Lithos 202–203 (2014) 382–394

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Lithos
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lithos

Distinguishing between in-situ and accretionary growth of continents

along active margins
Ryan Cochrane a,⁎, Richard Spikings a, Axel Gerdes b,c, Wilfried Winkler d, Alexey Ulianov e,
Andres Mora f, Massimo Chiaradia a
a
Department of Mineralogy, University of Geneva, Switzerland
b
Institute of Geosciences, Mineralogy, J. W. Goethe University, Frankfurt 60438, Germany
c
Department of Earth Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa
d
Geological Institute, ETH Zürich, Switzerland
e
Institute of Mineralogy and Geochemistry, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
f
Instituto Colombiano del Petróleo-Ecopetrol, Bucaramanga, Colombia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Active continental margins represent both sites of crustal loss by tectonic erosion, and gain by juvenile
Received 18 January 2014 magmatism and oceanic arc–plateau accretion. Estimating the gain component depends on distinguishing be-
Accepted 13 May 2014 tween growth of margins by either accretion of oceanic crust, or juvenile magmatic addition during extension.
Available online 10 June 2014
Distinguishing between these allochthonous and autochthonous models is frequently ambiguous due to
difficulties in interpreting the tectonic origin of mafic rocks. We present a detailed geochronological and isotopic
Keywords:
Net crustal growth
study constraining the evolution of the continental margin of northwest South America during 190–113 Ma.
Allochthonous Semi-continuous slab rollback resulted in crustal thinning, juvenile magmatism, and ultimately, the removal of
Autochthonous continental slivers; negating previous hypotheses that the margin evolved by the accretion of an island arc.
Island arc However, basic crustal growth estimates, along with comparisons between rocks exposed in Northern Peru
Juvenile addition and the Northern Andes imply that uneven losses of continental crust occurred along northwest South
Oceanic plateau America for Mesozoic exposures, and that the accretion of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province (CLIP) onto
NW South America probably played a crucial role in maintaining and preserving Mesozoic continental crust
north of the Huancabamba deflection.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction distinguish between allochthonous (or exotic terrane accretion) and

The nature of trench retreat or advance at the ocean–continent
interface is key to understanding crustal growth (Kemp et al., 2009),
crustal destruction (Clift and Vannucchi, 2004) and the interplay be-
tween both possibilities. Periods of slab rollback are routinely associated
with back-arc extension, crustal thinning, separation of continental
slivers and juvenile crustal addition (Collins, 2002; Kemp et al., 2009;
Mišković and Schaltegger, 2009), whereas slab advance or flat-slab
subduction frequently drives compressional deformation, subduction
erosion, thickening and ultimately recycling of the crust (Collins,
2002; Gutscher et al., 2000; Jenkins et al., 2002). Several authors (Clift
et al., 2009; Scholl and Von Huene, 2007) have demonstrated that the
growth of continental crust at continental arcs over long periods is
negligible or in decline. Interesting questions include i) how can we
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 7506966278.
E-mail addresses: ryan.cochrane@thomsonreuters.com (R. Cochrane),
richard.spikings@unige.ch (R. Spikings), gerdes@em.uni-frankfurt.de (A. Gerdes),
wilfried.winkler@erdw.ethz.ch (W. Winkler), Alexey.Ulianov@unil.ch (A. Ulianov),
andresmora30@googlemail.com (A. Mora), Massimo.Chiaradia@unige.ch (M. Chiaradia).
autochthonous models of continental evolution at subduction zones,
ii) how does the volume of new crust formed during attenuation
compare with the volumes added by the accretion of oceanic arcs and
plateaus, and iii) what processes can facilitate the preservation of new
juvenile crust in the geological record?
This study addresses these questions by investigating the mecha-
nisms of crustal growth and preservation that are recorded by crystal-
line arc rocks within north-western South America, which span a
period of ~80 Ma. The Northern Andes are located along a long-lived ac-
tive margin (since at least 190 Ma), which is interpreted to have evolved
by either i) the Cretaceous (140–75 Ma) accretion of allochthonous
Mesozoic oceanic and continental terranes (Aspden et al., 1987;
Litherland et al., 1994; Toussaint and Restrepo, 1994), or ii) cycles of ex-
tension and compression of autochthonous rocks (Nivia et al., 2006;
Pratt et al., 2005). Distinguishing between these fundamentally different
mechanisms for the construction and preservation of the margin of
north-western South America would contribute further to understanding
the mechanisms of growth of continental crust along subducted margins.
Recent studies (Cochrane et al., 2014b; Collins et al., 2011;
Hawkesworth and Kemp, 2006; Kemp et al., 2006, 2009) traced

