AE6702- EXPERIMENTAL STREES ANALYSIS

REGULATION 2013
QUESTION BANK
UNIT-1

EXTENSOMETERS AND DISPLACEMENT SENSORS

PART-A

1. Define Measurement:

The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or result of

comparison between a quantity whose magnitude (amount) is unknown, with a
similar quantity whose magnitude (amount) is known, the later quantity being
called a standard.

2. What are the basic requirements for measurement?

(i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined
& should be commonly acceptable.

(ii) The standard must be of the same character as the measure and (ie, the
unknown quantity or the quantity under measurement)

(iii) The apparatus used and the method accepted for the purposes of
comparison must be provable.

3. What are the methods of measurements?

(i) Direct Method: In these methods, MEASURAND is directly compared

against a standard.

(ii) Indirect Method: Measuring systems are used in indirect methods for
measurement purposes.
4. What are the uses of measuring instruments?

Measurements involve the use of ‘instruments’ as a physical means of

determining quantities (or) variables. In simple cases, an instrument consists of
a single unit which gives an output reading or signal according to the unknown
variable (MEASURAND) applied to it.

5. What is dimensional measurement?

Dimensional Measurements are characterized as determination of size of

an object.These are the measurements of dimensions of an object.

6. Explain the measurements of length and displacement:

A displacement means the movements of a point with respect to another

point. Generally length (or change in length) means it referring a distance
between two reference points.Thus measurement of length includes both the
dimensional measurement and the displacement measurement.

7. What are the ‘STANDARD’S for the measurement of an angle?

The primary standards of angle may be taken either as angle subtended by

a circle at its centre ie, 360° or as angle between two straight line intersecting in
a manner such that all four angles so formed are equal, ie, each angle is 90°.

8. How we can measure the Area of survey plats?

Measurement of area of regular and standard geometrical figures can be

obtained from the dimensions using standard mathematical relationships.There
are many engineering applications which require the measurement of plane
area.Graphical determination of the area of survey plots form maps, the
integration of function to determine the area enclosed by a curve analysis of
experimental data may require the use of measurement of plane area.

9. Give any two methods for measure an unknown force:

 An unknown force may be measured by the following methods,

1. Balancing the unknown force against the known gravitational force either
directly

(or) indirectly using a system of levers.

2. Transferring the unknown force to a fluid pressure and then meaning the
resulting

fluid pressure. Hydraulic and Pneumatic load cells are used for transferring the

force into pressure.

10. How we can measure the temperature changes?

Temperature is not measured directly, but is measured through indirect

means; change of temperature of a substance causes a variety of effects. These
effects may be physical,chemical, electrical (or) optical and they may be used
for the measurement of temperature through use of proper temperature sensing
devices.

11. Tell some thing about ‘static characteristics’ and ‘static calibration’ in
measurements:

‘Static characteristics’ of a measurement system are in general those that

must be considered when the system or instrument is used to measure a
condition not varying with time. All the static performance characteristics are
obtained in one form or another by a process called’ static calibration’

12. What is accuracy and tell about point accuracy?

Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches

the true value of the quantity being measured. Thus accuracy of a measurement
means conformity to truth.‘Point Accuracy’ is the accuracy of the instrument
only at one point on it scale.

13. Give the Type of errors in measurements

(i) Gross errors

(ii) Random errors

(iii) systematic errors

- Instrumental errors

- Environmental errors

- Observational errors

14. Differentiate Gross error and Instrumental Error

Gross errors mainly cover human mistakes in reading instruments and

recording and calculating measurement results.Instrumental Error occurs due to
the wrong adjustments of a measuring devices while it construction or
misalignments of its pats.

15. Differentiate environmental and systematic errors

Environmental errors causes due to the surrounding condition of

instruments, but systematic errors causes because of the fault of the arrangement
of measuring system during the whole measuring process.

16. What absolute static error? Give example

Absolute static error is the difference between measured values of

quantity and the true value of quantity. ie, Eo= X(m) – X(t)
Example: an error of 2mm is negligible when the length being measured is of
the

order of ( 1000 mm) 1 m but the same error of 12 mm may be considerable

when the

measurement of 10mm length.

