side of the opening in the die over the work and press down firmly on the
stock. Die threads are tapered from one face only, so be sure to start the cut with
that face. Reverse the die only when it is necessary to cut full threads up to a square
shoulder. When cutting the thread, turn the die forward for part of a revolution and
then turn it back slightly so as to release the chips before making the next forward
turn.

It is usually best to adjust the die to cut oversize threads at first, as threads can
always be made smaller, but cannot be made larger. Examine the finished threads
for imperfections. Each thread should be a full thread.

112. Pipe Fittings.-Aboard ship it is often necessary to cut, thread, bend and fit
together various lengths of pipes. It is therefore important to be thoroughly familiar
with the commonly used fittings, examples of which are shown in Fig. 96.

Pipes up to 2 inches in diameter are usually joined with pipe fittings. The pipe fittings
are tapped and threaded with pipe threads, which taper 3/4 inch per foot of thread.
Larger pipe is usually joined either by bolted flanges or by welding. Additional
information concerning pipe fittings will be found in Marine Pipe-fitting.

105

FIG. 96. PIPE FITTINGS.

113. Cutting Pipe.-Pipe can be cut with a hacksaw, but a pipe cutter is more
satisfactory and should be used, if available. The use of a pipe cutter and pipe vise
is shown in Fig. 97. The cutter has a special alloy steel cutting wheel and two
pressure rollers.

When measuring pipe it is necessary to allow sufficient length for thread to enter
each fitting. The amount to be allowed for the thread depends on the nominal
diameter, or size, of the pipe,
 FIG. 97. PIPE CUTTER AND PIPE VISE.

106

TABLE II.

Pipe Diameter, Inches

Nominal Actual Actual Threads Size of Length
Diameter and Outside Inside per Tap Drill Allowed
Marked Inch (Reamer for Thread,
Size of Tap not used) Each Fitting
Size of Tap not used) Each Fitting
Inches
1/8 0.405 0.269 27 R 5/16
1/4 0.540 0.364 18 7/16 7/16
3/8 0.675 0.493 18 37/64 7/16
1/2 0.840 0.622 14 23/32 9/16
3/4 1.050 0.824 14 59/64 9/16
1 1.315 1.049 11 1/2 1 5/32 11/16
1 1/4 1.660 1.380 11 1/2 1 1/2 11/16
1 1/2 1.900 1.610 11 1/2 1 47/64 11/16

2 2.375 2.067 11 1/2 2 7/32 3/4

2 1/2 2.875 2.469 8 2 41/64 1 1/16
3 3.500 3.068 8 3 1/4 1 1/8
3 1/2 4.000 3.548 8 3 3/4 1 3/16
4 4.500 4.026 8 4 1/4 1 3/16
5 5.563 5.047 8 5 5/16 1 5/16
6 6.625 6.065 8 6 23/64

and is given in Table II. When the correct measurement has been determined, the
location of the cut should be marked clearly on the pipe with a file or scriber. The
pipe should be secured firmly in the pipe vise, as shown in Fig. 97, and the cutter
slipped over the end. Set the cutter with the cutting wheel on the mark previously
made, and then rotate the cutter around the pipe, gradually taking up on the cutting
wheel, by turning the handle of the cutter, until the pipe is cut through. In order to
keep the wheel tracking properly, the cutter must be kept perpendicular to the work
at all times.

The operation of the pipe cutter leaves a shoulder on the outside of the end of the
pipe and a burr on the inside. Always remove both. If the burr on the inside is not
removed, the ragged edges will catch dirt and other solid matter and will block the
flow. A pipe reamer, Fig. 98, is used for the purpose.

114. Threading Pipe.-Special dies, called pipe dies, are used to

cut pipe threads. As with bolt and screw threads, most pipe threads are cut for right-
hand turning, but left-hand pipe dies are available, as some installations require a
left-hand thread.

Most pipe dies can be adjusted to cut slightly different depths of threads. When an
adjustable die is used, the thread is cut to about 1/2 depth at first, then the die is
readjusted to finish cutting the thread to the full depth.

107
 FIG. 98. PIPE REAMER.

To cut a pipe thread, secure the pipe in a pipe vise, and place the stock and die on it
as indicated in Fig. 99, This type of die has a guide clamp, as shown in the
illustration. The clamp fits over the pipe and is tightened in position with a screw. As
the die stock is revolved, the clamp draws the die on the pipe, the die cutting the
thread as it is turned. The clamp also helps to keep the threads straight.

The number of threads cut should not be greater than the number of threads of the
die, and the cut is complete when the end of the pipe is flush with the back surface
of the die. The work should be backed up frequently as with the other forms of
thread cutting, so as to clear the chips. Oil should be used freely during the thread
cutting process.

115. Pipe Wrenches.-Threaded joints should be screwed together by hand and then
tightened with a pipe wrench, often

108
 108

FIG. 99. THREADING PIPE.

called a "Stinson." The pipe should be held in a pipe vise during assembly, if
possible, but if it is not feasible to use a vise, the pipe may be held with another pipe
wrench. A pipe wrench is shown in Fig. 100.

FIG. 100. PIPE WRENCH.

The pipe wrench is designed for use on pipe and screwed end fittings only and
should never be used on hexagon or square nuts. The jaws of the pipe wrench exert
a squeezing action, and the teeth of the jaws tend to cut into the metal that is
gripped. The harder the wrench is pulled, the tighter it squeezes, and this squeezing
action can do great damage. Many inexperienced men have learned that a pipe
wrench can scar or crush a pipe fitting or other piece of equipment. It is never
advisable to grip the open end of a piece of pipe or a fitting with a pipe wrench
without first protecting the end of the pipe with a fitting, or the fitting with

109
 FIG. 101. DIRECTION OF PULL ON PIPE WRENCH.

a piece of pipe. This strengthens the work and enables it to withstand the stress
impressed by the wrench.

No instructions are necessary on which way to pull on a pipe wrench because it

works only in one direction, as shown in Fig. 101. The pipe wrench will be found to
function best when the bite is taken midway of the jaw teeth, and when the size of
the wrench is properly chosen for the job. Jaw teeth should be kept clean and sharp,
and the springs should be kept in good operating condition to allow quick one-hand
grip and release. A few drops of oil applied to the adjusting nut will help to keep the
wrench in good working order.

Pipe wrenches are made in sizes ranging from 6 to 48 inches. The correct wrench
sizes for use with various sizes of pipe are given in the following:

Pipe Wrench Size Pipe Size

(inches) (inches)
6 1/4
10 3/8 and 1/2
14 3/4
18 1 and 1 1/4
24 1 1/2 and 2
36 and 48 2 1/2 and up

116. Chain Pipe Wrenches.-Chain pipe wrenches, also known as "chain tongs," are
wrenches of the chain strap and lever type. Two examples of this wrench are shown
in Fig. 102. They are generally designed for use on large diameter piping, although
they are also made in sizes suitable for handling small pipe.

