Unit 6

Some Ethical and Gender Issues

INTRODUCTION

Many of us are ambivalent about our attitudes to science. We

express concern for the ethical and social implications of some
aspects of the discipline but look to science to solve many of our
problems. We question the wisdom of encouraging unfettered scien-
tific investigation in all fields, especially those where religious beliefs
dictate that answers are best left to an omniscient Being. Yet we
hope that science will provide solutions to illnesses like cancer, find
ways to increase our food supply, and develop cheaper fuel for our
homes.

As we moved through these units considering energy, health, infor-

mation technology, and biotechnology, a number of questions,
concerns, and issues emerged. Most of these were related to techno-
logical achievements rather than to any science associated with
them. However, we did question how far science and scientists
could be held accountable for any untoward consequences of these
achievements.

One area we have not yet considered is the issue of gender in

science. We need to question the under-representation of women in
the scientific community even as it is changing. Women now
outnumber men in enrolment at our universities, even in the facul-

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 ties of natural sciences and medicine but in engineering there is still
a great disparity between the numbers of males and females gradu-
ating.

Considerations of gender also permeate other social areas. In this

Unit, we look briefly at the important issue of gender in the area of
health. Clearly the Unit cannot cover all the concerns that need to
be addressed. However, we hope that you will be stimulated to
continue thinking about the ones raised here and be able to shed
light on the sometimes ill-informed discussions about these and
other social issues that affect our lives.

OVERVIEW

The first section of the unit reviews briefly the concern for account-
ability in science raised in Module 1. Here it is extended to include
the topic of eugenics as an example of the extremes that may be
reached in the name of science when accountability is not an issue.
This leads us to a consideration of the commercialisation of scien-
tific research and our role in limiting its effects on developing coun-
tries such as ours. This is followed by a discussion of the changing
pattern of gender and science education and the factors that limit
access to quality health care for women.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this unit you should be able to:

1. Discuss the issues of accountability and responsibility for public

disclosure of possible outcomes of scientific research and its
applications

2. Evaluate the possible benefits and costs of science and

technology

3. Discuss your personal responsibility as a citizen to keep as

informed as possible, in order to join in the debate on the roles
and responsibilities of science and technology

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 4. Relate knowledge of the issues surrounding science, medicine,
and technology to the challenges and decisions in your own life

5. Describe some of the differences between the traditional gender-

related patterns of selecting science subjects and present trends
in the Caribbean

6. Explain how gender-related issues may affect the practice of

science, technology, and medicine

7. Describe the negative factors that militate against women taking

responsibility for and receiving adequate health care

READINGS

l Allen, G. Is a new eugenics afoot? Science 294: 59, 61, October

2001.

l Ridley, Matt. The new eugenics: Better than the old. National
Review July 31, 2000. http://www.findarticles.com

l Darnovsky, Marc. The new eugenics: Genetically engineered

children? Co-op Connection Newsletter Articles, La Montanita
Co-op Supermarket.
http://www.lamontanita.com/docs/newsletterarticles/Aug2000

l The Scientific Research Council. http://www.src-jamaica.org/More.htm

l About CARIRI. http://www.tradent.com/cariri/aboutcariri.htm

l The Caribbean Epidemiology Centre: Our History.

http://www.carec.org/about/history.html

l Discrimination against women scientists confirmed. EUROPA –

Research: press release June 2002. European Commission.
http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/press/2002/pr0306en.html

l National policies on women and science in Europe. EUROPA –

Research: The Helsinki Group on women and science. European
Commission.

l Georgi, Howard. Is there an unconscious discriminiation against

women in science? APS News Online: The Back Page January 2000
Edition. http://schwinger.harvard.edu/~georgi/women/backpage.htm

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 l Separating the political and the scientific elements: The atom
bomb. FD 12A Module 3: Society 7.2 (a) pp. 62–65.

l Separating the political and the scientific elements:

bioengineering. FD 12A Module 3: Society 7.2 (c) pp. 67–70.

l The AIDS pandemic. Women’s Health Journal 2–3/94: 103–106.

