UNIT 1 INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS OF TEACHING

ENGLISH
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Story telling
1.4 Dialogues
1.5 Situational Conversations
1.6 Role-plays
1.7 Simulations
1.8 Speech
1.9 Games and Contexts
1.10 Language Laboratories
1.11 Pictures
1.12 Authentic Materials and Multimedia Resources
1.13 Reading Aloud and Silent Reading
1.14 Extensive and Intensive Reading
1.15 Study Skills
1.16 Using Thesauruses
1.17 Dictionary
1.18 Encyclopedia
1.19 Formal and Informal Writing
1.19.1 Poetry
1.19.2 Short Story
1.19.3 Letter
1.19.4 Diary
1.19.5 Notices
1.19.6 Articles
1.19.7 Reports
1.19.8 Dialogue
1.19.9 Speech
1.19.10 Advertisement

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1.20 Methods
1.20.1 Grammar Translation Method
1.20.2 Direct Method
1.20.3 Dr.West’s New Method
1.20.4 Audio - Lingual method
1.20.5 Natural Method
1.21 Let Us Sum Up
1.22 Unit End Exercises
1.23 Answer to Check Your Progress
1.24 Suggested Readings

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The use of English language has increased rapidly after 1960. At present, the
role and status of English is that it is the language of social context, political,
socio-cultural, business, education, industries, media, library, communication
across borders, and key subject in curriculum and language of imparting
education”. It is also a crucial determinant for university entrance and
processing well-paid jobs in the commercial sector. Since there are more and
more English learners in India, different teaching methods have been
implemented to test the effectiveness of the teaching process. Technology is
utilized for the upliftment of modern styles; it satisfies both visual and
auditory senses of the students. With the spread and development of English
around the world, English has been learned and used by more and more
speakers. According to David Graddol,“it is the language at the leading edge
of scientific and technological development, new thinking in economies and
management, new literatures and entertainment genre.” David Graddol.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
After learning this unit, you will be able to
· understand the learning resources available for English
· know about recent trends in teaching English
· apply different methods approaches and techniques needed for teaching
different skills of ELT in the Indian context
· comprehend ways of formal and informal writing of letters, poetry, short
story dialogue etc. in English
· gain knowledge in preparing notices, articles writing, report writing,
speech, dialogue and advertisement

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· develop habits of using thesauruses, dictionary and encyclopedia
· develop the skills of LSRW

1.3 STORY TELLING

Because of children’s characteristics, many educators have tried to adopt
story telling in the teaching of younger children, while some others also adopt
it in classes for older learners and adults. Ringo Ma is one of them. Ma
(1994) believed that story telling is an efficient teaching strategy for
nonnative instructors in the U.S. higher education. Foreign teachers
sometimes find it hard to build trust among native students. Emphasizing his
or her teaching experience or scholar accomplishment in the subject does not
work so well. From the rhetoric perspective, “the logos, ethos, and pathos
derived from storytelling can make a nonnative instructor both meaningful
and attractive to students”. From an instructional perspective, Ma claimed
that administrators and students at U.S. institutions of higher education lack
pluralistic thinking. By telling students, the teacher’s multicultural
experiences, pluralistic thinking is promoted, a multi-vocal system is built
and the teacher’s perceived status is changed from being a liability to an
asset. Andrews et al. (2009) identify four instructional methods that are
related to storytelling: case-based, narrative-based, scenario-based and
problem-based instruction. Each method presents learners with “a temporally
ordered sequence of information and employs an attention-focusing
mechanism.” (Andrews et al., 2009).
How to create your own story?
Telling a story can captivate an audience…that is, with the right techniques
and a little practice: Remembering and retelling the plot:
· map the plot as a memory technique
· use story skeletons to help you remember the key events
· think of the plot as a film or a series of connected images
· tell yourself the story in your own words
· create your own version of the story (adapt and improvise)
· retell it numerous times until it feels like a story
Young Learners share a remarkable variety of personal experiences, values
and ways of understanding. The language they learn in the classroom is the
tool they use to shape their thoughts and feelings. It is more than a way of
exchanging information and extending ideas, it is their means of reaching out
and connecting with other people. Stories can link not only between the world
of classroom and home but also between the classroom and beyond. Stories
provide a common thread that can help unite cultures and provide a bridge
across the cultural gap.