When using this type of wrench, the best gripping position is midway on the jaw
teeth. The wrench is also designed so that the handle will bend under a heavy load
before the chain will break. The bending of the handle should therefore be taken as
a warning that maximum load has been applied.

110
 FIG. 102. CHAIN PIPE WRENCHES.

On the type of wrenches that have flat link chains, an occasional inspection should
be made of the first two or three rivets and links adjacent to the anchor link, as the
load is greatest at that point. Badly bowed or curved rivets indicate that the chain
has been loaded almost to breaking strength and is probably unsafe. On cable-link
chains the links give warning by stretching and pulling "rigid" if the breaking point is
approached.

117. Rivets.-Rivets, although not threaded, are classified as metal fasteners, the
pressure of their heads, instead of threads, exerting the holding force. Rivets are
commonly used for permanent fastening and are not practical for any assembly that
has to be taken apart. Rivet holes must be drilled or punched and must be carefully
spaced and aligned. The thickness of the parts to be riveted and the load to be
applied determine the proper diameter and length of the hole.

Tinner's rivets are used on thin metal sheets. They have flat heads, are made of soft
iron or steel, and are usually coated with tin as a protection against corrosion. The
weight, in lbs, of 1,000 rivets, denotes the size of rivets, as shown in Fig. 103. The
length of a rivet is proportional to its weight and diameter.

The use of a rivet set is necessary with tinner's rivets. After the rivet has been
inserted in the holes in the pieces of material being riveted together, the set is
placed over the headless end of the rivet and is used to press the sheets of metal
together and against the rivet head. The recessed hole for this purpose in the set is
indicated by the broken lines in Fig. 103. The set is then removed

111
 FIG. 103. TINNER'S RIVETS AND RIVET SET.

and the rivet is upset (headed upon the headless end) with a riveting hammer. After
this is done, the set is used to round the upset end. Rivet sets are provided in
several sizes.

Structural rivets, shown in Fig. 104, may be used to fasten the plates of a tank or
boiler and the structural members of a ship. They are used on many types of steel
frameworks and structures, and are usually heated for driving. This causes the rivets
to contract as they cool and helps to hold the riveted members tightly together. The
rivets also drive easier when hot. Structural rivet diameters vary from 1/4 inch to 1
1/4 inches, but even larger sizes are used for thick sections. The length of a rivet
should be approximately 1 1/2 times the diameter of the rivet, plus the grip
(combined thickness of the riveted sheets).

The terms used in Fig. 104 should be noted. The landing, or distance from the center
of the rivet to the edge of the material, should not be less than times the diameter of
the rivet. The space between rivets should be from 3 to 8 diameters of the rivet
used, measured from center-to-center.

While one end of a rivet is being hammered, the other end must be supported by an
anvil or some other suitable means. The force of the blow should always be
proportioned to suit the size of the rivet.

A rivet may be removed by cutting off the rivet head with a

112
 FIG. 104. STRUCTURAL RIVETS.

cold chisel and punching out the body of the rivet. In case of a large rivet, first cut a
groove through the center of the rivet head, as shown in Fig. 105 (A). Then cut off
the rivet head as shown in view (B). A small rivet is easy to remove if the head is
drilled before the chisel is used. The hole should be drilled through the head only,
and the weakened head then cut off with a chisel.

FIG. 105. CUTTING OFF RIVET.

118. Reamers.-A very slight variation in the nominal diameter of a drilled hole is of
little importance in some cases, but where greater accuracy is required, the holes
are reamed, that is, the hole is first drilled somewhat smaller than the exact desired
diameter, and is then reamed out to the proper size with a reamer. The principal
reason for the reamer being able to do better work than the drill is that it is not used
to originate holes, and its action is, therefore, not dependent upon a somewhat
uncertain guiding point. Other reasons are that it nearly always has more than

113

two cutting edges, and when properly used should have very little metal to remove.

Reamers are made either of carbon tool steel or high-speed steel. The cutting
blades of a high-speed steel reamer lose their original keenness sooner than those
of a carbon steel reamer. However, after the first super-keenness is gone, the
reamer is still serviceable, and the high-speed tool will last much longer than the
carbon steel type.

The two types of hand reamers in general use are straight and taper reamers. Four
types of straight reamers are shown in Fig. 106. The solid reamer is one solid piece
throughout. The expansion reamer is hollow and has longitudinal cuts in some of its
flutes. By means of a tapered screw plug its diameter can be expanded
 FIG. 106. TYPES OF STRAIGHT REAMERS.

a few thousandths of an inch. Both solid and expansion reamers are made with
straight and spiral flutes, and the cutting edges or lands between the flutes are
usually regularly spaced. However, some solid reamers have irregularly spaced
lands to avoid "chatter," which causes roughness in the finish of the work.

The blades of the adjustable reamer are separate from the body and are fitted into
grooves in the threaded shank of the tool. Adjusting nuts fit on these threads, and
when the nuts are turned back and forth, the blades are moved along the tapered
grooves,

114

thus increasing or decreasing the diameter of the reamer. It is advisable to use a

solid reamer for most work because it is the most rugged and accurate of the straight
reamers.

119. Use of Reamer.-Reamer blades are hardened to such an extent that they are
brittle, so reamers should be handled carefully to prevent chipping the blades.
Always rotate a reamer in the cutting direction.

Another important factor in the use of a straight hand reamer is to have the hole the
correct size to begin with, and then to be sure that the reamer is started straight in
the hole. One method of getting the reamer started straight, by checking it from side
to side with a square, is shown in Fig. 107.

Straight reamers have a slight taper on 1/4 to 3/4 inch of the end, so that they will
start into the hole easily. One form of reamer has a shallow screw thread at the
entering end. This thread takes hold of the metal and draws down into the work.
 FIG. 107. USING SQUARE TO START REAMER STRAIGHT.

115

A reamer is turned by means of a wrench, or it can be set up in a vise and the work
turned around it. The reamer should be turned slowly until the operator is sure that it
is straight in the hole, and then should be turned with a steady, firm pressure until it
has been put all the way through the hole. The leading end is subjected to the
greatest amount of wear because it does the greatest amount of work. If, therefore,
only this leading end is put through, the hole will not be of a uniform diameter
throughout.

120. Taper Reamers.-Taper reamers are used to finish tapered holes for the
insertion of tapered pins or other tapered parts. A solid taper reamer and taper pin
are shown in Fig. 108.

FIG. 108. TAPER REAMER AND PIN.

Taper reamers are made with a standard taper of 1/4 inch per foot, the various sizes
being arranged so that each overlaps the next size by about 1/2 inch, that is, a No. 8
taper reamer could be inserted about 1/2 inch into a hole that had been reamed with
a No. 7 reamer.
a No. 7 reamer.

When using taper reamers, it is very important that the drilled hole be the right size,
generally just large enough to allow about 1/2 inch of the reamer's length to enter it.
A table similar to Table III should be consulted for the correct size of drill and other
pertinent dimensions. However, if such a table is not available, no choice remains
except the "cut and try" method, taking extreme care not to ream the hole too large
or too deep. When starting the taper reamer, always keep it as straight as possible.