ISIS International.

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 Session 6.1
Science and Accountability

Further ethical considerations

What responsibilities do scientists have? What are their obligations

to society as scientists, apart from their obligations as citizens?
When we blame science for the use of technology, to what extent
have we misinterpreted the relationships between the two? These
are not easy questions to answer. It was suggested before (Module 1
Unit 3) that scientists have a duty to inform the public about the
possible implications of their work, and that they must be clear
about the reliability of their conclusions and how these may be
applied. The latter condition is especially important, as we shall see.
Science is, or should be, “public knowledge”. Two examples illustrate
this position.

The atom bomb

The story of the atom bomb has been dealt with in Unit 3 of
Module 1. However, it is mentioned here again as it illustrates that
it is not always easy to decide who is ultimately responsible for
what is done with scientific findings. Einstein did not only deal
with theory but as the extract below shows, he was well aware of
the application of his findings. Szilard, the main proponent of the
bomb, contacted Einstein and persuaded him to write the famous
letter to President Roosevelt which was sent on August 2, 1939.

Sir, some recent work by E. Fermi and L. Szilard, which has

been communicated to me in manuscript, leads me to expect
that the element uranium may be turned into a new and
important source of energy in the immediate future… This
new phenomenon would also lead to the construction of
bombs…

Szilard also requested that there be permanent contact between the

United States administration and the group of scientists working on
the chain reactions, and that funds be provided for experimental

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 work. However, the commitment to build the bomb was not the
scientists’ decision, but President Roosevelt’s. The order to drop the
bomb came from yet another individual, President Truman.

Here we have a chain of events in which each link in the chain

knew how the science could be used and what it would do. The fact
that the ultimate decision and responsibility was that of President
Truman is not at issue. However the contributions of scientists to
that decision cannot be ignored.

Building the bomb was a gigantic engineering feat, but there was an
enormous gap between the scientific knowledge and developing the
technology that used the knowledge. What we can agree on is that:

1. Scientists are aware of how their work can be used.

2. There is no clear relation between scientific ideas and their

implementation, that is, between science and technology.

3. Implementing applications of science can be considered a social

and/or political decision, for which science is not responsible.

Perhaps efforts to apportion responsibility are misguided. What we

can agree on is that when scientists provide knowledge, they are
obliged to report the implications of such knowledge, not only to an
inner circle, but to the public at large.

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CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

One of the scientists who refused to sign the petition asking

President Truman to refrain from dropping the bomb wrote as
follows:
First of all, let me say I have no hope of clearing my
conscience. The things we are working on are so terrible
that no amount of protesting or fiddling with politics will
save our souls… Our only hope is in getting the facts of
our results before the people.

To what extent does making the facts public absolve scientists

of their responsibility for the effects of their discoveries?

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 The eugenics issue

If there were no dates provided in the following account it could be

mistaken for science fiction or future science. Although it is difficult
to conceive of respected scientists behaving in this way it is well to
remember that human nature does not change radically over time. A
similar scenario may return in a different guise.

In 1883, Darwin’s cousin, Francis Galton, coined the word eugenics.

It came from the Greek “good in birth” or “noble in heredity”.
Eugenics was defined as the science of improving the human stock
by giving “the more suitable races or strains of blood a better chance
of prevailing speedily over the less suitable”. In other words,
humans could be improved by scientific methods, in the same way
that plant breeders improve their stock. Galton thought it would be
“quite practicable to produce a highly gifted race of men by judi-
cious marriages during several consecutive generations”. The scien-
tific assumptions behind this are that most human attributes are
inherited; the possible effects of socialisation are ignored.

Galton’s views were derived from ideas about natural selection and
evolution. An American, Charles Davenport, was particularly influ-
enced by the idea of eugenics. In 1904 he persuaded the Carnegie
Foundation to set up the Cold Spring Harbour Laboratories for the
study of human evolution. From his studies on human pedigrees,
Davenport came to believe that certain races were feeble-minded.
Negroes were biologically inferior, Poles were perceived of as inde-
pendent and self-reliant, though clannish; Italians tended to crimes
of personal violence. (On what type of reasoning do you think this
was based? See Module 1, Unit 2.)