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1.4 DIALOGUES
Dialogue is a conversation between two or more persons. It is a language of
everyday speech unlike that of books. Dialogues are lively, simple, short and
informal. The chief characteristics of a dialogue are as follows:
a) Conversational language: One should not indulge in introducing long
idiomatic quotations and phrases in dialogues, but if idioms etc. are
used, they should be simple and expressive.
b) Liveliness: Dialogues should be lively. Gestures and movements of the
speaker make the talk lively and interesting. Sometimes there can be
interruptions and jerks in the dialogue which make it lively.
c) Naturalness: Dialogues should appear to be natural. The participants
should not turn out to be mere talking machines.
Dialogue is the type of text best suited for spoken English. The structural
items should be limited. Visual sequence is needed for a good dialogue.
Micro dialogues would be suitable for the beginners. They are the carriers of
culture and tradition.
A model dialogue:At the travel agency
(TA – Travel Agent, D – Daniel (first Customer), J – Joanna (second
Customer)
TA : Good morning, Sir. What can I do for you?
D : Could you give some details about your package tours?
TA : Certainly.
J : Do you have any related brochures?
TA : Sure, Here they are (hands over).
D : Thank you. (After receiving it)
J : How nice of you! (After reading it).This one week Karnataka and
TamilNadu tour seems to be an interesting one.
TA : Would you like to have your tickets booked here?
D&J : (Jointly) Book immediately please. We won’t mind the cost.
TA : But sirs, please fill in the necessary forms and get the tickets after
two days.
D : Thank you (Returns the form with money.)
J : Should we come together to get the tickets?
TA : No. One of you can get the tickets, please. (Gives a counterfoil)
D &J : Thank you very much.
TA : It’s our pleasure.
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1.5 SITUATIONAL CONVERSATIONS
English is taught in the same way in which the child learns his own mother
tongue. Some of the important points of learning are:
· Every item is learnt in a real situation.
· Whatever the child understands and expresses is connected with his
own life.
· The situations in which the child learns are repeated several times.

1.6 ROLE-PLAYS
Role-play refers to a simulation in which the dominant feature is a relatively
open-ended interaction among people. In a role-play, an individual
participant identifies with and becomes involved with the roles they are
playing. Role play is a way of bringing situations from real life into the
classroom.” (Doff, 1990, 232). It may also include plays, dramas, socio
dramas, and simulation. Here we use the general term role-playfor all of
these types of activities, but we will also discuss the specific definitions,
benefits, and uses of plays, dramas and socio-dramas, and simulation in this
section. In role-play, students need to imagine a role, a context, or both and
improvise a conversation. The context is usually determined, but students
develop the dialogue as they proceed (Doff, 232). This differs from reading a
dialogue aloud (except with Readers’ Theatre discussed later in this section).
In this sense, the cue card variation to dialogues could also fit under the
umbrella category of role-plays.
Characteristics of Role play
· The role is an unstructured simulation.
· The performance is impromptu (without preparation).
· The role-play performance sets up a problem, presents a criterion of
behavior and provides a basis for subsequent discussion and exchange of
ideas.
· The purpose of role-play is to learn something about the sort or person
or about the dynamics of that sort of situation. For e.g. the purpose here
is to allow the student’s own traits to emerge so that they may be
discussed and possibly modified.
Role-Play for Children and Beginners
You can conduct role-plays with all age groups and proficiency levels. While
younger learners and beginners may need support, especially in early stages
of participating in role-plays, they will still benefit and become more
independent and confident with practice. For example, use role-play to teach
beginning functions such as greetings, giving compliments, and common
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expressions. Puppets and toys are another way to motivate young learners
and help them identify with a role. You can model the roles using the puppets
or toys. You can also use flannel board figures or silhouettes on an overhead
to model the roles. Richard- Amato adds that role-play can be combined with
a Total Physical Response approach, in which the teacher directs student
movements during the plays.
Benefits of Role-Play
Reasons for using role-plays (including drama, socio-drama, plays, and
simulations) in the language classroom include:
· They help to prepare students for real-life communication by simulating
reality—in situations, in unpredictability, and in the various roles,
individuals must play in their own lives. In this sense, they bridge the
gap between the classroom and the world outside the classroom.
· They heighten students’ self-esteem and improve their ability to work
co-operatively.
· They allow students to experiment with language they have learned.
Where students make up their own dialogue, they provide a special
opportunity to go beyond what has been taught in class and to draw on
the full range of their language competencies.
· They allow students to express who they are, their sense of humor, and
their own personal communication style.
· They offer good listening practice.

