Galileo Galilei Galileo Galilei

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Galileo Galilei Galileo Galilei

Portrait of Galileo Galilei by Giusto Sustermans Portrait ng Galileo Galilei

by Sustermans Giusto
Born Ipinanganak
Died Namatay
Residence Paninirahan
Nationality Nasyonalidad
Fields Fields
Institutions Institusyon
Alma mater Alma mater
Academic advisors
[1] [1]
15 February 1564 Pebrero 15, 1564
Pisa , [ 1 ] Duchy of Florence , Italy Pisa , [1]
titulo ng duke ng Florence , Italy
8 January 1642 (aged 77) [ 1 ] 8 Enero 1642
(edad 77) [1]
Arcetri , [ 1 ] Grand Duchy of Tuscany , Italy
Arcetri , [1] Grand titulo ng duke ng
Tuscany , Italy
Grand Duchy of Tuscany , Italy Grand titulo
ng duke ng Tuscany , Italy
Italian (Tuscan) Italian (Toskano)
Astronomy, physics and mathematics
Astronomy, physics at matematika
University of Pisa Pamantasan ng Pisa
University of Padua Pamantasan ng Padua
University of Pisa Pamantasan ng Pisa
Ostilio Ricci [ 2 ] Ostilio Ricci [2]
Akademikong advisors
Benedetto Castelli Benedetto Castelli
Notable students Memorable
Mario Guiducci Mario Guiducci
estudyante
Vincenzio Viviani [ 3 ] Vincenzio Viviani [3]
Kinematics Kinematika
Dynamics Dinamika
Known for Kilala para sa Telescopic observational astronomy
Teleskopiko pagmamatyag astronomy
Heliocentrism Heliocentrism
Signature Pirma

Notes Notes
His father was the musician Vincenzo Galilei . Ang kanyang ama ay ang
mga musikero Vincenzo Galilei . His mistress was Marina Gamba (1570 –
August 21, 1612?) was mother of Maria Celeste (Virginia 1600–1634) and
Livia (1601–1659), who were nuns, and son Vincenzo (1606–1649) a
lutenist . Kanyang maybahay ay Marina Gamba (1570-1521, 1612? Agosto)
ay ina ni Maria Celeste (Virginia 1600-1634) at Livia (1601-1659), na mga
madre, at mga anak Vincenzo (1606-1649) isang lutenist . Gamba later
married Giovanni Bartoluzzi. Gamba mamaya may asawa Giovanni
Bartoluzzi.

Galileo Galilei ( Italian pronunciation: [ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛi] ; 15 February 1564 [ 4 ] – 8 January 1642),
[1] [5]
commonly known as Galileo , was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer and
philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution . Galileo Galilei (Italian
pronunciation: [ɡalilɛ ː o ɡalilɛi] ; Pebrero 15, 1564 [4] - Enero 8, 1642), [1] [5] karaniwang kilala
bilang Galileo, ay isang Italyano pisisista, matematiko, astronomo at pilosopo na nilalaro ng
isang malaking papel sa ang Scientific Revolution . His achievements include improvements to
the telescope and consequent astronomical observations, and support for Copernicanism . Ang
kanyang mga nagawa isama pagpapabuti sa teleskopyo at bunga astronomya obserbasyon, at
suporta para sa Copernicanism . Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational
astronomy ", [ 6 ] the "father of modern physics ", [ 7 ] the "father of science ", [ 7 ] and "the Father of
Modern Science". [ 8 ] Stephen Hawking says, "Galileo, perhaps more than any other single
person, was responsible for the birth of modern science." [ 9 ] Galileo ay ang tinatawag na "ama ng
modernong pagmamatyag astronomy ", [6] ang "ama ng modernong physics ", [7] ang "ama ng
agham ", [7] at "Ama ng Modern Science". [8] Stephen Hawking says, "Galileo, marahil higit pa sa
anumang iba pang solong tao, ay responsable para sa kapanganakan ng modernong science." [9]

The motion of uniformly accelerated objects, taught in nearly all high school and introductory
college physics courses, was studied by Galileo as the subject of kinematics . Ang galaw ng
unipormadong pinabilis na mga bagay, na sinasabi sa halos lahat ng mataas na paaralan at mga
pambungad na kolehiyo physics kurso, ay nag-aral sa pamamagitan ng Galileo bilang paksa ng
kinematika . His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of
the phases of Venus , the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean
moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots . Ang kanyang mga
kontribusyon sa pagmamatyag astronomy isama ang teleskopiko confirmation ng mga yugto ng
Venus , ang pagkatuklas ng mga apat na pinakamalaking satellite ng Jupiter (pinangalanan ang
Galilean buwan sa kanyang karangalan), at ang pagmamasid at pagsusuri ng sunspots . Galileo
also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass and
other instruments. Galileo rin ay nagtrabaho sa inilapat agham at teknolohiya, inventing ng isang
pinabuting militar mahigitan at iba pang mga instrumento.

Galileo's championing of Copernicanism was controversial within his lifetime, when a large
majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric view that the Earth is
at the centre of the universe. Galileo's championing ng Copernicanism ay pinagtatalunan sa loob
ng buong buhay, kapag ang isang malaking mayorya ng mga pilosopo at astronomo pa naka-
subscribe sa geosentriko tingnan na ang Earth ay sa gitna ng sansinukob. After 1610, when he
began publicly supporting the heliocentric view, which placed the Sun at the centre of the
universe, he met with bitter opposition from some philosophers and clerics, and two of the latter
eventually denounced him to the Roman Inquisition early in 1615. Pagkatapos ng 1610, kapag
siya ay nagsimula sa publiko ang pagsuporta sa heliocentric view, na kung saan nakalagay ang
Sun sa gitna ng sanlibutan, siya natutugunan ng mapait na pagsalungat mula sa ilang mga
pilosopo at clerics, at dalawang ng huling huli denunsyado siya sa mga Romano pagsisiyasat ng
maaga sa 1615. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic
Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as "false and contrary to Scripture", [ 10 ] and
Galileo was warned to abandon his support for it—which he promised to do. Sa Pebrero 1616,
bagaman siya ay nilimas ng anumang kasalanan, ang Catholic Church gayunpaman ay nahatulan
heliocentrism bilang "maling at labag sa Kasulatan", [10] at Galileo ay binigyan ng babala sa
aabandunahin ang kanyang suporta para sa mga ito-ipinangako niya na gawin. When he later
defended his views in his most famous work, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World
Systems , published in 1632, he was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of
heresy", forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] Kapag siya
mamaya ipinagsanggalang ang kanyang pananaw sa kanyang pinaka-tanyag na trabaho,
Dialogue Tungkol sa Dalawang Chief Systems ng World , inilathala sa 1632, siya ay sinubukan
sa pamamagitan ng pag-uusisa, natagpuan "vehemently maghinala ng maling pananampalataya",
pinilit na itakwil, at ginugol ang natitirang bahagi ng kanyang buhay sa ilalim ng aresto sa bahay.
[11] [12]

Contents Nilalaman
[hide]
 1 Early life 1 Maagang buhay
 2 Career as a scientist 2 Career bilang isang dalub-agham
o 2.1 Galileo, Kepler and theories of tides 2.1 Galileo, Kepler at teorya ng tides

o 2.2 Controversy over comets and The Assayer 2.2 kontrobersiya sa kometa at Ang
 Assayer
o 2.3 Controversy over heliocentrism 2.3 kontrobersiya sa heliocentrism

 3 Death 3 Kamatayan
 4 Scientific methods 4 Scientific methods
 5 Astronomy 5 Astronomy
o 5.1 Contributions 5.1 Kontribusyon

 6 Technology 6 Teknolohiya
 7 Physics 7 Physics
 8 Mathematics 8 Matematika
 9 His writings 9 Ang kaniyang mga sinulat
 10 Legacy 10 Legacy
o 10.1 Church reassessments of Galileo in later centuries 10.1 Simbahan muling
pagtasa ng Galileo sa mamaya sa siglo
o 10.2 Impact on modern science 10.2 Epekto sa modernong science

o 10.3 In artistic and popular media 10.3 Sa pansining at popular media

 11 See also 11 Tingnan din ang

 12 Notes 12 Notes
 13 References 13 Mga sanggunian

 14 External links 14 Panlabas na mga link

Early life Maagang buhay

Galileo was born in Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence ), Italy, the first of six children of
Vincenzo Galilei , a famous lutenist , composer, and music theorist , and Giulia Ammannati.
Galileo ay ipinanganak sa Pisa (pagkatapos ay bahagi ng titulo ng duke ng Florence ), Italya, ang
unang ng anim na anak ni Vincenzo Galilei , isang sikat na lutenist , kompositor, at musika
teoriko , at Giulia Ammannati. Four of their six children survived infancy, and the youngest
Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo ) also became a noted lutenist and composer. Apat na ng
kanilang mga anim na anak survived pagkabata, at ang bunso Michelangelo (o Michelagnolo )
din naging isang kilala lutenist at kompositor.

Galileo's full name was Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei. buong pangalan Galileo's ay
Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de 'Galilei. At the age of 8, his family moved to Florence , but he
was left with Jacopo Borghini for two years. [ 1 ] He then was educated in the Camaldolese
Monastery at Vallombrosa , 35 km southeast of Florence. [ 1 ] Sa edad ng 8, sa kanyang pamilya
inilipat sa Florence , ngunit siya ay iniwan sa Jacopo Borghini para sa dalawang taon. [1] Siya
pagkatapos ay tinuturuan sa Camaldolese monasteryo sa Vallombrosa , 35 km timog-silangan ng
Florence. [1]

Galileo's beloved elder daughter, Virginia ( Sister Maria Celeste ), was particularly devoted to
her father. Galileo's sinta elder anak na babae, Virginia ( Sister Maria Celeste ), ay partikular na
mapagmahal sa kanyang ama. She is buried with him in his tomb in the Basilica of Santa Croce,
Florence . Siya ay inilibing na kasama niya sa kaniyang libingan sa Basilika ng Santa Croce,
Florence .

Although a genuinely pious Roman Catholic, [ 13 ] Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock
with Marina Gamba . Kahit na ang isang tunay na maka-diyos ng Katoliko Romano, [13] Galileo
fathered tatlong anak sa labas ng matrimonyo sa Marina Gamba . They had two daughters,
Virginia in 1600 and Livia in 1601, and one son, Vincenzo, in 1606. Sila ay nagkaroon ng
dalawang anak na babae, Virginia sa 1600 at Livia sa 1601, at isa anak, Vincenzo, sa 1606.
Because of their illegitimate birth, their father considered the girls unmarriageable. Dahil sa
kanilang kapanganakan sa ligaw, ang kanilang ama itinuturing ang mga batang babae
unmarriageable. Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Ang kanilang mga lamang
karapatdapat na alternatibo ay ang relihiyon buhay. Both girls were sent to the convent of San
Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives. [ 14 ] Virginia took the name Maria
Celeste upon entering the convent. Ang parehong mga batang babae ay ipinadala sa kumbento ng
San Matteo sa Arcetri at nanatili doon para sa natitirang bahagi ng kanilang buhay. [14] Virginia
kinuha ang pangalan Maria Celeste sa pagpasok sa kumbento. She died on 2 April 1634, and is
buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence . Siya namatay sa 2 Abril 1634, at
ito ay nalibing sa Galileo sa Basilika ng Santa Croce, Florence . Livia took the name Sister
Arcangela and was ill for most of her life. Livia kinuha ang pangalan Sister Arcangela at ay
masama para sa karamihan ng kanyang buhay. Vincenzo was later legitimized and married
Sestilia Bocchineri. [ 15 ] Vincenzo ay mamaya legitimized at may asawa Sestilia Bocchineri. [15]
Career as a scientist Karera bilang isang dalub-agham
Although he seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, he enrolled for a medical
degree at the University of Pisa at his father's urging. Kahit na siya seriously itinuturing ang mga
pari bilang isang binata, siya sumali para sa isang medikal na degree sa University of Pisa sa
kanyang ama na humihimok. He did not complete this degree, but instead studied mathematics.
[ 16 ]
hindi niya makumpleto ang antas, ngunit sa halip na nag-aral sa matematika. [16]

Galileo was also studious of disegno , a term encompassing fine art, and in 1588 attained an
instructor position in the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in Florence, teaching perspective and
chiaroscuro . Galileo ay mapag-aral din ng disegno, isang kataga encompassing pinong sining, at
sa 1588 umabot ng magtuturo posisyon sa Accademia delle Arti del Disegno sa Florence,
pagtuturo at perspektibo chiaroscuro . Being inspired by the artistic tradition of the city and the
works of the Renaissance artists, Galileo acquired an aesthetic mentality. Ang pagiging
inspirasyon sa pamamagitan ng pansining tradisyon ng mga lungsod at mga gawa ng mga artists
Renaissance, Galileo nagkaroon na ng aesthetic mentality. While a young teacher at the
Accademia, he began a life-long friendship with the Florentine painter Cigoli , who included
Galileo's lunar observations in one of his paintings. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] Habang ang isang batang guro sa
Accademia, siya ay nagsimula ng isang buhay-long pagkakaibigan sa Florentine pintor Cigoli ,
na kasama Galileo's lunar obserbasyon sa isa sa kanyang mga paintings. [17] [18]

In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. Sa 1589, siya ay itinalaga sa silya
ng matematika sa Pisa. In 1591 his father died and he was entrusted with the care of his younger
brother Michelagnolo . Sa 1591 ang kanyang ama ay namatay at siya ay ipinagkatiwala ang
pangangalaga ng kanyang mga kapatid na bata Michelagnolo . In 1592, he moved to the
University of Padua , teaching geometry, mechanics , and astronomy until 1610. [ 19 ] During this
period Galileo made significant discoveries in both pure fundamental science (for example,
kinematics of motion and astronomy) as well as practical applied science (for example, strength
of materials and improvement of the telescope). Sa 1592, siya inilipat sa University of Padua ,
pagtuturo geometry, mechanics , at astronomy hanggang 1610. [19] Sa panahon na ito Galileo
ginawa makabuluhang tuklas sa parehong purong pundamental na agham (halimbawa,
kinematika ng galaw at astronomiya) pati na rin ang mga praktikal na inilapat science
(halimbawa, ang lakas ng mga materyales at pagpapabuti ng teleskopyo). His multiple interests
included the study of astrology , which at the time was a discipline tied to the studies of
mathematics and astronomy. [ 20 ] Ang kanyang mga maramihang mga interes kasama ang pag-
aaral ng astrolohiya , na sa panahon ay isang disiplina na nakatali sa pag-aaral ng matematika at
astronomy. [20]

Galileo, Kepler and theories of tides Galileo, Kepler at teorya ng tides

Galileo Galilei. Galileo Galilei. Portrait by Leoni . Portrait by Leoni .

Cardinal Bellarmine had written in 1615 that the Copernican system could not be defended
without "a true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles
the sun". [ 21 ] Galileo considered his theory of the tides to provide the required physical proof of
the motion of the earth. Cardinal Bellarmine ay nakasulat sa 1615 na mga Copernican system ay
hindi maaaring ipinagsanggalang ng walang "isang tunay na pisikal na pagpapakita na ang araw
ay hindi bilog ang mundo ngunit ang lupa ay bilog ng araw ". [21] Galileo itinuturing na kanyang
teorya ng tides upang magbigay ng mga kinakailangang pisikal na katibayan ng mga paggalaw
ng lupa. This theory was so important to Galileo that he originally intended to entitle his
Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems the Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea . [ 22 ]
The reference to tides was removed by order of the Inquisition. teorya na ito ay kaya mahalaga sa
Galileo na siya orihinal na inilaan upang magbigay ng karapatan ang kanyang Dialogue sa
Dalawang Chief Systems ng World ang Dialogue sa Gabi at Daloy ng Dagat. [22] Ang reference
sa tides ay inalis ni order ng mga pagsisiyasat.

For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point
on the Earth's surface speeded up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and
revolution around the Sun. Para sa Galileo, ang tides ay sanhi ng mga sloshing lipat ng tubig sa
mga dagat bilang ng isang punto sa Earth's ibabaw speeded up at pinabagal down dahil sa ang
Earth's pag-ikot sa kanyang axis at rebolusyon sa paligid ng Sun. Galileo circulated his first
account of the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini. [ 23 ] His theory gave the first insight
into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly
accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the Adriatic Sea compared to those
at the ends. Galileo circulated kanyang unang account ng mga tides sa 1616, ipadala sa Cardinal
Orsini. [23] Ang kanyang teorya ibinigay ang unang pananaw sa kahalagahan ng mga hugis ng
mangkok karagatan sa sa laki at timing ng tides; siya tama accounted, halimbawa, para sa ang
bale Halfway tides kasama ang Adriatic Sea kumpara sa mga iyon sa dulo. As a general account
of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure. Bilang isang pangkalahatang account ng
mga sanhi ng tides, gayunpaman, ang kanyang teorya ay isang kabiguan.

If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. Kung ang theory na ito ay
tama, doon ay isa lamang sa laki ng tubig sa bawat araw. Galileo and his contemporaries were
aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, about
twelve hours apart. Galileo at ang kaniyang Appreciation ay magkaroon ng kamalayan ng
kakulangan ito dahil may mga dalawang araw-araw na mataas tides sa Venice sa halip ng isa,
tungkol sa dose oras hiwalay. Galileo dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary
causes, including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other factors. [ 24 ] Against the assertion that
Galileo was deceptive in making these arguments, Albert Einstein expressed the opinion that
Galileo developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a desire for
physical proof of the motion of the Earth. [ 25 ] Galileo awas na ito sa kaban ng bayan bilang
resulta ng ilang mga sekundaryong dahilan, kasama na ang hugis ng mga dagat, ang lalim, at iba
pang mga kadahilanan. [24] Laban ang assertion na Galileo ay mapanlinlang sa paggawa ng mga
argumento, Albert Einstein nagpahayag ng opinyon na Galileo binuo kaniyang "nakahahalina
argumento" at tinanggap uncritically sa labas ng isang pagnanais para sa pisikal na katibayan ng
mga galaw ng Earth. [25]

Galileo dismissed as a "useless fiction" the idea, held by his contemporary Johannes Kepler , that
the moon caused the tides. [ 26 ] Galileo also refused to accept Kepler's elliptical orbits of the
planets, [ 27 ] considering the circle the "perfect" shape for planetary orbits. Galileo awas bilang
isang "walang silbi fiction" ang mga ideya, na hawak ng kanyang kapanahon Johannes Kepler ,
na ang buwan ay naging sanhi ng tides. [26] Galileo din tumangging tanggapin Kepler's elliptical
orbit ng mga planeta, [27] isinasaalang-alang ang mga bilog ang "perpektong" hugis para planetary
orbit.