He expected the American population to become through immigra-

tion, “darker in pigmentation, smaller in stature, more mercurial...
more given to crimes of larceny, kidnapping, assault, murder, rape
and sex-immorality.” His aim was to promote negative eugenics –
preventing proliferation of the bad. To this end he favoured a selec-
tive immigration policy to prevent any further contamination of the
“germ-plasm” (the genetic information transmitted from parents to
offspring). To deal with the “badness” within the present popula-
tion, he tried to prevent reproduction of those whom he considered
genetically defective.

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 Harry H. Laughlin, superintendent of the Eugenics Record Office at
Cold Spring Harbour, used prison and hospital data to lobby at the
state level for the passage of eugenic sterilization laws which would
allow individuals in state institutions to be forcibly sterilized if they
were judged to be genetically defective. Over 35 states passed and
used such laws. By the 1960s, when most of these laws were being
repealed more than 60,000 people had been sterilized for eugenic
purposes (Allen, 2001).

Although in the 1930s many biologists had begun to react against

many of the claims for eugenics, it was too late. The ideas had
spread to Europe and in Germany the National Socialists used
Laughlin’s model as one of the bases for their sterilization law. This
law led directly to many atrocities by doctors and others in the
concentration camps. More than 400,000 people were sterilized for
perceived genetic defects (Allen, 2001).

Doctors may be regarded as technologists applying the science of

human biology, rather than as scientists, therefore science is not to
blame. However, we need to examine the responsibility of the scien-
tists for the genetic theories that underlay the eugenics movement.
It appears that these scientists did not consider the social implica-
tions of their conclusions, nor did they make them public. Moreover,
the conclusions on which they based their theories seem to have
been driven by what they saw as desirable social outcomes. The
public was never informed about the absence of reliable evidence to
support these conclusions.

Many are of the view that scientists are obliged to examine the
social implications of their work. This may be debatable. What is
clear is that they need not decide how or if it should be used but
make clear the extent to which their observations and conclusions
can be reliably put into practice. This is especially important in
sensitive social areas, when they should be clear to the point of
being overcautious. The responsibility of a vigilant public is to be
as informed as possible, to demand the evidence and evaluate it
critically.

Allen (2001) issues a warning about the present tendency to use

advances in biotechnology to portray genetics as the new “magic
bullet” of biomedical science which will solve many social problems.

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 He considers it unlikely, that we will see a return to sterilization
proposals. However, the requirement of anti-fertilization medication
for continuation of welfare benefits in the United States, and tough
immigration sentiments in that country and in Europe, remind us
that that we are not entirely free of the prejudices of earlier genera-
tions.

Science for profit

There is another dimension to the debate on eugenics. In the highly

competitive world in which we live there is no doubt that certain
characteristics provide those who have them with distinct advan-
tages. On completion of the Human Genome Project it may not be
too long before parents-to-be can decide what careers they would
chose for their offspring and, in light of that, what characteristics
each child will need to fulfil their parents’ dreams for their success.
It may be difficult to resist the temptation to use the methods now
touted for gene therapy to alter the genotypes of embryos to
produce a custom-designed child. Who knows to what excesses this
could lead? We may yet see a return to eugenics but this time it
would be positive eugenics by personal choice rather than the impo-
sition of discriminatory laws. These decisions could become a major
issue because the procedures involved would only be affordable by
the very rich and in the already developed world. This may yet
become another way in which the achievements of science separate
rather than reduce the divide between social groups or countries.

The scenario described above may never happen. However, there are
other important concerns that relate to the economics of science
and technology. As noted earlier, most scientific research is being
funded or conducted by agencies with a commercial interest in the
applications of what they underwrite. Two problems arise because
of this. Firstly, the objectives of scientific research and technological
development are not necessarily directed to areas that are most in
need or of greatest scientific interest. Instead, they are directed to
those areas that will yield the greatest profit. An outstanding exam-
ple is in the area of medicine where certain disorders and potential
cures are overresearched because the results can be successfully
marketed. Diseases that are common in the Third World and kill
millions every year receive much less attention and funding.

