The Intermediate Value Theorem

The Squeeze Theorem

Limits and Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

Mathematics 21

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman)

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 1 / 32

For today

1 Intermediate Value Theorem

2 The Squeeze Theorem

3 Limits and Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

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Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)

Theorem
Let f be continuous on a closed interval [ a, b] with f ( a) 6= f (b). For every k
between f ( a) and f (b), there exists c in ( a, b) such that f (c) = k.

f (b)

k (c, f (c))
c
a c b
k (c, f (c))
f ( a)

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 4 / 32

Remarks

The continuity of the function on [ a, b] in IVT is required. In general, the

theorem is not true for functions discontinuous on [ a, b].
The c in the conclusion of IVT may not be unique.

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 5 / 32

Example

x−1
Consider the function f ( x ) = on the interval [1, 3].
x

Note that dom f = R \ {0}. Then f is continuous on R \ {0} and in

particular, on [1, 3].
2
f (1) = 0 and f (3) =
3
Therefore, IVT is applicable!

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 6 / 32

Example

x−1
Consider the function f ( x ) = on the interval [1, 3].
x

2
By IVT, for every k between 0 and , there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = k.
3
1 1
Let k = . Then there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = .
2 2
Solving for c:

1 c−1
= f (c) = =⇒ c = 2c − 2 =⇒ c = 2.
2 c

Note: c = 2 ∈ (1, 3)

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 7 / 32

Example

Show that
3x4 − 4x2 + 5x − 1 = 0

has a solution between 0 and 1.

Solution: Let f ( x ) = 3x4 − 4x2 + 5x − 1 on [0, 1].

Goal: Show that there is a c ∈ (0, 1) such that f (c) = 0.
f is continuous on [0, 1]. (why?)
f (0) = −1 and f (1) = 3 and therefore, f (0) 6= f (1).
0 is between f (0) and f (1).
By IVT, there exists c ∈ (0, 1) such that f (c) = 0.

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 8 / 32

Theorem (Squeeze Theorem)
Let f , g and h be defined on an open interval I containing a except possibly at a such that
1 f ( x ) ≤ g( x ) ≤ h( x ) for all c ∈ I \ { a}
2 lim f ( x ) = L and lim h( x ) = L
x→a x→a
Then lim g( x ) = L.
x→a

y = h( x )

y = g( x )

y = f (x)

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 10 / 32

Example

 
1 2
Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate lim x cos
x →0 x

Solution: Note that  

1
lim cos dne (why?)
x →0 x
For any real number x 6= 0,
 
1
−1 ≤ cos ≤1
x
 
2 1 2
=⇒ − x ≤ x cos ≤ x2
x

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Example

 
1 2
Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate lim x cos
x →0 x

We have
lim (− x2 ) = 0 = lim x2
x →0 x →0

Therefore, by the Squeeze Theorem,

 
1
lim x2 cos = 0.
x →0 x

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 12 / 32

Remark
With suitable modifications in the conditions of the Squeeze Theorem, “ x → a”
may be replaced by “ x → a− ”, “ x → a+ ”, “ x → −∞” and “ x → ∞”

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Example

sin x
Evaluate lim
x →+∞ x

Solution: We have
lim sin x dne (why?)
x →+∞
lim x = +∞
x →+∞
But for x > 0,
1 sin x 1
−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 =⇒ − ≤ ≤
x x x
Also,
1 1
= 0 = lim lim −
x x →+∞
x →+∞ x

sin x
By the Squeeze Theorem, lim = 0.
x →+∞ x

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 14 / 32

Example

2[[ x ]] + 1
Evaluate lim
x →−∞ x

Solution: When x < 0:

x − 1 ≤ [[ x ]] ≤ x
2x − 2 ≤ 2[[ x ]] ≤ 2x
2x − 1 ≤ 2[[ x ]] + 1 ≤ 2x + 1
2x − 1 2[[ x ]] + 1 2x + 1
≥ ≥
x x x

1 1
2x − 1 2− x 2x + 1 2+ x
lim = lim = 2, lim = lim =2
x →−∞ x x →−∞ 1 x →−∞ x x →−∞ 1
Therefore,
2[[ x ]] + 1
lim = 2.
x →−∞ x
Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 15 / 32
Theorem
sin x
lim =1
x →0 x

The Squeeze Theorem is used to prove this statement. The following are
consequences of the above theorem:

Theorem
1 The trigonometric functions are continuous on their respective domains.
1 − cos x
2 lim =0
x →0 x