17. What is relative static error?

It is the ratio between absolute error to the true value of quantity

ie, Er= Eo/Xt

18. What is static correction?

Static correction is the negative value of absolute static error ie, Cs= -Eo

19. A meter reads 127.50V and the true value of the voltage is 127.43v.

Determine (a) static error and (b) static correction for this instrument.

Sol: (a) static error (E0) = Xm- Xt = + 0.07V

(b) static correction (Cs)= – Eo= -0.07V

20. A thermometer reads 95.45 0c and the static correction given in the

correction curve is – 0.08 0c Determine the true value of the temperature

Sol: Cs= - ( Xm- Xt) ie, Xt= Cs + Xm = -0.08 + 95.45 = 95.37 °C

21. An inclined Limb manometer is used for measurement of flow rate reads

0.161 x 10- ³m³/s. The true value of flow rate is 0.159 x 10-³ m³/s.
Determine (a)

static error (b) static correction.

 Sol: Eo= Xm – Xt = ( 0.61- 0.15) x 10-³ = 0.002 x 10-³ m³/s

22. What do you mean by limiting errors?

The limits of the deviations from the specified values of measurement

datas are

defined as ‘Limiting errors’ (or) ‘Guarantee error’

23. Determine relative limiting error:

The relative error (fractional error) is defined as the ratio of the error to
the specified magnitude (nominal magnitude) of a quantity.

24. What is an uncertainty in a measurement?

Uncertainty of measurement is a parameter associated with the result of

measurement, that characterizes the dispersion of values that could be

reasonably

attributed to the measurand.

25. Define static sensitivity

The static sensitivity of an instrument or an instrumentation system is the

ratio of the magnitude of the output quantity to the magnitude of input quantity
being measured.

26. What is known as deflection factor?

 Deflection factor or inverse sensitivity is the reciprocal of the static
sensitivity.

27. Define scale range:

The scale range of an instrument is defined as the difference between the

largest and the smallest reading of the instruments.

28. What is the frequency range in measurements?

Frequency range is defined as frequency over which measurements can

be performed with a specified degree of accuracy.

29. What is extensometer?

Extensometer is an instrument used top measure minute deformation of

material while it is subjected to a stress.

30. Classify the extensometers depending upon the magnification systems.

1. Mechanical Extensometers

2. Optical extensometers

3. Acoustical (Vibrating wire) extensometers

4. Electrical extensometers

5. Pneumatic extensometers.

31. What are the Basic Requirements of extensometer?

1. Very high magnification:The magnification required is usually greater

than 1000: 1

2. Sensitivity: The relation between input and output should not be

affected
 by the reversal in the direction of input and this requires that the
movement

should not have any friction.

3. Low input force: The input force required to cause displacement should
be

extremely small thus there is no defamation of the component due to

the process of measurement.

32. Classify the mechanical extensometers depending upon the manner of

obtaining the magnification.

1. Wedge magnification

2. Screw magnification

3. Compound magnification

4. Lever magnification

33. Give the disadvantages of a simple mechanical lever magnification

For strain measurements on inner surfaces of small structures, the

clearance may be in sufficient for the gauge and all its auxiliary equipment.

34. Give the magnification and gauge length of porter- Lipp strain gauge.

Gauge length is 25 mm

Magnification is 300 times

35. Give the advantages of porter- Lipp gauge

1. Very compact
 2. Light weight

36. Give the magnification capacity & gaugelength of Huggen-Berger

tensometer

The magnification may vary from 300 to 2000 depending upon the
model. The gauge length varies from 12.5 to 25 mm.

37. What is the measurement capacity of C.E. John extensometer?

C.E. Johnson extensometer can measure strain up to 5 micro strains over

a gauge

length of 50 mm.

38. Give the minimum strain value that scratch gauge can be sense.

The minimum strain that a strain gauge can sense is above 100 micro
strains.