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 The second concern arises from the first but is more general in
scope. Even when technology and science produce research findings
that are in the interest of humanity in general, the benefits may not
reach the potential beneficiaries because they cannot afford them. A
recent example makes the point. Drugs that can alleviate the symp-
toms of AIDS or prevent it from developing are too expensive for
the countries that need them most. It took determined political
action, threats to ignore patents, and public censure to convince
drug companies to bring the prices to those nations within reach of
their economies.

Are there any solutions to these problems? We return to the starting

point of our discussion and to related issues that have been reiter-
ated throughout the course. Basic scientific knowledge should
remain in the public domain. Within the Caribbean region citizens
can support regional governments when they make budgetary allo-
cations to provide funding and facilities for universities and other
centres of research such as the Scientific Research Council in
Jamaica, the Caribbean Industrial Research Institute (CARIRI), and
the Caribbean Epidemiological Centre (CAREC) in Trinidad. We
must also support local ventures, commercial or otherwise, that use
n Find out more research findings to develop materials that can be made available to
about the three the public at reasonable cost.
research institutions
mentioned here.
Our governments can be urged to support international agreements
that would allow access to scientific information and enforce
already existing agreements that would assist less developed coun-
tries to share in the technology that would assist us in our develop-
ment. In the absence of such efforts scientific and technological
advancements will provide yet another criterion for dividing the rich
and the poor within and between countries. Very importantly, we
can only play our part if we make it our duty to remain informed
about scientific events and the issues surrounding them.

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 ACTIVITY

Prepare arguments for and against any one of the following

moots:

l Science would make more progress in the hands of private

enterprise than it would if it remained in the public
domain.
l Small countries such as the Caribbean islands cannot
afford to spend scarce resources on scientific research.

Arrange a debate with classmates or friends. Select which side

each team will handle by tossing a coin. Have others in the
group act as judges.

The gender issue

The term gender may be used to categorise the different roles of

men and women as determined by the society in which they live. A
person’s sex is, of course, biologically determined. Gender beliefs and
practices greatly influence several aspects of our lives, including
language, dress, family structure, health, and educational and
employment opportunities. We look briefly at certain aspects of two
of these – gender and science, and gender and health.

Gender and science

Traditionally, the sciences, especially the physical sciences, have
been male-dominated. The problem is perhaps related to the prevail-
ing heritage of patriarchy. Certainly during much of the existence of
modern science women were legally and explicitly excluded from
most of its institutions. Although such legal barriers have now been
dismantled, women remained under-represented in the area. The
problem was general as well as Caribbean, and it began at the school
level.

Research done by Bailey and Leo-Rhynie (1994) pointed out that the
education literature at the time contained many references to gender
differences in relation to the pursuit of science. It was found that
boys elected to do more courses in science, enjoyed science more and

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 achieved at higher levels in science than girls did. This situation was
also true of Jamaica up to about a decade ago. The picture has
changed as more girls choose to do courses in science. However, the
common perception that science subjects are more suited to boys
than girls still persists and influences choice to a certain extent.

Other factors that emerged from the research were the greater
uncertainty of girls about their ability to cope with the demands of
studying science or mathematics. At that time fewer females seemed
to be interested in careers in engineering and computer science
(p. 62).

An examination of the entry numbers for CXC single sciences

shows a changing picture. Table 6.1 shows the number of entries in
CXC science subjects by gender for the year 1996.