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2014.05.031
0024-4937/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 R. Cochrane et al. / Lithos 202–203 (2014) 382–394
processes of magma production within subduction environments by
monitoring the long-term Hf (zircon) isotopic variations of magmatic
rocks within arcs. This approach improved our understanding of
magmatic processes in accretionary orogens, and provided a method
for tracking crustal thickening and thinning. The tectonic evolution
of some continental margins consisting of autochthonous rocks is
dominated by switching between extensional and compressive phases
(Collins, 2002). The isotopic composition of these margins should
evolve gradually, as the thickness of the crust varies, and the astheno-
sphere cycles between tectonic exhumation and burial. Margins that
evolve by the accretion of oceanic arcs should be characterized by
distinct leaps in isotopic composition and crystallization age across
terrane sutures (e.g. Öhlander et al., 1993).
We investigate the evolution of the north-western South American
margin by integrating i) laser ablation inductively coupled mass spec-
trometry (LA-ICP-MS) U–Pb (zircon) dates and Hf isotopic compositions
of zircon from magmatic rocks, and detrital zircons extracted from
meta-sedimentary rocks, and ii) whole rock major oxide, trace element,
rare earth element (REE) and Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic analyses of magmatic
rocks. These data were collected from suspect continental and oceanic
slivers, and are used to distinguish between growth of the continental
crust by the addition of oceanic terranes, and in-situ growth driven by
alternating periods of extension and compression.
2. Geological setting
A majority of the rocks exposed in the Northern Andes (north of 5°S)
formed as a consequence of subduction of Pacific oceanic lithosphere be-
neath the continental crust of north-western South America. Subduction
has been almost continuous beneath Ecuador since ~190 Ma (Cochrane,
2013; Litherland et al., 1994), although it has been interrupted by chang-
ing roll-back velocities, and changing plate convergence vectors and
terrane accretion (Aspden et al., 1987; Bayona et al., 2006; Pindell and
Kennan, 2009; Spikings et al., 2010).
The metamorphic Palaeozoic–Triassic basement of the Eastern
Cordillera of Ecuador and Central Cordillera of Colombia, which expose
equivalent rock sequences (Fig. 1), was intruded by an I-type, calc-
alkaline continental arc between ~ 190 and 145 Ma (Litherland et al.,
1994; Villagómez et al., 2011). Within Ecuador, these batholiths are
called the Rosa Florida, Zamora, and Abitagua batholiths and the volca-
nic arc rocks are grouped within the Misahualli Formation (Litherland
et al., 1994; Pratt et al., 2005). Similar Jurassic aged batholiths within
Colombia include the Ibague and Segovia batholiths, and volcanic rock
sequences within the Saldaña Formation (e.g. Vinasco et al., 2006).
Traversing oceanward (westward) from the Jurassic batholiths and
crossing the Cosanga Fault in Ecuador, the Salado Terrane (Litherland
et al., 1994) is characterized by interbedded Late Jurassic–Early
Cretaceous turbiditic metasedimentary rocks and mafic lavas, and foli-
ated I-type, calc-alkaline batholiths. These rocks are juxtaposed against
Palaeozoic–Triassic metamorphosed basement to the west, via the
Llanganates Fault, which is referred to as the Loja Terrane (Litherland
et al., 1994). Traversing further oceanward, these relatively old
basement rocks are faulted against a series of basalts, andesites and
meta-turbiditic sequences, which are considered on the basis of geo-
chemical data and field relationships to be either i) an accreted oceanic
island arc sequence (the Alao Terrane of Litherland et al., 1994), or ii) an
autochthonous series of arc volcanic rock (Nivia et al., 2006; Pratt et al.,
2005; Villagomez et al., 2011). Further west, the Alao sequences are but-
tressed against anastomosed, faulted slivers of mafic–ultramafic rocks,
which are collectively defined as the Peltetec Unit and are considered
to represent fragments of an obducted ophiolite (Litherland et al.,
1994). Quartzites and slates exposed to the west of the Peltetec Fault
are interpreted (Litherland et al., 1994; Noble et al., 1997; Pindell and
Kennan, 2009) to form part of an allochthonous continental terrane
(the Guamote Terrane).
383
Similar rock sequences and spatial relationships are found along a
westward oriented traverse across the Central Cordillera of Colombia
(Villagómez et al., 2011). Triassic ortho- and paragneisses of the
Cajamarca Complex and poorly studied Palaeozoic metamorphic units
crop out to the west of the Ibague Batholith (Villagomez, 2010). These
units are truncated along their western margin by the San Jeronimo
Fault, which separates them from a series of pillow basalts, andesites, py-
roclastic rocks and Albian–Aptian fossil (Gonzáles, 1980) bearing marine
sedimentary rocks, which are collectively known as the Quebradagrande
Complex (Maya and Gonzales, 1995; Nivia et al., 2006). Continuing west-
ward, the Quebradagrande Complex is faulted against variably metamor-
phosed ultramafic and mafic igneous rocks. These are exposed in
fault-bounded lenses along the Cordillera Central and include the Arquía
(e.g. Restrepo and Toussaint, 1976), Jambaló (Bustamante et al., 2011;
Orrego et al., 1980) and Barragán (e.g. Bustamante et al., 2012)
complexes, among others.
A tectonic model has been proposed (Litherland et al., 1994) for
Ecuador which shows these sequences accreting together during a
major compressive event at 140–120 Ma. The authors interpret the
Alao volcanic sequence and Peltetec unit as oceanic crust, and thus
their accretion represents significant addition of mass to the continental
crust over a short period of time. Alternatively, Pratt et al. (2005) sug-
gest the same rock sequences within the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador
formed in-situ, because they claim that i) the terrane sutures
(Litherland et al., 1994) are intrusive contacts, ii) there are stratigraphic
transitions across the previously proposed terrane sutures and iii) both
flanks of the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador have the same structural
history along with the ubiquitous presence of blue quartz found
both within the siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of the Hollin fm. locat-
ed within the Sub Andean zone and the Guamote formation on the
far western flank of the eastern Cordillera. Any growth of the conti-
nental crust within an autochthonous margin (Pratt et al., 2005)
would occur by a mechanism that is completely different to exotic
terrane accretion. The ability to distinguish between this model
and that of accretion of allochthonous terranes is crucial to improve
our understanding of how the volume of continental crust along this
margin changes with time.
3. Methods
3.1. Whole rock geochemistry and Sr–Nd–Pb isotopes
Sixty-one granitoids and meta-volcanic rocks collected from the
Eastern (Ecuador) and Central Cordillera (Colombia) were sampled
and chemically analyzed (Table S1). Representative whole rock pow-
ders were prepared using an agate mill and major and trace elements
were measured using a Philips PW2400 X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) spec-
trometer. The NIMN, NIMG, BHVO and SY2 standards were used for
quality control. The glass fused disks prepared from XRF analyses
were fragmented and mounted for additional analyses of trace and
rare earth elements (REE). Measurements were made using a Perkin
Elmer ELAN 6100 DRC quadrupole ICP-MS and depending on the ex-
pected enrichment within samples, either NIST SRM 610 or 612 fused
glasses were used as external standards. The laser settings used for anal-
yses were 10 Hz frequency, 140 mJ energy and 80–120 μm spot size.
Blanks were measured for ~ 90 s, after which the laser was switched
on and the signal was measured for 45 s. The Sr or Al2O3 concentration
(previously determined by XRF) was used as an internal standard.
Each sample was ablated 3 times, and average concentrations were cal-
culated offline using LAMTRACE (Jackson, 2008). The uncertainties of 3
spots per sample were b 10% for rare earth elements (REE) and b 5% for
other trace elements.
Twenty-seven volcanic rocks were collected for Sr–Pb–Nd isotopic
analyses (Table S1). Approximately 100 mg of whole rock powder was
dissolved in 4 ml of concentrated HF and 1 ml of 15 M HNO3 in closed
Teflon vials at 140 °C for seven days. The samples were dried down
384 R. Cochrane et al. / Lithos 202–203 (2014) 382–394

76° W 75° W 74° W

Central Cordillera of Colombia 74° W

Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador
Cretaceous - Tertiary
Granitoids 8° N
Siliciclastic and carbonate sedimentary Panama Segovia
rocks, volcanic rocks including Hollin fm. Batholith
(Ecuador) and Yavi fm. (Colombia)
Jurassic - E. Cretaceous
Tectonic melange including
oceanic crust. Central 188.9±2.0
PELTETEC UNIT (Ecuador) Cordillera
ARQUIA UNIT (Colombia)
Colombia

IP
CL
Metamorphosed lavas, turbidites, Eastern 1° N 6° N
pyroclastic rocks, serpentinites. Cordillera
Fringing continental arc 112.9±0.8
Ecuador
ALAO ARC (Ecuador)
QUEBRADAGRANDE ARC 117±9
(Colombia) D 112±4
ba

CAF
Folliated granitoids (Azafran, Chingual), am
metamorphosed sedimentary c ab n
an cti
o Peru 165.9±1.2
and volcanic rocks (Upano). Hu efle 168.8±0.7
Intra-arc ‘Salado Basin/Terrane’ D 146.8±1.5
4° N
Slates, quartzites
156.5±1.1
Co

155.7±2.2
as

(Guamote sequence)
158.5±1.0
tal

Granitoids, pyroclastic rocks and 164.4±1.1

ba
tho

lavas. Autochthonous continental

lith

arc (190 - 145 Ma). 80° W

Palaeozoic - Triassic
Triassic S-Type granites, migmatites
and amphibolitised mafic crust
2° N
within a Palaeozoic greenschist to
amphibolite facies metamorphic belt 100 Km Ibagué
(Loja Terrane - Ecuador Batholith
Cajamarca - Colombia) 125.3±0.9
175.8±1.7
1° N 179.0±2.0
173.6±1.5
206Pb/235U zircon ages of
181.5±1.6
A Rosa Florida
granitoids and sedimentary rocks.
This study, Villagomez et al. (2011) Batholith
PF 182.4±0.6
Hornblende 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages.
Villagomez et al., (2011),
Litherland et al. (1994) 169.8±1.1
Azafran 173.0±1.3
Batholith
Fault
ates