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 17 / 32

 1 − cos x
Proof of lim = 0:
x →0 x
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x 1 − cos2 x
 
lim = lim · = lim
x →0 x x →0 x 1 + cos x x →0 x (1 + cos x )
 
sin x sin x
= lim
x →0 x 1 + cos x
sin x sin x
= lim · lim
x →0 x x →0 1 + cos x
 
0
=1 =0
2

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Examples

π
limπ tan x = tan =1
x→ 4 4
1 − cos x 1 − cos π 2
lim = =
x →π
x  π π
lim sin x2 − 1 = sin(4 − 1) = sin 3
x →2

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Example

sin (4x )
Evaluate: lim
x →0 x

Solution:
 
sin (4x ) sin (4x ) 4 sin (4x )
lim = lim · = lim · (4) = 1(4) = 4
x →0 x x →0 x 4 x →0 4x

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 20 / 32

 x x
Consider lim and lim .
x →0 sin x x →0 1 − cos x

x 1 1
lim = lim = =1
x →0 sin x x →0 sin x 1
x

x 1 1
lim = lim = 6= 0
x →0 1 − cos x x →0 1 − cos x 0
x

Remark
x x
1 lim =1 2 lim 6= 0
x →0 sin x x →0 1 − cos x

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 21 / 32

Example

x2
Evaluate: lim
x →0 sin (3x2 )

Solution:

x2 x2 3x2
 
3 1 1
lim = lim · = lim · =
x →0 sin (3x2 ) x →0 sin (3x2 ) 3 x →0 sin (3x2 ) 3 3

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Example

sin x2 − 1


Evaluate: lim
x →−1 x+1

Solution: !
sin x2 − 1 sin x2 − 1 x − 1



lim = lim ·
x →−1 x+1 x →−1 x+1 x−1
sin x2 − 1


= lim · ( x − 1) = 1(−2) = −2
x →−1 x2 − 1

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 23 / 32

Example

sin(3x )
Evaluate: lim
x →0 sin(5x )

Solution:

 
sin(3x ) 3x 5 sin(3x ) 5x 3 3 3
lim · · = lim · · = (1)(1) =
x →0 sin(5x ) 3x 5 x →0 3x sin(5x ) 5 5 5

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Example

tan(3x )
Evaluate: lim
x →0+ 1 − cos2 (2x )

Solution:
tan(3x ) tan(3x )
lim = lim
x →0+ 1 − cos2 (2x ) x →0+sin2 (2x )
sin(3x ) 3x 2x 2
= lim · · ·
x →0+ cos(3x ) sin2 (2x ) 3x 2x 2
 2
sin(3x ) 2x 1 3
= lim · · ·
x →0+ 3x sin(2x ) x cos(3x ) 4
    
1 3
= +∞ (1)(1) 2
+
(0 )(1) 4

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 25 / 32

Example

1 − cos x
Evaluate: lim
x →0 x2

Solution:
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x
lim = lim ·
x →0 x2 x →0 x2 1 + cos x
2
1 − cos x 1
= lim 2
·
x →0 x 1 + cos x
sin2 x 1
= lim 2
·
x →0 x 1 + cos x
 2
sin x 1
= lim ·
x →0 x 1 + cos x
 
2 1 1
= (1) =
2 2

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 26 / 32

Example

 
1
Evaluate lim cos
x →+∞ x

Solution:
1
lim =0
x →+∞ x
0 is in the domain of cos x
Therefore,  
1
lim cos = cos(0) = 1
x →+∞ x

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 27 / 32

Example

1 − cos x
 
Evaluate lim tan
x →0 x

Solution:
1 − cos x
lim =0
x →0 x
0 is in the domain of tan x
Therefore,
1 − cos x
 
lim tan = tan(0) = 0
x →0 x

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) IVT, Squeeze, Trigonometric Limits Mathematics 21 28 / 32

Example

Evaluate lim cot x

x →π +

Solution:

Note that π ∈
/ dom cot. Now,

−1
 
cos x
lim cot x = lim = +∞
x →π + x →π sin x
+ 0−

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Exercises

 
Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate lim x 1 − cos 1x .


x →0+

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Exercises

Let f ( x ) = x3 + 3x + 7. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that there

is a real number c such that f (c) = 4.

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Exercises

Evaluate the following limits:

4x sin(2 − x )
1 lim 4 lim
x →0 sin(5x ) x →2 x2 − x − 2

sin 2x 2x sin x


2 lim
5 lim
x →π 5x x →0 1 − cos(4x )

sin3 (3x ) sin x − sin 1

3 lim
6 lim
x →0 x2 tan(2x ) x →1 x−1

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