1.7 SIMULATIONS
Many techniques can be applied in teaching English for school students. One
of them is simulation. Simulation is a language-learning model that allows
students to express themselves to their peers in a group setting, groups
comprising usually three or four. There are benefits in simulation. It allows
students to experiment with new vocabulary and structures, and gives
students the chance to carry out a task or solve a problem together.
Simulation technique follows from the interactional view. This view sees
language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the
performance of social transactions between individuals. Language teaching
content, according to this view, may be specified and organized by patterns of
exchange and interaction or may be left unspecified, to be shaped by the
inclinations of learners as interactors." (Richards and Rodgers, 1986 : 17)
Simulation clearly promotes effective interpersonal relations and social
transactions among participants. "In order for a simulation to occur the
participants must accept the duties and responsibilities of their roles and

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functions, and do the best they can in the situation in which they find
themselves" (Jones, 1982:113)

1.8 SPEECH
Speech is the vocalized form of human communication. It is based upon
thesyntactic combination of the lexical and names that are drawn from very
large (usually about 1,000 different words) vocabularies. Each spoken word is
created out of thephonetic combination of a limited set of vowel and
consonant speech sound units. These vocabularies, the syntax which
structures them and their set of speech sound units differ, creating the
existence of many thousands of different types ofmutually unintelligible
human languages. Most human speakers are able to communicate in two or
more of them, hence being polyglots. The vocal abilities that enable humans
to produce speech also provide humans with the ability to sing.
A gestural form of human communication exists for the deaf in the form
of sign language. Speech in some cultures has become the basis of a written
language, often one that differs in its vocabulary, syntax and phonetics from
its associated spoken one, a situation called diglossia. Speech in addition to
its use in communication, it is suggested by some psychologists such
as Vygotsky is internally used by mental processes to enhance and
organize cognition in the form of an interior monologue.
Speaking is a productive skill in the oral mode. It is like the other skills, is
more complicated than it seems at first and involves more than just
pronouncing words.

1.9 GAMES AND CONTEXTS

Almost everybody loves playing whether he is young or old. From early
childhood, playing is an enormous part of most children’s lives and it plays a
big part of their development as well. Children start playing as early as
infancy but as they develop throughout their childhood they keep playing,
and as they grow up and mature the nature of their play changes. When
children enter middle childhood (6-12) their play starts to change into games
that are different from play in the sense that they are more organized and
planned, and they usually include a variation of rules and a specific objective
(Rixon.1981p. 3). When playing most games, participants are almost forced
into communicating with each other in order for the game to work. The
informal setting games provide and the need for communication during
games encourage students to be unafraid of talking. Their fluency, a valuable
communication skill improves. Because of this fact it is vitally important for
teachers to create a positive learning environment, and to try to spark
interest amongst their students both in the foreign language and culture
because that is important to a successful language learning process. Games

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help achieve these goals as they help satisfy the requirement of the national
curriculum that language learning should be enjoyable for students.
Advantages of Using Games to Teach English
McCallum (1980) explains that there are many advantages of games such as
follows. They
· Focus students’ attention on specific structures, grammatical patterns,
and vocabulary items.
· Can function as reinforcement, review and enrichment.
· Involve equal participation from both slow and fast learners.
· Can be adjusted to suit the individual age and language levels of the
students.
· Contribute to an atmosphere of healthy competition, providing an outlet
for the creative use of natural language in a non-stressful situation.
· Can be used in any language teaching situations and with all skill areas
(reading, writing, speaking or listening).
· Provide immediate feedback for the teacher.
· Ensure maximum student participation for a minimum teacher
preparation.
To sum up, games have a great pedagogical value. They provide language
teachers with many advantages when they are used for teaching English in
Indian classrooms.