Controversy over comets and The Assayer Kontrobersiya sa kometa at Ang

Assayer

Main article: The Assayer Pangunahing artikulo: Ang Assayer

In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in a controversy with Father Orazio Grassi , professor of
mathematics at the Jesuit Collegio Romano . Sa 1619, Galileo ay naging nagulo sa may usap sa
Ama Orazio Grassi , propesor ng matematika sa Heswita Collegio Romano . It began as a dispute
over the nature of comets, but by the time Galileo had published The Assayer ( Il Saggiatore ) in
1623, his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider argument over the very nature of
science itself. Ito ay nagsimula bilang isang alitan sa loob ng kalikasan ng kometa, ngunit sa
pamamagitan ng oras Galileo ay nai-publish Ang Assayer (Il Saggiatore) sa 1623, ang kanyang
huling masigabong palakpakan sa mga alitan, ito ay naging isang marami mas malawak
argument sa mga tunay na kalikasan ng science mismo. Because The Assayer contains such a
wealth of Galileo's ideas on how science should be practised, it has been referred to as his
scientific manifesto. [ 28 ] Dahil Ang Assayer ay naglalaman ng tulad ng isang kayamanan ng
Galileo's ideya sa kung paano science ay dapat na practiced, ito ay na tinutukoy bilang ang
kanyang pang-agham manipesto. [28]
Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, An Astronomical
Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618 , [ 29 ] which discussed the nature of a comet
that had appeared late in November of the previous year. Maaga sa 1619, Ama Grassi ay hindi
nagpapakilala publish ng isang pamplet, Isang Astronomical pagtatalo sa Tatlong kometa ng
Taon 1618, [29] na napag-usapan ang kalikasan ng isang kometa na napakita huli sa Nobyembre
ng nakaraang taon. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body which had moved along a
segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earth, [ 30 ] and since it moved in the sky
more slowly than the moon, it must be farther away than the moon. Grassi concluded na buntala
ay mabangis na katawan na kung saan ay inilipat kasama sa isang segment ng isang malaking
bilog sa isang pare layo mula sa lupa, [30] at dahil ito ay inilipat sa langit ng mas mabagal kaysa sa
buwan, ito ay dapat higit na malayo kaysa sa malayo ang ang buwan.

Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticized in a subsequent article, Discourse on the
Comets , [ 31 ] published under the name of one of Galileo's disciples, a Florentine lawyer named
Mario Guiducci , although it had been largely written by Galileo himself. [ 32 ] Galileo and
Guiducci offered no definitive theory of their own on the nature of comets, [ 33 ] although they did
present some tentative conjectures that are now known to be mistaken. Grassi's argumento at
pagpapalagay ay criticized sa isang kasunod na artikulo, diskurso sa mga kometa, [31] nai-publish
sa ilalim ng pangalan ng isa sa Galileo's alagad, isang Florentine abugado na nagngangalang
Mario Guiducci , bagaman ito ay higit sa lahat na nakasulat sa pamamagitan ng Galileo ang
kanyang sarili. [32] Galileo at Guiducci inaalok walang depinitibo teorya ng kanilang sariling sa
kalikasan ng kometa, [33] bagaman sila ay naroroon ang ilang mga pansamantala conjectures na
ngayon ay kilala na maging mali.

In its opening passage, Galileo and Guiducci's Discourse gratuitously insulted the Jesuit
Christopher Scheiner , [ 34 ] and various uncomplimentary remarks about the professors of the
Collegio Romano were scattered throughout the work. [ 35 ] The Jesuits were offended, [ 36 ] and
Grassi soon replied with a polemical tract of his own, The Astronomical and Philosophical
Balance , [ 37 ] under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsio Sigensano, [ 38 ] purporting to be one of his
own pupils. Sa kanyang pagbubukas daanan, Galileo at Guiducci's diskurso libre inalipusta ang
mga Heswita Christopher Scheiner , [34] at iba't uncomplimentary pangungusap tungkol sa mga
propesor ng Collegio Romano ay nakakalat sa buong trabaho. [35] Heswita Ang kinatitisuran, [36]
at Grassi sa lalong madaling panahon Sumagot sa isang polemical lagay ng kanyang sarili, Ang
Astronomical at pilosopiko Balanse, [37] sa ilalim ng sagisag-panulat Lothario Sarsio Sigensano,
[38]
purporting upang maging isa sa kaniyang sariling pupils.

The Assayer was Galileo's devastating reply to the Astronomical Balance . [ 39 ] It has been widely
regarded as a masterpiece of polemical literature, [ 40 ] in which "Sarsi's" arguments are subjected
to withering scorn. [ 41 ] It was greeted with wide acclaim, and particularly pleased the new pope,
Urban VIII , to whom it had been dedicated. [ 42 ] Ang Assayer ay nagwawasak reply Galileo's sa
Astronomical Balanse. [39] Ito ay malawak na itinuturing bilang isang obra maestra ng polemical
panitikan, [40] kung saan ang "Sarsi's" argumento ay subjected sa pagkalanta nililibak. [41] Ito ay
binati na may malawak na pagbubunyi , at lalo na nalulugod sa bagong papa, Urban VIII , kanino
ito ay dedikado. [42]
Galileo's dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many of the Jesuits who had previously been
sympathetic to his ideas, [ 43 ] and Galileo and his friends were convinced that these Jesuits were
responsible for bringing about his later condemnation. [ 44 ] The evidence for this is at best
equivocal, however. [ 45 ] Galileo's pagtatalo sa Grassi permanente alienated marami sa mga
Heswita na ay dati ay nakikiisa sa kanyang mga ideya, [43] at Galileo at ang kanyang mga
kaibigan ay kumbinsido na ang mga Heswita ay may pananagutan para sa nagdadala tungkol sa
kanyang mamaya kaparusahan. [44] Ang mga katibayan para sa mga ito ay sa pinakamahusay na
hindi tiyak ang kahulugan, gayunman. [45]

Controversy over heliocentrism Kontrobersiya sa heliocentrism

Main article: Galileo affair Pangunahing artikulo: Galileo iibigan

Cristiano Banti 's 1857 painting Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition Cristiano Banti 's 1857
painting Galileo nakaharap ang Roman pagsisiyasat

Biblical references Psalm 93:1 , 96:10 , and 1 Chronicles 16:30 include text (depending on the
translation) stating that "the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved." Bibliya reference
Awit 93:1 , 96:10 , at 1 Chronicles 16:30 isama ang teksto (depende sa translation) na nagsasabi
na "ang mundo ay matatag na itinatag, maaari hindi na ito ay inilipat." In the same manner,
Psalm 104:5 says, "the Lord set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved." Sa parehong
paraan, Awit 104:5 says, "ang Panginoon magtakda ng lupa sa kanyang mga pundasyon;
maaaring hindi kailanman ito ay inilipat." Further, Ecclesiastes 1:5 states that "And the sun rises
and sets and returns to its place" etc. [ 46 ] Dagdag dito, Ecclesiastes 01:05 estado na "At ang araw
rises at set at muling bumalik sa kanilang lugar" atbp [46]

Galileo defended heliocentrism , and claimed it was not contrary to those Scripture passages.
Galileo ipinagsanggalang heliocentrism , at inaangkin na ito ay hindi salungat sa mga passages
Kasulatan. He took Augustine's position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally,
particularly when the scripture in question is a book of poetry and songs, not a book of
instructions or history. Siya kinuha Augustine's posisyon sa Kasulatan: hindi na kumuha ng
bawat daanan literal, lalo na kapag ang kasulatan sa tanong ay isang aklat ng mga tula at songs,
hindi isang libro ng mga tagubilin o kasaysayan. The writers of the Scripture wrote from the
perspective of the terrestrial world, and from that vantage point the sun does rise and set. Ang
mga manunulat ng Kasulatan wrote mula sa perspektibo ng mga pang-lupang mundo, at mula sa
na point mataas na posisyon ang araw ay tumaas at itakda.
By 1616 the attacks on the ideas of Copernicus had reached a head, and Galileo went to Rome to
try to persuade the Catholic Church authorities not to ban Copernicus' ideas. By 1616 ang atake
sa mga ideya ng Copernicus had naabot ng isang ulo, at Galileo ay nagpunta sa Roma upang
subukan upang akitin ang mga awtoridad Katoliko Iglesia hindi upang pagbawalan Copernicus
'ideya. In the end, Cardinal Bellarmine , acting on directives from the Inquisition, delivered him
an order not to "hold or defend" the idea that the Earth moves and the Sun stands still at the
centre. Sa katapusan, Cardinal Bellarmine , kumikilos sa mga direktiba mula sa mga
pagsisiyasat, ibinigay siya ng isang order na hindi na "hold o ipagtanggol" ng ideya na ang Earth
gumagalaw at ang Sun nakatayo pa rin sa gitna. The decree did not prevent Galileo from
discussing heliocentrism hypothesis (thus maintaining a facade of separation between science
and that church). Ang pasiya ay hindi maiwasan Galileo mula sa pagtalakay heliocentrism teorya
(ganito ang pagpapanatili ng isang dayag ng paghihiwalay sa pagitan ng agham at na ang
iglesia). For the next several years Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. Para sa
susunod na ilang taon Galileo tumigil na rin ang layo mula sa kontrobersiya. He revived his
project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini
as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Siya revived kanyang proyekto ng pagsulat ng isang libro sa paksa,
hinihikayat sa pamamagitan ng halalan ng Cardinal Maffeo Barberini bilang Pope Urban VIII sa
1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the condemnation of
Galileo in 1616. Barberini ay isang kaibigan at tagahanga ng mga Galileo, at nagkaroon ng laban
sa pagbabawal sa paggamit ng Galileo sa 1616. The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief
World Systems , was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal
permission. Ang mga libro, Dialogue Tungkol sa Dalawang Chief Systems ng World , ay
inilathala sa 1632, na may pormal na awtorisasyon mula sa pagsisiyasat at papa pahintulot.

Dava Sobel [ 47 ] explains that during this time, Urban had begun to fall more and more under the
influence of court intrigue and problems of state. Dava Sobel [47] nagpapaliwanag na habang
panahon na ito, Urban ay sinimulan upang mahulog at mas higit pa sa ilalim ng impluwensiya ng
hukuman intriga at mga problema ng estado. His friendship with Galileo began to take second
place to his feelings of persecution and fear for his own life. Ang kanyang makipagkaibigan sa
Galileo ay nagsimulang gumawa ng pangalawang lugar upang ang kanyang mga damdamin ng
pag-uusig at takot para sa kaniyang sariling buhay. At this low point in Urban's life, the problem
of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of Galileo. Sa mababang
point sa Urban's buhay, ang mga problema ng mga Galileo ay iniharap sa mga papa ng insiders
hukuman at mga kaaway ng Galileo. Coming on top of the recent claim by the then Spanish
cardinal that Urban was soft on defending the church, he reacted out of anger and fear. Malapit
sa itaas ng mga kamakailan claim sa pamamagitan ng pagkatapos Espanyol kardinal na Urban ay
malambot sa pagtatanggol sa iglesia, at reacted sa galit at takot. This situation did not bode well
for Galileo's defense of his book. Ang sitwasyong ito ay hindi maghudyat ng mabuti para sa
Galileo's pagtatanggol ng kanyang aklat.

Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against
heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. Mas maaga, Pope
Urban VIII had personal nagtanong Galileo na magbigay sa mga argumento para at laban sa
heliocentrism sa aklat, at upang maging maingat sa hindi tagataguyod heliocentrism. He made
another request, that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book. Gumawa siya ng
isa pang kahilingan, na ang kanyang sariling pananaw sa mga bagay na kasama sa Galileo's libro.
Only the latter of those requests was fulfilled by Galileo. Tanging ang huli ng mga kahilingan ay
natupad sa pamamagitan ng Galileo. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the
defender of the Aristotelian Geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World
Systems , was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. Kung
unknowingly o kusa, Simplicio, ang tagapagtanggol ng mga Aristoteliko view geosentriko sa
Dialogue Tungkol sa Dalawang Chief Systems ng World, ay madalas na nahuli sa kanyang
sariling mga pagkakamali at kung minsan ay dumating sa kabuuan bilang isang mangmang.
Indeed, although Galileo states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a
famous Aristotelian philosopher ( Simplicius in Latin, Simplicio in Italian), the name
"Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton". [ 48 ] This portrayal of Simplicio
made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack
on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory. Sa katunayan, bagaman
Galileo estado sa paunang salita ng kanyang libro na ang character ay ipinangalan sa isang
bantog na pilosopo Aristoteliko ( Simplicius sa Latin, Simplicio sa Italian), ang pangalan
"Simplicio" sa Italyano rin ay may kahulugan ng "gago". [48] Ito pagsasalarawan ng Simplicio
ginawa Dialogue Tungkol sa Dalawang Chief Systems ng World lilitaw bilang advocacy ng
libro: isang atake sa Aristoteliko geocentrism at pagtatanggol ng mga Copernican teorya.
Unfortunately for his relationship with the Pope, Galileo put the words of Urban VIII into the
mouth of Simplicio. Kasamaang palad para sa kanyang relasyon sa mga Papa, Galileo ilagay ang
mga salita ng Urban VIII sa bibig ng Simplicio. Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of
malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book. [ 49 ] However, the Pope did not take the
suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy. Karamihan sa mga historians
sumasang-ayon Galileo ay hindi kumilos sa labas ng masamang hangarin at nadama blindsided
sa pamamagitan ng mga reaksyon sa kanyang aklat. [49] Gayunman, ang Papa ay hindi kumuha ng
pinaghihinalaang pampublikong panlilibak nang basta-basta, ni ang mga Copernican advocacy.
Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called
to Rome to defend his writings. Galileo ay alienated isa sa kanyang mga pinakamalaking at
pinaka-makapangyarihang mga supporters, ang Papa, at tinawag sa Roma upang ipagtanggol ang
kanyang mga isinulat.

With the loss of many of his defenders in Rome because of Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief
World Systems , Galileo was ordered to stand trial on suspicion of heresy in 1633. Sa
pamamagitan ng pagkawala ng marami sa kanyang mga tagapagtanggol sa Roma dahil sa
Dialogue Tungkol sa Dalawang Chief Systems ng World, Galileo ay iniutos na tumayo paglilitis
sa hinala ng sekta sa 1633. The sentence of the Inquisition was in three essential parts: Ang mga
pangungusap ng pagtatanong ay sa tatlong mahahalagang bahagi:

 Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions
that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre
and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been
declared contrary to Holy Scripture. Galileo ay natagpuan "vehemently maghinala ng
maling pananampalataya", namely ng pagkakaroon ng gaganapin ang mga opinyon na
ang Sun kasinungalingan galaw sa sentro ng ang daigdig, ang mundo ay hindi sa gitna
nito at gumagalaw, at na ang isa ay maaaring humawak at ipagtanggol ang isang opinyon
bilang probable na ito ay nai ipinahayag laban sa Banal na Kasulatan. He was required to
 "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions. [ 50 ] Siya ay kinakailangan upang "magtakwil,
sumpa at kasuklaman" mga opinyon. [50]
 He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition. [ 51 ] On the
following day this was commuted to house arrest, which he remained under for the rest of
his life. Siya ay sentenced sa pormal na pagkabilanggo sa kasiyahan ng mga pagsisiyasat.
[51]
Sa sumusunod na araw na ito ay commuted sa aresto sa bahay, na kung saan siya ay
nanatili sa ilalim para sa natitirang bahagi ng kanyang buhay.
 His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial,
publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.
[ 52 ]
Kanyang offending Dialogue ay pinagbawalan, at sa isang action hindi inihayag sa
paglilitis, paglalathala ng anumang ng kanyang mga gawa ay ipinagbabawal, kasama ang
anumang siya ay maaaring sumulat sa hinaharap. [52]

Tomb of Galileo Galilei, Santa Croce Libingan ng Galileo Galilei, Santa Croce

According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun,
Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase And yet it moves , but there is no evidence that
he actually said this or anything similar. Ayon sa popular na alamat, pagkatapos recanting
kanyang teorya na ang Earth inilipat sa paligid ng Araw, Galileo raw muttered mga
mapanghimagsik phrase At pa ito gumagalaw , ngunit walang katibayan na siya ang tunay na
sinabi na ito o anumang bagay na katulad. The first account of the legend dates to a century after
his death. [ 53 ] Ang unang account ng mga alamat mga petsa sa isang siglo pagkatapos ng
kanyang kamatayan. [53]

After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena ), Galileo was
allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he spent the remainder of
his life under house arrest, his movements restricted by the Pope. Matapos ang isang panahon na
may mga friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (ang Arsobispo ng Siena ), Galileo ay pinahihintulutan
upang bumalik sa kanyang villa sa Arcetri malapit sa Florence sa 1634, kung saan siya na
ginugol ang mga natitira sa kanyang buhay sa ilalim ng aresto sa bahay, ang kanyang mga
kilusan sa pamamagitan ng restricted ang Papa. Galileo was ordered to read the seven penitential
psalms once a week for the next three years. Galileo ay iniutos na basahin ang pito penitensiya
salmo minsan sa isang linggo para sa susunod na tatlong taon. However his daughter Maria
Celeste relieved him of the burden after securing ecclesiastical permission to take it upon herself.
[ 54 ]
It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest
works, Two New Sciences . Subalit ang kanyang anak na babae Maria Celeste hinalinhan siya ng
pasan pagkatapos ng paniniguro ng iglesiya ng pahintulot upang dalhin ito sa kanyang sarili. [54]
Ito ay habang Galileo ay sa ilalim ng aresto sa bahay na kaniyang itinalaga ang kaniyang oras sa
isa sa kanyang finest gawa, Dalawang Bagong Sciences . Here he summarized work he had done
some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials .
Narito siya summarized trabaho siya ay tapos na ang ilang na apat na pung taon na mas maaga,
sa dalawang sciences ngayon tinatawag kinematika at lakas ng materyales . This book has
received high praise from Albert Einstein . [ 55 ] As a result of this work, Galileo is often called the
"father of modern physics". Ang aklat na ito ay nakatanggap ng mataas na papuri mula sa Albert
Einstein . [55] Bilang isang resulta ng gawaing ito, Galileo ay madalas na tinatawag na "ama ng
modernong physics". He went completely blind in 1638 and was suffering from a painful hernia
and insomnia , so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice. [ 56 ] [ 57 ] Pumunta
siya sa ganap na bulag sa 1638 at noon ay paghihirap mula sa isang masakit luslos at hindi
pagkakatulog , kaya siya ay pinahihintulutan sa paglalakbay sa Florence para sa medikal na
pagpapayo. [56] [57]

Death Kamatayan
Galileo continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering fever and heart
palpitations, he died on January 8, 1642, at age 77. [ 56 ] The Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando
II , wished to bury him in the main body of the Basilica of Santa Croce , next to the tombs of his
father and other ancestors, and to erect a marble mausoleum in his honour. [ 58 ] These plans were
scrapped, however, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini,
protested, [ 59 ] because Galileo was condemned by the Catholic Church for "vehement suspicion
of heresy". [ 60 ] He was instead buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a
corridor from the southern transept of the basilica to the sacristy. [ 61 ] He was reburied in the main
body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument had been erected there in his honour. [ 62 ] Galileo
patuloy na makatanggap ng mga bisita hanggang sa 1642, kapag, pagkatapos ng paghihirap at
puso palpitations lagnat, siya ay namatay sa Enero 8, 1642, sa edad na 77. [56] Ang Grand Duke
ng Tuscany, Ferdinando II , ninais ilibing siya sa pangunahing katawan ng ang Basilika ng Santa
Croce , katabi ang mga libingan ng kaniyang ama at iba pang mga ninuno, at upang magtayo ng
isang marmol mosoliem sa kanyang karangalan. [58] Ang mga plano ay scrapped, subalit,
pagkatapos ng Pope Urban VIII at ang kanyang mga pamangkin, Cardinal Francesco Barberini,
protested , [59] dahil Galileo ay nahatulan sa pamamagitan ng Simbahang Katoliko para sa
"maalab hinala ng maling pananampalataya". [60] ay sa halip Siya buried sa isang maliit na silid
na katabi ng novices 'kapilya sa dulo ng isang koridor mula sa timog transept ng Basilika sa
sakristiya. [61] Siya ay reburied sa pangunahing katawan ng Basilika sa 1737 pagkatapos ng isang
monumento ay erected doon sa kanyang karangalan. [62]