Garnet-whole rock Sm-Nd

Llangan

174.0±1.2 1° S
isochron age. John et al. (2010)
B 140.7±0.7
Geochemical and Sr-Nd-Pb 143.5±1.3
analyses Abitagua
C Batholith
LF 2° S

E F
CF
BF
PF 115±12
132±5 142±36
121.0±0.8

178.1±1.4
80° W

Zamora
Batholith
131.6±1.1
5° S
 R. Cochrane et al. / Lithos 202–203 (2014) 382–394 385

Jurassic - Cretaceous
160 A Ecuador
Distance from suture (Km) Colombia
Colombia Ecuador
Peltetec melange
140 Arquia Complex
Quebradagrande Complex Alao Paute related
120 Zamora, Azafran, Chingual,
Ibague Batholith Abitagua, Rosa Florida related
100
80

60

40
A A
20

0 A A

16 B DM
14
12
10
Mantle derived
8 magmas
Hfi

6
4
2
CHUR
0
-2
-4
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
206Pb/238U zircon age (Ma)
C
Chaucha Alao Loja L. Jurassic - E. Cret. Jurassic
Terrane Terrane Terrane Salado Terrane unfoliated arc
1°21’ S PF
- Triassic basement

BF LF
Palaeozoic

sedimentary fms.

CF
E. Cret

Tungurahua N
volcano 3 km
1°59’ S

Westward younging trend

Chaucha Alao
Terrane Terrane
1°53’ S

PF

1°59’ S

Fig. 2. A. Zircon εHfi data for magmatic rocks of the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador and Central Cordillera of Colombia. εHfi calculated using the 206Pb/238U weighted mean age determined by
LA-ICP-MS dating and the CHUR parameters: 176Lu/177Hf = 0.0336, and 176Hf/177Hf = 0.282785 (Bouvier et al., 2008). Representative 2 σ errors for εHfi are approximately 0.7 units (see
Table S3 for further information). DM indicates the Hf isotope evolution curve for the depleted mantle. The data reveal a continuous trend from a crustal end member at ~190 Ma, to a
mantle derived end member at ~113 Ma. B. A comparison between crystallization ages of magmatic rocks versus their east–west distance from the Peltetec (Ecuador)–Cauca–Almaguer
(Colombia) suture. The positive correlation reveals trenchward arc-axis migration during ~190 to ~110 Ma. 40Ar/39Ar ages (A) are from (Litherland et al., 1994; Villagomez and Spikings,
2013). C. East–West traverse of the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador (Pratt et al., 2005). Note the younging trend of magmatic rocks from the Early Jurassic in the east, to the Early Cretaceous in
the west, which coincides with increasingly juvenile isotopic compositions A.

Fig. 1. The geology of the Eastern (Ecuador) and Central (Colombia) cordilleras of the northern Andes (Litherland et al., 1994). Inset is a digital elevation model (Spikings et al., 2010) show-
ing the extent of the allochthons of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province (CLIP). The thick, black line represents the Early Cretaceous suture (Peltetec Fault) between the Late Cretaceous
Caribbean Large Igneous Province and the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous continental margin. Sample locations and radio-isotope dates obtained in this and previous studies are shown. Detrital
zircon 206Pb/238U ages are labeled A–F, and their age distributions are shown in Fig. 3. BF: Baños Fault, CAF: Cauca Almaguer Fault, CF: Cosanga Fault and Sub-Andean Faults, LF: Llanganates
Fault, OPF: Otú Pericos Fault, PF: Peltetec Fault.
386 R. Cochrane et al. / Lithos 202–203 (2014) 382–394

Table 1
Summary of data collected from Jurassic–Cretaceous rocks of the cordilleras of Ecuador and Colombia.
206
Sample Unit Lithology Latitude Longitude Pb/238U MSWD εNd (87Sr/86Sr)i (206Pb/204Pb)i (La/Yb)n w.r
N–S d°m′s″ W d°m′s″ age ± 2σ (Ma) w.r ± 2σ w.r ± 2σ w.r ± 2σ

Jurassic to E. Cretaceous arc plutons

Ecuador
09RC22 Abitagua Granite S1° 24′ 38″ 78° 11′ 20″ 174.0 ± 1.2 1.8 1.78 15.6
09RC43 Zamora Granodiorite S4° 40′ 0″ 79° 08′ 2″ 131.6 ± 1.1 0.4 3.28 13.8
09RC46 Zamora Granodiorite S3° 57′ 52″ 78° 51′ 38″ 178.1 ± 1.4 3.0 2.84 16.0
09RC57 Azafran Granodiorite S1° 24′ 21″ 78° 16′ 38″ 143.5 ± 1.3 2.2 5.04 14.8
09RC59 Azafran Monzogranite S1° 24′ 34″ 78° 15′ 45″ 140.7 ± 0.7 1.6 4.61 18.2
09RC60 Abitagua Granodiorite S0° 40′ 55″ 77° 48′ 5″ 173.0 ± 1.3 2.8 1.27 26.2
09RC61 Abitagua Monzogranite S0° 37′ 11″ 77° 49′ 34″ 169.8 ± 1.1 2.0 1.90 16.1
09RC63 Chingual Monzogranite N0° 38′ 6″ 77° 29′ 26″ 125.3 ± 0.9 2.8 4.24 9.2
09RC65 Rosa Florida Qtz diorite N0° 25′ 7″ 77° 32′ 19″ 182.4 ± 0.6 0.7 0.44 12.1
Colombia
10RC02 Ibague Granite N4° 17′ 44″ 75° 12′ 12″ 164.4 ± 1.1 0.8 1.60 19.1
10RC03 Saldana fm. Rhyodacite N4° 17′ 44″ 75° 12′ 12″ 158.5 ± 1.0 1.9 1.12 15.0
10RC06 Ibague Leucogranite N4° 46′ 60″ 74° 58′ 31″ 168.8 ± 0.7 2.5 0.32 394.8
10RC07 Saldana fm. Qtz porphyry N4° 47′ 0″ 74° 58′ 31″ 146.8 ± 1.5 0.8 4.24 8.9
10RC08 Ibague Granodiorite N4° 24′ 41″ 75° 16′ 19″ 156.5 ± 1.1 0.5 3.86 18.4
10RC10 Ibague Bi granite N4° 24′ 12″ 75° 16′ 55″ 155.4 ± 2.2 3.4 3.71 23.3
10RC78 Segovia Monzogranite N6° 29′ 48″ 74° 30′ 0″ 188.9 ± 2.0 1.5 −3.69 7.2
10RC05 Ibague Diorite N4° 46′ 45″ 74° 57′ 58″ 5.3