1.10 LANGUAGE LABORATORIES

A language laboratory is a separate room where students may practice
speaking and listening with the aid of tape recorders, earphones,
microphones and other sound equipment chiefly as an audio-lingual
supplement to the class work. Language lab is specially designed for teaching
languages. It contains playback and recording equipment for students to
practice the languages they are studying. It is a place mainly for improving
listening skill through ‘audio machinery’. Lab provides good models of the
speech in the target language for imitation and manipulation by the student.
This increases the power of the teacher who is not a native speaker of the
second language and who has not achieved complete native pronunciation.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. How to create your own story?
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 2. What are the characteristics of Role-Play?
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3. Write the advantages of teaching English using games.
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1.11 PICTURES
As Hill (1990) pointed out, “the standard classroom” is usually not a very
suitable environment for learning languages. That is why teachers search for
various aids and stimuli to improve this situation. Pictures are one of these
valuable aids. They bring “images of reality into the unnatural world of the
language classroom.” (Hill 1990:1) Pictures bring not only images of reality,
but can also function as a fun element in the class. Sometimes it is
surprising, how pictures may change a lesson, even if only employed in
additional exercises or just to create the atmosphere. Pictures meet with a
wide range of use not only in acquiring vocabulary, but also in many other
aspects of foreign language teaching. Wright (1990: 4-6) demonstrated this
fact on an example, where he used one compiled picture and illustrated the
possibility of use in five very different language areas. His example shows
employing pictures in teaching structure, vocabulary, functions, situations
and all four skills. Furthermore he pointed out that “potential of pictures is
so great that only a taste of their full potential can be given” in his book.
(Wright 1990: 6) To be more specific, beside lessons where pictures are in the
focus, they might be used just as a “stimulus for writing and discussion, as an
illustration of something being read or talked about, as background to a topic
and so on.” (Hill 1990:2)

1.12 AUTHENTIC MATERIALS AND MULTIMEDIA

RESOURCES
There is an ongoing debate about the value of using authentic materials in
language teaching lately. Many academics express their thoughts about how
beneficial those materials can be. (Guariento, W. & Morley, J., 2001, p: 347).
Both academics claim that the purpose of using authentic materials is to
prepare students for their social lives. In other words, the authentic
materials are used in order to close the language gap between classroom
knowledge and real life. Maria Spelleri (2002) supports this analysis, which
has been accepted by Guariento and Morley. Similarly, Spelleri thinks that
the language used in text books are only valid in a classroom environment
whereas the requirement of real life English is different and this difference
has not yet been closed by the use of text books because, as we all know,

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learners have to deal with the language of brochures, office work, application
forms and so on.
Advantages of Authentic Material Use
Ruth E. Larimer and Leigh Schleicher (1999) focus on the advantages of
authentic materials as below:
1. Learning is enhanced by the use of texts of particular interest to a class.
2. There will be an increase in variety and spontaneity in classes that
introduce authentic materials.
3. Exposure to a variety of vocabulary and structures will occur. Students
will capitalize on their prior cultural and schematic knowledge to
contrast target situations and genres with those of their own culture.
(Lamier, R.E & Schleicher, L, 1999, introduction section).
4. Elizabeth Hanson-Smith describes computer use in English teaching as
part of authentic materials.
5. Hanson-Smith (2001) believes that when text is read on the computer,
learners’ motivation and learning skills improve.
Meaning of Multimedia
Using various kinds of Media in the classroom has always been a challenge,
and how to bring these Media in the classroom is more than a challenge.
Students and teachers should be able to use in their classrooms different
media through different technologies. Media provide teachers and students
with creative and practical ideas. They enable teachers to meet various needs
and interests of their students. They also provide students with a lot of
language practice through activities using newspapers, magazines, radio, TV,
movies, books, Internet, etc. and tasks which develop reading, writing,
speaking and listening skills. They entertain students and encourage reading
English in general, both inside and outside the classroom, promoting
extensive reading by giving the students the confidence, the motivation and
the ability to continue their reading outside the classroom. Media “inform,
amuse, startle, anger, entertain, thrill, but very seldom leave anyone
untouched”.