121. Machine Reamers.-The machine reamer is usually inserted in a chuck or a

socket mounted in the spindle of a portable electric

116

or air motor. Machine reamers are also made either solid or adjustable, and each of
these groups may be subdivided into straight or taper reamers.

Machine reamers differ from hand reamers in that nearly all the cutting is done by
the beveled ends of the teeth, which act as a series of single cutting tools, each
taking a small part of the total cut. The hand reamer is constructed so that all of its
cutting is done by the sides of the teeth. Machine reamers are often used where
holes are to be finished to a fair degree of accuracy and with a fair finish, but when
extreme accuracy and a fine finish is required, hand reamers are used.

For general use, an expansion type of machine reamer is the most practical. This
type is furnished in standard sizes from 1/4 inch to 1 inch, increasing in diameter by
32nds. Each reamer has a maximum expansion of 1/32 inch, so a set covers any
reaming job from 1/4 to 1 inch.

Internal hones are much like adjustable reamers. The principal difference is that
hones have abrasive blades. Large hones are rotated by electric drills or special
motors for such jobs as truing the walls of engine cylinders.

122. Care of Reamers.-As stated previously, a reamer must never be turned in any
way except to the right, or clockwise, even when removing it from the work. Do not
use too much feed (pressure) because the reamer may hit a hard spot in the metal
and break. This is especially likely with small reamers. When using a lubricant on the
reamer, it is good practice to remove the tool from the work frequently and wipe
away the chips which stick to the flutes. If the chips should clog, they would be likely
to damage the finish on the walls of the hole. Remember that an adjustable reamer
must be kept absolutely clean to do accurate work. Handle reamers carefully; if they
are dropped or thrown against other tools, their sharp edges will be nicked and
dulled. If the hole is too small, enlarge it with a drill before reaming it.

123. Preventing Chatter in Reamers.-When a hand reamer chatters, even when

fed with the proper pressure, it is generally a sign that it has not been sharpened
correctly for the particular metal being reamed. When chattering occurs, replace the
reamer being used with another one. If it is not replaced, the walls of the hole will be
rough, and work and time will be wasted.

117

TABLE III.

Taper Reamers and Pins

Size Dia. of Dia. of Length Total Size Longest Dia. of Approx.

No. Small Large of Length Drill Limit Large Fractional
End of End of Flute of for Length End of Size at
Reamer Reamer (Inches) Reamer Reamer of Pin Pin Large
(Inches) (Inches) (Inches) (Inches) (Inches) (Inches) End
of Pin
(inches)
0 0.135 0.162 1 5/16 2 28 1 0.156 5/32
1 0.146 0.179 1 9/16 2 3/8 25 1 1/4 0.172 11/64
2 0.162 0.200 1 13/16 2 11/16 19 1 1/2 0.193 3/16
3 0.183 0.226 2 1/16 3 12 1 3/4 0.219 7/32
4 0.208 0.257 2 3/8 3 7/16 3 2 0.250 1/4
5 0.240 0.300 2 7/8 4 1/8 1/4 2 1/4 0.289 19/64
6 0.279 0.354 3 5/8 5 9/32 3 1/4 0.341 11/32
7 0.331 0.423 4 7/16 6 1/16 11/32 3 3/4 0.409 13/32
8 0.398 0.507 5 1/4 7 1/16 13/32 4 1/2 0.492 1/2
9 0.492 0.609 6 1/8 8 1/8 31/64 5 1/4 0.591 19/32
10 0.581 0.727 7 9 1/2 19/32 6 0.706 23/32
11 0.706 0.878 8 1/4 11 1/4 23/32 7 1/4 0.857 55/64
12 0.842 1.050 10 13 3/8 55/64 8 3/4 1.013 1 1/64
13 1.009 1.259 12 16 1 1/64 10 3/4 1.233 1 15/64

Taper equals 1/4 inch per foot or 0.0208 inch per inch.
These reamer sizes are so proportioned that each overlaps the size smaller about
1/2 inch.
 118

Resharpening reamers is usually a factory operation; the average person should not
attempt it, although sometimes, if the edges of the reamer are only slightly dull, they
can be restored by using a fine stone on the flutes. If the reamer is adjustable, it may
be possible to insert new blades in it.

124. Scrapers.-Scrapers are made in many forms, the type to be used depending
on the particular job to be done. Several commonly used types are shown in Fig.
109. Flat scrapers should be used for scraping or removing high spots from flat
surfaces only; bearing scrapers are used for truing up bearing surfaces; and the 3-
corner scraper is commonly used for removing burrs or sharp internal edges from
soft bushings, etc.

FIG. 109. SCRAPERS.

125. Flat scrapers.-To scrape a flat surface, select a scraper with the length and
width suitable to the work. Use a fairly light pressure to hold the scraper against the
work, although the harder the material being scraped the more pressure required.
The right way to hold a flat scraper is shown in Fig. 110.

If there are holes in the work, avoid pushing the scraper across them; instead work
around their sides. When scraping near the edge of a piece, scrape toward the edge,
or at an angle to it. Do not scrape parallel to it.
or at an angle to it. Do not scrape parallel to it.

119

FIG. 110. USING FLAT SCRAPER.

126. Scraping a Bearing.-It is often necessary aboard ship to refit a bearing. This
operation must be done very carefully, as the metal of the bearing must be shaped
so as to fit its pin or journal with the correct clearance and without high spots.

When it is believed that a bearing needs refitting, the bearing bolts are loosened and
the bearing halves removed, the exact procedure depending on the construction.
The bearing metal is examined, and if burnished or discolored spots are present,
showing contact and heating of the bearing metal, these high spots must be
removed.

Each bearing half is also tested by applying a thin coating of Prussian blue to the
shaft and then placing a bearing half on the shaft and rotating it back and forth
several times. When the bearing is removed from the shaft, the spots of blue on the
bearing metal indicate the areas of contact. These high spots are removed by the
process known as "scraping in," which means that a bearing scraper is used to
scrape off the contacting areas, the bearing being retested and scraped in until
uniform distribution of the blue spots indicates that the bearing bears evenly over the
desired surface.

Since the scraping of a bearing usually involves the removal of a comparatively

small quantity of soft bearing metal, and the cutting edges of the scraper are ground
to a keen edge, only a light scraping pressure is needed. If too much pressure is
applied, not only will too much metal be removed, but in addition the scraper will
tend to "chatter" and leave a rough uneven surface.

When scraping a bearing, the handle of the scraper is held firmly with one hand and
the blade of the scraper carefully guided
 120

with the other hand. The scraper can be pushed away or pulled toward the workman,
depending on the location of the high spot, the position in which the bearing is held,
or where the workman is standing in relation to the bearing. When scraping,
however, always scrape in a crosswise direction, following the curve of the metal. Do
not scrape lengthwise. Also be careful not to gouge or chip excess metal when
scraping at the edges of oil grooves or other openings.