39. Give the advantages of scratch gauge

1. Compact in size

2. It can be attached to almost any surface with clamps or screws &

adhesive bonding

3. It can measure scratch under all types of loading (static, shock, fatigue)

4. It can be used to record stress in all types of environments.

40. Tell something about the magnification capacity of Marten’s extensometer:

This instrument is extremely sensitive and by using telescope, regarding

may be

estimated to 1/10 mm which corresponding to a length charge of approximately

0.0002m.

41. What is the sensitivity of Tuckerman gauge?

The sensitivity of tucker man gauge is 2 micro strains.

42. For the following reading find the deformation sensitivity & strain
sensitivity

for Tuckerman optical gauge. Base length = 25 mm, d= 1/20, magnification

factor = 5

solution Ds=d/m = 1/(20x5)= 0.01mm

Ss= Ds/L = 0.01/25 = 4 x 10-4 strains.

43. Give the formula to obtain fundamental frequency for a vibrating wire

Where A = Cross sectional Area of vibrating wire

E = Young’ s moduls of wire material

L = Length of Vibrating wire

M = Mass for unit length

P = tensioning force in the wire

L = incremention length of the vibrating wire.

PART – B
 1. Explain in detail the Principles of Measurements.
2. Write short notes on:
(a) Accuracy
(b) Sensitivity
(c) Range
3. Write a short account of the various types of strain gauges. Give their
special advantages and limitations.
4. What are the basic characteristics of a strain gauge? Which factors should
be considered
5. What are the various types of Mechanical strain gauges? Explain
Huggenberger tensometer in detail.
6. What are the various types of optical strain gauges? Explain the
Tuckerman gauge in detail.
7. Explain the construction and working of Acoustical strain gauge.
8. What are the different types of electrical strain gauges? Describe a
capacitance strain gauge and give its uses and limitations.

UNIT –II
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGES

PART – A

1. Give the classifications of Electrical strain gauges

(a) inductance (or) magnetic strain gauges

(b) Electrical resistance strain gauges

(c) The capacitance strain gauges.

2. How strain can be measured by using Electrical strain gauges?

Electrical strain gauge is a device in which a change in length produces a

change in some electrical characteristics of the gauges.

3. Give the working principle of inductance strain gauges?

An electrical inductance gauge is a device in which the mechanical

quantity to be
measured produced a change in the magnetic field, and hence in the impedance
of a

current carrying coil.

4. Give the working principle of variable air gap gauges

In this types of gauges the reluctance of the magnetic field is varied by

changing the air gap.

5. Give the working principle of movable core solenoid gauges

In this type of gauges the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is varied by

changing the position of the iron core in the coil.

6. Give the working principle of eddy- current gauges

In this types of gauges the losses in the magnetic circuit are varied by
changing the thickness or position of the high- loss element inserted in the
magnetic field.

7. Give the formula for the impedance of a coil to the passage of alternating

current.

Where Z= impedance in ohms

F= frequency in herzs

L= inductance of the coil in henrys

R= resistance component in ohms

8. How the displacement of material structures can be measured by using
electrical

resistance strain gauges?

In the electrical resistance strain gauges the displacement (or) strain is

measured as a function of the resistance change produce by the displacement in
the gauging circuit.

9. What is known as bonded strain gauges?

A thin paper sheet or metal sheet with strain gauge wire is bonded with an
adhesive material to the structure under strictly.

10. What is the use of gauge factor in strain gauge measurements?

Gauge factor is used to determine the sensitivity of strain gauges.

11. Give the requirements for strain gauges?

o Gauge factor should be high

o Wires used in a strain gauge should have high resistance.
o The wires should have a linear relationship between strain &
resistance
of the wire.

12. What is the resistance of material?

Resistance is the property of a material that restricts the flow of charges

through the material.