1.13 READING ALOUD AND SILENT READING

Reading is a complex skill involving a number of simultaneous operations.
Reading has been divided into two parts:
1. Reading aloud
2. Silent Reading.
These two parts of reading in the mother tongue provides sufficient help in
reading aloud and silent reading in English.
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Reading Aloud
Reading aloud also plays an important role in teaching of English. Teacher
should know that the training of reading aloud must be given at primary
level because it is the base of word pronunciation. If it is not caredat primary
level, it will be very difficult at secondary level. According to S.
Venkateswaran reading aloud is not useful at the secondary level because of
the following reasons:
1. It is very difficult skill. In unseen text or in other text there are many
words which student does not know how to pronounce it.
2. If a student has not prepared himself for reading, it will be very difficult
for him. The reading will be unnatural.
3. Reading is reading silently. According to Venkteswaran, only those text
should be read aloud, which have been written to read aloud like poetry,
dialogue, and other type of text. The texts, which have no need tobe read
aloud, should not be read aloud.
It’s important to read aloud to children of all ages.
· Reading aloud presents books as sources of pleasant, valuable, and
exciting experiences. Children who value books are motivated to read on
their own.
· Reading aloud gives children background knowledge, which helps them
make sense of what they see, hear, and read. The more adults read
aloud to children, the larger their vocabularies will grow and the more
they will know about the world and their place in it.
· Reading aloud lets parents and teachers be role models for reading.
When children see adults excited about reading, they will catch their
enthusiasm.
· Reading aloud gives children and adults something to talk about.
Talking supports the development of reading and writing skills.
Advantages of Loud Reading:
1. It enables learner to develop the skill of reading very well by speaking
or expressing ideas.
2. It enables learner to develop the skill of pronounce very well.
3. It makes reading very enjoyable while teacher uses reinforcement
during reading.
4. Language learning is a kind of imitation. When teacher says anything
or read any text, the learner also tries to imitate that.

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So, teachers should have innovative ideas so that it can make this activity
very affective.
Silent Reading
Silent reading is a very important skill in teaching English. This reading
should be employed to increase reading ability among learners. Silent
reading is done to acquire a lot of information. Teachers have to make them
read silently as and when they are able to read without any difficulties. It is a
kind of habit in which learners are enabled to read without any audible
whisper.
How to make Silent Reading Interesting:
Teaching reading is very important skill because this is the stage where the
knowledge of learners starts to flight. The selection of reading material
should be authentic.
How the teacher can make his teaching reading effective:
1. The teacher should tell about the topic first to the learners. He should
motivate students.
2. The teacher should not read first but he should allow the students to
read the text.
3. The teacher should not allow the student to murmuring while reading.
4. The subject matter should be interested and effective and selected from
the reading material developed for it.
5. Eclectic approach can be used by teacher for better comprehension and
understanding.
Advantages of Silent Reading:
1. This reading makes students very active and accurate.
2. Silent reading concentrates the attention of learners toward subject
matter and he learns naturally.
3. It saves time because all students participate together in this activity at
the same time.
4. It is very useful to develop the skill of reading fast.
5. This skill plays the main role to increase the knowledge of students.

1.14 EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE READING

Extensive Reading
Extensive reading can be made the basis for oral reports to the rest of the
class or full class discussion. Extensive reading assignments may direct

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students to articles of current interest in foreign language magazines or
newspapers. To ensure that students do not become bogged down in reading
which is too complicated, the teacher will be well-advised to discuss the
relation of articles to be read, with due regard to the special interests of the
readers. Extensive reading is the reading for pleasure.
Few Characteristics of Extensive Reading are:
1. It helps learner to develop to active vocabulary.
2. Extensive reading is silent reading.
3. In extensive reading, the subject matter is emphasized.
4. In the extensive reading, the learners play main role because they have
to ask for measures.
5. In extensive reading, the idea can be developed.
6. The aim of extensive reading is to enrich learners' knowledge.
7. Through extensive reading, a good reading-habit can be developed.

Intensive Reading
Intensive reading is related to further progress in language learning under
the teacher's guidance. Intensive reading will provide a basis for explaining
difficulties of structure and for extending knowledge of vocabulary and
idioms. It will also provide material for developing greater control of the
language in speech and writing. The literature chosen for intensive study
should be predominantly contemporary. Intensive reading is text reading or
passage reading. In this reading the learner read the text to get knowledge or
analysis. The goal of this reading is to read shorter text. This reading is done
to carry out to get specific information. Learner reads book to acquire
knowledge is the kind of intensive reading.
Characteristics of intensive reading:
1. This reading helps learner to develop active vocabulary.
2. Teacher play main role in this Reading.
3. Linguistic items are developed.
4. This reading aims at active use of language.
5. Intensive reading is reading aloud.
6. In intensive reading speech habit are emphasized and accent, stress,
intonation and rhythm can be corrected.