In general, as explained previously, it is best to remove only a small amount of metal

and then recheck the location of the high spots before continuing with the scraping.
The work is usually not considered complete until the blue spots are distributed over
a combined area equivalent to about 75 per cent of the total bearing surface.

Remember that scraping increases the running clearance of the bearing. If too much
metal is removed, the clearance will be increased above the desired amount and this
will necessitate the removal of shims to reduce the clearance. Removal of shims
might possibly create a new series of high spots and the fitting and scraping would
have to be done all over again.

127. 3-Corner Scrapers.-When using a 3-corner scraper, use the same motion as
though .handling a bearing scraper. As a rule, the 3-corner scraper is used on
material requiring fairly firm pressure, but only a small amount of metal should be
removed at each stroke.

FIG. 111. CARBON SCRAPER.

128. Carbon Scrapers.-The carbon scraper, Fig. 111, is a tool commonly used for
cleaning carbon deposits from cylinder heads, pistons, and chambers of small
engines. This scraper has a dull edge to lessen the danger of scoring the piston or
cylinder wall.

129. Care of Scrapers.-Keep scrapers (except the carbon scraper) sharp at all
times, or they will not leave a smooth surface and will require more pressure than is
necessary. The usual method

121
of sharpening is first to grind the tool on a wheel, and then to finish the operation on
an oilstone. In scraping any surface, apply the pressure to the scraper on the cutting
stroke only, otherwise the tool will soon become dull.

When using scrapers observe the following precautions:

(1) Keep the hands free from grease, oil, or perspiration.

(2) Keep the hands high enough from the work to avoid striking a corner of
it while working; these corners are often sharp and can give the hand a
disagreeable and perhaps dangerous cut. Be especially careful of the
bearing scraper; its edges are very sharp.

FIG. 112. GASKET CUTTER, FLY CUTTER, AND HOLE SAW.

130. Gasket Cutters.-A gasket cutter, Fig. 112, is used to cut round gaskets from
sheets of gasket material, such as cork, rubber, leather, asbestos, composition, etc.
The tool has two adjustable knives; one makes the inside hole, the other cuts the
outside of the gasket. The sizes of the gaskets are therefore limited only by the size
of the cutter available. When cutting a gasket, the material is spread out on a piece
of wood, the outside and inside diameters of the gasket are determined, and the
knives are adjusted at the correct position. With the shank of the tool held in a brace,
the

122
 122

pivot point is inserted through the gasket into the wood and the cutter rotated
carefully until the knives cut through the gasket material.

To make bolt or stud holes in the gasket after it has been cut, mark their location
accurately on the gasket, and then use a gasket punch to cut the holes.

The preparation of a gasket, especially for an irregularly shaped surface, can often
be facilitated by holding the gasket material in place on the joint area and carefully
tapping the outline of all openings with the ball peen of a machinist's hammer. If this
is done skillfully, the edges of the stud holes and other apertures will cut the gasket
to fit as the peening is carried out. Best results can usually be achieved by this
method when the piece of material from which the gasket is made is only slightly
larger than the joint. A larger piece of material might be bulky and inconvenient and
tend to slip while being worked on, thus ruining the job. Try to use the gasket
material, however, so that there is little waste.

131. Fly Cutters.-Fly cutters, Fig. 112, are designed to cut holes in sheets of soft
metal, such as brass, aluminum, soft steel, etc. They may also be used to cut holes
in sheets of fiber, bakelite, plastic, and similar materials. One type of fly cutter has
one cutting bar and the other has two cutting bars. The tool is used in much the
same way as a gasket cutter.

132. Hole Saws.-For making large round holes in wood or metal, a set of hole saws
is useful. These tools, one of which is shown in Fig. 112, are not adjustable, but are
made in all common sizes. They are also available in two types, a coarse-tooth saw
for cutting wood, cast iron, bakelite, and other thick, coarse material, and a fine-tooth
saw for cutting sheet metal, steel, porcelain and other fine, thin material. They can
be used in a hand or electric drill.

133. Forging Tools.-Some vises have a small anvil, as explained previously, but a
larger anvil is also a very handy piece of equipment to have aboard ship. The face or
main working surface of the typical anvil shown in Fig. 113 is made of tough steel. A
square hole extends through the anvil top to hold the hardie, which is used for
cutting metal bars and rods. The metal to be cut is placed

123
 FIG. 113. ANVIL. AND HARDIE.

over the hardie and struck with a hammer or sledge. The end of the anvil opposite
the hardie hole has a pointed or cone-shaped horn, over which curved portions of
bars and rods may be formed.

The top surface of the anvil should be treated with care so as to avoid dents and
scratches. Its primary purpose is to provide a working surface that will support the
metal while it is being pounded into shape. This surface forms or shapes part of the
object being forged, so the smoother it is, the better the job. It is therefore not
advisable to use a chisel, for example, to cut metal on the anvil, unless the surface
is protected against injury.

Sledges are used for heavy forging. Swages are used in matching pairs to shape
round or oval objects. Fullers are used to shape round inside corners and inside
angles. The set hammer and the flatter are used to smooth and finish flat surfaces.
These tools are shown in Fig. 114.

Tongs are used for handling hot pieces of metal. Their jaws differ according to use,
otherwise the many varieties are much alike.

The hot chisel is really a special hammer with a chisel edge. It is used only when hot
metal is to be cut. To use it, place the metal on the anvil, set the hot chisel cutting
edge in place, and strike the other end of the head with a hammer or maul. If the cut
is to be completely through the piece of stock, place a piece of scrap metal under
the work to prevent damage to the anvil. The cold chisel is heavier and stronger than
the hot chisel. It also has a handle so that it can be held in place while it is pounded
on.

Punches are used to punch holes in hot metal. In addition to theround punch shown
in Fig. 115, there are also square,

124
 FIG. 114. FORGING HAMMERS.

rectangular, half-round and oval punches. They too are used only on hot metal.

134. Hoists.-Quite frequently it is necessary to lift various parts of an engine or other

piece of equipment, and in some cases a complete unit must be lifted. There are
many devices employed to do heavy lifting, but one of the most common is the hoist,
generally known as a "chain falls." Of the several types of hoists, the

FIG. 115. FORGING TOOLS.

125

differential, the spur-geared, the screw-geared, and the ratchet lever types are found
most frequently aboard ship.

135. Differential Chain Hoist.-The differential chain hoist, Fig. 116, is a simple
chain hoist, designed for service where comparatively light loads are occasionally
handled. It consists of a pair of pocketed chain wheels above and a single wheel
below. The endless chain passes over one upper sheave, down around the bottom
block, and then over the other upper sheave.
 FIG. 116. DIFFERENTIAL CHAIN HOIST.

The differential hoist is light and easily handled and has few parts. Because of its
reliability and simplicity it is especially valuable for ordinary hoisting purposes where
more powerful hoists are not required. This type of hoist is made with capacities of
1/4 ton to 2 tons.