Cretaceous volcanic arc — MORB

Ecuador
04-PR-149 Alao Paute Basalt 2.8 0.7098 1.1
09.RC-18 Alao Paute Metadacite S2° 10′ 34″ 78° 30′ 12″ 3.2 0.7033 18.9288 4.2
09.RC-19 Alao Paute Metabasalt S2° 11′ 06″ 78° 29′ 37″ 7.0 0.7044 18.8254 5.9
04-PR-184 Alao Paute Metabasalt 4.2 0.7039 18.7600 26.3
09-RC-15 Magouzo Unit Diabase S2° 04′ 24″ 78° 35′ 58″ 4.0 0.7046 18.8666 3.1
09-RC-49 Alao Paute Basalt S2° 36′ 11″ 78° 31′ 12″ 4.1 0.7066 19.4336 3.1
09-RC-21 Alao Paute Greenschist S2° 12′ 32″ 78° 23′ 24″ 0.7089 18.6381 6.2
04-PR-129 Alao Paute Basalt 1.7 0.7050 19.0404 5.6
09-RC-14 Alao Paute Dacite S2° 04′ 24″ 78° 35′ 58″ 2.8 0.7039 18.6859 16.6
09-RC-16 Magouzo Unit Basalt S2° 04′ 24″ 78° 35′ 58″ 0.6 0.7037 18.7525 7.2
09-RC-48 Alao Paute Basalt S2° 47′ 58″ 78° 46′ 10″ −0.6 0.7041 9.3
11RC07 Cuyuja Bi schist S1° 23′ 58″ 78° 20′ 58.4″
11RC13 Upano Greenschist S3° 14′ 54″ 78° 41′ 39″ 121 ± 0.8 1.4
11RC24 Upano Hb ignimbrite S2° 13′28.1″ 78° 13′ 20″
11RC25 Upano Amphibolite S2° 13′ 28″ 78° 13′ 20″
11RC29 Alao Paute Greenschist S1° 23′ 38″ 78° 25′ 33″
Colombia
10RC21 Queb. Andesite N4° 31′ 51″ 75° 35′ 52″ 5.71 0.7034 18.5709 8.7
10RC24 Queb. Basalt N4° 24′ 33″ 75° 41′ 33″ 7.63 0.7040 18.3137 2.0
10RC31 Queb. Agglomerate N5° 04′ 13″ 75° 37′ 53″ 2.65 0.7081 8.2
10RC33 Queb. Basalt N6° 22′ 24″ 75° 43′ 10″ 5.65 0.7040 18.7258 3.5
DV176 Queb. Diorite 112.9 ± 0.8 2.3
10RC47 Queb. Andesite N6° 11′ 36″ 75° 40′ 46″ 5.34 0.7042 18.7418 2.7
10RC49 Queb. Basalt N6° 10′ 18″ 75° 42′ 24″ 4.71 0.7049 18.6991 2.3
10RC52 Queb. Diabase N6° 59′ 3″ 75° 22′ 16″ 2.59 0.7056 18.6225 2.6
10RC54 Queb. Basalt N7° 02′ 2″ 75° 13′ 59″ 10.49 0.7034

Cretaceous MORB — peridotite

Ecuador
09RC39 Raspas Schist S3° 36′ 17″ 79° 52′ 57″ 1.1
PR 47 Peltetec Basalt
PR 48 Peltetec Basalt
PR 67 Peltetec Basalt
PR 68 Peltetec Basalt
PR 115 Peltetec Basalt
PR 116 Peltetec Basalt
PR 147 Peltetec Basalt
Colombia
10RC25 Arquia Serpentinite N4° 24′ 26″ 75° 42′ 14″ 0.7039 0.5
10RC26 Arquia Serpentinite N4° 22′ 47″ 75° 43′ 5″ 10.4949 0.7035 18.6362 0.7
10RC59 Arquia Gr. Amph. N4° 22′ 24″ 75° 43′ 21″ 9.3788 0.7038 18.1676 1.0
10RC61 Arquia Serpentinite N4° 18′ 51″ 75° 43′ 35″ 15.6150 0.7062 18.3972 0.2
10RC62 Arquia Gr. Schist N4° 16′ 8″ 75° 44′ 31″ 0.7
10RC63 Arquia Hornblendite N4° 16′ 4″ 75° 44′ 32″ 9.6388 0.7027 18.4651 0.4
10RC72 Arquia Amphibolite N3° 20′ 26″ 76° 10′ 8″ 3.1824 0.7039 18.8592 3.8
10RC74 Arquia Amphibolite N5° 02′ 19″ 75° 34′ 54″ 9.4363 0.7039 17.9084 0.9
10RC77 Arquia Serpentinite N5° 25′ 3″ 75° 34′ 5″ 16.8224 0.7056 18.7487 0.8

Jurassic to E. Cretaceous meta-sedimentary rocks

Ecuador
A-11RC05 Guamote inlier Quartzite N00 26′ 43″ W78 00′ 09″
D-09-RC-12 Alao Qtz sandstone S01 57′ 20″ W078 41′ 51″
 R. Cochrane et al. / Lithos 202–203 (2014) 382–394 387

Table 1 (continued)
206
Sample Unit Lithology Latitude Longitude Pb/238U MSWD εNd (87Sr/86Sr)i (206Pb/204Pb)i (La/Yb)n w.r
N–S d°m′s″ W d°m′s″ age ± 2σ (Ma) w.r ± 2σ w.r ± 2σ w.r ± 2σ
Jurassic to E. Cretaceous meta-sedimentary rocks
B-09-RC-13 Guamote Meta-greywacke S02 03′ 26″ W078 36′ 40″
F-11RC23 Salado basin Sandstone S02 15′ 0″ W78 12′ 04″
C-09-RC-17 Guamote Sandstone S02 03′ 26″ W078 36′ 40″
Colombia
10RC27 Queb. Qtz schist N5 03 13′ 26″ W75 34′ 5″

Complete major oxide and trace element data for all samples is within the supplementary Table S1.
87
Sr/86Sr 2 s.d. (ext. reproducibility) = 0.0007%; 143Nd/144Nd = b0.0005%; 206Pb/204Pb = 0.12%.
Ehf data for all samples are listed in Table S3.
Data for DV 129, 132, 137, 138, and 176 is included in the supplementary Tables S2 and S3. Sample coordinates can be found in Villagomez (2010).

and re-dissolved in 3 ml of 15 M HNO3 before being dried down again.
Sr–Nd–Pb chemical separation was achieved following the methods in
Pin and Zalduegui (1997) and Chiaradia et al. (2011). Pb, Sr and Nd iso-
tope ratios were measured on a Thermo TRITON mass spectrometer
housed at the University of Geneva, Switzerland. Pb was loaded on Re
filaments using the silica gel technique (Gerstenberger and Haase,
1997) and all samples (and standards) were measured with Faraday
cups in static mode at a pyrometer-controlled temperature of 1220 °C.
Pb isotope ratios were corrected for instrumental fractionation by a fac-
tor of 0.07% per amu based on more than 90 measurements of the
SRM981 standard, and using the standard values of Todt et al. (1996).
External reproducibility of the standard ratios are 0.08% for 206Pb/
204
Pb, 0.12% for 207Pb/204Pb and 0.16% for 208Pb/204Pb. Sr was loaded
on single Re filaments with a Ta oxide solution and measured in static
mode at a pyrometer-controlled temperature of 1480 °C using the virtu-
al amplifier design to cancel out biases in gain calibration among ampli-
fiers. 87Sr/86Sr values were internally corrected for fractionation using a
88
Sr/86Sr value of 8.375209. Raw values were further corrected for ex-
ternal fractionation by a value of + 0.03‰, determined by repeated
measurements of the SRM987 standard (87Sr/86Sr = 0.710248). Exter-
nal reproducibility of the 87Sr/86Sr ratio for the SRM987 standard is 7
ppm. Nd was loaded on double Re filaments with 1 M HNO3 and mea-
sured in static mode with the virtual amplifier design. 143Nd/144Nd
values were internally corrected for fractionation using a 146Nd/144Nd
value of 0.7219 and the 144Sm interference on 144Nd was monitored
on the mass 147Sm and corrected by using a 144Sm/147Sm value of