1.15 STUDY SKILLS

Study Skills are strategies and techniques that enable you to make the most
efficient use of your time, resources, and academic potential. Developing and

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improving your study skills can help you:
· To make more efficient use of your study time - get more work done in
less time!
· To make your learning easier, and help retain what you have learned
for longer.
· To feel the work and effort involved is worthwhile; it ‘pays dividends’.
Aims for developing study skills
Study Skills aims to make it easier for you to succeed in completing the
course, and to make the learning more enjoyable for you. It introduces you to
a range of tips and methods that will enable you:
· To make better use of your time
· To develop skills relevant to your course of study
· To develop techniques and strategies that improves your ability to
learn.
Stages of study skills
Study skills are broadly classified into four parts:
1. Motivation, Goal Setting, And Time Management
2. Organising your resources, your environment, and yourself for Effective
Study.
3. Improving your Reading and Note-Making Ability
4. Preparing for Examinations.

1.16 USING THESAURUSES

The word "thesaurus" is derived from 16th-century New Latin, in turn
fromLatin thēsaurus, which is the Latinisation of the Greek (thēsauros),
"treasure, treasury, store house”. The word thēsauros is of uncertain
etymology. Douglas Harper derives it from the root of the Greek
verb tithenai, "to put, to place." Robert Beekes rejected an Indo-European
derivation. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, the term "thesaurus" was
applied to any dictionary or encylopedia, as in the Thesaurus linguae
latinae (1532), and the Thesaurus linguae graecae (1572). The meaning
"collection of words arranged according to sense" is first attested in 1852 in
Roget's title and thesaurer is attested in Middle English for "treasurer".
In general usage, a thesaurus is a reference work that lists words grouped
together according to similarity of meaning (containing synonyms and
sometimes antonyms), in contrast to a dictionary, which provides definitions

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for words, and generally lists them in alphabetical order. The main purpose
of such reference works is to help the user "to find the word, or words, by
which [an] idea may be most fitly and aptly expressed" – to quote Peter Mark
Roget, architect of the best known thesaurus in the English language.

1.17 DICTIONARY
A dictionary is a collection of words in one or more specific languages, often
alphabetically (or by radical and stroke for ideographic languages), with
usage of information, definitions, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations,
translation, and other information; or a book of words in one language with
their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon. It is a lexicographical
product designed for utility and function, curated with selected data,
presented in a way that shows inter-relationship among the data.
Why should we teach dictionary skills?
There are several reasons why we should teach dictionary skills. Such skills
give students greater control over their own learning, and shift the
responsibility of learning to the student.
· We are not born knowing how to use dictionaries well, so students need
to gain this knowledge and these skills, in order to use their dictionary
effectively.
· It helps students to disentangle information in the dictionary by making
things explicit to them.
· Dictionaries naturally generate a great deal of thinking about meaning
and language.
· If they can use dictionaries well, there will be minimal classroom
disruption because teachers can rely on students to get the correct
meaning.
· Dictionaries can provide useful support not simply when teachers are in
doubt about something but when they want students to confirm their
own suppositions about something in English.
· Dictionaries can serve as a focus for communication and classroom
interaction.
· Dictionary training can help students explore personal preferences and
learning styles and may also lead students to new modes of study.

1.18 ENCYCLOPEDIA
An encyclopedia is a type of reference work or compendium holding a
comprehensive summary of information from either all branches of
knowledge or a particular branch of knowledge. Encyclopedias are divided

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into articles or entries, which are usually accessed alphabetically by article
name. Encyclopedia entries are longer and more detailed than those in most
dictionaries. Generally speaking, unlike dictionary entries, which focus on
linguistic information about words, encyclopedia articles focus on factual
information concerning the subject for which the article is named.
The modern encyclopedia was developed from the dictionary in the 18th
century. Historically, both encyclopedias and dictionaries have been
researched and written by well-educated, well-informed content experts, but
they are significantly different in structure. An encyclopedia is, allegedly, not
written in order to convince, although one of its goals is indeed to convince its
reader about its own veracity. In the terms of Aristotle's Modes of persuasion,
a dictionary should persuade the reader through logos (conveying only
appropriate emotions); it will be expected to have a lack of pathos (it should
not stir up irrelevant emotions), and to have little ethos except that of the
dictionary itself. To address those needs, an encyclopedia article is typically
not limited to simple definitions, and is not limited to defining an individual
word, but provides a more extensive meaning for a subject or discipline. In
addition to defining and listing synonymous terms for the topic, the article is
able to treat the topic's more extensive meaning in more depth and convey
the most relevant accumulated knowledge on that subject. An encyclopedia
article also often includes many maps and illustrations, as well as
bibliography and statistics.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