136. Spur-Geared Chain Hoist.-The hoist shown in Fig. 117 is of the spur-geared
reduction type. This unit may be constructed with either single or double chain, and
is a fast, powerful and durable mechanism. It can handle loads up to 40 tons,
depending upon its construction.

126
 FIG. 117. SPUR-GEARED CHAIN
HOIST.

1. top hook
2. brake dust guard
3. crosshead
4. suspension plates
5. automatic load brake
6. load sheave
7. driving pinion
8. ball bearings
9. load chain
10. gear system
11. hand chain guide
12. thrust bearing
13. hand chain
14. load hook

Heavy suspension plates connect the top hook crosshead and the load sheave of
the spur-geared hoist. These plates also directly support the saddle used in the
double-chain arrangement, eliminating the need for a top yoke, and reducing weight
and headroom.
and headroom.

The load sheave is mounted on ball bearings which are enclosed to protect them
from grit and dust. The automatic load brake, which holds the load in any position, is
also protected by a dust guard. A continuous pull on the hand chain is required to
lower the load.

137. Screw-Geared Chain Hoist.-Where the higher speed of a spur-geared hoist is

not required, the screw-geared hoist, Fig. 118, is recommended. It is well adapted
for portable use, and though light, is powerful and durable. It holds the load securely,
and will not lower except as the hand chain is pulled. This is an excellent hoist for
temporary and occasional service, as it may be moved readily to meet an
emergency. It is also adaptable for horizontal work. The worm gear makes this hoist
compact for lifting loads in cramped places and close up to the overhead.

The screw-geared hoist is operated on the worm wheel and screw principle. The
hand chain drives a sprocket wheel directly keyed to the worm shaft. The worm
meshes in the worm wheel, which in turn drives the shaft holding the two load
sheaves.

The hoist is operated by a comparatively light chain pull. With

127

FIG. 118. SCREW-GEARED CHAIN

HOIST.

a 1-ton hoist, for example, one man with an approximate pull of 87 pounds can lift
2,000 pounds. However, the relatively large overhaul of hand chain required to lift
2,000 pounds. However, the relatively large overhaul of hand chain required to lift
the load makes it proportionately slow in operation. The capacity of this type of hoist
ranges from 1/2 ton to 5 tons.

138. Ratchet Lever Hoist.-The ratchet lever hoist, Fig. 119, is designed to function
as a general purpose tool for pulling and hoisting, having the characteristics of light
weight and minimum distance between hooks. It also has self-actuated load brakes,
a ratchet or universal action to permit use in congested quarters, and is compact and
efficient.

The ratchet lever hoist operates by means of a ratchet, which actuates a lifting
sprocket. The ratchet action permits short strokes on the handle with the load
supported on the brake at any point of the lifting action. When lowering the load, the
handle is operated in the same way as when lifting. The change from hoisting

128
 FIG. 119. RATCHET LEVER HOISTS.

to lowering is easily accomplished and controlled by a small thumb turn on the

handle.

The capacity of the ratchet lever hoist is from 3/4 ton to 6 tons, depending upon the
number of chains. In Fig. 119, for example, the 1-chain hoist has a capacity of 3/4
ton to 1 1/2 tons; the 2-chain hoist, 3 tons; and the 4-chain hoist, 6 tons.

139. Whatever the type of hoisting device used, care must be taken to safeguard
the operator and other personnel working on or near the hoisting operation, and for
this reason the following precautions should be observed :

1. Be sure that the lifting gear is heavy enough to carry the load.
1. Be sure that the lifting gear is heavy enough to carry the load.

2. Be sure that none of the links in the chains are twisted.

3. Be sure that the hitch is made in the correct manner, so that nothing can slip when
the load is picked up.

4. Do not start the lift until everything is clear.

5. Keep all personnel clear of the piece being lifted, so that if anything should slip or
break no one will be injured.

129

6. Keep all personnel out from under the piece that is being lifted.

7. When the load might swing, as would occur at sea, be sure to have suitable stay
lines to hold the piece in position.

8. After a lift has been made, it is not good practice to leave the load hanging on the
hoist without some other support. Blocking should be used to assume most of the
load, thus keeping only a moderate strain on the hoist.

9. When a piece of machinery has been lifted and moved to another position, always
make sure to set it down on a secure foundation. It is often advisable to lash it down
securely to prevent accidental movement.

140. Tube Expanders.-It is often necessary aboard ship to expand or "roll in" tubes
in boilers, condensers, coolers, etc., a process that involves the use of a tube
expander. A typical tube expander for use on the generating tubes of a boiler is
shown disassembled in Fig. 120. An expander that would be used for rolling and
belling

a. expander cage
b. straight and belling rolls
c. mandrels, various
diameters
FIG. 120. EXPANDER FOR BOILER GENERATING TUBES.

both ends of the short nipples that connect the headers to the drums in some
boilers, is shown in Fig. 121.
As shown in the illustration, a tube expander consists of a cage containing the rolls,
a slightly tapered mandrel which expands the rolls, and a wrench for turning the
expander. Both straight and belling rolls are used in the expanders shown in Figs.
120 and 121, making it possible to expand and bell a tube in one operation.

130
 e. driving link,
a. expander cage
short
b. belling rolls f. universal joint
c. mandrels, various
g. driving link, long
diameters
d. coupling h. ratchet wrench
i. straight rolls
FIG. 121. BOILER TUBE EXPANDER FOR FORWARD AND REVERSE ROLLING.

It is necessary to have an expander for each tube diameter. Three different sizes of
expanders as used in a boiler are shown in Fig. 122; a small expander that would be
used on condenser tubes is shown in Fig. 123; and expanders in position for rolling
and belling both ends of a mud-drum nipple are shown in Fig. 124.

141. Use of Tube Expander.-To expand a tube, place the expander in the tube so
that the rolls bear on the portion of the tube which is in the tube sheet. The mandrel
should be inserted just far enough to press the rolls firmly against the tube and hold
the expander in place. A wrench is then applied to the expander mandrel and the
expander is turned clockwise. The progress of the rolling must be watched carefully,
and rolling stopped when the tube is expanded enough to obtain a tight joint.
Particular attention should be paid to the action of the belling rolls, when fitted, for if
the expander is started too far in the tube it will make too large a bell before the tube
is tightened. When belling rolls are being used and it is observed that the tube has
sufficient bell,

131
 FIG. 122. BOILER TUBE EXPANDERS.

the rolling should be stopped. If the tube is not expanded tightly in the tube sheet,
the expander should be backed out slightly before the rolling is completed, thus
avoiding over-belling. If the tube tightens in the seat first and does not have
sufficient bell, move the mandrel outward slightly, set the expander farther into the
tube, and continue the rolling as previously explained.

Tubes should be expanded just enough to obtain a tight joint that will not leak when
a hydrostatic test is applied. Excessive rolling will cause a reduction of the tube wall
thickness and
 132

FIG. 123. CONDENSER TUBE EXPANDER.

produce weak joints. It also tends to enlarge the tube holes, making it difficult to
maintain tight joints. If a tube hole should be excessively enlarged, a ferrule might
have to be installed in the tube sheet to return the hole to normal size.