13. What is known as foil strain gauges?

The foil strain gauge has metal foil photo- etched in a grid pattern of the
electric insulator of the thin resin and gauge leads attached.
14. Give the formula for electrical capacity between parallel plates in
capacitance

strain gauges

C= [8.86 x 10-3 KA (N-1)]/H

Where c- capacitance in picofoarads

K- dielectric constant of the medium between the two plates

A- area of one sife of the plate, mm2

N- No of plates

H- distance between plates in mm

15. What is the basic principle of unbonded metallic strain gauges?

The principle of unbonded metallic gauges is based on change in

electrical resistance of a metallic wire due to change in tension of the wire.

16. What is photo-etching?

Photo etching is the act of producing grid configuration on metal foil with
the help of photo effect.

17. What is known as strip gauges?

The number of strain gauges are arranged in a particular manner is called

strip gauges.

18. What is known as strain rosettes?

An arrangement of strain gauges in particular orientation or angle is

known as strain rosettes

19. Give the quantities required for a good gauge material?

 High gauge factor

High resistance

Low temperature sensitivity

High electrical stability

Good corrosion resistance

High yield point stability

20. Give some arrangements of strain gauges to obtain strain rosettes

1. Two gauge rosette

2. Rectangular rosette

a) Three element

b) Four element

3. Delta (or) Equiangular rosette

4. T. Delta rosette

21. Give the formula for strain measured by a strain gauge in particular angles

22. Give the relation on between principal stress and principal strains
23.What are the methods are available for computing the strain rosette datas?

1. Analytical Solutions

2. Graphical Solutions

3. Semi – graphical (or) vectorial layout method

4. Nomographic Solutions

5. Geometrical Computers.

24. Give the advantages of strain Rosette analysis.

(i)Extreme simplicity and speed of application.

(ii)Possibility of allowing for transverse effects.

(iii)No requirements for additional equipments.

(iv) The possibility of training relativity unskilled persons to use the

method.

25.Give the type of strain gauge circuits.

1. Wheat stone bridge circuits for static strain measurements.

2. Potentiometer circuits for dynamic strain measurements.

26. Define sensitivity of potentiometer:

Sensitivity of the potentiometer circuit is defined as the ratio of the output

voltage divided by the strain.

PART - B

1. Write short notes on the following :

(i) Electromagnetic strain gauge (6)
(ii) Weldable strain gauge (6)
 2. What is the necessity of temperature compensation? How this can be
achieved?
3. What do you understand by a strain rosette? What are the different types
of strain rosette configurations currently in use? Discuss their uses and
limitations.
4. Discuss the various methods of calibrating a strain gauge.
5. What are the essential requirements of a balancing technique? Discuss the
different ways in which you can balance a bridge.
6. Discuss the associated instrumentation for measuring
(a) Strain strains
(b) Dynamic strains

UNIT – III

PHOTOELASTICITY

PART - A

1. Define Light

Light is usually defined as the radiation that can affect the human eye.

2. Define White light:

Light from a source that emits a continuous spectrum with equal energy
for every wave length is called white light.

3. Define monochromatic light:

Light of a single wave length is called monochromatic light.

Example: sodium vapour lamp, Hg arc lamp.

4. What is wave front?

The focus of points on different radial lines from the source exhibiting the
same

disturbance at a given instant of time, in a surface known as a wave front.

5. Define Ray?
 A line normal to the wave front, indicating the direction of propagation of
the waves is called a ray.

6. What are longitudinal waves?

The waves in which vibration are along the direction of their travel is
known as

longitudinal waves.

7. What are transverse waves?

Transverse waves are waves in which vibrations are perpendicular to the

direction of wave travels.

8. What is polarized light?

The light having vibration only along a single straight line perpendicular
to the

direction of propagation of light is said to be polarized.

9. What is plane of polarization?

The plane containing the direction of propogation of light, but containing

no

vibrations is called the plane of polarization.

10. What are the methods are available to obtain plane polarized light?

(i) Refraction and Reflection for glass plate.

(ii) By using Nichol Prism.

11. What are the disadvantages are available in Nichol prism when we use that
to
obtain plane polarized light?

1. Costly

2. Intensity is Poor.

12. What is the basic principle for photo elasticity?

When polarized light enters a loaded transparent component, it is split

into two beams both beams travel along the same path, but each vibrates along a
principal direction and travels at a speed proportional to the associated principal
stress.