Scientific methods Pang-agham na pamamaraan

Galileo made original contributions to the science of motion through an innovative combination
of experiment and mathematics. [ 63 ] More typical of science at the time were the qualitative
studies of William Gilbert , on magnetism and electricity. Galileo ginawa orihinal na
kontribusyon sa agham ng kilos sa pamamagitan ng isang makabagong kumbinasyon ng mga
eksperimento at matematika. [63] Higit pang mga tipikal ng science sa panahon ay ang husay ng
pag-aaral ng William Gilbert , sa magnetismo at elektrisidad. Galileo's father, Vincenzo Galilei ,
a lutenist and music theorist, had performed experiments establishing perhaps the oldest known
non-linear relation in physics: for a stretched string, the pitch varies as the square root of the
tension. [ 64 ] These observations lay within the framework of the Pythagorean tradition of music,
well-known to instrument makers, which included the fact that subdividing a string by a whole
number produces a harmonious scale. Galileo's ama, Vincenzo Galilei , isang lutenist at musika
teoriko, ay gumanap ng mga eksperimento ang pagtatag marahil ang pinakalumang kilala non-
linear kinalaman sa pisika: para sa isang stretched string, itayo ang nag-iiba na ang square root
ng pag-igting. [64] Ang mga obserbasyon lay loob balangkas ng Pitagoryan tradisyon ng musika,
well-kilala sa mga gumagawa ng instrumento, na kung saan kasama ang katunayan na ang
subdividing isang string sa pamamagitan ng isang buong bilang gumagawa ng isang maayos na
proporsyon. Thus, a limited amount of mathematics had long related music and physical science,
and young Galileo could see his own father's observations expand on that tradition. [ 65 ] Kaya,
ang isang limitadong halaga ng matematika ay matagal kaugnay na musika at mga pisikal na
agham, at mga kabataan Galileo ay maaaring makita ang sariling ama ang kanyang mga
obserbasyon palawakin sa tradisyon na. [65]

Galileo is perhaps the first to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. Galileo ay
marahil ang unang upang malinaw na estado na ang mga batas ng kalikasan ay matematika. In
The Assayer he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ... It is written in
the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric
figures;...." [ 66 ] His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by
late scholastic natural philosophers, which Galileo learned when he studied philosophy. [ 67 ]
Although he tried to remain loyal to the Catholic Church, his adherence to experimental results,
and their most honest interpretation, led to a rejection of blind allegiance to authority, both
philosophical and religious, in matters of science. Sa Ang Assayer siya wrote "Pilosopiya ay
nakasulat sa ito grand libro, ang universe ... Ito ay nakasulat sa wika ng matematika, at ang
kanyang character ay triangles, bilog, at iba pang mga geometriko mga numero ;...." [66] ang
Kanyang matematika na pinag-aaralan ay isang karagdagang pag-unlad ng isang tradisyon ng
trabaho sa pamamagitan ng huli eskolastiko natural philosophers, na Galileo natutunan kapag
siya aral ng pilosopiya. [67] Kahit na siya tried sa mananatiling tapat sa Simbahang Katoliko, ang
kanyang malasakit sa experimental resulta, at ang kanilang mga pinaka matapat na
interpretasyon, na humantong sa isang pagtanggi ng bulag na katapatan sa kapangyarihan,
parehong pilosopiko at relihiyoso, sa usapin ng science. In broader terms, this aided the
separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought.
Sa mas malawak na termino, ito aided ang paghihiwalay ng science mula sa parehong mga
pilosopiya at relihiyon; isang malaking pag-unlad ng tao sa isipan.

By the standards of his time, Galileo was often willing to change his views in accordance with
observation. Sa pamamagitan ng mga pamantayan ng kanyang panahon, Galileo ay madalas na
payag na baguhin ang kanyang pananaw alinsunod sa pagmamasid. In order to perform his
experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on
different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. Upang
maisagawa ang kanyang mga eksperimento, Galileo had sa set up ng mga pamantayan ng haba at
oras, kaya na measurements ginawa sa ibang mga araw at sa iba't ibang Laboratories ay maaaring
inihambing sa isang maaaring kopyahin fashion. This provided a reliable foundation on which to
confirm mathematical laws using inductive reasoning . Ito na ibinigay ng isang maaasahang
pundasyon sa kung saan upang kumpirmahin matematikal na mga batas gamit pangangatwirang
pasaklaw .

Galileo showed a remarkably modern appreciation for the proper relationship between
mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. Galileo ay nagpakita ng isang
napaka modernong appreciation para sa tamang relasyon sa pagitan ng matematika, panteorya
physics, at experimental physics. He understood the parabola , both in terms of conic sections
and in terms of the ordinate (y) varying as the square of the abscissa (x). Siya na nauunawaan
ang parabola , pareho sa mga tuntunin ng alimusod seksyon at sa mga tuntunin ng mga ordinate
(y) iba't ibang bilang ng parisukat ng absisa (x). Galilei further asserted that the parabola was the
theoretically ideal trajectory of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of friction and
other disturbances. Galilei karagdagang asserted na ang parabola ay ang theoretically ideal
tilapon ng isang unipormadong pinabilis na gaya ng bato sa kawalan ng sigalot at iba pang mga
disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical
grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be
a parabola, [ 68 ] but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the artillery of
his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would only be very slight. [ 69 ]
Siya conceded na may mga limitasyon na ang bisa ng teorya na ito, pagpuna sa panteorya
batayan na ang isang gaya ng bato tilapon ng isang sukat maihahambing sa na ng Earth ay hindi
maaaring marahil ay isang parabola, [68] ngunit gayon pa man siya pinananatili na para sa
distances ng hanggang sa ang hanay ng mga artilerya ng kaniyang kaarawan, ang paglihis ng
panudla's tilapon ng isang mula sa isang parabola ay lamang maging tunay bahagyang. [69]

Astronomy Astronomya
Contributions Kontribusyon

Fresco by Giuseppe Bertini depicting Galileo showing the Doge of Venice how to use the
telescope Pagpipinta sa pader sa pamamagitan ng Giuseppe Bertini depicting Galileo na
nagpapakita ng Doge ng Venice kung paano gamitin ang teleskopyo
It was on this page that Galileo first noted an observation of the moons of Jupiter . Ito ay sa
pahinang ito na Galileo unang mapapansin ng pagmamasid sa mga buwan ng Jupiter . This
observation upset the notion that all celestial bodies must revolve around the Earth. pagmamasid
na ito mapataob ang paniwala na ang lahat ng mga celestial bodies ay dapat umikot sa paligid ng
Earth. Galileo published a full description in Sidereus Nuncius in March 1610 Galileo publish ng
isang buong paglalarawan sa Sidereus Nuncius Marso 1610

The phases of Venus , observed by Galileo in 1610 Ang yugto ng Venus , sundin sa
pamamagitan ng Galileo sa 1610

Based only on uncertain descriptions of the first practical telescope, invented by Hans
Lippershey in the Netherlands in 1608, Galileo, in the following year, made a telescope with
about 3x magnification. Batay lamang sa hindi tiyak na paglalarawan ng ang unang praktikal na
teleskopyo, imbento sa pamamagitan ng Hans Lippershey sa Netherlands sa 1608, Galileo, sa
sumusunod na taon, na ginawa ng isang teleskopyo na may tungkol sa 3x parangal. He later
made improved versions with up to about 30x magnification. [ 70 ] With a Galilean telescope the
observer could see magnified, upright images on the earth – it was what is commonly known as a
terrestrial telescope, or spyglass. Siya mamaya ginawa pinabuting bersyon na may hanggang sa
ang tungkol sa 30x parangal. [70] Sa pamamagitan ng isang Galilean teleskopyo ang tagamasid
maaaring makita magnified, matuwid imahe sa lupa - ito ay kung ano ay karaniwang kilala
bilang isang pang-lupang telescope, o anteoho. He could also use it to observe the sky; for a time
he was one of those who could construct telescopes good enough for that purpose. Siya ay
maaaring ring gamitin ito upang pagmasdan ang langit; para sa isang oras na siya ay isa sa mga
taong maaaring bumuo ng teleskopyo mabuti sapat na para sa layunin. On 25 August 1609, he
demonstrated his first telescope to Venetian lawmakers. Sa 25 Agosto 1609, siya nagpakita ng
kanyang unang teleskopyo sa taga-Benesiya mambabatas. His telescopes were a profitable
sideline. Ang kanyang teleskopyo ay isang pinakinabangang sideline. He could sell them to
merchants who found them useful both at sea and as items of trade. Siya ay maaaring ibenta ang
mga ito sa mga mangangalakal na natagpuan ang mga ito kapaki-pakinabang na parehong sa
dagat at sa bilang ng mga item sa kalakalan. He published his initial telescopic astronomical
observations in March 1610 in a brief treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius ( Starry Messenger ). [ 71 ]
Siya nai-publish na ang kanyang paunang teleskopiko astronomya obserbasyon Marso 1610 sa
isang maikling treatise karapatan Sidereus Nuncius (nangingislap Messenger). [71]

On 7 January 1610 Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three
fixed stars, totally invisible [ 72 ] by their smallness", all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight
line through it. [ 73 ] Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars"
relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really
been fixed stars. Sa 7 Enero 1610 Galileo siniyasat sa kanyang teleskopyo kung ano siya
inilarawan sa panahon ng "tatlong fixed stars, ganap invisible [72] sa pamamagitan ng kanilang
kaliitan ", ang lahat ng malapit sa Jupiter, at nakahiga sa isang tuwid na linya sa pamamagitan ng
ito. [73] sa obserbasyon kasunod na gabi ay nagpakita na ang mga posisyon ng mga "stars" kamag-
anak sa Jupiter ay nagbabago sa isang paraan na nais ay hindi maipaliliwanag kung talagang sila
ay fixed stars. On 10 January Galileo noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation
which he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. Sa Enero 10 Galileo mapapansin na isa sa
kanila ay nawala, ang isang bagay na napansin na siya maiugnay sa kanyang pagiging nakatago
sa likod ng Jupiter. Within a few days he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter: [ 74 ] He had
discovered three of Jupiter's four largest satellites (moons). Sa loob ng ilang araw siya concluded
na sila ay orbital Jupiter: [74] Siya ay natuklasan ng tatlong Jupiter's apat na pinakamalaking
satellite (buwan). He discovered the fourth on 13 January. Siya natuklasan ang ikaapat na sa
Enero 13. These satellites are now called Io , Europa , Ganymede , and Callisto . Ang mga
satellite ay tinatawag na ngayong Io , Europa , Ganymede , at Callisto . Galileo named the group
of four the Medicean stars , in honour of his future patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of
Tuscany , and Cosimo's three brothers. [ 75 ] Later astronomers, however, renamed them Galilean
satellites in honour of their discoverer. Galileo pinangalanan ang grupo ng apat na mga
Medicean stars, sa karangalan ng kanyang hinaharap patron, Cosimo II de 'Medici, Grand Duke
ng Tuscany , at Cosimo's tatlong magkakapatid. [75] Mamaya astronomo, gayunpaman, pinalitan
ng pangalan ang mga ito Galilean satellite sa karangalan ng kanilang deskubridor .

Once Galileo realized what he had seen a few days later, his observations of the satellites of
Jupiter created a revolution in astronomy that reverberates to this day: a planet with smaller
planets orbiting it did not conform to the principles of Aristotelian Cosmology , which held that
all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth, [ 76 ] and many astronomers and philosophers initially
refused to believe that Galileo could have discovered such a thing. [ 77 ] His observations were
confirmed by the observatory of Christopher Clavius and he received a hero's welcome when he
visited Rome in 1611 . [ 78 ] Kapag Galileo natanto kung ano ang nakita na niya ng ilang araw
mamaya, ang kanyang mga obserbasyon ng mga satellite ng Jupiter ay lumikha ng isang
rebolusyon sa astronomy na reverberates sa araw na ito: ang isang planeta na may mas maliit na
planeta orbital hindi ito sumunod sa mga prinsipyo ng Aristoteliko Cosmology , na gaganapin na
lahat ng makalangit na katawan ay dapat na bilog ang mundo, [76] at marami astronomo at
pilosopo sa una tumanggi na naniniwala na Galileo ay maaaring may natuklasan tulad ng isang
bagay. [77] Ang kanyang mga obserbasyon ay nakumpirma na sa pamamagitan ng obserbatoryo
ng Christopher Clavius at natanggap niya ang isang bayani's welcome kapag siya binisita Roma
noong 1611 . [78]

Galileo continued to observe the satellites over the next eighteen months, and by mid 1611 he
had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periods—a feat which Kepler had believed
impossible. [ 79 ] Galileo patuloy na obserbahan ang mga satellite sa susunod na labing-walo
buwan, at sa pamamagitan ng kalagitnaan ng 1611 niya nakuha lubha tumpak na estima para sa
kanilang mga tuldok-isang feat na Kepler naniwala imposible. [79]

From September 1610, Galileo observed that Venus exhibited a full set of phases similar to that
of the Moon . Mula Set 1610, Galileo siniyasat na Venus exhibited isang buong set ng phases na
katulad na ng mga Moon . The heliocentric model of the solar system developed by Nicolaus
Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the Sun
would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the
Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. Ang heliocentric
model ng solar system na binuo ni Nicolaus Copernicus hinulaang na ang lahat ng mga yugto ay
makikita mula sa orbita ng Venus sa paligid ng Sun magiging dahilan nito iluminado kalahati ng
mundo sa mukha ang Earth kapag ito ay sa ang kabaligtaran gilid ng Sun at sa mukha ang layo
mula sa Earth sa mga kapag ito ay sa gilid Earth-ng Sun. On the other hand, in Ptolemy's
geocentric model it was impossible for any of the planets' orbits to intersect the spherical shell
carrying the Sun. Sa kabilang dako, sa geosentriko modelo Ptolemy's ito ay imposible para sa
anumang ng mga planeta 'orbit sa magsalikop ang spherical shell dala ang Sun. Traditionally the
orbit of Venus was placed entirely on the near side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only
crescent and new phases. Ayon sa kaugalian ng orbita ng Venus ay inilagay lubos sa malapit sa
gilid ng Sun, kung saan ito ay maaaring eksibit lamang gasuklay ang buwan at bagong yugto. It
was, however, also possible to place it entirely on the far side of the Sun, where it could exhibit
only gibbous and full phases. Ito ay, subalit, posible rin na ilagay ito ganap na sa malayong dako
ng Sun, kung saan ito ay maaaring eksibit lamang kuba at buong phases. After Galileo's
telescopic observations of the crescent, gibbous and full phases of Venus, therefore, this
Ptolemaic model became untenable. Pagkatapos ng Galileo's teleskopiko obserbasyon ng
gasuklay ang buwan, kuba at puno ng mga yugto ng Venus, samakatuwid, ito mala-Ptolomi
model naging hindi bagay. Thus in the early 17th century as a result of his discovery the great
majority of astronomers converted to one of the various geo-heliocentric planetary models, [ 80 ]
such as the Tychonic, Capellan and Extended Capellan models, [ 81 ] each either with or without a
daily rotating Earth. Ganito sa maagang 17th siglo bilang isang resulta ng kanyang pagkatuklas
sa karamihan ng mga astronomers na-convert sa isa sa mga iba't ibang geo-heliocentric
pamplaneta modelo, [80] tulad ng mga Tychonic, Capellan at Extended Capellan modelo, [81]
bawat alinman sa o walang isang araw-araw na umiikot na Earth. These all had the virtue of
explaining the phases of Venus without the vice of the 'refutation' of full heliocentrism's
prediction of stellar parallax. Ang mga ito ang lahat ay ang kabanalan ng nagpapaliwanag ng
mga yugto ng Venus na walang mga bisyo ng mga 'pagpapabulaan' ng hula buong
heliocentrism's ng stellar paralaks. Galileo's discovery of the phases of Venus was thus arguably
his most empirically practically influential contribution to the two-stage transition from full
geocentrism to full heliocentrism via geo-heliocentrism. Galileo's pagkatuklas ng mga yugto ng
Venus ay ganito arguably kanyang pinaka empirically halos maimpluwensiya kontribusyon sa
dalawang-yugto paglipat mula sa puno geocentrism sa buong heliocentrism sa pamamagitan ng
geo-heliocentrism.

Galileo also observed the planet Saturn , and at first mistook its rings for planets, thinking it was
a three-bodied system. Galileo din sundin ang mga planeta Saturn , at sa unang mistook ng mga
singsing para sa planeta, iisip ito ay isang tatlong-lasa sistema. When he observed the planet
later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented at Earth, causing him to think that two of the bodies
had disappeared. Kapag siya napagmasdan ang planeta mamaya, Saturn's rings ay direkta
oriented sa Earth, magdulot sa kanya upang isipin na ang dalawa sa mga bangkay ay naglaho.
The rings reappeared when he observed the planet in 1616, further confusing him. [ 82 ] Ang mga
singsing reappeared kapag siya siniyasat ang mga planeta sa 1616, karagdagang nakalilito
kaniya. [82]

Galileo was one of the first Europeans to observe sunspots , although Kepler had unwittingly
observed one in 1607, but mistook it for a transit of Mercury. Galileo ay isa sa mga unang
Europeo na obserbahan ang sunspots , kahit na Kepler ay nagkaroon nang hindi sinasadya sundin
ang isa sa 1607, ngunit mistook ito para sa isang transit ng Mercury. He also reinterpreted a
sunspot observation from the time of Charlemagne , which formerly had been attributed
(impossibly) to a transit of Mercury . Siya rin reinterpreted isang pekas pagmamasid mula sa oras
ng Charlemagne , na dating ay maiugnay (hindi maaari) sa isang transit ng Mercury . The very
existence of sunspots showed another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens
posited by orthodox Aristotelian celestial physics, but their regular periodic transits also
confirmed the dramatic novel prediction of Kepler's Aristotelian celestial dynamics in his 1609
Astronomia Nova that the sun rotates, which was the first successful novel prediction of post-
spherist celestial physics. [ 83 ] And the annual variations in sunspots' motions, discovered by
Francesco Sizzi and others in 1612–1613, [ 84 ] provided a powerful argument against both the
Ptolemaic system and the geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe . [ 85 ] A dispute over priority in
the discovery of sunspots, and in their interpretation, led Galileo to a long and bitter feud with
the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner ; in fact, there is little doubt that both of them were beaten by
David Fabricius and his son Johannes , looking for confirmation of Kepler's prediction of the
sun's rotation. Ang tunay na pagkakaroon ng sunspots nagpakita ng isa pang kahirapan sa mga
walang bago ganap na ganap sa langit posited sa pamamagitan ng kinikilala Aristoteliko celestial
physics, ngunit ang kanilang mga regular na pana-panahong mga transits din nakumpirma na ang
madula hula nobela ng Kepler's Aristoteliko celestial dinamika sa kanyang 1609 Astronomia
Nova na ang araw rotates, na kung saan ay ang unang matagumpay na nobela hula ng post-
spherist celestial physics. [83] At ang taunang mga pagkakaiba iba sa sunspots 'motions,
natuklasan sa pamamagitan ng Francesco Sizzi at sa iba pa sa 1612-1613, [84] na ibinigay ng isang
malakas na argument laban sa kapwa ang mala-Ptolomi sistema at ang geoheliocentric sistema
ng Tycho Brahe . [85] Ang isang pagtatalo sa loob ng prayoridad sa mga pagkatuklas ng sunspots,
at sa kanilang kahulugan, na humantong Galileo sa isang mahaba at mapait na mahigpit na away
sa mga Heswita Christoph Scheiner ; sa katunayan, diyan ay maliit duda na pareho ng mga ito ay
nasira sa pamamagitan ng David Fabricius at ang kaniyang anak Johannes , naghahanap ng
kumpirmasyon ng Kepler's hula ng araw ng pag-ikot sa. Scheiner quickly adopted Kepler's 1615
proposal of the modern telescope design, which gave larger magnification at the cost of inverted
images; Galileo apparently never changed to Kepler's design. Scheiner mabilis na pinagtibay sa
1615 proposal Kepler's ng mga modernong disenyo ng teleskopyo, na nagbigay ng mas malaking
parangal sa mga gastos ng nakabaligtad na mga imahe; Galileo tila hindi kailanman nagbago sa
Kepler's disenyo.