When using an expander, the rolls and mandrel should be well lubricated with fairly
heavy lubricating oil. After each use, clean the expander and lubricate it again, if
necessary, before rolling the next tube. Maintain the rolls in good condition and do
not attempt to use chipped or cracked rolls. Always clean and oil the expander when
storing it for future use.
 FIG. 124. EXPANDING AND BELLING MUD-DRUM NIPPLES.

142. Coupling and Gear Puller.-A 3-jaw puller, suitable for removing couplings,
gears, etc., from shafts, is shown in Fig. 125. This tool is designed to exert a strong,
uniform pull, and is arranged for convenient use. Spring tension helps to hold the
jaws

133
1. puller jaws 5. puller wrench
2. stud 6. special puller plate
3. yoke 7. cap screws
4. locking 8. screw-point
nut protector
FIG. 125. COUPLING AND GEAR PULLER.

on the work, and when the locking nut is screwed down against the yoke the jaws
are locked in position, causing the puller to maintain its grip until the locking nut is
backed off. This arrangement permits both hands to be used for the actual pulling of
the gear or coupling.

In order to use the puller, the jaws are hooked over the coupling or gear, and the
centering tip of the stud is centered in the counter-
 134

sink in the end of the shaft. For shafts without countersinks a special screw-point
protector is used to prevent damage to the centering tip. By applying a wrench to the
hexagon head of the stud and turning the stud clockwise, a strong pull is exerted on
the part being removed. Always use a wrench that is a good fit on the hexagon end
of the stud, as otherwise the corners of the hex may be rounded off and the
usefulness of the tool impaired. A socket wrench is preferable.

When the stud is turned, the resulting pull tends to remove the work from the shaft,
although sometimes it may be necessary to assist by tapping with a soft hammer or
a hammer and a piece of wood. Be sure to tap at the hub of the coupling or gear,
and not at the circumference. Tap evenly all around the hub, so that the work will not
become cocked and jammed on the shaft.

Before starting to remove a coupling or gear from a shaft, it is advisable to examine

for nicks and burrs that section of shaft over which the part must slide, removing
such imperfections as may be observed. In some cases a film of oil or grease or a
thin coating of white lead applied ahead of the work will facilitate its removal. If the
part has rusted to the shaft, the use of penetrating oil may be needed to break up
the corrosion.

A special circular plate is provided with the tool shown in Fig. 125 so that the puller
may be used on a fiber gear or similar part, where pulling directly on the material
might cause damage. The plate can be attached by the cap screws to the part to be
might cause damage. The plate can be attached by the cap screws to the part to be
removed, and the puller is then applied to the plate.

It should be noted that the jaws of the puller are reversible, permitting their use
through an opening for inside pulls on bushings, sleeves, etc. When used in this way,
a piece of stock of sufficient length for the stud to bear against would have to be
placed in the opening. The yoke of the puller is also made with 2 sets of jaw slots,
allowing the jaws to be moved closer to the center for better gripping power on small
jobs.

If a suitable puller is not available, it is possible to make a satisfactory tool from

material available aboard ship, the material to be used depending in part on the job
to be done. For extra heavy work the puller would have to be made from heavier and
stronger stock.

A puller such as shown in Fig. 126 can be made from scrap metal and will
accomplish the work adequately. Remember that the center piece must be wide and
heavy enough to allow a hole to be

135

drilled and threaded. To make the stud, a piece of stock of suitable length is
threaded, and then one end squared so that a wrench will fit on it. The two jaws
should be cut from heavy enough material so that they will not bend when the force
is applied. The adjusting holes may be cut as desired.

FIG. 126. HEAVY-DUTY PULLER.

143. Portable Lamps.-Portable electric lamps, also called "extensions," are often
used when work is being done aboard ship. Before plugging in an extension, the
plug and cable should he inspected carefully, especially that portion of the cable
plug and cable should he inspected carefully, especially that portion of the cable
which enters the handle of the lamp. If frayed insulation is noted, it should be
reinforced with friction tape. If broken insulation is observed, the cable should be
repaired or discarded. The lamp should always be protected by an efficient guard.

When using an extension, make sure that the cable does not drop or lie in water.
When working in confined spaces, do not lie on the cable or let it become wound
around the body. Be especially careful when working in damp areas or when
perspiring heavily. It is always a reasonable precaution to wear leather gloves and to
keep the footgear dry.

144. Fuse Pullers.-The fuse puller shown in Fig. 127 is designed for easy and safe
removal of electric fuses. It is made of laminated fiber or laminated plastic, as either
material eliminates danger of shock and injury to the workman.

136

FIG. 127. FUSE PULLER.

A fuse puller should always be used when pulling or replacing cartridge fuses, as
removal by hand is dangerous, and improper removal also may bend and damage
the fuse clips. Fuse pullers are available in various sizes, and will handle fuses from
1/4 inch to 3 inches in diameter.

145. Hand Fire Extinguishers.-It is logical to include hand fire extinguishers in a

lesson that deals with engine-room tools, because they actually are the tools that
are immediately at hand to combat fire aboard ship. When the existence of a fire in
its early stages is noted, the prompt use of some kind of hand fire extinguisher is of
the utmost importance. This is especially true aboard ship where fire is always a
grave danger. Inflammable cargo and fuel are likely to be present in large quantities;
narrow alleyways tend to create drafts that help to spread a blaze more rapidly; and
outside help may be far away. To extinguish a small fire before it can develop into a
major disaster, someone must act promptly and efficiently with the right kind of
equipment.

Hand fire extinguishers are necessary even though other types of fire fighting
equipment are provided, and it is essential that they be intelligently handled during
the excitement of a fire, so that the maximum of fire extinguishment can be
accomplished in the minimum of time. While the contents and methods of operation
of the various types of appliances are generally apparent from their nature and are
indicated prominently on each extinguisher, it is important that all hands learn about
them in advance. It is too late to begin to study fire extinguishers after the fire has
started.
146. Classification of Fires.-For all practical purposes there are 3 general classes
of fires:

Class A fires are fires in ordinary combustible materials, such as wood, paper,
rubbish, etc., where the quenching and cooling effects of quantities of water, or
solutions containing large percentages of water, are of primary importance.

137

Class B fires are fires in flammable liquids, greases, etc., where a blanketing effect
is essential.

Class C fires are fires in electrical equipment, where the use of a non-conducting
extinguishing agent is required.