Table 6.1 Entries in CXC Science Subjects by Gender for 1996

Male Female Total

Subject No. No. No.
% % Sitting
Sitting Sitting
Biology 4353 39.95 6544 60.05 10897
Chemistry 3699 47.97 4012 52.03 7711
Physics 3999 59.84 2684 40.16 6683
Integrated Science 2475 40.00 3713 60.00 6188
(Single Award)

The pattern shows larger numbers of females than males entering

for chemistry, biology and integrated science. In biology and inte-
grated science there is an approximate 1.5:1 ratio of females to
males but only slight differences between the two for chemistry.
Physics was the only science subject in which males dominated.
Perhaps the perception that physics is somehow more “masculine”
still persisted.

At the lower level of the education system, an interesting study co-

ordinated by researchers in Norway and involving 60 researchers
from 30 countries (including Trinidad, but not Tobago), was
conducted in 1995. Its aim was to “shed light on some of the issues
that may be important for an informed discussion of culture,

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 gender, and science education” (Sjöberg, 2000, p. 166). Students,
approximately 13 years of age, were asked to respond to a question-
naire that was designed to explore their interests and experiences
with respect to science-related activity and their hopes and plans for
the future.

With respect to their background experiences, in practically all of the

countries, boys had been engaged in more activities that might be
considered valuable for learning school science. For example, more
boys made toys from wood and other materials, used a rope and
pulley to lift heavy loads and watched birds make their nests. The
implication here is that school science is likely to be more familiar to
boys than girls. One interesting observation mentioned in the
research concerned the out of school activities of boys in rural areas
in the Caribbean. Although boys might be engaged in many out of
school activities that are underpinned by the laws of physics (e.g.,
making and flying kites, making and spinning tops, making traps for
animals), these background experiences were hardly ever built upon,
in the school science curriculum. In this sense, the boys’ background
experiences are not being exploited fully to benefit them.

The study also showed that there was a great deal of interest in
studying science in developing countries among both boys and girls,
but with a slightly higher level of interest displayed by girls, overall.
This was certainly the pattern for Trinidad. However, when the data
were analysed in terms of areas of interest, it was found that boys in
all countries were far more interested in mechanical areas such as
“the car and how it works” than were girls. On the other hand, with
respect to issues pertaining to health, such as AIDS and healthy
eating habits, interest was higher in developing countries than in
developed ones, with small gender differences in favour of girls.

A number of conclusions can be drawn from this study: (a) Both

girls and boys at this age level are interested in studying science.
(b) Girls are more interested in studies in the area of the biological
sciences than the physical sciences. (c) Girls’ background experiences
do not have as much potential to facilitate learning in the physical
sciences as do the background experiences of boys.

With regard to personality traits, societies readily associate qualities

of aggression, competitiveness, and remoteness of concern for living

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 beings with the male image. However they see intuition and the
capacity to care and nurture as part of the female image. These
perceptions, along with the historical lack of access to education for
women, have been suggested as contributing to the traditional
perception of science as “male”. But as Helen Weinreich-Haste has
argued, “science is masquerading under a stereotype of masculinity”.
While male scientists, in her opinion, do get to the top of their
professions by the exercise of their aggressive, masculine personali-
ties, their creativity comes from supposedly non-masculine ways of
thinking including intuition, speculation, and commitment. In her
view “knowledge needs de-sexing”. This she thinks would entail not
a change in the nature of knowledge, but merely a greater awareness
of what knowledge in reality is, and what the processes of science
are. However, erasing tradition is difficult.

The trend noted above in the figures for enrolment in CXC science
has persisted and is reflected in the official statistics of the
University of the West Indies 1999/2000. The extract below is from
a table showing the numbers registered in the three faculties that
teach sciences.

Table 6.2 Nos. Registered in Science, Engineering and Medicine

1999/2000

Subject Male Female Total

Engineering 727 186 913

Medicine 630 819 1449
Nat. Sci. /Pure & Appl. Sci. & Tech. 1052 1273 2325

Here we see a reversal of the traditional pattern, except in engineer-

ing. This is consistent with the lower enrolment in physics that was
seen at the CXC level.