Prior to Galileo's construction of his version of a telescope, Thomas Harriot , an English

mathematician and explorer, had already used what he dubbed a "perspective tube" to observe
the moon. Bago sa Galileo's konstruksiyon ng kanyang bersyon ng isang teleskopyo, Thomas
Harriot , isang Ingles dalubbilang at explorer, nagkaroon na ginamit kung ano siya dubbed isang
"tube perspektibo" na obserbahan ang buwan. Reporting his observations, Harriot noted only
"strange spottednesse" in the waning of the crescent, but was ignorant to the cause. Uulat ng
kanyang mga obserbasyon, Harriot kilala lamang "kakaibang spottednesse" sa waning ng
gasuklay ang buwan, ngunit ay walang nalalaman sa ang dahilan. Galileo, due in part to his
artistic training [ 18 ] and the knowledge of chiaroscuro , [ 17 ] had understood the patterns of light
and shadow were in fact topological markers. Galileo, dahil sa bahagi sa kanyang pansining
pagsasanay [18] at ang kaalaman ng chiaroscuro , [17] ay nauunawaan ang mga pattern ng ilaw at
lilim ay sa katunayan topological markers. While not being the only one to observe the moon
through a telescope, Galileo was the first to deduce the cause of the uneven waning as light
occlusion from lunar mountains and craters . Habang hindi pagiging ang isa lamang na
obserbahan ang buwan sa pamamagitan ng isang teleskopyo, Galileo ay ang unang na
pagbatayan ang sanhi ng hindi pantay waning bilang liwanag hadlang mula lunar bundok at
craters . In his study he also made topological charts, estimating the heights of the mountains. Sa
kanyang pag-aaral siya rin ginawa topological mga tsart, estimating sa kataasan ng mga bundok.
The moon was not what was long thought to have been a translucent and perfect sphere, as
Aristotle claimed, and hardly the first "planet", an "eternal pearl to magnificently ascend into the
heavenly empyrian", as put forth by Dante . ang buwan ay hindi kung ano ay matagal iisip sa
may been isang translucent at perpektong globo, bilang Aristotle inaangkin, at bahagya na ang
unang "planeta", isang "walang hanggan perlas sa magnificently sasampa sa makalangit na
empyrian", bilang inilalabas sa pamamagitan ng Dante .

Galileo observed the Milky Way , previously believed to be nebulous , and found it to be a
multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared to be clouds from Earth. Galileo siniyasat
ang Milky Way , dati naniniwala na maging malabo , at natagpuan ito upang maging isang tao ng
mga bituin nakaimpake kaya makapal na sila ay lumitaw na maging ulap mula sa Earth. He
located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye. Siya matatagpuan sa
maraming iba pang mga stars masyadong malayo na nakikita sa mga mata. Galileo also observed
the planet Neptune in 1612, but did not realize that it was a planet and took no particular notice
of it. Galileo din sundin ang mga planeta Neptune sa 1612, ngunit hindi mapagtanto na ito ay
isang planeta at kinuha walang partikular na abiso ng mga ito. It appears in his notebooks as one
of many unremarkable dim stars. Ito ay lilitaw sa kanyang notebook bilang isa sa maraming mga
unremarkable lubog na bituin. He observed the double star Mizar in Ursa Major in 1617. [ 86 ] In
the Starry Messenger Galileo reported that stars appeared as mere blazes of light, essentially
unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and contrasted them to planets which the telescope
revealed to be disks. Siya siniyasat ang double star Mizar sa Ursa Major in 1617. [86] Sa
nangingislap Messenger Galileo iniulat na bituin ay lumitaw bilang lamang Nagaibwal ng
liwanag, mahalagang walang nabago sa hitsura ng teleskopyo, at contrasted ang mga ito sa
planeta na teleskopyo ang nagsiwalat na disks . However, in later writings he described the stars
as also being disks, whose sizes he measured. Gayunman, sa mamaya writings niya inilarawan
ang mga bituin bilang din pagiging disks, na ang sukat ng mga sinukat niya. According to
Galileo, stellar disk diameters typically measured a tenth the diameter of the disk of Jupiter (one
five-hundredth the diameter of the sun), although some were somewhat larger and others
substantially smaller. Ayon sa mga Galileo, stellar disk diameters karaniwang sinusukat 1 / 10
ang diameter ng disk ng Jupiter (isa panglimangdaan ang diameter ng araw), bagaman ang ilan
ay medyo mas malaki at ang iba sa kalahatan mas maliit. Galileo argued that stars were suns, and
that they were not arranged in a spherical shell surrounding the solar system but rather were at
varying distances from Earth. Galileo argued na bituin ay Suns, at na hindi sila ay arranged sa
isang pabilog shell na nakapaligid sa solar system ngunit sa halip ay sa iba't ibang distances mula
sa Earth. Brighter stars were closer suns, and fainter stars were more distant suns. Mas
maliwanag stars ay mas malapit Suns, at mas malabo stars ay mas malayo Suns. Based on this
idea and on the sizes he claimed for stellar disks, he calculated stars to lie at distances ranging
from several hundred solar distances for bright stars to over two thousand solar distances for
faint stars barely visible to the unaided eye, with stars visible only with the telescope being
further still. Batay sa ideya na ito at sa laki niya inaangkin para sa stellar disks, siya kinakalkula
bituin upang magsinungaling sa distances ranging mula sa ilang daang solar distances para
maliwanag stars sa higit sa dalawang libong solar distances para malamlam stars bahagya
nakikita sa walang tulong mata, na may mga stars makikita lamang sa teleskopyo ang pagiging
karagdagang pa rin. These distances, although too small by modern standards, were far larger
than planetary distances, and he used these calculations to counter anti-Copernican arguments
that distant stars were an absurdity. [ 87 ] Ang mga distances, kahit na masyadong maliit sa
pamamagitan ng modernong pamantayan, ay malayo mas malaki kaysa sa planetary distances, at
siya na ginagamit ang mga kalkulasyon sa counter anti-Copernican argumento na malalayong
bituin ay isang kahangalan. [87]

Technology Teknolohiya

Galileo's geometrical and military compass, thought to have been made c. heometriko at militar
kumpas Galileo's, naisip na nagawa ang mga c. 1604 by his personal instrument-maker
Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni 1604 sa pamamagitan ng kanyang mga personal na instrumento-maker
Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni
Galileo made a number of contributions to what is now known as technology , as distinct from
pure physics, and suggested others. Galileo na ginawa ng isang bilang ng mga kontribusyon sa
kung ano ngayon ay kilala bilang teknolohiya , bilang naiiba mula sa purong physics, at
iminungkahing iba. This is not the same distinction as made by Aristotle, who would have
considered all Galileo's physics as techne or useful knowledge, as opposed to episteme , or
philosophical investigation into the causes of things. Ito ay hindi ang parehong pagkakaiba
bilang ginawa sa pamamagitan ng Aristotle, na ginunita ang lahat ng Galileo's physics bilang
techne o kapaki-pakinabang na kaalaman, bilang laban sa episteme, o pilosopiko imbestigasyon
sa mga nagiging sanhi ng mga bagay. Between 1595–1598, Galileo devised and improved a
Geometric and Military Compass suitable for use by gunners and surveyors . Sa pagitan ng
1595-1598, Galileo devised at pinahusay ng isang geometriko at Military Aguhon angkop para
gamitin sa pamamagitan ng gunners at surveyors . This expanded on earlier instruments designed
by Niccolò Tartaglia and Guidobaldo del Monte . Ito pinalawak na sa mas maaga instrumento
dinisenyo ni Niccolò Tartaglia at Guidobaldo del Monte . For gunners, it offered, in addition to a
new and safer way of elevating cannons accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of
gunpowder for cannonballs of different sizes and materials. Para sa gunners, ito inaalok, sa
karagdagan sa isang bagong at mas ligtas na paraan ng angat kanyon tumpak, sa isang paraan ng
mabilis na computing ang singil ng pulbura para cannonballs ng iba't ibang mga sukat at mga
materyales. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular polygon ,
computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations.
Bilang isang geometriko instrumento, ito pinagana ang konstruksiyon ng anumang regular na
polygon , computation ng lugar ng anumang polygon o pabilog na sektor, at sa iba't ibang mga
iba pang mga kalkulasyon. Under Galileo's direction, instrument maker Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni
produced more than 100 of these compasses, which Galileo sold (along with an instruction
manual he wrote) for 50 lire and offered a course of instruction in the use of the compasses for
120 lire. [ 88 ] Sa ilalim ng Galileo's direksyon, instrumento tagagawa Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni
ginawa ng higit sa 100 ng mga compasses, na Galileo nabili (kasama ang isang pagtuturo manual
siya wrote) para sa 50 lire at inaalok ng isang kurso ng pagtuturo sa paggamit ng compasses para
sa 120 lire. [ 88]

In about 1593 , Galileo constructed a thermometer , using the expansion and contraction of air in
a bulb to move water in an attached tube. Sa tungkol sa 1593 , Galileo constructed isang
thermometer , ang paggamit ng pagpapalawak at pagliit ng hangin sa isang bombilya upang ilipat
ang tubig sa isang kalakip tube.
A replica of the earliest surviving telescope attributed to Galileo Galilei, on display at the
Griffith Observatory . Ang isang kopya ng ang earliest tulong ng iba teleskopyo maiugnay sa
Galileo Galilei, sa display sa Griffith Observatory .

In 1609, Galileo was, along with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first to use a
refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. Sa 1609, Galileo ay,
kasama ng Ingles Thomas Harriot at iba pa, kabilang sa mga unang na gumamit ng isang
refracting teleskopyo bilang kasangkapan na obserbahan ang mga bituin, planeta o buwan. The
name "telescope" was coined for Galileo's instrument by a Greek mathematician, Giovanni
Demisiani , [ 89 ] at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo a member of
his Accademia dei Lincei . [ 90 ] The name was derived from the Greek tele = 'far' and skopein =
'to look or see'. Ang pangalan na "telescope" ay likha para sa Galileo's instrumento sa
pamamagitan ng isang Griyego dalubbilang, Giovanni Demisiani , [89] sa isang piging na
gaganapin sa 1611 sa pamamagitan ng Prince Federico Cesi na gumawa ng Galileo ang isang
miyembro ng kanyang Accademia Dei Lincei . [90] Ang pangalan ay nagmula sa sa Griyego Tele
= 'malayo' at skopein = 'sa hitsura o makita'. In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to
magnify the parts of insects. [ 91 ] By 1624 Galileo had perfected [ 92 ] a compound microscope . Sa
1610, siya na ginagamit ng isang teleskopyo sa malapit na saklaw na dakilain ang mga bahagi ng
mga insekto. [91] Sa pamamagitan ng 1624 Galileo had perfected [92] isang tambalan
mikroskopyo . He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for
presentation to the Duke of Bavaria, [ 93 ] and in September he sent another to Prince Cesi. [ 94 ] The
Linceans played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy
member Giovanni Faber coined the word for Galileo's invention from the Greek words μικρόν (
micron ) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν ( skopein ) meaning "to look at". Ibinigay Niya ang isa sa
mga instrumento sa Cardinal Zollern Mayo ng taon na para sa pagtatanghal sa Duke ng Bavaria,
[93]
at sa Setyembre nagsugo siya ng isa pang sa Prince Cesi. [94] Ang Linceans nilalaro ng isang
papel muli sa pagbibigay ng pangalan sa "mikroskopyo" sa isang taon mamaya kapag kapwa
akademya miyembro Giovanni Faber likha ang salita para sa Galileo's imbensyon mula sa
Griyego μικρόν salita (micron) ibig sabihin ay "maliit", at σκοπεῖν (skopein) ibig sabihin ay
"upang tumingin sa". The word was meant to be analogous with "telescope". [ 95 ] [ 96 ] Illustrations
of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes, and published in 1625, appear to have been
the first clear documentation of the use of a compound microscope. [ 97 ] Ang salita ay sinadya
upang maging analogous sa "telescope". [95] [96] Illustrations ng insekto na ginawa gamit ang isa sa
Galileo's microscopes, at inilathala sa 1625, lalabas sa may been ang unang malinaw na
dokumentasyon ng paggamit ng isang tambalan mikroskopyo. [ 97]

In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with
sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits one could use their positions as a universal clock,
and this would make possible the determination of longitude . Sa 1612, sa pagkakaroon ng
tinutukoy ang orbital na panahon ng Jupiter's satellite, Galileo iminungkahi na may sapat na
tumpak na kaalaman ng kanilang mga orbit isa ay maaaring gamitin ang kanilang mga posisyon
bilang isang unibersal na orasan, at ito ay gumawa posible sa pagpapasiya ng longhitud . He
worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life; but the practical
problems were severe. Nagtrabaho siya sa problema na ito mula sa oras-oras sa panahon ang mga
natitira sa kanyang buhay; ngunit ang mga praktikal na problema ay malubha. The method was
first successfully applied by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1681 and was later used extensively
for large land surveys; this method, for example, was used by Lewis and Clark . Ang
pamamaraan ay unang matagumpay na nailapat ng Giovanni Domenico Cassini sa 1681 at ay
mamaya ginagamit malawakan para sa mga malalaking mga survey lupain; ang paraan na ito,
halimbawa, ay ginamit sa pamamagitan ng Lewis at Clark . For sea navigation, where delicate
telescopic observations were more difficult, the longitude problem eventually required
development of a practical portable marine chronometer , such as that of John Harrison . [ 98 ] In
his last year, when totally blind, he designed an escapement mechanism for a pendulum clock
(called Galileo's escapement ), a vectorial model of which may be seen here . Para sa dagat
nabigasyon, saan masarap teleskopiko obserbasyon ay mas mahirap, ang longitude problema sa
huli na kinakailangan sa paglinang ng isang praktikal na portable marine kronomiter , tulad ng na
ng John Harrison . [98] Sa kanyang huling taon, kapag ganap na bulag, siya dinisenyo ng isang
escapement mekanismo para isang palawit na orasan (na tinatawag na Galileo's escapement ),
isang vectorial modelo ng kung saan ay maaaring makita dito . The first fully operational
pendulum clock was made by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s. Ang unang ganap na
pagpapatakbo palawit orasan ay ginawa sa pamamagitan Christiaan Huygens sa 1650s.

Physics Pisika

Galileo e Viviani , 1892, Tito Lessi Galileo e Viviani , 1892, Tito Lessi

Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely
independent work of Kepler and René Descartes , was a precursor of the classical mechanics
developed by Sir Isaac Newton . experimental trabaho Galileo's panteorya at sa galaw ng mga
katawan, kasama ang higit sa lahat independyenteng gawain ng Kepler at René Descartes , ay
isang tagapagpauna ng ang klasiko mechanics na binuo ni Sir Isaac Newton .

A biography by Galileo's pupil Vincenzo Viviani stated that Galileo had dropped balls of the
same material, but different masses , from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to demonstrate that their
time of descent was independent of their mass. [ 99 ] This was contrary to what Aristotle had
taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight. [ 100 ] While
this story has been retold in popular accounts, there is no account by Galileo himself of such an
experiment, and it is generally accepted by historians that it was at most a thought experiment
which did not actually take place. [ 101 ] Ang talambuhay ni Galileo's balintataw Vincenzo Viviani
nakasaad na Galileo had bumaba ng bola ng parehong materyal, ngunit ang iba't ibang masa ,
mula sa pagkahilig Tower ng Pisa upang ipakita na ang kanilang mga oras ng paglusong ay
independiyenteng ng kanilang mass. [99] Ito ay taliwas sa kung ano ang Aristotle itinuro: mabigat
na bagay mahulog mas mabilis kaysa sa layter iyan, sa direktang proporsyon sa timbang. na [100]
Habang ang kuwentong ito ay muling isinalaysay sa popular na mga account, walang account sa
pamamagitan ng Galileo ang kanyang sarili ng tulad ng isang eksperimento, at sa pangkalahatan
ay ito na tinanggap ng historians na ito ay sa karamihan ng isang eksperimento iisip na hindi
tunay na kumuha ng lugar. [101]

In his 1638 Discorsi Galileo's character Salviati, widely regarded as largely Galileo's spokesman,
held that all unequal weights would fall with the same finite speed in a vacuum. Sa kanyang
1638 Discorsi Galileo's character Salviati, malawak na itinuturing bilang higit sa lahat ng
tagapagsalita Galileo, gaganapin na ang lahat ng hindi pantay panimbang ay mahulog sa
parehong bilis ng kabuhayan sa isang vacuum. But this had previously been proposed by
Lucretius [ 102 ] and Simon Stevin . [ 103 ] Cristiano Banti's Salviati also held it could be
experimentally demonstrated by the comparison of pendulum motions in air with bobs of lead
and of cork which had different weight but which were otherwise similar. Ngunit ito ay dati ay
iminungkahi ng Lucretius [102] at Simon Stevin . [103] Cristiano Banti's Salviati din gaganapin na
ito pagtuklas maaaring nagpakita sa pamamagitan ng paghahambing ng mga panukala na ang
palawit sa hangin sa bobs ng lead at ng tapunan na may iba't ibang timbang ngunit kung saan ay
kung hindi man katulad.

Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the
resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case
of its falling through a vacuum. [ 104 ] He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance
travelled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the
square of the elapsed time ( d ∝ t 2 ). [ 105 ] However, in neither case were these discoveries
entirely original. Galileo iminungkahi na ang isang bumabagsak na katawan ay mahulog sa isang
unipormeng acceleration, hangga't ang paglaban ng mga daluyan sa pamamagitan na ito ay
bumabagsak na naiiwan bale-wala, o sa mga takda sa kaso ng kanyang bumabagsak sa
pamamagitan ng isang vacuum. [104] Siya rin nagmula ang tamang kinematical batas para sa mga
layo manlalakbay sa panahon ng isang unipormeng acceleration mula sa simula magpahinga-
namely, na ito ay proporsyonal sa parisukat ng mga lumipas na oras (d α t 2). [105] Subalit, sa kaso
ni hindi ay ang mga discoveries lubos na orihinal. The time-squared law for uniformly
accelerated change was already known to Nicole Oresme in the 14th century, [ 106 ] and Domingo
de Soto , in the 16th, had suggested that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be
uniformly accelerated. [ 107 ] Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical
constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. Ang time-
squared batas para sa pantay pinabilis na pagbabago ay mayroon na kilala sa Nicole Oresme sa
14 siglo, [106] at Domingo de Soto , sa 16, ay nagkaroon ng iminungkahing na bumabagsak na
katawan sa pamamagitan ng isang magkakauri daluyan ay pantay pinabilis. [107] Galileo
ipinahayag sa oras-squared batas paggamit heometriko constructions at mathematically tumpak
na salita, adhering sa pamantayan ng araw. (It remained for others to re-express the law in
algebraic terms). (Ito naiiwan para sa iba na re-express ang mga batas sa algebraic terms). He
also concluded that objects retain their velocity unless a force —often friction —acts upon them,
refuting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that objects "naturally" slow down and
stop unless a force acts upon them (philosophical ideas relating to inertia had been proposed by
John Philoponus centuries earlier, as had Jean Buridan , and according to Joseph Needham , Mo
Tzu had proposed it centuries before either of them, but this was the first time that it had been
mathematically expressed, verified experimentally, and introduced the idea of frictional force ,
the key breakthrough in validating inertia). Siya rin ang concluded na mga bagay magpanatili ng
kanilang kabilisan maliban kung ang isang lakas -madalas na alitan -gawa sa kanila, refuting sa
mga pangkalahatang Aristoteliko teorya na bagay "natural" slow down at itigil maliban kung
puwersa ng isang gawa sa kanila (pilosopiko ideya na may kaugnayan sa katiningan ay
iminungkahi ng John Philoponus siglo mas maaga, bilang ay Jean Buridan , at ayon sa Joseph
Needham , Mo Tzu had iminungkahing ito sa siglo bago ang alinman sa mga ito, ngunit ito ay
ang unang pagkakataon na ito ay mathematically ipinahayag, napatunayan na pagtuklas, at
ipinakilala ang ideya ng pakiskis puwersa , ang key na pagsisimula sa pagpapatunay sa
katiningan). Galileo's Principle of Inertia stated: "A body moving on a level surface will continue
in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed." Galileo's Prinsipyo ng katiningan
nakasaad: "Ang isang katawan ng paglipat sa isang ibabaw na antas ay patuloy sa parehong
direksyon sa tapat na bilis maliban kung nabalisa." This principle was incorporated into
Newton's laws of motion (first law). prinsipyo na ito ay inkorporada sa Newton's batas ng
mosyon (unang batas).