4. How to make reading interesting?

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5. Why do we teach dictionary skills?
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1.19 FORMAL AND INFORMAL WRITING

1.19.1 POETRY
Poetry is language used in a particular way. It can, but does not always,
involve rhyme, rhythm and meter. It is a way of sharing experiences, of
telling a story or expressing feelings or ideas. Poems are verses which may be
spoken or sung. The form, rhythm and word choice for imagery, the creation

20
of pictures with words, is important in poetry. The words may form patterns
of sound, verse or thought. Usually, poetry appeals to the imagination of the
audience and can create vivid visual images. “Poems can paint powerful,
sharp pictures using images and emotive language which stimulate the
senses. Modern poetry (free verse) doesn’t need to rhyme but it should have a
rhythm.” (Bennett 1989)
Poetry comes in many forms including, but not exclusively,
1. Acrostic
2. Limericks
3. Ballads
4. Lyrics
5. Chants
6. Narratives
7. Cinquain
8. Nonsense Verse
9. Diamante
10. Rhymes
11. Free verse
12. Shape / Concrete
13. Haiku
14. Tanka
People most often express themselves in poetry when they have an
experience or feeling that seems too strong for ordinary prose, most often
experiences of love, death, disaster, beauty, happiness, horror or shock.
Poetry is a way of concentrating on and encapsulating a moment or
experience, of remembering it, or sometimes of working through it. As with
prose (ordinary form of spoken and written language), two broad approaches
are possible to the making of meaning in poetry.
The poet can write
· a narrative poem - a poem that tells a story with an orientation,
complication, crisis and resolution, or
· alyrical poem - a poem that conveys an experience, or ideas, thoughts
or feelings about a subject, without necessarily having ‘something
happen’.
Some distinctive characteristics of poetry
The visual patterning of lines of unequal and shorter length, the frequent

21
division into stanzas (verses) and the possibility of unusual shapes set poetry
apart from prose. There is also a distinctive use of white space which draws
our eye into the compressed essence of feelings and ideas.
Poetry
· is written so that most lines don’t reach the right-hand margin of the
page
· is a distinctive way of writing
· is a personal experience for both writer and reader
· always has rhythm
· may use rhyme
· may use words for sound effects
· uses words to create images
· appeals to the heart as well as the mind
· has strong imaginative qualities
· can provide new ways of articulating experience
· uses concentrated language.
Poems
· are usually shorter than novels or stories
· come in many shapes and forms
· are quite often divided into stanzas (sometimes called verses).(Tunica
1995)
· Like prose literature a poem usually has
· a subject - what it is about
· a theme - what it says about this subject and
· a mood/feeling/tone - how the author feels about this or how the author
wants the readers to feel.
1.19.2 Short Story
Short story writing had, however, been practiced for many years before that:
perhaps the narratives of Homer and the tales of the first books of the Bible
may be considered as the first examples; certainly the short story is closely
associated in its early history with narrative poems, allegorical tales, and
mouth-to-mouth traditions, and it can be traced surely to the fabliaux of the
thirteenth century. Later writers aided in its development.
To-day the short story is so popular that we seem to be in a new literary
epoch—the epoch of the short story—and there is no apparent cause to expect
an early diminution in the demand for such literature; so that to the young
writer the short story offers the best opportunity to prove his mettle.

22
Way of Writing Short Story
Planning
Choose what to write about
We want to publish a wide range of stories, from tragic to humorous,
extraordinary to familiar, and everything in between. What’s important is
that you write from your own experience, and make us feel like we are right
there with you. It’s also important to stick to the theme. We will be releasing
a new theme each month, so you’ll have the opportunity to share all kinds of
stories with us.
Writing
Beginning, middle and end
Think of your story as having three parts: a beginning, a middle and an end.
But that doesn’t mean that it needs to unfold in a linear way.
Editing
Editing is an important task to complete short story.
1.19.3 Letter
Letter-writing is an important channel of communication between people who
are geographically distant from one another. In earlier times when the
telephone and e-mail were not available, the only means of communication
between people was through letters. Letter-writing is a skill that has to be
developed. In general there are two types of letters: formal, that are written
to convey official business and information and informal, which are personal
letters to communicate with friends and family. Formal letters are sent out
when we need to write to various public bodies or agencies for our
requirements in civic life. For example, we might have to ask for a certificate
or to inform a change in our address. A letter is usually one in a series of
exchanges between two people or parties.
Formal Letters
Formal letters are letters to people who we don’t know on a personal level.
We may need to write formal letters or emails for many different reasons. For
example, we may write to find out information, to apply for a job or a course,
to make a complaint, to give information or to send an apology.
Let us now examine some of the steps in writing formal letters.
1. Introducing oneself if it is the first time you are writing
2. Referring to an earlier letter if you are responding to it.
3. Stating the purpose of the letter
4. Stating action/information required from the addressee
5. Explaining action taken/supplying information
23
6. Urging action to be taken
7. Offering assistance in future
Basic Structure
This is the basic structure of a letter. It will have to be modified according to
Joanna Princy
Manager, Customer Services
Pattamal Gas Company
121, Lakshmipuram
Chennai 600 045