Although there are now higher levels of enrolment of women in

higher degree science programmes than previously obtained, there is
still what is referred to as “horizontal” and “vertical” segregation.
Horizontal segregation is demonstrated by the fact that, at a given
academic level, one would find a higher percentage of women in the
biological sciences than in areas such as physics and engineering.
Even within a speciality such as engineering, there are fewer women

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 in some areas. Vertical segregation manifests itself in the fact that
there are fewer women in top positions in the science departments
of universities and in other scientific institutions. This latter fact
will probably persist for some time until the females graduating
from school now enter the labour force in sufficient numbers to
change the entrenched positions.

Within recent times, the view has been expressed that increasing the
diversity among scientists (which can be achieved by having more
female scientists) would improve the quality of science in that,
among other things, the range of investigations would be broadened
because of a range of interests. For example, it is felt that if there
were more female research scientists, women’s health issues would
be more seriously researched. This link between diversity among
scientists and the quality of science produced has been hotly
debated.

In the Caribbean, we need to offer support to the increasing

numbers of women entering science by ensuring that women have
equal access to jobs or financial support and opportunities for pursu-
ing further work in areas for which they are now becoming qualified
in larger numbers.

ACTIVITY

Write a short essay entitled “Women and science – trends in

education”.

You might like to include the following: the traditional pattern

throughout the world, changing trends in the Caribbean,
differences between boys and girls in activities and perceptions
of science, vertical and horizontal segregation in academic
institutions, the way forward.

Read the section above again as well as any additional

information you have.

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 Gender and health

Many of the key health issues affected by gender considerations

have to do with reproductive roles and practices. Men and women
experience sexuality and reproductive health differently, in ways
that are shaped, not only by their personal identities, but by cultural
and class norms. Religion, politics, education, and economic condi-
tions also contribute. There are several factors that have a negative
impact on women’s health. These factors may cause them to
neglect their own needs or, in some cases, be unaware of them
altogether.

In promoting reproductive health the focus has been on satisfying

the biological demands of women’s health care. However, this is not
enough. Providing services such as good primary health care, provi-
sions for safe motherhood and family planning services does not
take into account the many factors that may prevent women from
making full use of these services. Relationships with partners, moth-
ers-in-law, religious authorities or others may prevent them from
acquiring or using knowledge, or from practising contraceptive
methods that offer protection against pregnancy and sexually trans-
mitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS.

In addition, there are several social factors which may place women
at a disadvantage in terms of taking control of their own reproduc-
tive health. Societal attitudes to infertility, non-mothers and older
women, rape and violence in sexual relationships, male and female
attitudes to sexual practices – for example, the refusal by some men
to use condoms, all act as deterrents in this respect. In some 26
countries including parts of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia the
practice of female genital mutilation still exists. Usually performed
on very young females by older females because men want it so, it
attests to the dominance of tradition over contemporary norms and
scientific knowledge.

There are other cultural patterns to be considered. Nutritional defi-

ciencies tend to be higher in females in any given population, partly
because it is more difficult to satisfy the nutritional requirements of
females, but also because of the practice of giving the male the best
of what is available, especially in terms of animal protein. (Until

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 recently, the accepted pattern was to save the chicken leg or breast
for the father; the mother claimed or learned to enjoy the bony
pieces.)

When women work outside the home, occupational health research

tends to examine the effect of mother’s work on her children, but
not on herself. Nor is much attention given to the hazards she faces
in the work she does in the home, since it is not quantified in terms
of earnings. Women themselves stand in their own way, for exam-
ple, by consistently putting children and partners and other
demands on time and financial resources above concerns for their
own health. Many women continue to show a preference for tradi-
tional practices, some of which are beneficial and cost little, but
some of which can be harmful. Clearly social attitudes and cultural
norms must be taken into account in addressing the needs of
women with respect to health care.

Spread of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS

Societal norms for both men and women contribute to this spread.
Women are socialized to please men and will submit themselves to
high-risk behaviour to do that. For example, where virginity is
valued, anal sex may be practised, which may put them at risk for
HIV. Then there is deliberate selection of young girls by older men.
Many women are forced to have unsafe sex, within and without
steady unions. Fear prevents the female partner from bringing up
condom use. The male partner often interprets this as a sign of
faithfulness. In any case, motherhood is valued, and the condom
prevents conception. In some societies, infertility is grounds for
divorce.