Dome of the Cathedral of Pisa with the "lamp of Galileo" Dome ng Katedral ng Pisa na may mga
"ilawan ng Galileo"

Galileo conducted several experiments with pendulums . Galileo na isinasagawa ng ilang mga
eksperimento sa pendulums . It is popularly believed (thanks to the biography by Vincenzo
Viviani ) that these began by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of
Pisa, using his pulse as a timer. ay sikat Ito ay naniniwala (salamat sa talambuhay ni Vincenzo
Viviani ) na ang mga ito ay nagsimula sa pamamagitan ng panonood sa mga swings ng bronze
aranya sa katedral ng Pisa, gamit ang kanyang pulso bilang isang timer. Later experiments are
described in his Two New Sciences . Mamaya na mga eksperimento ay inilarawan sa kanyang
Dalawang Bagong Sciences . Galileo claimed that a simple pendulum is isochronous , ie that its
swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the amplitude . Galileo inaangkin
na ang isang simpleng pendulum ay magkasabay , ibig sabihin na nito swings laging gawin ang
parehong halaga ng oras, nagsasarili ng amplitude . In fact, this is only approximately true, [ 108 ]
as was discovered by Christian Huygens . Sa katunayan, ito ay lamang ng humigit-kumulang na
totoo, [108] bilang ay natuklasan ng Christian Huygens . Galileo also found that the square of the
period varies directly with the length of the pendulum. Galileo din natagpuan na ang mga square
ng panahon nag-iiba direkta sa kahabaan ng mga palawit. Galileo's son, Vincenzo, sketched a
clock based on his father's theories in 1642. Galileo's anak, Vincenzo, sketched ng isang orasan
batay sa mga teorya kanyang ama sa 1642. The clock was never built and, because of the large
swings required by its verge escapement , would have been a poor timekeeper. Ang orasan ay
hindi kailanman na binuo at, dahil sa malaking swings kailangan ng kanyang labi escapement ,
nais ay isang dukha timekeeper. (See Technology above.) (Tingnan sa Teknolohiya sa itaas.)

In 1638 Galileo described an experimental method to measure the speed of light by arranging
that two observers, each having lanterns equipped with shutters, observe each other's lanterns at
some distance. Sa 1638 Galileo inilarawan ang isang ineksperimentuhang paraan upang masukat
ang bilis ng liwanag sa pamamagitan ng pakikipag-ayos na ang dalawang mga tagamasid, ang
bawat isa sa pagkakaroon ng lanterns sa gamit sa shutters, obserbahan ang bawat isa's lanterns sa
ilang distansya. The first observer opens the shutter of his lamp, and, the second, upon seeing the
light, immediately opens the shutter of his own lantern. Ang unang tagamasid bubukas ang mga
panangga sa bintana ng kaniyang mga ilawan, at, ang ikalawa, sa nakikita ang mga ilaw, agad na
bubukas ang mga panangga sa bintana ng kaniyang sariling lantern. The time between the first
observer's opening his shutter and seeing the light from the second observer's lamp indicates the
time it takes light to travel back and forth between the two observers. Ang panahon sa pagitan ng
mga unang tagamasid's pagbubukas kanyang panangga sa bintana at nakikita ang mga ilaw mula
sa lampara ang ikalawang tagamasid's nagpapahiwatig ang panahon na kailangan liwanag sa
paglalakbay sa likod at sa pagitan ng dalawang mga tagamasid. Galileo reported that when he
tried this at a distance of less than a mile, he was unable to determine whether or not the light
appeared instantaneously. [ 109 ] Sometime between Galileo's death and 1667, the members of the
Florentine Accademia del Cimento repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and
obtained a similarly inconclusive result. [ 110 ] Galileo iniulat na kapag siya tried ito sa layo ng
mas mababa sa isang milya, siya ay hindi upang matukoy kung o hindi ang ilaw na lumitaw
instantaneously. [109] Minsa'y pagitan ng Galileo's kamatayan at 1667, ang mga kasapi ng
Florentine Accademia del Cimento paulit-ulit na ang eksperimento sa loob ng isang distansya ng
tungkol sa isang milya at nakuha ng isang tiyak na hatol katulad na resulta. [110]

Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with, being one of the first to understand sound
frequency. Galileo ay mas maliit na kilala para sa, pa pa rin kredito sa, pagiging isa sa mga
unang na maunawaan ang tunog dalas. By scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the
pitch of the sound produced to the spacing of the chisel's skips, a measure of frequency. Sa
pamamagitan ng kudkod isang pait sa iba't ibang bilis, siya naka-link na ang pitch ng tunog na
ginawa sa spacing ng pait's skips, isang sukatan ng dalas.

Galileo put forward the basic principle of relativity , that the laws of physics are the same in any
system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or
direction. Galileo ilagay sa harap ang mga pangunahing mga prinsipyo ng kapamanggitan , na
ang mga batas ng physics ay ang parehong sa anumang sistema na ay lumipat sa isang pare bilis
sa isang tuwid na linya, anuman ang kanyang partikular na bilis o direksyon. Hence, there is no
absolute motion or absolute rest. Kaya, walang absolute na kilos o absolute magpahinga. This
principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to Einstein's
special theory of relativity . prinsipyo na ito na ibinigay ang mga pangunahing balangkas para sa
Newton's batas ng galaw at ay central sa Einstein's espesyal na teorya ng kapamanggitan .

Mathematics Matematika
While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his
mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day. Habang Galileo's application ng
matematika sa experimental physics ay makabagong, ang kanyang matematikal na pamamaraan
ay ang standard na mga bahagi ng araw. The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the Eudoxian
theory of proportion , as set forth in the fifth book of Euclid's Elements . Ang pagsusuri at
patunay relied mabigat sa mga Eudoxian teorya ng proporsyon , alinsunod sa ikalimang libro ng
Euclid's Sangkap . This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate
translations by Tartaglia and others; but by the end of Galileo's life it was being superseded by
the algebraic methods of Descartes . teorya na ito ay naging magagamit lamang ng isang siglo
bago, salamat sa tumpak na pagsasalin sa pamamagitan ng Tartaglia at sa mga iba; ngunit sa
pagtatapos ng Galileo's buhay na ito ay pagiging superseded sa pamamagitan ng mga algebraic
pamamaraan ng Descartes .

Galileo produced one piece of original and even prophetic work in mathematics: Galileo's
paradox , which shows that there are as many perfect squares as there are whole numbers, even
though most numbers are not perfect squares. Galileo ginawa ang isang piraso ng orihinal at
kahit propeta trabaho sa matematika: Galileo's kabalintunaan , na nagpapakita na may mga
bilang ng maraming mga perpektong parisukat na may mga buong numero, kahit na karamihan
sa mga numero ay hindi perpektong parisukat.

His writings Sa kaniyang mga sulat

Statue outside the Uffizi , Florence Rebulto sa labas ng Uffizi , Florence

Galileo's early works describing scientific instruments include the 1586 tract entitled The Little
Balance ( La Billancetta ) describing an accurate balance to weigh objects in air or water [ 111 ]
and the 1606 printed manual Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare on the
operation of a geometrical and military compass. [ 112 ] Galileo's maagang gumagana na
naglalarawan ng pang-agham kasangkapan isama ang 1586 lagay may karapatan Ang Little
Balanse (La Billancetta) na naglalarawan ng isang tumpak na balanse sa timbangin mga bagay sa
hangin o tubig [111] at ang 1606 nakalimbag na manual Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico
et Militare sa mga operasyon ng isang heometriko at militar kumpas. [112]

His early works in dynamics, the science of motion and mechanics were his 1590 Pisan De Motu
(On Motion) and his circa 1600 Paduan Le Meccaniche (Mechanics). Ang kanyang unang bahagi
ng mga gawa sa dinamika, ang agham ng galaw at mechanics ay ang kaniyang mga 1590 Pisan
De motu (Sa Motion) at ang kanyang mga circa 1600 Paduan Le Meccaniche (mechanics). The
former was based on Aristotelian–Archimedean fluid dynamics and held that the speed of
gravitational fall in a fluid medium was proportional to the excess of a body's specific weight
over that of the medium, whereby in a vacuum bodies would fall with speeds in proportion to
their specific weights. Ang dating ay batay sa Aristoteliko-ni Arkimed likido dinamika at
gaganapin na ang bilis ng gravitational mahulog sa isang likido daluyan ay proporsyonal sa ang
labis na ng mga tiyak na timbang ng katawan sa paglipas na ng mga daluyan, kung saan sa isang
katawan vacuum ay mahulog sa mga bilis ng sa proporsyon sa kanilang mga tiyak na mga
timbang. It also subscribed to the Hipparchan-Philoponan impetus dynamics in which impetus is
self-dissipating and free-fall in a vacuum would have an essential terminal speed according to
specific weight after an initial period of acceleration. Ito rin ay nakasuskribi sa Hipparchan-
Philoponan dinamika lakas na lakas ay self-dissipating at free-mahulog sa isang vacuum ay may
isang mahalagang bilis terminal ayon sa mga tiyak na timbang pagkatapos ng isang paunang
panahon ng acceleration.

Galileo's 1610 The Starry Messenger ( Sidereus Nuncius ) was the first scientific treatise to be
published based on observations made through a telescope. Galileo's 1610 Ang kumikislap na
parang bituin Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) ay ang unang pang-agham treatise upang maging
publish base sa obserbasyon na ginawa sa pamamagitan ng isang teleskopyo. It reported his
discoveries of: Ito iniulat kanyang discoveries ng:

 the Galilean moons ; ang Galilean buwan ;

 the roughness of the Moon's surface; ang likot ng Buwan ng ibabaw;
 the existence of a large number of stars invisible to the naked eye, particularly those
responsible for the appearance of the Milky Way ; and ang pagkakaroon ng isang
malaking bilang ng mga bituin na nakikita sa mata, lalo na ang mga responsable para sa
paglitaw ng Milky Way ; at
 differences between the appearances of the planets and those of the fixed stars—the
former appearing as small discs, while the latter appeared as unmagnified points of light.
pagkakaiba sa pagitan ng hehe ng mga planeta at ang mga ng mga takdang-stars ang mga
dating lumilitaw bilang mga maliliit na discs, habang ang huli ay lumitaw bilang
unmagnified puntos ng liwanag.
Galileo published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled Letters on Sunspots [ 113 ] suggesting
the Sun and heavens are corruptible. Galileo publish ng isang paglalarawan ng sunspots sa 1613
may karapatan Sulat sa Sunspots [113] suggesting ng Araw at mga langit ay nasisira. The Letters
on Sunspots also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and
his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puzzling subsequent
disappearance. Ang Sulat sa Sunspots din iniulat kanyang 1610 teleskopiko obserbasyon ng
buong set ng mga yugto ng Venus, at ang kanyang pagkatuklas ng mga puzzling "appendages"
ng Saturn at ang kanilang mga mas puzzling kasunod na pagkawala. In 1615 Galileo prepared a
manuscript known as the Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina which was not published in
printed form until 1636. Sa 1615 Galileo inihanda ng isang sinulat ng kamay na kilala bilang ang
Sulat sa mga Grand dukesa Christina na kung saan ay hindi na-publish sa nakalimbag na form
hanggang 1636. This letter was a revised version of the Letter to Castelli , which was denounced
by the Inquisition as an incursion upon theology by advocating Copernicanism both as physically
true and as consistent with Scripture. [ 114 ] In 1616, after the order by the inquisition for Galileo
not to hold or defend the Copernican position, Galileo wrote the Discourse on the tides (
Discorso sul flusso e il reflusso del mare ) based on the Copernican earth, in the form of a private
letter to Cardinal Orsini . [ 115 ] In 1619, Mario Guiducci, a pupil of Galileo's, published a lecture
written largely by Galileo under the title Discourse on the Comets ( Discorso Delle Comete ),
arguing against the Jesuit interpretation of comets. [ 116 ] sulat na ito ay isang binagong bersyon ng
Letter sa Castelli , na kung saan ay denunsyado sa pamamagitan ng mga pagsisiyasat bilang
isang biglang paglusob sa teolohiya sa pamamagitan ng advocating Copernicanism parehong
bilang pisikal na totoo at bilang kaayon ng Banal na Kasulatan. [114] Sa 1616, matapos ang mga
order sa pamamagitan ng pagtatanong para sa Galileo hindi na humawak o ipagtanggol ang
Copernican posisyon, Galileo wrote ang diskurso sa tides (Discorso Sul flusso e il reflusso del
atb) batay sa Copernican lupa, sa anyo ng isang pribadong sulat sa Cardinal Orsini . [115] Sa 1619,
Mario Guiducci, isang mag-aaral ng Galileo's, publish ng isang panayam nakasulat na higit sa
lahat sa pamamagitan ng Galileo sa ilalim ng pamagat diskurso sa kometa (Discorso Delle
Comete), arguing laban sa mga Heswita interpretasyon ng kometa. [116]

In 1623, Galileo published The Assayer – Il Saggiatore , which attacked theories based on
Aristotle's authority and promoted experimentation and the mathematical formulation of
scientific ideas. Sa 1623, Galileo publish Ang Assayer - Il Saggiatore, na attacked theories batay
sa Aristotle's awtoridad at maipapataas experimentation at ang matematika pagbabalangkas ng
siyentipikong ideya. The book was highly successful and even found support among the higher
echelons of the Christian church. [ 117 ] Following the success of The Assayer, Galileo published
the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del
mondo) in 1632. Ang mga libro ay mataas na matagumpay at kahit na natagpuan ng suporta sa
gitna ng mga mas mataas na echelons ng Kristiyano simbahan. [117] Sumusunod na ang tagumpay
ng Ang Assayer, Galileo publish ang Dialogue Tungkol sa Dalawang Chief Systems ng World
(Dialogo sopra i dahil massimi Sistemi del mondo) sa 1632 . Despite taking care to adhere to the
Inquisition's 1616 instructions, the claims in the book favouring Copernican theory and a non
Geocentric model of the solar system led to Galileo being tried and banned on publication. Sa
kabila alaga upang sumunod sa mga pagtatanong ng 1616 sa mga tagubilin, ang mga claims sa
aklat favoring Copernican teorya at isang non modelo geosentriko ng solar system na humantong
sa Galileo na tried at pinagbawalan sa publikasyon. Despite the publication ban, Galileo
published his Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (
Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze ) in 1638 in Holland ,
outside the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. Sa kabila ng ban na publikasyon, Galileo publish na
ang kanyang diskurso at matematika Demonstrations kaugnayan sa Dalawang Bagong Sciences
(Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno isang angkop nuove scienze) sa 1638 sa Holland
, sa labas ng hurisdiksiyon ng mga pagsisiyasat.

 The Little Balance (1586) Ang Little Balanse (1586)

 On Motion (1590) [ 118 ] Sa Motion (1590) [118]
 Mechanics (c1600) Mechanics (c1600)
 The Starry Messenger (1610; in Latin, Sidereus Nuncius) Ang kumikislap na parang
bituin Messenger (1610; sa Latin, Sidereus Nuncius)
 Discourse on Floating Bodies (1612) Diskurso sa Floating katawan (1612)
 Letters on Sunspots (1613) Sulat sa Sunspots (1613)
 Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (1615; published in 1636) Sulat sa mga Grand
dukesa Christina (1615; inilathala sa 1636)
 Discourse on the Tides (1616; in Italian, Discorso del flusso e reflusso del mare)
Diskurso sa tides (1616; sa Italyano, Discorso del flusso e reflusso del atb)
 Discourse on the Comets (1619; in Italian, Discorso Delle Comete) Diskurso sa kometa
(1619; sa Italyano, Discorso Delle Comete)
 The Assayer (1623; in Italian, Il Saggiatore) Ang Assayer (1623; sa Italyano, Il
Saggiatore)
 Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632; in Italian Dialogo dei due
massimi sistemi del mondo) Dialogue Tungkol sa Dalawang Chief Systems ng World
(1632; sa Italian Dialogo Dei dahil massimi Sistemi del mondo)
 Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638; in
Italian, Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) Diskurso at
matematika Demonstrations kaugnayan sa Dalawang Bagong Sciences (1638; sa
Italyano, Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno isang angkop nuove scienze)

Legacy Pamana
Church reassessments of Galileo in later centuries Simbahan muling pagtasa ng
Galileo sa mamaya sa siglo

The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was
granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue ) in Florence. [ 119 ]
In 1741 Pope Benedict XIV authorized the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete
scientific works [ 120 ] which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue . [ 121 ] In 1758 the
general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of
prohibited books , although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and
Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained. [ 122 ] All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism
by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index. [ 123 ]
Ang pagsisiyasat ng ban sa reprinting Galileo's gumagana ay itinaas sa 1718 kapag ang
pahintulot ay ipinagkaloob na i-publish ng isang edition ng kanyang mga gawa (hindi kabilang
ang mga nahatulan Dialogue) sa Florence. [119] Sa 1741 Papa Benedicto XIV awtorisadong ang
publikasyon ng isang edition ng Galileo's complete agham gumagana [120] na kasama ng isang
mahinahon censored bersyon ng Dialogue. [121] Sa 1758 ang pangkalahatang pagbabawal laban sa
mga gawa advocating heliocentrism ang tinanggal mula sa Index ng ipinagbabawal na mga
libro , kahit na ang mga tiyak na ban sa Uncensored bersyon ng Dialogue at Copernicus's De
Revolutionibus naiiwan. [122] Ang lahat ng bakas ng mga opisyal na pagtutol sa heliocentrism ng
simbahan Naglaho sa 1835 kapag ang mga ito ay gumagana sa wakas ay bumaba mula sa Index.
[123]

In 1939 Pope Pius XII , in his first speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, within a few
months of his election to the papacy, described Galileo as being among the "most audacious
heroes of research ... not afraid of the stumbling blocks and the risks on the way, nor fearful of
the funereal monuments" [ 124 ] His close advisor of 40 years, Professor Robert Leiber wrote: "Pius
XII was very careful not to close any doors (to science) prematurely. He was energetic on this
point and regretted that in the case of Galileo." [ 125 ] Sa 1939 Pope Pius XII , sa kanyang unang
pananalita sa mga obispo Academy of Sciences, sa loob ng ilang buwan ng kanyang mga halalan
sa pagka-papa, inilarawan Galileo ng pagiging kabilang sa mga "pinaka bastos bayani ng
pananaliksik ... hindi natatakot sa mga bloke Nagkakamali at ang mga panganib sa ang daan, o
natatakot ng mga monuments panlibing " [124] Ang kanyang malapit na tagapayo ng 40 taon,
Professor Robert Leiber wrote: "Pius XII ay tunay maingat na hindi upang isara ang anumang
pinto (sa agham) prematurely ito. Siya ay masipag sa point at regretted na sa kaso ng Galileo. "
[125]