Several types of hand fire extinguishers, the class of fire that each is designed to
extinguish, and the method of extinguishment, are listed in the following tabulation:

Type of Class Method of

Extinguisher of Extinguishment
Fire
Soda-Acid A Cooling
Anti-freeze A Cooling
Foam A,B Smothering
Carbon
A,B,C Smothering
Tetrachloride
Carbon Dioxide A,B,C Smothering and cooling

147. Soda-Acid Extinguisher.-Soda-acid extinguishers, one of which is shown in

Fig. 128, are made in two principal sizes, the smaller one having a liquid capacity of
1 3/4 to 1 1/2 gallons, and the other containing 2 1/2 gallons. The chemicals used in
this extinguisher are (1) a powdered chemical (bicarbonate of soda) designed to be
dissolved in water contained in the extinguisher shell, and (2) a liquid chemical
(sulphuric acid) contained in a loosely stoppered bottle that is held in a vertical
position in the apparatus. The extinguisher is kept and carried vertically until it is to
be used to extinguish a fire. It is then inverted, which causes the contents of the
bottle to mix with the soda solution. Pressure is created by the chemical reaction and
a stream of chemical is expelled through the hose. The extinguisher is usually most
effective when used close to the fire, but the stream can be directed, if necessary,
from a distance of 30 to 40 feet horizontally.

Soda-acid extinguishers are effective on incipient fires in ordinary combustible

materials. They are not effective on fires in flammable liquids and greases. Their use
on fires in electrical equipment such as switchboards, panels, motors, etc., is not
on fires in electrical equipment such as switchboards, panels, motors, etc., is not
recommended.

Soda-acid extinguishers should be kept full (to filling mark) at all times, and should
be recharged with fresh solution annually as well as immediately after any use. All
parts should be washed thoroughly with water and the water drained through the
hose

138

FIG. 128. SODA-ACID EXTINGUISHER.

before recharging. The extinguishers should be examined at regular intervals to

make sure that they have not been tampered with or removed from their designated
places. They should also be inspected to see that they are properly filled and that
the orifice of the hose is not clogged. In addition, at least once yearly when emptying
and recharging, all parts of the extinguishers, including the gasket and hose, should
be examined carefully for deterioration or injury. Extinguishers or parts which are not
in good condition should be replaced.

Recharging of extinguishers should always be done under capable supervision, and

the date of recharging and signature of the person who performed it should be
entered on the tag attached to the extinguisher. It is also important that acid bottles
and their corresponding stoppers, when replaced, should be exact duplicates of
those originally provided, as otherwise the discharge may be impaired or the
extinguisher rendered inoperative.

When preparing the soda solution, the powdered chemical should be thoroughly
dissolved in water outside the extinguisher in accordance with instructions on the
extinguisher or as provided by the manufacturer of the chemical. The water should
be lukewarm but never hot. A quantity of chemical charges supplied for use in the
extinguishers must be kept on hand so that each unit may be recharged promptly
after each use.
In localities where continued temperatures lower than 40°F

139

may prevail, soda-acid extinguishers must be situated so as to be protected against

freezing. Anti-freeze ingredients such as common salt, calcium chloride, etc., must
not be used in extinguishers of this type, as such substances may either reduce the
effectiveness of the discharge or change its nature, or may cause corrosion and
make the unit dangerous for use. 148. Water or Anti-Freeze Solution
Extinguishers.-Approved hand fire extinguishers designed to contain either water or
an anti-freeze solution are made in two sizes, with liquid capacity of approximately a
gallons and 5 gallons, respectively. The antifreeze solution is prepared from a
calcium chloride base with other components added to prevent corrosion and
deposits on the

FIG. 129. WATER OR ANTI-FREEZE SOLUTION EXTINGUISHER (PUMP-TYPE).

FIG. 129. WATER OR ANTI-FREEZE SOLUTION EXTINGUISHER (PUMP-TYPE).

140

operating parts of the extinguishers. This type of apparatus is effective in the same
cases as the soda-acid extinguisher, that is, Class A fires where water can be used
effectively.

These extinguishers are often pump-operated, as shown in Fig. 129, and can be
discharged intermittently, with the force, length and duration of the stream being
dependent on the operator. It is not feasible, however, to operate this particular type
of extinguisher while carrying it about.

The same general precautions concerning inspection and recharging that are
recommended for soda-acid extinguishers must be enforced, and when located
where low temperatures may be encountered, water-type extinguishers must be
protected from freezing unless charged with the anti-freeze solution. The operation
of the pumps should also be tested by operating them several strokes, discharging
the solution back into the extinguisher. A few drops of light lubricating oil should be
placed on the pump rod packing.

Some water-type extinguishers contain a carbon-dioxide cartridge instead of a

pump. When this extinguisher is inverted, the cartridge is perforated, releasing gas
which builds up a pressure in the extinguisher and causes it to discharge. All
cartridges should be removed and examined when cartridge-operated extinguishers
are inspected, and should be weighed on an accurate scale to detect loss of
pressure by leakage. It is recommended that a new cartridge be used to replace any
which shows a loss of 1/2 ounce or more from the original weight stamped on it.

When recharging extinguishers with anti-freeze solution, the chemical should be

thoroughly dissolved in water outside the extinguisher, in strict accordance with
instructions provided by the manufacturer of the extinguisher or chemical. The water
should be warm and the solution should be poured through a fine strainer when
placing it in the extinguisher.

Common salt or other unspecified chemicals should not be used in anti-freeze

solution extinguishers, as they may corrode or otherwise be made dangerous for
use. Cartridges other than those furnished by the manufacturer should not be used
in cartridge-operated extinguishers.

149. Foam Extinguishers.-Foam extinguishers are made in sizes up to 5 gallons.

The chemicals used are bicarbonate of soda and a foam stabilizing agent dissolved
in water, for the outer compartment,

141
and aluminum sulphate dissolved in water for the inner cylinder. The extinguishing
agent is a foam which results from the reaction of the two chemical solutions. A
typical foam extinguisher is shown in Fig. 130.

FIG. 130. FOAM EXTINGUISHER.

Foam extinguishers are designed to be carried to the fire by means of the top handle
and must be inverted for use. When the chemicals mix as a result of the extinguisher
being inverted, foam is produced and a pressure created within the container,
causing a stream of foam to be expelled through the hose. This stream can be
directed effectively from a distance as great as 30 to 40 feet horizontally.

On flammable liquid fires, the best results are obtained when the discharge from a
foam-type extinguisher is played against the wall of the enclosure containing the
liquid, just above the burning surface, so as to permit the natural spread of the foam
over the burning liquid. If this cannot be done, the operator should stand far enough
away from the fire to allow the foam to fall lightly upon the burning surface. The
stream should never be directed into the burning liquid. Where possible, the operator
should walk around the fire while directing the stream, so as to obtain maximum
coverage during the discharge period.

For fires in ordinary combustible materials the force of the stream may be used, or
the foam may be used to coat the burning

142
 142

surface, according to the conditions. The use of these extinguishers on fires in

electrical equipment is not recommended.

Foam extinguishers should be recharged annually as well as immediately after use.

When recharging them, all parts should be washed thoroughly with water and the
water drained through the hose. This ensures that the hose and nozzle are not
clogged. Foam extinguishers must also be inspected periodically as explained
previously in connection with other kinds of extinguishers, particular care again
being taken to make sure that the hose and nozzle are clear. If the discharge of a
foam extinguisher should be clogged when an attempt is made to use it, the
pressure can cause an explosion and very possibly injure the person using the
extinguisher.