CHAUCHA TERRANE ALAO-QUEBRADAGRANDE ARC SALADO TERRANE

7 Sandstone (Ecuador) F
8 A Quartzite 6 D Sandstone (Colombia)
6 Youngest single zircon:
Youngest single Youngest single zircon: 143.3±9.9 Ma
Silvia-Pijao Fault

5 5
6 zircon: 157.9±7.3 149.2±6.1 Ma N = 59
N = 58 4 N = 50 4
4 3 3
2 2 2
1 1
Llanganates Fault

0 0
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
2700
14 Age (Ma)
12 B Quartzite
12 E Sandstone (Ecuador)
10 Youngest single Youngest single zircon:
zircon: 168.8±2.2 Ma 10 163.7±1.6 Ma
8 N = 94 8 N = 58
6 6
4 4
Peltetec Fault

2 2
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
2700
3000

Age (Ma)
C Quartzite
12
Youngest single
10 zircon: 155±6.1 Ma
8 N = 110
6
4
2
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
2700

Age (Ma)

Fig. 3. Detrital zircon 206Pb/238U age distributions for meta-sedimentary sequences of north-western South America. These samples (A–F: Fig. 1) were previously interpreted to be derived
from independent terranes that are now separated by sutures (Litherland et al., 1994; Villagomez et al., 2011), although they yield similar age distributions and the youngest ages obtained
from each sample are similar (~143–169 Ma). This similarity suggests that the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous sedimentary sequences within the sampled cordilleras were derived from the
same source regions, supporting an autochthonous model (Pratt et al., 2005) for the evolution of north-western South America.
388 R. Cochrane et al. / Lithos 202–203 (2014) 382–394

0.206700. These values were further corrected for external fractionation 3.2. LA-ICP-MS U–Pb geochronology
by a value of + 0.03‰, determined by repeated measurements of the
JNdi-1 standard (143Nd/144Nd = 0.512115; Tanaka et al., 2000). Exter- U–Pb Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Mass Spectrometry
nal reproducibility of the JNdi-1 standard is b 5 ppm. (LA-ICP-MS) isotopic data was collected from twenty three granitoids,

45 Jurassic - Cretaceous
A Arquia Complex
Ultramafic rocks Colombia Ecuador
40 Arquia Complex Peltetec melange
Quebradagrande Complex Alao Paute related
35
Zamora, Azafran, Chingual,
Ibague Batholith
Te

Abitagua, Rosa Florida related

30
m
po
ra
MgO (wt %)

le

25
vo
lu
tio

20
n

Peltetec, Arquia units

15 Meta-gabbro

10
Ibague, Zamora Batholiths
5 Quebradagrande,
Alao Paute and Salado units Granitoids
basaltic-andesite
0
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
SiO2(wt %)

10000 Shosonitic
B C
1000 4 High-K
Calc-alkaline
K2O(wt %)
Ni (ppm)

100 3

10 2 Calc-alkaline

1 1
Tholeiitic
0.1 0
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
SiO2(wt %) SiO2(wt %)
Normalized to NMORB

Cretaceous MORB - peridotite Cretaceous volcanic arc - MORB Jurassic - E. Cretaceous arc plutons
100 Raspas, Ecuador Ecuador
D Arquia, Colombia
Alao Paute, Ecuador
Colombia
10 Quebradagrande, Colombia

0.1

0.01
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Yb Lu La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Yb Lu La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Yb Lu

1000 20
E 15 F G
18.0
10
εNdi

100
5
206Pb/204Pbi

0 18.4
La/Yb

10 -5
-10
0.702 0.704 0.706 0.708 0.710 18.8
1 N-MORB 87Sr/86Sri

19.2
0.1
-5 0 5 10 15
19.6
εNdi 37.0 38.0 39.0
208Pb/204Pbi
 R. Cochrane et al. / Lithos 202–203 (2014) 382–394 389

volcanic rocks and 6 meta-sedimentary rocks within the Eastern Cordille-
ra of Ecuador and the Central Cordillera of Colombia (Table S2). Zircon
was extracted from the samples using conventional crushing, and
magnetic and heavy liquid separation techniques. Clean, crack and
inclusion-free zircons from magmatic rocks were mounted in epoxy,
polished to reveal their inner volumes and imaged using a CamScan
MV2300 scanning electron microscope. Detrital zircons (50–110 per sam-
ple) were picked randomly and similarly mounted, polished and imaged.
Zircons were ablated with a NewWave UP-193 ArF excimer ablation
system using the following parameters: 35 μm diameter beam size, 5 Hz
repetition rate, 30–45 second signal and a beam intensity of 2.2–2.5 J/
cm2. Isotopic ratios were measured using a Thermo Scientific Element
XR. The GEMOC GJ-1 (CA-ID-TIMS 206Pb–238U age of 600.5 ± 0.4 Ma;
Boekhout et al., 2012) was used as a primary standard. External reference
standards used to calibrate and monitor fractionation and consistency in
the measured U–Pb dates were either Harvard 91500 (1065.4 ±
0.3 Ma; Wiedenbeck et al., 1995) zircon, or Plešovice (337.13 ±
0.37 Ma; Sláma et al., 2008) zircon. Dates were calculated using
LAMTRACE (Jackson, 2008), and additional data reduction details can be
found in Ulianov et al. (2012). Statistical analyses of magmatic
zircon data were performed using Isoplot 3.71 (Ludwig, 2003). All discor-
dant (N1–3%) analyses of magmatic zircons were discarded. Statistical
analyses of detrital zircons collected from meta-sedimentary rocks were
performed using Age Display, an excel macro. Only zircons with concor-
dance greater than 90% were accepted and plotted.
3.3. LA-MC-ICP-MS Hf isotope geochemistry
In-situ 176Hf/177Hf measurements were made on twenty two mag-
matic rocks of which the same zircons (N 250 crystals) were previously
dated (U–Pb) using the LA-ICP-MS method. This permitted distinction
between inherited and/or xenocrystic regions and magmatic growth
zones of which the latter was the focus. Hf isotopic analyses were
collected at the Goethe Frankfurt University using a Thermo-Finnigan
Neptune multi-collector ICP-MS coupled to a RESOlution M50 193 nm
ArF Excimer (Resonetics) laser system following previously described
(Gerdes and Zeh, 2006, 2009) methods. Zircon domains corresponding
to their measured 238U/206Pb age were ablated for 39 s with a spot
size of 32–40 μm, using a 5.5 Hz repetition rate and a corresponding
laser energy density on a sample of ~6 J/cm2. All zircon analyses were
reduced relative to the 176Hf/177Hf composition of JMC 475 (0.282160;
Table S3). Repeated analyses of the JMC 475 yielded a 176Hf/177Hf of
0.282161 (perfectly in line with Cochrane et al., 2014b). Accuracy and
external reproducibility of the method was verified by repeated analy-
ses of reference zircon GJ-1 and Plešovice, which yielded a 176Hf/177Hf
of 0.282013 ± 0.000024 (2 SD, n = 20) and 0.0282484 ±0.000019 (n
= 20), respectively. This is in perfect agreement with the long-term
LA-MC-ICPMS average of GJ-1 (0.282010 ± 0.000025; n = 800) and
Plešovice (0.282478 ± 0.000025, n = 450) reference zircon at Goethe
Frankfurt University
4. Results
4.1. Zircon U–Pb geochronology and Hf isotope geochemistry
U–Pb LA-ICP-MS zircon ages have been obtained from twenty two
intrusive and volcanic rocks from within the Eastern Cordillera of
Ecuador and the Central Cordillera of Colombia (Figs. 1 and 2;
Table 1). The ages reveal a period of almost continuous magma genera-
tion and crystallization during ~189–113 Ma. These crystallization ages
show a westward, semi-continuous younging trend, from the unfoliated
Jurassic arc, crossing foliated granitoid intrusions within the Salado Ter-
rane and volcanic rocks of the Alao and Quebradagrande arcs (Fig. 2).
The Hf isotopic compositions acquired from the same zircons that
were dated yield initial εHfi values that range from ~ − 4 to + 12.2.
The εHfi values correlate negatively with 206Pb/238U crystallization
ages, and thus they gradually increase traversing oceanward from the
Jurassic arc towards the Peltetec Fault (Fig. 2). This trend indicates
that the proportion of juvenile input in the magmas increased with
time, from 188.9 ± 2.0 to 112.8 ± 0.58 Ma, and increased along an
oceanward directed trend. These data were obtained from the major Ju-
rassic–Early Cretaceous batholiths and volcanic units that are exposed
within the Eastern (Ecuador) and Central (Colombia) cordilleras
(Fig. 1; Table S1). Complete concordia plots for all analyses are available
in supplementary Figs. S1 (Ecuador) and S2 (Colombia), and U–Pb
LA-ICP-MS and Hf multi-collector (MC)-ICP-MS data are tabulated in
Tables S2 and S3.
U–Pb LA-ICP-MS isotopic data have also been acquired from detrital
zircons extracted from six meta-sedimentary rocks from the Eastern
Cordillera of Ecuador and the Central Cordillera of Colombia (Figs. 1
and 3). Meta-arenites collected from different locations within the sus-
pect Chaucha Terrane reveal highly reproducible age distributions,
which range from ~ 3.0 Ga to ~ 155 Ma. Prominent age (206Pb/238U)
peaks occur at 600–500 Ma (Braziliano Orogen) and 1.2–1.0 Ga (Sunsas
Orogen), and mixed inputs are recorded from sources older than 1.2 Ga
(Gombojav and Winkler, 2008). The youngest zircons obtained from the
Guamote Terrane, which is interpreted to be located to the west of an
Early Cretaceous suture zone (Litherland et al., 1994), yield Late Jurassic
ages, which constrains their maximum depositional age. Similar age
distributions are found in i) sandstones of the Quebradagrande Complex
(Fig. 3) of the Central Cordillera of Colombia (Fig. 1), and ii) meta-
sedimentary rocks of the Salado and Alao terranes (Fig. 3), which are lo-
cated to the east of the Peltetec suture zone in Ecuador, and are bound
by strike-slip faults. This close correlation suggests that all of the
Jurassic–Early Cretaceous sedimentary sequences within the cordilleras
were derived from the same source regions. Further evidence
supporting this includes i) the presence of blue quartz in siliciclasic sed-
imentary rocks of the Guamote Sequence, and within Early Cretaceous
sedimentary rocks of the Hollin formation, which are now exposed in
the Amazon Foreland Basin. This supports the notion that both flanks
of the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador (and its equivalent in Colombia)
shared a common Cretaceous history (e.g. Pratt et al., 2005).