Men are also vulnerable because of prevailing norms. They are

expected to have multiple partners, and this puts them and their
regular partners at risk. One 1993 survey in Barbados found that
men between 25 and 34 years had an average of 5 partners, whereas
the women had one (Woman’s Health Journal, 2–3/94, p. 104). There
is also the stigma attached to homosexuality, so that homosexual
men are more likely to conceal their homosexual activity by practis-
ing bisexuality. It is accepted also, that men, more than women, use
alcohol and other substances that may lead them into unsafe or
casual and risky sex. Men are also at a disadvantage because the

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 society does not cater to their needs in terms of making reliable
information on matters to do with sex, easily accessible to them.

Termination of unwanted pregnancies

Many people argue that a woman’s right to self-determination, that

is, to control her own body, gives her the right to decide whether or
not an unwanted pregnancy should be terminated. If she wants an
abortion, and the father of the child does not agree, the fact that the
foetus is a part of her body, and not of his, gives her right prece-
dence. Others argue that the developing foetus is a product of both
parents and the decision to terminate a pregnancy must be mutual.
There is also disagreement as to whether the foetus has the right to
life or not.

This is a debate that will not be resolved as claims one way or the
other are mostly based on dogma making it difficult to analyse the
issues rationally (Macklin, 1991). Macklin is also of the view that
without safe abortion services in case of contraceptive failure for
whatever reason, a family planning programme is not complete.
With too many children, both mother and children are at risk.

Germain (1987) points out that an estimated 200,000 or more

women in the Third World die needlessly each year of improperly
performed abortions (p. 1). She also believes that good reproductive
health enables women to:

l regulate fertility by conceiving when desired, terminating

unwanted pregnancies, and going to term with those wanted;
l remain free of the disease, fear, disability, and death associated
with reproduction and sexuality;
l bear and raise healthy children (pp. 5–6).

The gender-related issues with respect to health are many. These

issues need to be interrogated fully if the goal of a healthy citizenry
is to be achieved.

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 QUICK REVIEW

1. List three factors that could account for men and women
having different attitudes to reproductive health and sexuality.

2. What aspects of health care are particularly important for

women?

3. What factors might prevent women from accessing available

health care?

4. Give an example (from the information above or your own

experience) of women putting the care of others above their
own health needs.

5. List some of the prevailing social attitudes that contribute to

the spread of HIV/AIDS and other STDs among (a) men and
(b) women?

6. Write down the arguments for and against women having

the sole right to decide whether to terminate a pregnancy.

?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

If citizens were asked to pay a special tax to fund research in an

area considered important to the Caribbean, which of the
following projects would you support willingly and why?

1. An investigation into the properties of local plants with a

view to developing cheaper medicines for local use.

2. Working with young boys and girls to change existing

gender biases with respect to science and technology based
careers.

3. Medical research on female health issues with a view to

providing greater access for women to quality health care.

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 SUMMARY

1. Science and accountability: In this section we questioned the

responsibilities and obligations of scientists to society. Two
issues the dropping of the atom bomb and the history of
eugenics exemplified the importance of making scientific
findings and the implications of those findings public. It is
argued that scientists do have the responsibility for ensuring
that the public knows what is taking place and what the
possible results of their findings might be.

2. The gender issue: First we looked at gender and science. We saw

that traditionally science and science-based careers were until
very recently male dominated. We noted the changing pattern in
the Caribbean and the need to do more to change perceptions
that science and technology are masculine areas.

3. Gender and health: Health care for women tends to focus on the
biological aspects of health care without taking into account the
social factors that limit access to what is available. These include
women’s relationships with their partners and other family
members, religious attitudes, and societal attitudes to matters
such as infertility. Women consistently put the welfare of other
family members ahead of their own health needs as well as other
demands on their time and financial resources.