When recharging foam extinguishers, the chemicals should be thoroughly dissolved

in water outside the extinguisher, in exact accordance with instructions provided by
the manufacturer. Lukewarm water should be used. A quantity of chemical charges
supplied by the manufacturer for use in such extinguishers should be kept on hand
so that recharging may be done promptly after each use.

Where low temperatures may be expected, foam extinguishers must be located so

as to be protected against freezing. Anti-freeze ingredients such as common salt,
calcium chloride, etc., must not be used.

150. Vaporizing Liquid (Carbon Tetrachloride) Extinguishers.-Carbon

tetrachloride extinguishers are made in several sizes up to a liquid capacity of 3 1/2
gallons. The extinguishing agent used is a non-conducting liquid having a carbon-
tetrachloride base combined with other chemicals which depress the freezing point
to 50° below zero and help to avoid corrosion, etc. An extinguisher of this type is
shown in Fig. 131.

When the self-contained pump of this extinguisher is operated, the pumping action
expels a stream of liquid which is vaporized into a gas by the heat of the fire. In case
of a fire in ordinary combustible materials, the stream should be directed at the base
of the flames. On flammable liquid fires, best results are obtained when the
discharge from the extinguisher is played against the inside of the enclosure
containing the liquid, just above the burning surface, the same general procedure
being followed as in the use of a foam extinguisher.

143
 FIG. 131. CARBON TETRACHLORIDE EXTINGUISHER.

Carbon tetrachloride extinguishers are effective on incipient fires in electrical

equipment, where the use of a non-conducting extinguishing agent is essential.
When using these extinguishers, however, especially in confined and poorly
ventilated spaces, precautions should be taken to avoid breathing for extended
periods the vapors or gases liberated, as toxic effects may be experienced.

The extinguishers should be kept filled at all times and should be refilled
immediately after use. They do not need to be protected against freezing, when
charged with the specified liquid. Caution: Do not use water for any purpose in
extinguishers of this type.

At least once yearly, carbon tetrachloride extinguishers must be examined as to

condition of the pump and for deterioration or injury due to misuse. At these
inspections all pumps should be tested by discharging a portion of the liquid with the
stream directed alternately upward and downward. Extinguishers which are not in
good condition should be replaced; others should be refilled by pouring in enough
liquid to replace that which was discharged. The date of recharging and the
signature of the person who performed it should be placed on the tag attached to
each extinguisher.

A quantity of the special fire extinguishing liquid supplied for use in the extinguishers
should always be kept on hand. No liquid other than that furnished by the
extinguisher manufacturers should be used in the extinguishers, as it might make
the extinguisher inoperative or dangerous for use.

144

151. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers.-Carbon dioxide extinguishers, Fig. 132,

are made in several principal sizes, ranging from 2 1/2 to 25 pounds of carbon
dioxide. To use this type of extinguisher the valve is opened and the gas discharged
upon the fire through the hose and cone. The discharge has a range of
approximately 8 feet.
 FIG. 132. CARBON DIOXIDE EXTINGUISHER.

The discharge of a carbon dioxide extinguisher should be directed at the base of the
flames in all types of fires, and should be applied to the burned surface even after
the flames are extinguished. This tends to deposit carbon dioxide snow as a coating
on the hot surfaces and any glowing material, thus reducing the chances of a
reflash.

On flammable liquid fires, best results are obtained when the discharge from the
extinguisher is employed to sweep the flame off the burning surface, applying the
discharge first at the near edge of the fire and gradually progressing forward, moving
the discharge cone very slowly from side to side.

Carbon dioxide extinguishers are effective on fires in electrical

145

equipment, but are not suitable for use on deep-seated fires of wood, paper and
rubbish, as such fires require the quenching effect of water for complete
extinguishment.

When using these extinguishers, the same precautions should be taken to avoid
breathing the liberated gases as are recommended in the case of carbon
tetrachloride.

At least once yearly the extinguishers should be examined as to weight and for
deterioration, as reweighing is the only method of determining whether or not a
carbon dioxide extinguisher is fully charged. They should be weighed on an accurate
scale, and any unit that shows a loss of 10% or more of the rated capacity stamped
on it should be recharged. Unless recharging facilities are maintained on board ship,
it will be necessary to send depleted extinguishers ashore for recharging. All
extinguishers should be refilled as soon as possible after use, even though only
partly discharged.
partly discharged.

Carbon dioxide extinguishers do not need to be protected against freezing.

146

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147

ENGINE-ROOM TOOLS, PART 2

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

Instructions:-Study the lesson very carefully before considering the examination

questions. Then read each question slowly and be sure that you understand it. When
answering the questions, always take sufficient time, prepare the answers in your
own words, and do your best work. In arranging your answers, please leave space
between them so that the instructor will be able to write in helpful explanation,
should you make an error or overlook an important point. After the answers are
completed, check them again very carefully; make sure that all questions are taken
care of; correct each error that you find; and mail your work to us.

1. What is the advantage of fillister heads on cap screws?

2. (a) What is the purpose of "safety wire"?

(b) How it is used?

3. Explain how to use a stud driver.

4. Explain how to remove a small stud that is broken off in the hole.
4. Explain how to remove a small stud that is broken off in the hole.

5. Explain how to use "shakeproof washers."

6. If the note (5/16-24 N.F.-4) were observed on a blueprint, what would it mean?

7. What size tap drill should be used when drilling a hole which is to be tapped:

(a) For a 7/8-inch stud (N.C. thread)?

(b) For 1-inch pipe?

8. Briefly describe the procedure followed when tapping a threaded hole in steel.

9. Explain how to prepare a piece of steel rod for cutting a thread with a stock and
die.

148

10. The distance between the faces of two 1-inch pipe fittings is 3 ft. 1 1/2 in. What
length of pipe should be cut and threaded so as to connect the two fittings?

11. What should always be done after cutting a piece of pipe?

12. Give 4 precautions that should be taken when using a reamer.

13. It is necessary to install a standard taper pin, the large diameter of which is
approximately 23/32 in.

(a) What size drill should be used?

(b) What size taper reamer should be used?

14. (a) Explain how to test the extent and distribution of bearing area of a bearing.

(b) If the bearing area is not uniformly distributed to the proper extent, what should
be done? Explain in detail.

15. Explain how to make a full gasket for a joint on the water end of a pump, using
sheet gasket material. (A full gasket is one that covers all of the joint surface.)

16. Explain the general precautions that should be taken when using a hoist.

17. Explain how to pull a small gear from a shaft.

18. What precautions should be taken when using a portable electric lamp?
18. What precautions should be taken when using a portable electric lamp?

19. If a fire is discovered in a motor in operation, the motor should be shut down
immediately, if possible.

(a) What kinds of fire extinguishers are recommended for use on this type of fire?

(b) What precautions should be taken when using either of these extinguishers?

20. A ship is expected to pass through a region where low temperatures may be
encountered.

(a) What types of fire extinguishers must be protected against freezing?

(b) How is each type protected?

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