13. What is Refractive index?

The ratio of the velocity of light In air to the velocity in the medium is
called the

refractive index of the medium and is denoted by ‘n’ .

14. What is wave length?

The wave length of any given frequency in the distance traveled during
one complete vibration.

15. Define Amplitude?

Amplitude is a magnitude of the disturbance, the intensity of light may be

taken

as directly proportional to the square of the amplitude of the vibration.

16. Define phase

The phase of vibration at any instant defines the stage of the cycle
reached at that instant.
17. Give the general equation of motion of a transverse light wave propagating
in Zdirection.

Where E = magnitude of light vector

t = amplitude of the wave.

18. What do you mean by Polariscope?

Polariscope is an optical instrument that utilizes the properties of

polarized light in its operation.

19. Give the types of polariscopes used in experimental stress analysis?

(i) Plane Polariscope

(ii) Circular Polariscope

20. Give the four different possible setups in circular polariscope?

Setup Polariser- Analyzer Quarter wave plates Field

21. What is the standard setup in circular polariscope?

The crossed – crossed setup is called the standard setup of the circular
polariscope.

22. State Stress optic law:

 The relative change in index of refraction is proportional to the difference
of principal stresses.

23. What is known as isotropic point in a polariscope setup?

24. What is known as singular points in a polariscope setup?

25. What are the properties of photo elastic materials?

1. Transparent to light used in the Polariscope.

2. Easily machinable by conventional means.

3. It should be force form residual stresses

4.They should have both mechanical and optical isotropy and

homogeneity.

26. Give the most commonly used methods for compensation techniques

1. Babinet compensation method.

2. Babinet soleil compensation method

3. Tension or compression stop method.

4. Tardy method of compensation.

5. Senarment method of compensation

6. Photometric method.
27. What are the techniques used to determine the stresses at the inner layers of
the

body in 3D photo elasticity?

1. Locking in the stresses in the model

2. Multilayer reflection technique.

PART – B

1. Sketch a circular polariscope. Explain the effects of a stressed model and

the fringes obtained in it
2. Sketch a plain polariscope. Explain the effects of a stressed model and the
fringes obtained in it.
3. Describe in detail how fringe sharpening is obtained using partial mirrors.
4. Explain any two compensation techniques used in photo elasticity.
5. What are the important properties of an ideal photoelastic material?
Discuss the important photoelastic materials.
6. Explain the Tardy’s compensation method in detail. Why this method is
preferred over other methods?
UNIT-IV

BRITTLE COATING AND MOIRE TECHNIQUES

PART – A

1. What do you Understand by the brittle coating method?

The brittle coating or stress coat method is a qualitative whole field

technique where a brittle lacquer or impact lacquer is sprayed on the part to be
analysed, the loaded in a static, dynamic or impact mode.

2. What is the function of brittle coating?

 The brittle coatings to be employed were those coating which naturally
formed on structural members, such as mill scale on hot-rolled steel and oxider
a heated surfaces.

3. What are the uses of brittle coating methods?

Brittle coating have been used on plastics,wood,paper,rubber,glass,bones

and metals to investigate stresses under static, dynamic and impact loads. Also
used to test parts in the laboratory as well as out of doors under field conditions.

4. What is the principle of brittle coating stresses?

i) The directions of the principle stress which are perpendicular to the cracks
(isostatic).

ii) The estimated magnitude of the larger principle stress by means of the
isoentatics clock of crack ends.

5. What are the assumptions in coating stresses analysis?

i) A state of plane stress is assumed to exist.

ii) Perfect adhesion between the coating and the specimen.

iii) Maximum principle stress theory is assumed given the failure of the
loading.

iv) Residual stresses in the calibration strip and specimen are the same.

6. What are the types of brittle coating methods?

i) Resin based coating

ii) Ceramic based coating

iii) tens-lac brittle lacquer.