On 15 February 1990, in a speech delivered at the Sapienza University of Rome , [ 126 ] Cardinal
Ratzinger (later to become Pope Benedict XVI ) cited some current views on the Galileo affair as
forming what he called "a symptomatic case that permits us to see how deep the self-doubt of the
modern age, of science and technology goes today". [ 127 ] Some of the views he cited were those
of the philosopher Paul Feyerabend , whom he quoted as saying "The Church at the time of
Galileo kept much more closely to reason than did Galileo himself, and she took into
consideration the ethical and social consequences of Galileo's teaching too. Her verdict against
Galileo was rational and just and the revision of this verdict can be justified only on the grounds
of what is politically opportune." [ 127 ] The Cardinal did not clearly indicate whether he agreed or
disagreed with Feyerabend's assertions. Sa Pebrero 15, 1990, sa isang pagsasalita inihatid sa
Sapienza University sa Roma , [126] Cardinal Ratzinger (mamaya para maging Pope Benedict XVI
) nabanggit ng ilang mga kasalukuyang views sa kapakanan Galileo bilang pagbabalangkas ano
ang kanyang tinatawag na "isang palatandaan kaso na permit sa amin upang makita kung paano
malalim ang self-agam ng mga modernong gulang, ng agham at teknolohiya napupunta ngayon
". [127] Ang ilan sa mga views niya nabanggit ay ang mga ng mga pilosopo Pablo Feyerabend , na
siya quoted bilang kasabihan "Ang Simbahan sa oras ng Galileo iningatan mas malapit na
dahilan kay sa ginawa ng Galileo ang kanyang sarili, at siya ay kinuha sa pagsasaalang-alang ang
etikal at panlipunan kahihinatnan ng Galileo's pagtuturo masyadong. Ang kanyang hatol laban
Galileo ay makatuwiran at makatarungan at ang pagbabago ng mga ito hatol ay maaaring maging
ganap lamang sa bakuran ng kung ano ay pampulitika bagay na bagay. " [127] Ang Cardinal ay
hindi malinaw ipahiwatig kung siya pumayag o disagreed sa Feyerabend's assertions. He did,
however, say "It would be foolish to construct an impulsive apologetic on the basis of such
views." [ 127 ] Siya ay, subalit, sabihin "Ito ay magiging hangal na upang bumuo ng isang mapusok
humihingi ng tawad sa batayan ng tulad views." [127]

On 31 October 1992, Pope John Paul II expressed regret for how the Galileo affair was handled,
and issued a declaration acknowledging the errors committed by the Catholic Church tribunal
that judged the scientific positions of Galileo Galilei, as the result of a study conducted by the
Pontifical Council for Culture . [ 128 ] [ 129 ] In March 2008 the Vatican proposed to complete its
rehabilitation of Galileo by erecting a statue of him inside the Vatican walls. [ 130 ] In December of
the same year, during events to mark the 400th anniversary of Galileo's earliest telescopic
observations, Pope Benedict XVI praised his contributions to astronomy. [ 131 ] Sa Oktubre 31,
1992, Pope John Paul II na ipinahayag panghinayangan para sa kung paano ang Galileo iibigan
ay hawakan, at inisyu ng isang pahayag ng pagtanggap ng mga error ginawa ng mga Iglesia
tribunal Katoliko na hinatulan ang pang-agham na posisyon ng Galileo Galilei, bilang resulta ng
isang pag-aaral na isinagawa ng pang-obispo Konseho para sa Kultura . [128] [129] Sa Marso 2008
sa Batikano iminungkahi upang makumpleto ang kanyang pagbabagong-tatag ng Galileo sa
pamamagitan ng erecting isang rebulto ng siya sa loob ng Vatican pader. [130] Noong Disyembre
ng parehong taon, sa panahon ng mga pangyayari upang markahan ang mga 400 anibersaryo ng
Galileo's earliest teleskopiko obserbasyon, Pope Benedict XVI purihin ang kanyang mga
kontribusyon sa astronomy. [131]

Impact on modern science Epekto sa modernong science

According to Stephen Hawking , Galileo probably bears more of the responsibility for the birth
of modern science than anybody else, [ 132 ] and Albert Einstein called him the father of modern
science. [ 133 ] Ayon sa Stephen Hawking , Galileo marahil bears higit pa sa mga responsibilidad
para sa kapanganakan ng modernong science kaysa sa kahit sino sino pa ang paririto, [132] at
Albert Einstein tinatawag na siya ang ama ng modernong science. [133]

Galileo's astronomical discoveries and investigations into the Copernican theory have led to a
lasting legacy which includes the categorisation of the four large moons of Jupiter discovered by
Galileo ( Io , Europa , Ganymede and Callisto ) as the Galilean moons . Galileo's astronomya
discoveries at pagsisiyasat sa mga Copernican teorya ay may na humantong sa isang
pangmatagalang legacy kung saan kabilang ang Categorization ng apat na malalaking buwan ng
Jupiter na natuklasan sa pamamagitan ng Galileo ( Io , Europa , Ganymede at Callisto ) bilang
Galilean buwan . Other scientific endeavours and principles are named after Galileo including
the Galileo spacecraft , [ 134 ] the first spacecraft to enter orbit around Jupiter, the proposed Galileo
global satellite navigation system , the transformation between inertial systems in classical
mechanics denoted Galilean transformation and the Gal (unit) , sometimes known as the Galileo
which is a non- SI unit of acceleration . Iba pang agham endeavors at mga prinsipyo ay
pinangalanang matapos Galileo kabilang ang Galileo spacecraft , [134] ang unang spacecraft na
ipasok orbita sa paligid ng Jupiter, ang mga iminungkahing Galileo global satellite navigation
system , ang pagbabagong-anyo sa pagitan ng inertial sistema sa classical mechanics denote
Galilean pagbabagong-anyo at ang Gal (unit ) , minsan na kilala bilang ang Galileo na kung saan
ay isang hindi- SI yunit ng acceleration .

International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin International Year of Astronomy

pangunita barya

Partly because 2009 was the fourth centenary of Galileo's first recorded astronomical
observations with the telescope, the United Nations scheduled it to be the International Year of
Astronomy . [ 135 ] A global scheme laid out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), it has
also been endorsed by UNESCO — the UN body responsible for Educational, Scientific and
Cultural matters. Bahagyang dahil 2009 ay ang ikaapat na sentenaryo ng Galileo's unang naitala
astronomya obserbasyon sa teleskopyo, ang United Nations schedule ito na ang International
Year of Astronomy . [135] Ang isang global scheme na inilatag out sa pamamagitan ng
International Astronomical Union (IAU), ito ay din na-endorsed by UNESCO - ang UN katawan
na responsable para sa Educational, Scientific at Cultural bagay. The International Year of
Astronomy 2009 is intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to
society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general,
with a particular slant towards young people. Ang International Year of Astronomy 2009 ay
inilaan upang maging isang pandaigdigang pagdiriwang ng astronomy at ang kanyang mga
kontribusyon sa lipunan at kultura, stimulating interes sa buong mundo hindi lamang sa
astronomy science ngunit sa pangkalahatan, na may partikular na tagilid patungo sa mga
kabataan.

In artistic and popular media Sa masining at popular media

Galileo is mentioned several times in the "opera" section of the Queen song, " Bohemian
Rhapsody ". [ 136 ] He features prominently in the song " Galileo " performed by the Indigo Girls .
Galileo ay nabanggit maraming beses sa ang opera "section" ng Queen song, " Bohemian
pagtatalik ". [136] Siya tampok kitang-kita sa song " Galileo "ginanap sa pamamagitan ng Indigo
Girls .

20th century plays have been written on Galileo's life, including Life of Galileo (1943) by the
German playwright Bertolt Brecht , with a film adaptation (1975) of it, and Lamp At Midnight
(1947) by Barrie Stavis , [ 137 ] as well as the 2008 play "Galileo Galilei". [ 138 ] Ika-20 siglo plays
ay na nakasulat sa Galileo's buhay, kabilang Buhay ng Galileo (1943) ng Aleman mandudula
Bertolt Brecht , na may isang film halaw (1975) ng mga ito, at Lamp Sa Hatinggabi (1947) by
Barrie Stavis , [137] pati na rin bilang na 2008 play "Galileo Galilei". [138]

Kim Stanley Robinson wrote a science fiction novel entitled Galileo's Dream (2009), in which
Galileo is brought into the future to help resolve a crisis of scientific philosophy; the story moves
back and forth between Galileo's own time and a hypothetical distant future. [ 139 ] Kim Stanley
Robinson wrote isang science nobela fiction may karapatan Galileo's Dream (2009), na kung
saan Galileo ipinasok sa hinaharap upang makatulong na malutas ang isang krisis ng
siyentipikong pilosopiya; kuwento ang naglilipat-lipat sa pagitan sariling oras Galileo at isang
hypothetical malayo hinaharap. [139 ]

Galileo Galilei was recently selected as a main motif for a high value collectors' coin: the €25
International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin , minted in 2009. Galileo Galilei ay
kamakailan lamang napili bilang isang pangunahing paksa para sa isang mataas na halaga
collectors 'barya: ang € 25 Taon ng International Astronomy pangunita barya , minted sa 2009.
This coin also commemorates the 400th anniversary of the invention of Galileo's telescope .
barya na ito rin commemorates ang 400 anibersaryo ng mga imbento ng Galileo's teleskopyo .
The obverse shows a portion of his portrait and his telescope. panlabas na tagiliran ay
nagpapakita ng isang bahagi ng kanyang larawan at ang kanyang teleskopyo. The background
shows one of his first drawings of the surface of the moon. background ay nagpapakita ng isa sa
kanyang mga unang drawings ng mga ibabaw ng buwan. In the silver ring other telescopes are
depicted: the Isaac Newton Telescope , the observatory in Kremsmünster Abbey , a modern
telescope, a radio telescope and a space telescope . Sa mga singsing sa pilak ibang mga
teleskopyo ay depicted: ang Isaac Newton teleskopyo , ang mga obserbatoryo sa Kremsmünster
Abbey , isang modernong teleskopyo, isang radio teleskopyo at isang puwang sa teleskopyo . In
2009, the Galileoscope was also released. Sa 2009, ang Galileoscope ay pinakawalan din. This is
a mass-produced, low-cost educational 2-inch (51 mm) telescope with relatively high quality. Ito
ay isang mass-ginawa, murang edukasyon 2-pulgada (51 mm) teleskopyo na may relatibong
mataas na kalidad.

See also Tingnan din ang

 Catholic Church and science Simbahang Katoliko at agham
 Villa Il Gioiello (Galileo's main home in Florence) Villa Il Gioiello (main home Galileo's
sa Florence)

Notes Notes
1. ^ a b c d e f g O'Connor, JJ; Robertson, EF. "Galileo Galilei" . The MacTutor History of
Mathematics archive . University of St Andrews , Scotland . http://www-history.mcs.st-
andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Galileo.html . ^ isang b c d e f g O'Connor, JJ;, EF. Robertson
"Galileo Galilei" . MacTutor Kasaysayan ng Mathematics archive. Ang University of St
Andrews Scotland., http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews .ac.uk / Talambuhay /
Galileo.html . Retrieved 2007-07-24 . Ikinuha 2007/07/24.
2. ^ F. ^ F. Vinci, Ostilio Ricci da Fermo, Maestro di Galileo Galilei , Fermo, 1929. Vinci,
Ostilio Ricci da Fermo, Maestro di Galileo Galilei, Fermo, 1929.
3. ^ NODAK.edu ^ NODAK.edu
4. ^ Drake (1978, p. 1). The date of Galileo's birth is given according to the Julian calendar ,
which was then in force throughout the whole of Christendom. ^ Drake (1978, p. 1). Ang
petsa ng Galileo's kapanganakan ay ibinigay ayon sa Julian kalendaryo , na kung saan ay
pagkatapos ay sa lakas sa buong buong ng mga bansang Kristyano. In 1582 it was
replaced in Italy and several other Catholic countries with the Gregorian calendar . Sa
1582 ito ay pinalitan sa Italya at ng ilan pang mga Katoliko mga bansa na may mga
Gregorian calendar . Unless otherwise indicated, dates in this article are given according
to the Gregorian calendar. Maliban kung isinaad, ang mga petsa sa artikulong ito ay
ibinigay ayon sa Gregorian calendar.
5. ^ ^ " Galileo Galilei " in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia . " Galileo Galilei "sa 1913
Catholic Encyclopedia. by John Gerard. by John Gerard. Retrieved 11 August 2007
Ikinuha 11 Agosto 2007
6. ^ Singer, Charles (1941). A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century . ^
Singer, Charles (1941). Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Agham sa ikalabing siyam na
siglo . Clarendon Press . http://www.google.com.au/books?
id=mPIgAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 Clarendon Press. http://www.google.com.au/books?
id=mPIgAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 (page 217) (Pahina 217)
7. ^ a b Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of
Galileo on World History . ^ isang b Weidhorn, Manfred (2005):. Ang mga Tao ng
Millennium Ang Natatanging Epekto ng Galileo sa World History. iUniverse. iUniverse.
pp. 155. ISBN 0-595-36877-8 . 155 pp. ISBN 0-595-36877-8 .
8. ^ Finocchiaro (2007) . ^ Finocchiaro (2007) .
9. ^ "Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science, by Stephen Hawking, American Heritage's
Invention & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36 ^ "Galileo at ang
Kapanganakan ng Modern Science, sa pamamagitan ng Stephen Hawking, Heritage's
Invention American & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No 1, p. 36
10. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.127–131) , McMullin (2005a) . ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.127-131) ,
McMullin (2005a) .
11. ^ Finocchiaro (1997), p. ^ Finocchiaro (1997), p. 47 . 47 .
12. ^ Hilliam (2005), p. ^ Hilliam (2005), p. 96 . 96 .
13. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.17, 213) ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.17, 213)
14. ^ Sobel (2000, p. 5) Chapter 1. Retrieved on 26 August 2007. ^ Sobel (2000, p. 5)
Chapter 1. Ikinuha sa Agosto 26, 2007. "But because he never married Virginia's mother,
he deemed the girl herself unmarriageable. Soon after her 13th birthday, he placed her at
the Convent of San Matteo in Arcetri." "Pero dahil siya ay hindi kailanman may asawa
 Virginia's ina, siya'y itinuring na ang girl ang kanyang sarili unmarriageable. Soon
pagkatapos ng kanyang 13th birthday, siya ilagay ang kanyang sa Convent of San Matteo
sa Arcetri."
15. ^ Pedersen, O. (24 May–27, 1984). "Galileo's Religion" . Proceedings of the Cracow
Conference, The Galileo affair: A meeting of faith and science . ^ Pedersen, O. (24 May-
27, 1984). "Galileo's Relihiyon" . Pamamaraan ng Cracow Conference, Ang Galileo
iibigan: Ang isang pulong ng pananampalataya at agham . Cracow: Dordrecht, D. Reidel
Publishing Co.. Cracow: Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co. pp. 75–102 .
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985gamf.conf...75P . pp 75-102.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985gamf.conf...75P . Retrieved 2008-06-09 . Ikinuha
2008/06/09.
16. ^ Reston (2000, pp. 3–14). ^ Reston (2000, pp 3-14).
17. ^ a b Edgerton, Samuel Y. The Mirror, the Window, and the Telescope , 2009 ^ isang b
Edgerton, Samuel Y. Ang Mirror, ang Window, at ang Telescope, 2009
18. ^ a b Panofsky, Erwin (1956). "Galileo as a Critic of the Arts: Aesthetic Attitude and
Scientific Thought" . Isis 47 (1): 3–15. doi : 10.1086/348450 .
http://www.jstor.org/pss/227542 ^ isang b Panofsky, Erwin (1956). "Galileo bilang isang
kritiko ng mga Sining: aesthetic saloobin at Siyentipiko Isip" :. Isis 47 (1) 15/03. Doi :
10.1086/348450 . http://www.jstor. org/pss/227542
19. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 45–66). ^ Sharratt (1994, pp 45-66).
20. ^ Rutkin, H. Darrel. "Galileo, Astrology, and the Scientific Revolution: Another Look" .
^ Rutkin, H. Darrel. "Galileo, Astrolohiya, at ang Scientific Revolution: Ang isa pang
Hanapin" . Program in History & Philosophy of Science & Technology, Stanford
University . http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPST/colloquia0405.html . Program sa
Kasaysayan & Pilosopiya ng Agham at Teknolohiya, Stanford University.
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPST/colloquia0405.html . Retrieved 2007-04-15 . Ikinuha
2007/04/15.
21. ^ Finocchiaro (1989), pp. 67–9. ^ Finocchiaro (1989), pp 67-9.
22. ^ Finocchiaro (1989), p. ^ Finocchiaro (1989), p. 354, n. 354, n. 52 52
23. ^ Finocchiaro (1989), pp.119–133 ^ Finocchiaro (1989), pp.119-133
24. ^ Finocchiaro (1989), pp.127–131 and Drake (1953), pp. 432–6 ^ Finocchiaro (1989),
pp.127-131 at Drake (1953), pp 432-6
25. ^ Einstein (1953) p. ^ Einstein (1953) p. xvii xvii
26. ^ Finocchiaro (1989), p. ^ Finocchiaro (1989), p. 128 128
27. ^ Kusukawa, Sachiko. "Starry Messenger. The Telescope , Department of History and
Philosophy of Science of the University of Cambridge. Retrieved on 2007-03-10"] .
http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/galtele.html . ^ Kusukawa, Sachiko. "mabituin
 Messenger. Ang Telescope , Departamento ng Kasaysayan at Pilosopiya ng Agham ng
Unibersidad ng Cambridge. Ikinuha sa 2007/03/10 "]. http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry /
galtele.html .
28. ^ Drake (1960, pp.vii,xxiii–xxiv) , Sharratt (1994, pp.139–140) . ^ Drake (1960, pp.vii,
XXIII-xxiv) , Sharratt (1994, pp.139-140) .
29. ^ Grassi (1960a) . ^ Grassi (1960a) .
30. ^ Drake (1978, p.268) , Grassi (1960a, p.16) . ^ Drake (1978, p.268) , Grassi (1960a,
p.16) .
31. ^ Galilei & Guiducci (1960) . ^ Galilei & Guiducci (1960) .
32. ^ Drake (1960, p.xvi) . ^ Drake (1960, p.xvi) .
33. ^ Drake (1957, p.222) , Drake (1960, p.xvii) . ^ Drake (1957, p.222) , Drake (1960,
p.xvii) .
34. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.135) , Drake (1960, p.xii) , Galilei & Guiducci (1960, p.24) . ^
Sharratt (1994, p.135) , Drake (1960, p.xii) , Galilei & Guiducci (1960, p.24) .
35. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.135) . ^ Sharratt (1994, p.135) .
36. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.135) , Drake (1960, p.xvii) . ^ Sharratt (1994, p.135) , Drake (1960,
p.xvii) .
37. ^ Grassi (1960b) . ^ Grassi (1960b) .
38. ^ Drake (1978, p.494) , Favaro (1896, 6:111) . ^ Drake (1978, p.494) , Favaro (1896,
6:111) . The pseudonym was a slightly imperfect anagram of Oratio Grasio Savonensis, a
latinized version of his name and home town. sagisag-panulat ay isang bahagyang hindi
lubos na pagsisisi anagram ng Oratio Grasio Savonensis, isang latinized bersyon ng
kanyang pangalan at home town.
39. ^ Galilei (1960) . ^ Galilei (1960) .
40. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.137) , Drake (1957, p.227) . ^ Sharratt (1994, p.137) , Drake (1957,
p.227) .
41. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.138–142) . ^ Sharratt (1994, p.138-142) .
42. ^ Drake (1960, p.xix) . ^ Drake (1960, p.xix) .
43. ^ Drake (1960, p.vii) . ^ Drake (1960, p.vii) .
44. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.175) . ^ Sharratt (1994, p.175) .
45. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.175–78) , Blackwell (2006, p.30) . ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.175-78) ,
Blackwell (2006, p.30) .
46. ^ Brodrick (1965, c1964, p.95) quoting Cardinal Bellarmine's letter to Foscarini , dated
12 April 1615. ^ Brodrick (1965, c1964, p.95) quoting Cardinal Bellarmine's sulat sa
Foscarini , na may petsang 12 Abril 1615. Translated from Favaro (1902, 12:171–172)
(Italian) . Isinalin mula sa Favaro (1902, 12:171-172) (Italian).