Fig. 4. Whole rock geochemistry for Jurassic–Early Cretaceous magmatic rocks of the Eastern (Ecuador) and Central (Colombia) Cordilleras. Early Jurassic–Early Cretaceous plutonic rocks
are shaded in gray, Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks are shaded in red and Early Cretaceous mafic to ultramafic rocks of the Peltetec and Arquia units are shaded in green. The
relationship between SiO2 and MgO (A) reveals a temporal trend from Early Jurassic evolved felsic rocks to Cretaceous ultramafic rocks. Similarly, Ni systematically increases while SiO2
and K2O decrease from Jurassic granitoids to Cretaceous ultramafic rocks (B, C). REE trends (D) show that the evolved, Early Jurassic granitoids are enriched in light REE (5–20 times) rel-
ative to N-MORB (Sun and McDonough, 1989), which is consistent with arc-related granitoids. The geochemically primitive Jurassic to Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks (Alao–
Quebradagrande arc) located further to the west have a variable but lower degree of LREE enrichment (b1–9 times) relative to N-MORB, which is more consistent with both primitive
arc and MORB. The Cretaceous mafic–ultramafic rocks of the poorly defined Peltetec Unit, and related rocks in Colombia (the Arquia Complex) yield two distinct REE signatures, which
are i) depleted to partially enriched LREE compositions (~0.5–3 times), consistent with N-MORB to E-MORB, and ii) extreme light, middle and heavy REE depletion (0.01–0.1 times;
La/Yb ~0.1–1), consistent with highly depleted mantle. Whole rock εNdi for the evolved plutonic rocks (gray shaded area) is estimated using εHfi (zircon) = 1.4εNd + 1.6 (Vervoort
and Jonathan Patchett, 1996), using measured weighted average zircon εHfi values from Fig. 2. Finally, La/Yb and εNdi vary systematically with respect to time and distance from the
Early Cretaceous suture, where Early Jurassic plutonic rocks yield the highest La/Yb values (N10–100) and the lowest εNdi values (b0), and the increasingly primitive La/Yb values
(~0.1) accompany increasingly juvenile εNdi values (~+17) within the Early Cretaceous ultramafic suture. Two chromite bearing ultramafic rocks exposed on the western flank (Arquia
suture) of the Central Cordillera in Colombia yield εNdi values of +15–17, which is consistent with depleted mantle isotopic compositions. Similarly, Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic signatures display
similar younging and spatial depletion trends (f, g).
390 R. Cochrane et al. / Lithos 202–203 (2014) 382–394
4.2. Whole rock geochemistry: major oxide, trace element, REE and
Sr–Nd–Pb isotopes
The whole rock major oxide, trace element and Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic
compositions of sixty one magmatic rocks of the Eastern (Ecuador)
and Central (Colombia) cordillera (Fig. 4; Table S1) have been
determined. Temporal relationships and the distance from the Early
Cretaceous suture (Peltetec Fault; Fig. 2) have been used to divide the
magmatic rocks into three groups (Fig. 4), which are i) the most distal
Early Jurassic–Early Cretaceous continental arc plutons (e.g. Abitagua
and Ibague batholiths), ii) Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous volcanic
rocks (e.g. Alao, Upano and Quebradagrande units), and iii) the Early
Cretaceous mafic–ultramafic mélange (Peltetec–Arquia suture).
Whole rock geochemical data reveals systematic temporal and spa-
tial trends (Fig. 4). The oldest Jurassic intrusions (e.g. Segovia Batholith;
Fig. 1) are located furthest from the Early Cretaceous suture and are the
most geochemically evolved. The magmatic rocks become progressively
younger towards the suture, and contain progressively lower propor-
tions of large ion lithophile elements and light rare earth elements
(LREE). Similarly, the Pb, Nd and Sr isotopic compositions reveal an in-
creased juvenile magmatic component in progressively younger rocks,
traversing westwards. These trends are consistent with Hf isotopic
data (Fig. 2A–C), and demonstrate that oceanward younging and deple-
tion in incompatible trace elements were accompanied by an increased
proportion of juvenile mass within the crystallizing magma from the
Early Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous.
5. Discussion
5.1. Accretionary versus in-situ growth of the north-western South
American margin
Evolution of a continental margin by the accretion of allochthonous
crust will result in a different spatial arrangement of igneous rocks and
isotopic variations compared to growth of the margin by in-situ, mag-
matic addition. Here we utilize our data to determine which mechanism
operated during the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous along north-western
South America.
Systematic major oxide, REE and Hf–Nd–Sr–Pb isotopic variations
occur from incompatible trace element-enriched and isotopically
evolved ~ 190 Ma arc rocks to depleted, Early Cretaceous ultramafic
rocks. This depletion trend coincides geographically with an east-to-
west (trenchward) younging direction (Fig. 2B). It is unlikely
that these gradual, but consistent geochronological, isotopic and
geochemical trends are a consequence of the accretion of an island arc
(Litherland et al., 1994; Toussaint and Restrepo, 1994).
Allochthonous growth of the continental margin would yield
step-wise jumps in age and isotopic composition as successive terranes
accrete outboard of the previous terrane (e.g. Öhlander et al., 1993).
Rather, the westward younging and geochemical depletion trend is con-
sistent with trenchward migration of the arc-axis (Kemp et al., 2009),
where the crust progressively thins towards the arc during continental
rifting (Harper, 2003).
Additional evidence for in-situ evolution of the margin includes i) ap-
atite U–Pb (Cochrane et al., 2014a) thermal history solutions of the Trias-
sic basement of the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador, which reveal a period of
reheating and basin in-filling during 145–80 Ma that is consistent with
intra-arc extension, ii) detrital zircon 206Pb/238U ages that range between
~163 Ma and 2.4 Ga from meta-turbidites intercalated between the volca-
nic rocks of the Alao Arc, suggesting that this sequence formed proximal
to continental crust of South America, and iii) the similarity in the U–Pb
ages of detrital zircons along a trench parallel distance of 800 km, and
across previously proposed sutures (Litherland et al., 1994) (Fig. 3),
which is typical for sedimentary sequences found within the Amazon
Foreland Basin (Gombojav and Winkler, 2008).
A similar lithological trend is exposed along the ‘craton-free’ zone of
coastal Peru, west of the Marañon Lineament (Fig. 1). Trenchward arc-
axis migration during the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous accompanied
extension, resulting in Albian–Aptian basaltic dyke swarms, continental
rifting and the emplacement of the isotopically juvenile (eNdi
~ + 5.2–+ 7.5; De Haller et al., 2006) Coastal Batholith (Boekhout
et al., 2012; Haederle and Atherton, 2002).
5.2. Autochthonous evolution, the opening of the Alao–Salado seaway and
separation of the Chaucha Terrane
Plate convergence factors, slab angle and sediment loading in the
trench can affect the rates of volcanic arc migration, although identifying
the exact physical processes that acted in Ecuador is beyond the scope of
this study. Rather, we use the geochemical and geochronological data to
distinguish between allochthonous evolution and autochthonous evolu-
tion of the margin, and to identify periods of extension and compression.
Our model (Fig. 5) envisages prolonged rollback of the Pacific slab and
westward migration of the arc-axis, which progressively thinned the
continental crust and created a marginal basin where depleted mantle-
derived rocks were exhumed and continental slivers were separated.
Closure of this basin drove deformation, and rock and surface uplift,
forming a proto-Cordillera.
East-dipping subduction started as early as ~213 Ma, forming isoto-
pically enriched granites exposed in the Merida Andes of Venezuela
(Van der Lelij, 2013). Within the Central (Colombia) and Eastern
(Ecuador) cordilleras the earliest arc magmatism (Segovia Batholith;
Figs. 1, 2) yields an age of ~ 190 Ma. Isotopic and geochronological
data from this study suggests that the margin underwent prolonged
extension and trenchward arc–axis migration from ~ 190 to 115 Ma
(Fig. 2), which is consistent with contemporaneous syn-rift sedimenta-
tion within the Magdalena Valley (Fig. 1) of Colombia (Cooper et al.,
1995). These findings are consistent with previous studies (e.g. Cooper
et al., 1995; Pindell and Dewey, 1982) which document a semi-
continuous extensional regime throughout the Jurassic in the Northern
Andes.
The Cosanga Fault, which is exposed along the eastern flank of the
Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador (Fig. 2) probably represents the eastern
limit of a Latest Jurassic to Early Cretaceous marginal basin (Pratt
et al., 2005), which formed during this prolonged period of extension.
Early Cretaceous foliated granites and volcanic rocks, and metamor-
phosed sedimentary rocks are currently exposed within the basin. The
magmatic and volcanic rocks are isotopically juvenile and are
interpreted to have formed during the opening of a north–south
trending seaway (previously referred to as the “Colombian Marginal
Seaway”; Pindell and Kennan, 2009) which we refer to interchangeably
as the Alao–Salado marginal seaway) during the latest Jurassic and early
Cretaceous. MORB pillow lavas (Quebradagrande Complex, Colombia)
within this marginal sea formed during the same period as: i) the exhu-
mation of chromite bearing ultramafic rocks (Arquia Complex:
Villagomez and Spikings, 2013), ii) the deposition of intra-rift Albian–
Aptian marine carbonates and sedimentary sequences (Nivia et al.,
2006), and iii) rifting in Peru (Atherton, 1990), which resulted in crustal
thinning and the emplacement of Albian basaltic dyke swarms and the
Coastal Batholith (Haederle and Atherton, 2002). However, it is likely
that some regions of the margin did not extend sufficiently to detach
para-autochthonous slivers of crust. These areas (e.g. Raspas Complex,
SW Ecuador) host HP complexes and probably represent remnants of
obducted subduction mélange zones (e.g. John et al., 2010; Villagomez
and Spikings, 2013).
South America migrated westward during the Early Cretaceous
(~115–105 Ma; Torsvik et al., 2009), which closed the seaway, accreted
para-autochthonous crust in some locations (including the Guamote
sequence or Chaucha Terrane), and obducted oceanic crust and possibly
mantle peridotites. The obduction of these units formed the Peltetec,
Raspas and Arquia complexes (Figs. 1, 2; Villagomez and Spikings,
 R. Cochrane et al. / Lithos 202–203 (2014) 382–394 391