7. What are the variable influences of brittle coating behavior?

 i) Number and type of coating

ii) Effect of spraying unit.

iii) Effect of coating application method

iv) Influence of heat treatment.

8. What is the advantage of brittle coating?

i) It provides whole field data for both magnitude and direction of principle
stresses and does not require a tedious point-to-point method.

ii) There is no load simulation problem.

iii) The data analysis is simple.

9. What is the application of brittle coating?

i)Determination of residual stresses in conjunction with the hole drilling

method.

ii) Determination of compressive strain by using relaxation technique.

iii) Determination of dynamic strains.

iv) For outdoor operations.

10. What is Moiré’s fringe method?

The Moiré’s effect occurs whenever two similar but not quite identical array
of equally spaced lines or dots are arranged so that one array can be viewed
through the other.

11. What are methods available in Moiré’s fringe analysis techniques?

i) Geometrical approach

ii) Displacement approach.

12. What is the application of Moiré’s methods?

i) In plane and out of plane displacement and slopes can be determined

easily.

ii) Moiré’s methods can be used to dynamic problems.

iii) Strains in curved surfaces can be conveniently analyzed.

iv) Moiré’s fringes can be used to determine isopachics and thus can act as
an extensometer.

13. What is advantage of Moiré’s methods?

i) Strain distribution in actual components can be determined and there is

no necessity of making models.

ii) Strain at very high temperatures can be determined conveniently.

iii) The gratings do not spoil the specimen as is the case in the brittle
lacquer and strain gauge methods.

PART – B

1. What are the assumptions made while analyzing brittle coatings? Derive
expressions for coating stresses.

2. When do we use relaxation loading method to analyze brittle coating data?

How specimen stresses can be determined by this method?

3. Explain briefly the refrigeration t technique used for brittle lacquers. What
are the effects of this technique on brittle lacquers?

4. What are the various types of brittle coating available? Discuss their
important features.
5. Describe the calibration method generally used for brittle coating .how true
threshold strains can be determined by this method?

6. Discuss briefly the various influencing the coating behavior?

7. Explain the Moiré’s method in brief and discuss the fundamental properties
of the Moire’s fringes.

8. What are the two techniques used for Moiré’s fringe analysis? Discuss the
displacement approach in detail?

9. Describe calibration the shadow Moiré’s method in detail and give its uses.

10. Discribe the ligtenberg method to solve plate bending problems?

UNIT-V

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

PART – A

1. Define Non – destructive testing

Non –destructive testing is a technique for revealing flaws and defects in

a material or device without damaging as destroying the test sample.

2. Give some advantages of NDT:

1. Can be done directly on production items without regards to part cost

or

quantity available.

2. Can be done on 100% of production of on representative samples.

3. Give the limitations of NDT:

1. Results often must be interpreted by a skilled. Experienced technician.

 2. In absence of contact with each other, different observers may disagree
on meaning & significance of test results.

4. What is neutron Radiography?

Radiographic inspection using a stream of neutrons known as neutron

Radiography.

5. Give the advantages of Radiographic inspection.

- The ability to detect internal flows

- An ability to detect significant variations in composition.

- Permanent recording of raw inspection datas.

6. Give some advantages of Brittle coating method.

- Provides nearly whole field area

- Is non destructive if the coating is sensitive enough.

- Is simple to analyze

7. Give some advantages by using fiber optic sensors.

- Light weight (very small in size)

- Low power requirement

- Resistant to electromagnetic interference

- High sensitivity

PART – B

1. State the uses and advantages of Non-Destructive Testing procedures.

Explain in detail any one of the NDT procedure for evaluating a given
specimen.
2. Write short notes on the following:
a. Eddy Current Testing
b. Radiography
3. Explain the process of Magnetic particle inspection with a neat sketch.
4. With a suitable sketch explain the process of Fluorescent penetrant
technique.
5. Explain the brittle coating method in brief. What are the advantages and
limitations of this method?
6. Briefly explain the following which are used in the experimental analysis:
a. Fiber – optic sensors
b. Thermography
c. C – Scan