47. ^ Sobel, Dava (2000, pp.223–225) [1999]. ^ Sobel, Dava (2000, pp.223-225) [1999].
Galileo's Daughter. Galileo's anak na babae. London: Fourth Estate. ISBN 1-85702-712-4
. London: Fourth Estate. ISBN 1-85702-712-4 .
48. ^ Finocchiaro (1997 , p.82) ; Moss & Wallace (2003 , p.11) ^ Finocchiaro (1997 , p.82) ;
Moss & Wallace (2003 , p.11)
49. ^ See Langford (1966, pp.133–134) , and Seeger (1966, p.30) , for example. ^ Tingnan
Langford (1966, pp.133-134) , at Seeger (1966, p.30) , halimbawa. Drake (1978, p.355)
asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers, Lodovico
delle Colombe and Cesare Cremonini , rather than Urban. Drake (1978, p.355) asserts na
Simplicio's character ay modeled sa Aristoteliko mga pilosopo, Lodovico delle Colombe
at Cesare Cremonini , sa halip na sa Urban. He also considers that the demand for Galileo
to include the Pope's argument in the Dialogue left him with no option but to put it in the
mouth of Simplicio (Drake, 1953, p.491) . Siya rin Isinasaalang-alang na ang demand
para sa Galileo na isama ang Papa's argument sa Dialogue iwan siya na walang mga
opsyon ngunit upang ilagay ito sa bibig ng Simplicio (Drake, 1953, p.491) . Even Arthur
Koestler , who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in The Sleepwalkers (1959) , after
noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of
him, says "this of course is untrue" (1959, p.483) Kahit Arthur Koestler , na sa
pangkalahatan ay lubos na masakit sa tainga sa Galileo sa Sleepwalkers Ang (1959) ,
pagkatapos ng pagpuna na Urban pinaghihinalaang Galileo ng pagkakaroon ng inilaan
Simplicio na maging isang karikatura ng kaniya, says "ito ng mga kurso ay hindi totoo"
(1959, p.483)
50. ^ Fantoli (2005, p.139) , Finocchiaro (1989, p.288–293) . ^ Fantoli (2005, p.139) ,
Finocchiaro (1989, p.288-293) . Finocchiaro's translation of the Inquisition's judgement
against Galileo is available on-line . Finocchiaro's pagsasalin ng mga pagsisiyasat
paghatol laban sa Galileo ay makukuha on-line . "Vehemently suspect of heresy" was a
technical term of canon law and did not necessarily imply that the Inquisition considered
the opinions giving rise to the verdict to be heretical. "Vehemently maghinala ng sekta"
ay isang teknikal na kataga ng canon batas at hindi kinakailangang magpahiwatig na ang
pag-uusisa ang itinuturing na opinyon pagbibigay tumaas sa ang hatol na maging erehe.
The same verdict would have been possible even if the opinions had been subject only to
the less serious censure of "erroneous in faith" (Fantoli, 2005, p.140 ; Heilbron, 2005,
pp.282–284) . Ang parehong hatol Gusto ay posible kahit na kung ang opinyon ay paksa
lamang sa mas malubhang mamuna ng "maling pananampalataya" (Fantoli, 2005, p.140 ;
Heilbron, 2005, pp.282-284) .
51. ^ Finocchiaro (1989 , pp. 38 , 291, 306) . ^ Finocchiaro (1989 , pp 38 , 291, 306) .
Finocchiaro's translation of the Inquisition's judgement against Galileo is available on-
line . Finocchiaro's pagsasalin ng mga pagsisiyasat paghatol laban sa Galileo ay
makukuha on-line .
52. ^ ^ Drake (1978, p.367) , Sharratt (1994, p.184) , Favaro (1905, 16:209, 230) (Italian) .
Drake (1978, p.367) , Sharratt (1994, p.184) , Favaro (1905, 16:209, 230) (Italian). See
Galileo affair for further details. Tingnan Galileo iibigan para sa karagdagang detalye.
53. ^ Drake (1978, p.356) . ^ Drake (1978, p.356) . The phrase "Eppur si muove" does
appear, however, in a painting of the 1640s by the Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban
Murillo or an artist of his school. Ang pariralang "Eppur si muove" ay lilitaw, gayunman,
sa isang painting ng 1640s sa pamamagitan ng mga Espanyol pintor Bartolomé Esteban
Murillo o isang pintor ng kanyang paaralan. The painting depicts an imprisoned Galileo
apparently pointing to a copy of the phrase written on the wall of his dungeon (Drake,
1978, p.357) . Ang pagpipinta depicts isang nabilanggo Galileo tila na tumuturo sa isang
kopya ng mga katagang nakasulat sa pader ng kanyang piitan (Drake, 1978, p.357) .
54. ^ William Shea, MA The Galileo Affair 2006. ^ William Shea, MA Ang Galileo Affair
2006. Available online William Shea (January 2006). "The Galileo Affair" . Grupo de
Investigación sobre Ciencia, Razón y Fe (CRYF) . Na magagamit sa online William Shea
(Enero 2006). "Ang Galileo Affair" . Grupo de Investigación sobre Ciencia, Razon y Fe
(CRYF). Unpublished work . http://www.unav.es/cryf/galileoaffair.html . Hindi inilathala
trabaho. http://www.unav.es/cryf/galileoaffair.html . Retrieved 12 September 2010 .
Ikinuha 12 Set 2010.
55. ^ Stephen Hawking , ed. ^ Stephen Hawking , ed. p. p. 398, On the Shoulders of
Giants :"Galileo ... is the father of modern physics – indeed of modern science "— Albert
Einstein . 398, Sa Balikat ng Giants: "Galileo ... ay ang ama ng modernong physics - sa
katunayan ng modernong agham "- Albert Einstein .
56. ^ a b Carney, Jo Eldridge (2000). Renaissance and Reformation, 1500–1620: a . ^ isang b
Carney, Jo Eldridge (2000):. Renaissance at Repormasyon, 1500-1620 isang. Greenwood
Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-30574-9 . Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-
30574-9 .
57. ^ Allan-Olney (1870) ^ Allan-Olney (1870)
58. ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199) ; Sobel (2000, p.378) . ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199) ;
Sobel (2000, p.378) .
59. ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199) ; Sobel (2000, p.378) ; Sharratt (1994, p.207) ; Favaro
(1906,18:378–80) (Italian) . ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199) ; Sobel (2000, p.378) ;
Sharratt (1994, p.207) ; Favaro (1906,18:378-80) (Italian).
60. ^ Monumental tomb of Galileo . Institute and Museum of the History of Science ,
Florence, Italy. ^ parang monumento nitso ng Galileo . Institute at Museum sa
Kasaysayan ng Agham , Florence, Italy. Retrieved 2010-02-15. Ikinuha 2010/02/15.
61. ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199) ; Sobel (2000, p.380) . ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199) ;
Sobel (2000, p.380) .
62. ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.200) ; Sobel (2000, p.380–384) . ^ Shea & Artigas (2003,
p.200) ; Sobel (2000, p.380-384) .
63. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.204–05) ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.204-05)
64. ^ Cohen, HF (1984). Quantifying Music: The Science of Music at . ^ Cohen, HF (1984):.
Quantifying Music Ang Science ng Music sa. Springer. Springer. pp. 78–84. ISBN 90-
277-1637-4 . pp 78-84. ISBN 90-277-1637-4 .
65. ^ Field, Judith Veronica (2005). Piero Della Francesca: A Mathematician's Art . ^ Field,
Judith Veronica (2005):. Piero della Francesca matematiko's Art A. Yale University
Press. Yale University Press. pp. 317–320. ISBN 0-300-10342-5 . pp 317-320. ISBN 0-
300-10342-5 .
66. ^ In Drake (1957, pp.237–238) ^ Sa Drake (1957, pp.237-238)
67. ^ Wallace, (1984). ^ Wallace, (1984).
68. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.202–04) , Galilei (1954, pp.250–52) , Favaro (1898 , 8:274–75)
(Italian) ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.202-04) , Galilei (1954, pp.250-52) , Favaro (1898 , 8:274-
75) (Italian)
69. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.202–04) , Galilei (1954, pp.252) , Favaro (1898 , 8:275) (Italian) ^
Sharratt (1994, pp.202-04) , Galilei (1954, pp.252) , Favaro (1898 , 8:275) (Italian)
70. ^ Drake (1990, pp.133–34) . ^ Drake (1990, pp.133-34) .
71. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.1–2 ) ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.1-2 )
72. ^ ie , invisible to the naked eye. ^ ibig sabihin, nakikita sa mata.
73. ^ Drake (1978, p.146). ^ Drake (1978, p.146).
74. ^ In Sidereus Nuncius (Favaro , 1892, 3:81 (Latin) ) Galileo stated that he had reached
this conclusion on 11 January. Drake (1978, p.152) , however, after studying unpublished
manuscript records of Galileo's observations, concluded that he did not do so until 15
January. ^ Sa Sidereus Nuncius (Favaro , 1892, 3:81 (Latin)) Galileo nakasaad na siya ay
naabot na konklusyon na ito sa Enero 11. Drake (1978, p.152) , subalit, pagkatapos ng
pag-aaral hindi inilathala manuskrito talaan ng Galileo's obserbasyon, concluded na hindi
niya ginawa ito hanggang sa Enero 15.
75. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.17). ^ Sharratt (1994, p.17).
76. ^ Linton (2004, pp.98,205) , Drake (1978, p.157) . ^ Linton (2004, pp.98, 205) , Drake
(1978, p.157) .
77. ^ Drake (1978, p.158–68) , Sharratt (1994, pp.18–19). ^ Drake (1978, p.158-68) ,
Sharratt (1994, pp.18-19).
78. ^ God's Philosophers ju James Hannam Orion 2009 p313 ^ ng Diyos Pilosopong ju
James Hannam Orion 2009 p313
79. ^ Drake (1978, p.168) , Sharratt (1994, p.93). ^ Drake (1978, p.168) , Sharratt (1994,
p.93).
80. ^ Thoren (1989), p.8; Hoskin (1999) p.117. ^ Thoren (1989), p.8; Hoskin (1999) p.117.
81. ^ In the Capellan model only Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun, whilst in its extended
version such as expounded by Riccioli, Mars also orbits the Sun, but the orbits of Jupiter
and Saturn are centred on the Earth ^ Sa Capellan modelo lamang Mercury at Venus
orbita ang Sun, habang sa kanyang pinalawig na bersyon tulad ng ipinaliwanag ang bagay
sa pamamagitan ng Riccioli, Mars din orbit ng Araw, ngunit ang orbit ng Jupiter at
Saturn ay centered sa ang Earth
82. ^ Baalke, Ron. Historical Background of Saturn's Rings. Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
California Institute of Technology, NASA. ^ Baalke, Ron. Historical Background ng
Rings's Saturn. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, NASA.
Retrieved on 2007-03-11 Ikinuha sa 2007/03/11
83. ^ In Kepler's Thomist 'inertial' variant of Aristotelian dynamics as opposed to Galileo's
impetus dynamics variant all bodies universally have an inherent resistance to all motion
and tendency to rest, which he dubbed 'inertia'. ^ Sa Thomist 'Kepler inertial' baryante's
ng Aristoteliko dinamika bilang laban sa puwersa dinamika iba Galileo's lahat ng mga
katawan ng dako ay may isang likas na pagtutol sa lahat ng galaw at ugali sa iba, na siya
dubbed 'katiningan'. This notion of inertia was originally introduced by Averroes in the
12th century just for the celestial spheres in order to explain why they do not rotate with
infinite speed on Aristotelian dynamics, as they should if they had no resistance to their
movers. Ito paniwala ng pagkawalang-kilos ay orihinal na ipinakilala sa pamamagitan
Averroes sa ika-12 siglo para lamang sa ang makalangit spheres upang ipaliwanag kung
bakit hindi sila iikot sa walang katapusang bilis sa Aristoteliko dinamika, bilang sila ay
dapat na kung sila ay walang pagtutol sa kanilang mga movers. And in his Astronomia
Nova celestial mechanics the inertia of the planets is overcome in their solar orbital
motion by their being pushed around by the sunspecks of the rotating sun acting like the
spokes of a rotating cartwheel. At sa kanyang Astronomia Nova celestial mechanics ang
katiningan ng mga planeta ay nagtagumpay sa kanilang solar orbital mosyon sa
pamamagitan ng kanilang pagiging hunhon sa paligid ng sunspecks ng umiikot na araw
kumikilos tulad ng spokes ng isang umiikot Cartwheel. And more generally it predicted
all but only planets with orbiting satellites, such as Jupiter for example, also rotate to
push them around, whereas the Moon, for example, does not rotate, thus always
presenting the same face to the Earth, because it has no satellites to push around. At higit
pa sa pangkalahatan ito hinulaang lahat ngunit lamang sa planeta orbital satellite, tulad ng
Jupiter halimbawa, iikot din sa itulak ang mga ito sa paligid, kung saan ang Buwan,
halimbawa, ay hindi paiikutin, ganito lagi ang pagtatanghal ng parehong mukha sa Earth,
dahil ito ay walang satellite upang itulak sa paligid. These seem to have been the first
successful novel predictions of Thomist 'inertial' Aristotelian dynamics as well as of post-
spherist celestial physics. Ang mga ito tila sa may been ang unang matagumpay na mga
paghuhula ng nobela Aristoteliko dinamika Thomist 'inertial' pati na rin ng post-spherist
celestial physics. In his 1630 Epitome (See p514 on p896 of the Encyclopædia Britannica
1952 Great Books of the Western World edition) Kepler keenly stressed he had proved
the Sun's axial rotation from planetary motions in his Commentaries on Mars Ch 34 long
before it was telescopically established by sunspot motion. Sa kanyang 1630 ehemplo
(Tingnan p514 sa p896 ng mga ensiklopedya Britannica 1952 Books Great ng World
 edition Western) Kepler keenly stressed siya ay pinatunayan's ehe pag-ikot ng Sun mula
planetary motions sa kanyang Commentaries sa Mars Ch 34 matagal na bago ay
telescopically ito na itinatag sa pamamagitan pekas galaw.
84. ^ Drake (1978, p.209) . ^ Drake (1978, p.209) . Sizzi reported the observations he and
his companions had made over the course of a year to Orazio Morandi in a letter dated 10
April 1613 (Favaro , 1901, 11:491 (Italian) ) . Sizzi iniulat ang obserbasyon niya at ng
kaniyang mga kasama ay ginawa sa kurso ng isang taon upang Orazio Morandi sa isang
sulat na may petsang 10 Abril 1613 (Favaro , 1901, 11:491 (Italian)) . Morandi
subsequently forwarded a copy to Galileo. Morandi dakong huli forward ang isang kopya
sa Galileo.
85. ^ In geostatic systems the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots could only
be explained as the result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of
rotation (Linton, 2004, p.212; Sharratt , 1994, p.166; Drake, 1970, pp.191–196) . ^ Sa
geostatic sistema ang maliwanag taunang pagkakaiba-iba sa mga kilos ng sunspots
maaari lamang ipinaliwanag bilang resulta ng isang komplikadong implausibly
pangunguna ng Sun's aksis ng pag-ikot (Linton, 2004, p.212; Sharratt , 1994, p.166;
Drake, 1970, pp.191-196) . This did not apply, however, to the modified version of
Tycho's system introduced by his protegé, Longomontanus , in which the Earth was
assumed to rotate. Ito ay hindi mag-aplay, gayunman, na ang mga binagong bersyon ng
Tycho's system ipinakilala sa pamamagitan ng kanyang tangkilik, Longomontanus , kung
saan ang Earth ay ipinapalagay na paiikutin. Longomontanus's system could account for
the apparent motions of sunspots just as well as the Copernican. Longomontanus's system
na maaaring account para sa maliwanag motions ng sunspots lamang pati na rin ang
Copernican.
86. ^ Ondra (2004), p. ^ Ondra (2004), p. 72-73 72-73
87. ^ Finocchiaro (1989, p. 167-176) , Drake (1953), p. ^ Finocchiaro (1989, p. 167-176) ,
Drake (1953), p. 359-360) , Ondra (2004), p. 359-360) , Ondra (2004), p. 74-75 74-75
88. ^ Reston (2000, p. 56). ^ Reston (2000, p. 56).
89. ^ Sobel (2000, p.43) , Drake (1978, p.196) . ^ Sobel (2000, p.43) , Drake (1978, p.196) .
In the Starry Messenger , written in Latin, Galileo had used the term "perspicillum". Sa
mabituin Messenger, nakasulat sa Latin, Galileo ay ginamit ang salitang "perspicillum".
90. ^ "omni-optical.com " A Very Short History of the Telescope "" . http://www.omni-
optical.com/telescope/ut104.htm . ^ "omni-optical.com" A Very Maikling Kasaysayan ng
teleskopyo "" . http://www.omni-optical.com/telescope/ut104.htm .
91. ^ Drake (1978, p.163–164) , Favaro (1892, 3:163 – 164) (Latin) ^ Drake (1978, p.163-
164) , Favaro (1892, 3:163 - 164) (Latin)
92. ^ Probably in 1623, according to Drake (1978, p.286) . ^ Malamang sa 1623, ayon sa
Drake (1978, p.286) .
93. ^ Drake (1978, p.289) , Favaro (1903, 13:177) (Italian) . ^ Drake (1978, p.289) , Favaro
(1903, 13:177) (Italian).
94. ^ Drake (1978, p.286) , Favaro (1903, 13:208) (Italian) . ^ Drake (1978, p.286) , Favaro
(1903, 13:208) (Italian). The actual inventors of the telescope and microscope remain
debatable. Ang aktwal na mga inventors ng teleskopyo at mikroskopyo mananatiling
walang katiyakan. A general view on this can be found in the article Hans Lippershey
(last updated 2003-08-01), © 1995–2007 by Davidson, Michael W. and the Florida State
University . Isang pangkalahatang pagtingin sa mga ito ay matatagpuan sa artikulo Hans
Lippershey (huling na-update 2003/08/01), © 1995-2007 by Davidson, Michael W. at sa
Florida State University . Retrieved 2007-08-28 Ikinuha 2007/08/28
95. ^ "brunelleschi.imss.fi.it "Il microscopio di Galileo"" (PDF) .
http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/esplora/microscopio/dswmedia/risorse/testi_completi.pdf . ^
"brunelleschi.imss.fi.it" Il microscopio di Galileo "" (PDF).
http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/esplora/microscopio/dswmedia/risorse/testi_completi.pdf .
96. ^ Van Helden, Al. Galileo Timeline (last updated 1995), The Galileo Project. ^ Van
Helden, Al. Galileo Timeline (huling na-update 1995), Ang Galileo Project. Retrieved
2007-08-28. Ikinuha 2007/08/28. See also Timeline of microscope technology . Tingnan
din Timeline ng mikroskopyo teknolohiya .
97. ^ Drake (1978, p.286) . ^ Drake (1978, p.286) .
98. ^ Longitude: the true story of a lone genius who solved the greatest scientific problem of
his time , Dava Sobel Penguin, 1996 ISBN 0140258795 , 9780140258790 ^ Longitude:
ang tunay na kuwento ng isang likas na kakayahan kaisa na lutasin ang pinakamalaking
pang-agham problema ng kanyang panahon, Dava Sobel Penguin, 1996 ISBN
0140258795 , 9780140258790
99. ^ Drake (1978, pp.19,20) . ^ Drake (1978, pp.19, 20) . At the time when Viviani asserts
that the experiment took place, Galileo had not yet formulated the final version of his law
of free fall. Sa oras kapag Viviani asserts na eksperimento kinuha lugar, Galileo ay hindi
pa binuo ang huling bersyon ng kanyang batas ng mga libreng mahulog. He had,
however, formulated an earlier version which predicted that bodies of the same material
falling through the same medium would fall at the same speed (Drake, 1978, p.20) . Siya
ay, gayunman, formulated ng isang mas maaga bersyon na hinulaang na ang mga
katawan ng mga parehong materyal na bumabagsak sa pamamagitan ng parehong
daluyan ay mahulog sa parehong bilis (Drake, 1978, p.20) .
100. ^ Drake (1978, p.9) ; Sharratt (1994, p.31) . ^ Drake (1978, p.9) ; Sharratt (1994,
p.31) .
101. ^ Groleau, Rick. "Galileo's Battle for the Heavens. July 2002" .
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/galileo/experiments.html . ^ Groleau, Rick. "Galileo's
Battle para sa mga langit. Hulyo 2002" .
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/galileo/experiments.html . Ball, Phil. "Science history:
setting the record straight. 30 June 2005" .
http://www.hindu.com/seta/2005/06/30/stories/2005063000351500.htm . Ball, Phil.
 "Science kasaysayan: ang record ng tuwid. pagtatakda ng Hunyo 30, 2005" .
http://www.hindu.com/seta/2005/06/30/stories/2005063000351500.htm . An exception is
Drake (1978, pp.19–21, 414–416) , who argues that the experiment did take place, more
or less as Viviani described it. Isang exception ay Drake (1978, pp.19-21, 414-416) , na
argues na ang eksperimento ay magdadala sa lugar, mas o mas mababa bilang Viviani
inilarawan ito.
102. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura II, 225–229; Relevant passage appears in: Lane
Cooper, Aristotle, Galileo, and the Tower of Pisa (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,
1935), page 49. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura II, 225-229; Mga nauugnay na daanan ay
lilitaw sa: Lane Cooper, Aristotle, Galileo, at ang Tower ng Pisa (Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1935), pahina 49.
103. ^ Simon Stevin, De Beghinselen des Waterwichts, Anvang der Waterwichtdaet,
en de Anhang komen na de Beghinselen der Weeghconst en de Weeghdaet [The Elements
of Hydrostatics, Preamble to the Practice of Hydrostatics, and Appendix to The Elements
of the Statics and The Practice of Weighing] (Leiden, Netherlands: Christoffel Plantijn,
1586) reports an experiment by Stevin and Jan Cornets de Groot in which they dropped
lead balls from a church tower in Delft; relevant passage is translated here: EJ
Dijksterhuis, ed., The Principal Works of Simon Stevin (Amsterdam, Netherlands: CV
Swets & Zeitlinger, 1955) vol. ^ Simon Stevin, De Beghinselen des Waterwichts,
Anvang der Waterwichtdaet, en de Anhang Komen na de Beghinselen der Weeghconst en
de Weeghdaet [Ang Sangkap ng Hydrostatics, Panimula sa Practice ng Hydrostatics, at
Appendix sa Ang Sangkap ng estatika at Ang Practice ng pagtimbang] (Leiden,
Netherlands: Christoffel Plantijn, 1586) ang mga ulat ng isang eksperimento sa
pamamagitan ng Stevin at Jan Cornets de Groot na kung saan sila bumaba humantong
bola mula sa isang simbahan moog sa Delft; kaugnay na daanan ay isinalin dito:
Dijksterhuis, ed. EJ, Ang Principal Works ng Simon Stevin (Amsterdam, Netherlands: CV
Swets & Zeitlinger, 1955) vol. 1, pages 509 and 511. 1, pahina 509 at 511. Available on-
line at The Life and Works of Simon Stevin . Magagamit na mga on-line sa Ang Buhay at
Works ni Simon Stevin . p. 509 . http://www.library.tudelft.nl/cgi-
bin/digitresor/display.cgi?bookname=Mechanics%20I&page=509 . p. 509.
http://www.library.tudelft.nl/cgi-bin/digitresor/display.cgi?bookname=Mechanics% 20I
& page = 509 .
104. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.203) , Galilei (1954, pp.251–54) . ^ Sharratt (1994, p.203) ,
Galilei (1954, pp.251-54) .
105. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.198) , Galilei (1954, p.174) . ^ Sharratt (1994, p.198) , Galilei
(1954, p.174) .
106. ^ Clagett (1968, p.561) . ^ Clagett (1968, p.561) .
107. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.198) , Wallace (2004, pp.II 384, II 400, III 272) Soto,
however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in
Galileo's theory of falling bodies. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.198) , Wallace (2004, pp.II 384,
400 II, III 272) Soto, gayunpaman, ay hindi mahulaan ang marami sa mga katangian at
mga refinement na nakapaloob sa Galileo's theory ng mga bumabagsak na mga katawan.
 He did not, for instance, recognise, as Galileo did, that a body would only fall with a
strictly uniform acceleration in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a
uniform terminal velocity. Siya ay hindi, halimbawa, makilala, bilang Galileo ginawa, na
ang isang katawan ay lamang mahulog sa isang mahigpit na unipormeng acceleration sa
isang vacuum, at na ito kung hindi man tuluyang maabot ang isang unipormeng kabilisan
terminal.
108. ^ Newton, RG (2004). Galileo's Pendulum: From the Rhythm of Time to the
Making of Matter . ^ Newton, RG (2004): Galileo's. pendulum Mula sa ritmo ng Time sa
pagsasagawa ng Matter. Harvard University Press. Harvard University Press. p. 51.
ISBN 067401331X . p. 51. ISBN 067401331X .
109. ^ Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1974) p.
^ Galileo Galilei, Dalawang Bagong Sciences, (Madison: Univ,. ng Wisconsin 1974 PR.)
p. 50. 50.
110. ^ I. ^ I. Bernard Cohen, "Roemer and the First Determination of the Velocity of
Light (1676)", Isis , 31 (1940): 327–379, see pp. 332–333 Bernard Cohen, "Roemer at
ang mga Unang Pagpapasiya ng ang bilis ng Banayad (1676)", Isis, 31 (1940): 327-379,
tingnan ang pp 332-333
111. ^ Hydrostatic balance . ^ Hydrostatic balanse . The Galileo Project .
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/instruments/balance.html . Ang Galileo Project.
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/instruments/balance.html . Retrieved 2008-07-17 Ikinuha
2008/07/17
112. ^ The Works of Galileo . ^ Ang Works ng Galileo . The University of Oklahoma,
College of Arts and Sciences . http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?
exbgrp=1&exbid=10&exbpg=1 . Ang University of Oklahoma, College of Arts at
Sciences. http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&exbid=10&exbpg=1 .
Retrieved 2008-07-17 Ikinuha 2008/07/17
113. ^ Sunspots and Floating Bodies . ^ Sunspots at Floating katawan . The
University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences .
http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&exbid=13&exbpg=2 . Ang University
of Oklahoma, College of Arts at Sciences. http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?
exbgrp=1&exbid=13&exbpg=2 . Retrieved 2008-07-17 Ikinuha 2008/07/17
114. ^ Galileo, Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina . ^ Galileo, Sulat sa mga Grand
dukesa Christina . The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences .
http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&exbid=14&exbpg=3 . Ang University
of Oklahoma, College of Arts at Sciences. http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?
exbgrp=1&exbid=14&exbpg=3 . Retrieved 2008-07-17 Ikinuha 2008/07/17
115. ^ Galileo's Theory of the Tides . ^ 's Theory Galileo ng tides . The Galileo Project
. http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/tides.html . Ang Galileo Project.
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/tides.html . Retrieved 2008-07-17 Ikinuha
2008/07/17
116. ^ Galileo Timeline . ^ Galileo Timeline . The Galileo Project .
http://galileo.rice.edu/chron/galileo.html . Ang Galileo Project.
http://galileo.rice.edu/chron/galileo.html . Retrieved 2008-07-17 Ikinuha 2008/07/17
117. ^ Galileo Galilei . ^ Galileo Galilei . Tel-Aviv University, Science and
Technology Education Center . http://muse.tau.ac.il/museum/galileo/galileo.html . Tel
Aviv-University, Agham at Teknolohiya Edukasyon Center.
http://muse.tau.ac.il/museum/galileo/galileo.html . Retrieved 2008-07-17 Ikinuha
2008/07/17
118. ^ "Collection of Galileo Galilei's Manuscripts and Related Translations" .
http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/content/scientific_revolution/galileo . ^ "Collection ng
Galileo Galilei's manuskrito at Related Translations" . http://echo.mpiwg-
berlin.mpg.de/content/scientific_revolution/galileo . Retrieved 2009-12-04 . Ikinuha
2009-12-04.
119. ^ Heilbron (2005, p.299) . ^ Heilbron (2005, p.299) .
120. ^ Two of his non-scientific works, the letters to Castelli and the Grand Duchess
Christina, were explicitly not allowed to be included (Coyne 2005, p.347) . ^ Dalawang
ng kanyang mga di-agham ay gumagana, ang mga titik sa Castelli at ang Grand dukesa
Christina, ay malinaw na hindi pinapayagan na isasama (Coyne 2005, p.347) .
121. ^ Heilbron (2005, p.303–04) ; Coyne (2005, p.347) . ^ Heilbron (2005, p.303-
04) ; Coyne (2005, p.347) . The uncensored version of the Dialogue remained on the
Index of prohibited books, however (Heilbron 2005, p.279) . Ang Uncensored bersyon ng
Dialogue naiiwan sa Index ng ipinagbabawal na mga libro, gayunman (Heilbron 2005,
p.279) .
122. ^ Heilbron (2005, p.307) ; Coyne (2005, p.347) The practical effect of the ban in
its later years seems to have been that clergy could publish discussions of heliocentric
physics with a formal disclaimer assuring its hypothetical character and their obedience
to the church decrees against motion of the earth: see for example the commented edition
(1742) of Newton's 'Principia' by Fathers Le Seur and Jacquier, which contains such a
disclaimer ('Declaratio') before the third book (Propositions 25 onwards) dealing with the
lunar theory. ^ Heilbron (2005, p.307) ; Coyne (2005, p.347) Ang praktikal na epekto ng
ban sa kanyang mamaya taon tila ay na pari ay maaaring i-publish ang mga talakayan ng
heliocentric physics sa isang pormal disclaimer assuring nito hypothetical karakter at ang
kanilang mga pagsunod sa mga utos simbahan laban sa mosyon ng lupa: tingnan ang
halimbawa sa Commented edition (1742) ng Newton's 'Principia' by Fathers Le Seur at
Jacquier, na naglalaman ng tulad ng isang disclaimer ('Declaratio') bago ang ikatlong
libro (Panukala 25 pataas ) pakikitungo sa mga teorya ng buwan.
123. ^ McMullin (2005, p.6) ; Coyne (2005, p.346) . ^ McMullin (2005, p.6) ; Coyne
(2005, p.346) . In fact, the Church's opposition had effectively ended in 1820 when a
Catholic canon, Giuseppe Settele, was given permission to publish a work which treated
heliocentism as a physical fact rather than a mathematical fiction. Sa katunayan, ang
Iglesia ng pagsalungat ay epektibong natapos sa 1820 kapag ang isang Katoliko canon,
 Giuseppe Settele, ay ibinigay ng pahintulot na i-publish ng isang trabaho na kung saan
ginagamot heliocentism bilang isang pisikal na katotohanan sa halip na isang
matematikal fiction. The 1835 edition of the Index was the first to be issued after that
year. Ang 1835 na edisyon ng Index ay ang unang na inisyu matapos na taon.
124. ^ Discourse of His Holiness Pope Pius XII given on 3 December 1939 at the
Solemn Audience granted to the Plenary Session of the Academy, Discourses of the
Popes from Pius XI to John Paul II to the Pontifical Academy of the Sciences 1939–1986,
Vatican City, p.34 ^ diskurso ng Kanyang kabanalan Pope Pius XII ibinigay sa 3
Disyembre 1939 sa solemne Audience ipinagkaloob sa plenaryo Session ng Academy,
diskurso sa mga papa mula Pius XI sa John Paul II sa mga obispo Academy of Sciences
sa 1939-1986, Vatican City , p.34
125. ^ Robert Leiber, Pius XII Stimmen der Zeit, November 1958 in Pius XII. ^
Robert Leiber, Pius XII Stimmen der Zeit, Nobyembre 1958 sa Pius XII. Sagt, Frankfurt
1959, p.411 Sagt, Frankfurt 1959, p.411
126. ^ An earlier version had been delivered on 16 December 1989, in Rieti, and a
later version in Madrid on 24 February 1990 (Ratzinger, 1994, p.81) . ^ Ang isang mas
maaga bersyon ay inihatid sa Disyembre 16, 1989, sa Rieti, at ng isang mas bagong
bersyon sa Madrid sa 24 Pebrero 1990 (Ratzinger, 1994, p.81) . According to Feyerabend
himself, Ratzinger had also mentioned him "in support of" his own views in a speech in
Parma around the same time (Feyerabend, 1995, p.178) . Ayon sa Feyerabend sarili,
Ratzinger ay nabanggit din sa kanya "sa suporta ng" ang kanyang sariling pananaw sa
isang pagsasalita sa Parma sa paligid ng parehong oras (Feyerabend, 1995, p.178) .
127. ^ a b c Ratzinger (1994, p.98) . ^ isang b c Ratzinger (1994, p.98) .
128. ^ "Vatican admits Galileo was right" . ^ "Vatican admits Galileo ay karapatan" .
New Scientist. New Scientist. 1992-11-07 .
http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13618460.600-vatican-admits-galileo-was-
right-.html . 1992/11/07. http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13618460.600-vatican-
admits-galileo-was-right-.html . Retrieved 2007-08-09 . Ikinuha 2007/08/09. . .
129. ^ "Papal visit scuppered by scholars" . ^ "papa bisitahin scuppered by iskolar" .
BBC News. BBC News. 2008-01-15 .
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7188860.stm . 2008/01/15.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7188860.stm . Retrieved 2008-01-16 . Ikinuha
2008/01/16.
130. ^ Owen, Richard; Delaney, Sarah (2008-03-04). "Vatican recants with a statue of
Galileo" . ^ Owen, Richard; Delaney, Sarah (2008/03/04). "Vatican recants may isang
rebulto ng Galileo" . London: TimesOnline News .
http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article3478943.ece . London:
TimesOnline News. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article3478943.ece .
Retrieved 2009-03-02 . Ikinuha 2009/03/02.
131. ^ "Pope praises Galileo's astronomy" . ^ "Papa papuri Galileo's astronomy" .
BBC News. BBC News. 2008-12-21 . http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7794668.stm .
 2008/12/21. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7794668.stm . Retrieved 2008-12-22 .
Ikinuha 2008/12/22.
132. ^ Hawking (1988, p.179) . ^ Hawking (1988, p.179) .
133. ^ Einstein (1954, p.271) . ^ Einstein (1954, p.271) . "Propositions arrived at by
purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality. Because Galileo realised
this, and particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of
modern physics—indeed, of modern science altogether." "Panukala dumating sa
pamamagitan ng pulos lohikal na paraan ay ganap na walang laman ang tungkol sa
katotohanan. Dahil Galileo natanto na ito, at lalo na dahil siya drummed ito sa mga pang-
agham mundo, siya ang ama ng modernong physics-sa katunayan, ng modernong agham
sa kabuuan."
134. ^ Fischer, Daniel (2001). Mission Jupiter: The Spectacular Journey of the Galileo
Spacecraft . ^ Fischer, Daniel (2001):. Mission Jupiter Ang Paglalakbay sa palabas ng
mga Galileo spacecraft. Springer. Springer. pp. v. ISBN 0-387-98764-9 . pp v. ISBN 0-
387-98764-9 .
135. ^ United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (11 August
2005). "Proclamation of 2009 as International year of Astronomy" (PDF). ^ United
Nations Educational, Scientific at Cultural Organization (Agosto 11, 2005).
"Proclamation of 2009 bilang International taon ng Astronomy" (PDF). UNESCO .
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001403/140317e.pdf . UNESCO.
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001403/140317e.pdf . Retrieved 2008-06-10 .
Ikinuha 2008/06/10.
136. ^ Bohemian Rhapsody . ^ Bohemian pagtatalik . everything2 .
http://everything2.com/title/Bohemian+Rhapsody . everything2.
http://everything2.com/title/Bohemian+Rhapsody . Retrieved 2010-08-20 Ikinuha
2010/08/20
137. ^ Stavis, Barrie. Lamp at Midnight . ^ Stavis, Barrie. Lamp sa Hatinggabi. New
York: AS Barnes, 1966. New York: AS Barnes, 1966.
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http://www.archive.org/details/GalileoGalileivesaliusAndServetus ^ Lalonde, Robert.
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 Galilei, Galileo Galileo: Two New Sciences (Translation by Stillman Drake of Galileo's
1638 Discourses and mathematical demonstrations concerning two new sciences )
University of Wisconsin Press 1974 ISBN 0-299-06400-X
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philosophy and science , translation of the 1957 Italian edition, with notes and appendix
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 Grant, Edward Aristotle, Philoponus, Avempace, and Galileo's Pisan Dynamics
Centaurus, 11, 1965–7
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Historisch theologische Untersuchungen über die Urtheile Römischen Congegationen im
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 Hall, AR From Galileo to Newton 1963
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Transaction of the American Philosophical Society, 1955
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Collapse of Ptolemaic Cosmology , Chicago: the University of Chicago Press
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 Starry Messenger: Observing the Heavens in the Age of Galileo an exhibition at the
Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University
 Museo Galileo – Florence, Italy