A
190 - 160 Ma NW Gondwana
Pacific subduction initiates
and slab rollback commences Plutonism and volcanism.
Intra - Arc extension

Oceanic crust
Moho
Lithosphere

Asthenosphere

B
160 - 115 Ma NW Gondwana
Westward migration of arc-axis,
Magmatic younging
attenuation of the crust and extrusion
of mafic lavas into the Salado basin
and the Quebradagrande-Alao arc, Thinned crust
culminating in the formation of oceanic crust

Moho
Arc-Axis
Migration

C
115 - 105 Ma Rock and surface NW South America
Opening of Central Atlantic uplift, amagmatic
drives westward migration of
South America. Basin closure
and orogenesis.

Moho

Fig. 5. Early Jurassic to Early Cretaceous schematic tectonic reconstruction of north-western South America. A: East-dipping subduction may have started as early as ~213 Ma, forming
granites exposed in the Merida Andes of Venezuela (Van der Lelij, 2013). The oldest arc rocks found within the Central (Colombia) and Eastern (Ecuador) cordilleras, crystallized at
~190 Ma. Isotopic data from this study suggests that the margin underwent semi-continual extension and trenchward arc-axis migration from ~190–160 Ma, which is consistent with
syn-rift sedimentation within the Magdalena Valley (Fig. 1) of Colombia (Cooper et al., 1995). B: During ~160–115 Ma, the arc axis migrated further westward, extending and thinning
the continental crust, which resulted in the emplacement of isotopically juvenile magmatic and volcanic rocks during the opening of a north–south trending seaway (which we refer
to as the Alao–Salado marginal seaway). C: South America migrated westward during the Early Cretaceous (~115–105 Ma; Torsvik et al., 2009), which closed the seaway, accreted
para-autochthonous crust that includes the Guamote sequence, and obducted recently formed oceanic crust and possibly mantle peridotites. The obduction of these units formed the
Peltetec and Arquia complexes (Villagomez and Spikings, 2013). This basin closure event gave rise to a widespread Aptian–Albian angular unconformity within the Amazon Foreland
Basin in north-western South America (Gombojav and Winkler, 2008). In other parts of the margin (e.g. SW Ecuador; Raspas Complex), extension did not result in the removal of
para-autochthonous units (i.e. Guamote) and resulted in extension of the arc and in some cases the creation of HP subduction mélanges (e.g. John et al., 2010).