4. Spread of STDs: It was noted that women become involved in

risky sexual behaviours to please men or out of fear and that
social norms also pressure men into multiple liaisons. Both these
factors contribute to the spread of these diseases. The stigma
against homosexuality is also a contributing factor as bisexuality
may be used as a cover.

5. Termination of unwanted pregnancies: Both sides of the debate on

abortion rights were mentioned i.e., women have the right to
decide, as the foetus is part of their bodies; the foetus is the
product of two individuals so the choice should be mutual.
Unwanted pregnancies are problematic; they encourage
improperly performed abortions that put the mother’s life at risk
but having too many children is burdensome, affecting both
mother and children.

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 Wrap up: Why should I care?

Consider the following points for discussion in your final

tutorial or teleconference.

n The development and use of information and communica-

tions technology, (see Module 2, Unit 5), provides an excel-
lent example of the ways in which we have become part of a
global community. We have access to more information
about health and disease, the environmental impact of
industry and the impact of climate change on the Caribbean.
We can see for ourselves the effects of mismanaging global
resources and how this can affect our region. Can we afford
to have others make important choices for us, especially
choices that might affect our very existence on the planet?

n No one expects any one person to be fully informed about

all of the key issues affecting the economic and social devel-
opment of a country. Should we therefore leave the decision-
making about issues of scientific and technological
importance to “experts”? Perhaps you will agree with the
view expressed over 50 years ago by Sir Winston Churchill
that scientists should be “on tap not on top”. (This issue is
raised again in Unit 4 of this Module.)
n A comfortable daily existence for all our citizens is an ideal
we would like to see achieved. Each citizen has a right to:

- a continuous, clean water supply

- an effective sewage collection and treatment system
- a continuous and reliable power supply
- some reliable form of transport, whether private or public
- a supply of food that is both nutritious and cheap
- access to a good health system

To what extent are these objectives really separate from the

larger issues discussed in this course?

n Our governments often enter into international agreements

that may determine their ability to provide us with basic
necessities. International events and concerns can have a
direct impact on our lives, as demonstrated clearly by the
events of September 11, 2001. Are we in a position to ignore

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 what takes place in the rest of the world? (Before consider-
ing this question you might like to list all the ways you can
think of that September 11 affected your country).

n If you decide that you do care about some of these issues,

perhaps you can then identify ways in which you can
become better informed about them (e.g., through the
Internet, newspapers or television). In addition, you should
consider how you might contribute to debate on improving
provisions for at least one of the issues from the list above.

n Many people would argue that, given recent developments

in science, technology, and medicine, there is urgent need to
provide an education through which people may become
“scientifically and technologically literate”. By so doing, a
nation can ensure that its future decision-making is as well
informed as possible. Should Caribbean countries be aiming
for scientific and technological literacy for all? Is this too
idealistic a goal?

n Finally, do you consider yourself to be more scientifically

literate and aware than you were when you started this
course? We hope you can answer affirmatively.

298 FD12A
 REFERENCES

Bailey, B. and E. Leo-Rhynie. Factors affecting the choice of science

subjects by high school students: A pilot study. In Barbara
Carby and Vilma McClenan (eds.), Readings in gender, science and
technology (pp. 47–64). Kingston: UWI, 1997.

Germain, A. The Christopher Tietze International Symposium: An

overview. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. Suppl.
3: 1–8, 1989.

Macklin, R. Ethical perspectives on unwanted pregnancy.

Unpublished paper, 1991?

Paulson, S. Gender insights can improve services. Network 18(4): 32,

Summer 1998.

Sjöberg, Svein. Interesting all children in science for all. In Robin

Millar, John Leach and Jonathan Osborne (eds.), Improving
science education: The contribution of research (pp. 165–186).
Buckingham: OUP.

Whiteley, P. Science textbooks in Jamaican high schools – Gender

fair? In Barbara Carby and Vilma McClenan, (eds.), Readings in
Gender, Science and Technology (pp. 65–77). Kingston: UWI, 1997.

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