 Galileo's math genealogy

 Portraits of Galileo
 Original documents on the trial of Galileo Galilei in the Vatican Secret Archives
 Galileo Affair catholic.net
 The Galileo Project at Rice University
 PBS Nova Online: Galileo's Battle for the Heavens
 PBS documentary: 400 Years of the Telescope
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Galileo
 The Galilean Library , educational site.
  Galileo and the Catholic Church article at Catholic League Galileo at ng Simbahang
Katoliko na artikulo sa Catholic League
 Animated Hero Classics: Galileo (1997) at the Internet Movie Database
 Electronic representation of Galilei's notes on motion (MS. 72)
 Works by or about Galileo Galilei in libraries ( WorldCat catalog)
 Galileo's 1590 De Motu translation Galileo's 1590 De motu pagsasalin
 Works by Galileo Galilei : text with concordances and frequencies.
 CCD Images through a Galilean Telescope Modern recreation of what Galileo might
have seen
 Galilei, Galileo. Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare 1610 Rome.
Galilei, Galileo. Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare 1610 Roma. From
Rare Book Room . Mula sa Rare Book Room . Scanned first edition.
 Galilei, Galileo. Istoria e Dimostrazioni Intorno Alle Macchie Solar 1613 Rome. From
Rare Book Room. Scanned first edition.
 O'Connor, John J. ; Robertson, Edmund F. , "Galileo Galilei" , MacTutor History of
Mathematics archive , University of St Andrews , http://www-history.mcs.st-
andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Galileo.html . .
 Linda Hall Library features a first edition of Sidereus Nuncius Magna as well as a pirated
edition from the same year , both fully digitized.
 Feather & Hammer Drop on Moon

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