2013), which may (e.g. Raspas Complex) partly represent an exhumed
subduction channel. This basin closure event gave rise to a widespread
Aptian–Albian angular unconformity within the Amazon Foreland
Basin in north-western South America (Gombojav and Winkler, 2008).
The Early Cretaceous retro-foreland basin sequences (e.g. Hollin
formation; Ecuador, and equivalent sequences in Colombia; e.g. Yavi
formation) are interpreted to have been partly sourced from the rising
proto cordillera (Gombojav & Winkler, 2008), which formed during
the closure of the Alao–Salado marginal seaway.
5.3. Crustal growth and preservation in Ecuador and Colombia
Various authors (e.g. Clift et al., 2009; Scholl and Von Huene, 2007)
argue that subduction erosion, which typically occurs in rapidly
392 R. Cochrane et al. / Lithos 202–203 (2014) 382–394
End member estimates
DM UCC Average
Hf(ppm) 2.31 5.12
εHfi 17 -10
20
Depleted mantle (DM)
15
80%
10
5
εHfi
0
-5
-10
-15
2 3
Fig. 6. Utilizing Hf data collected in this study, and a binary source isotopic model for determining the percentage of juvenile crustal addition (Mišković and Schaltegger, 2009), we calculate
that ~20% of magmatism was juvenile at ~190 Ma, ~80% at ~113 Ma, and ~60% during 190–113 Ma. We have utilized the methodology of Mišković and Schaltegger (2009) and estimated
end member absolute concentrations of Hf within i) continental crust (Gao et al., 1998) and ii) depleted mantle (Kelemen et al., 2003). With these data we have estimated the crustal mass
contribution to the melt from which a zircon crystallized through mixing equations.
convergent, sediment starved trenches, offsets the mass contribution of
juvenile magmatism at continental arcs and thus additional oceanic ac-
cretion is required to balance, or generate net growth of the continental
crust. Here we estimate the volume of juvenile crust that was created
during the opening of the Alao–Quebradagrande Basin (190–113 Ma)
in NW South America, and discuss how the allochthonous Caribbean
Large Igneous Province (e.g. Kerr et al., 2002; Vallejo et al., 2009) may
have preserved the continental crust which formed prior to its accretion
during the Campanian (Vallejo et al., 2006).
Utilizing Hf data collected in this study, and a binary source isotopic
model for determining the percentage of juvenile crustal addition
(Mišković and Schaltegger, 2009), we calculate that ~20% of magmatism
was juvenile at ~190 Ma, ~80% at ~113 Ma, and ~60% during 190–113 Ma
(Fig. 6). Estimates of the volume of continental crust that was created
have been made using i) a strike length of 1500 km for the locus of exten-
sion along north-western South America, ii) a basin width of 60 km (e.g.
Taupo Volcanic zone; Wilson et al., 1995) to 150 km, iii) an average
thickness of attenuated crust of 25–35 km, and iv) assumptions that
50% of the existing crust is composed of intruded mafic sills and dykes,
and 60% of the intruded mafic magma derives from the mantle (Fig. 6).
These criteria estimate that ~675,000 to 2,362,500 km3 of juvenile crust
were added to north-western South America during 77 Ma of extension.
Clearly, the uncertainties attached to these volumes are large and we
are unable to estimate the volume of addition to the base of the crust by
underplating processes (Stern and Scholl, 2010).
The magmatic addition of ~675,000 to 2,362,500 km3 over a period
of 77 Ma of extension yields an average minimum rate of ~ 5.5 to
20.5 km3/Ma/per km strike of margin. This figure is similar to estimates
for juvenile addition of crust in the Peruvian Coastal Batholith
(8 km3/Ma/km of strike; Atherton and Petford, 1996). North-western
Peru experienced a similar cycle of juvenile magmatism to that found
along the margins of Ecuador and Colombia, although large tracts of
late Jurassic to early Cretaceous Peruvian magmatic rocks have subse-
quently been removed by lateral translation (Bayona et al., 2006),
subduction erosion (Boekhout et al., 2012; Clift and Vannucchi, 2004)
or a combination of both. Some estimates (Stern, 2011) suggest that
over 250 km of crust has been lost laterally from southern Peru since
150 Ma due to subduction erosion. This has resulted in Peruvian Late Ju-
rassic–Early Cretaceous lithologies being situated on the coast, while
similar lithologies (Alao–Quebradagrande Arc) within Ecuador and
Colombia occur 300–400 km east of the present day trench (Fig. 1).
% juvenile input
80 60 40 20
3.44 2.87 3.43 4.00 4.56
5.83 11.60 6.20 0.80 -4.60
Average percentage of juvenile
addition during 190-113 My extension
60%
40%
20%
Upper continental
crust (UCC)
4 5 6
Hf (ppm)
Preservation of large sections of the Jurassic–Cretaceous arc rocks
within the Northern Andes occurred because they were shielded from
tectonic erosion by the Caribbean Large Igneous Province, which accret-
ed a minimum of 5,625,000 to 9,375,000 km3 (1500 km length, 250 km
width, 15–25 km thickness) of crust onto north-western South America
at 75–73 Ma (Spikings et al., 2010; Vallejo et al., 2006; Vallejo et al.,
2009). Allochthons of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province now form
the basement of the Western Cordillera and coastal plains of Ecuador
and Colombia (Fig. 1), and their volume compensates for the loss of
continental crust during the Cretaceous and Tertiary.
6. Conclusions
The continental margin of north-western South America evolved
in-situ during 190–105 Ma, and underwent a prolonged period of ex-
tension and attenuation of the crust during 190–115 Ma, followed by
compression of the weakened and hot crust during 115–105 Ma. This
interpretation differs from previous models that invoke an allochtho-
nous origin (Litherland et al., 1994) and suggest that the magmatic
arcs formed on oceanic crust and were separated from South America
by a subduction zone. This study highlights i) that in the absence of a
highly resolved temporal framework and isotopic and geochemical
data, distinguishing between allochthonous and in-situ evolution of
continental margins can be ambiguous, and ii) the importance of
accreted oceanic plateaus for both the preservation of continental arcs
(Cawood et al., 2009), and their contribution to the volume balance of
the continental crust.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2014.05.031.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful for the assistance of Bernado Beate, Roelant
Van der Lelij, Jaime Corredor and Luis Eduardo López during the
field work in Colombia and Ecuador. The authors are grateful for supple-
mentary samples provided by Diego Villagomez. The manuscript
benefited from two anonymous reviews. Funds for the project were
provided to RS by the Swiss National Science Foundation (fund
200020_134443).
 R. Cochrane et al. / Lithos 202–203 (2014) 382–394
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