10 September 2014

MrBrinchris Daniel
801, TNHB Colony
Tambaram West
Chennai 600 045

Sub: Your application No. F323 for a new gas connection

Dear Mr Daniel,
——————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————
With regards,
Yours sincerely,
Joanna Princy

Nowadays all the parts of a letter are aligned on the left. This style is called
the Full-Block style.
· The date and signature are very important in letters.
· We do not use commas after every line in the address.
· Do not begin your letters with hackneyed expressions like, ‘With
reference to your letter dated 10 January’. Instead, use personalised
variations like, ‘I was glad to receive your letter of 10 January…’ or ‘We
were happy to note from your letter that the goods have reached you
safely…’

24
· Never end your letters with hanging participles like ‘Thanking you’ or
‘Awaiting your reply’. Instead write, ‘Thank you’ or ‘We/I await/look
forward to your reply’.
Informal Letters
Informal letters include personal letters. If it is a personal letter the format is
flexible. We might just write the name of our city on top, followed by the date.
Basic Structure
Chennai
13 July 2012
Dear Daniel,
——————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————
Bye,
Yours affectionately/With love/
All the best/Take care etc.

(Signature)
The flexible format of the informal letter may also be used to seek
information from concerned authorities. Given below is an example. Given
below is the format of the informal letter.
1.19.4 Diary
A diary entry is a very personal kind of writing. It is meant to record certain
significant events and feelings of the writer.
Format:
1. Date/day
2. Salutation ‘Dear Diary’
3. Heading of the entry & or Contents of the diary entry
4. Signature (if necessary)

25
Diary Entry
Read the two diary entries given below.
· The second entry is different from the first because it has the
superscription ‘Dear Diary’. Both are correct.
· The diary note must begin with the date of its entry.
· A diary entry is usually private, informal and meant to be read only by
the writer. It should reflect something of the writer’s mood/personality.
It contains the writer’s thoughts and feelings as s/he reflects on recent
experience or writes in anticipation of an event in the near future.
· The tense can vary between past and future. Note all the forms of tense
used in the entries below.
Diary Entry 1

Friday, 25 August 2012

Today was a simply chaotic! I knew that class X was going to be tough, but
I really didn’t expect it to be so difficult! Today began with our class
teacher giving us the annual workplan, consisting mainly of exam dates,
every week. Then, there is Internal Assessment – which tests everything,
from life skills to co-scholastic activities. We will be examined on quarters
and halves of the syllabus – so I will repeatedly undergo the same tortures!
My teacher explained that all this testing is meant to reduce ‘exam stress’.
I’ve heard that there aren’t any exams in Nursery – I will enquire about
readmission at that level.

Diary Entry 2

Wednesday, 15 March 2013

Dear Diary
Holi has come and gone. I now have red ears,yellow cheeks and hands, a
blue neck and amagenta scalp. It will take many more baths before my skin
returns to normal. So much fun!Sweets, a fabulous lunch, and the crowning
point - dunking in a tub full of colouredwater! Idanced like mad and
sprayed colour on everyone. I was a sheer terror to women and childrenwho
screamed and ran when they saw me coming. But none escaped. Only didi,
a silly girl,slapped me because 1 sprayed colour in her eyes. Dad gave me
five hundred rupees for notdamaging the car. Now, what should I buy - a
new video game? If 1 can wangle anotherfivehundred rupees from
mom,then I can buy something really cool - may be, the Formula -1
modelrace track and cars. Wow!

26
Important principles to be remembered while writing diary
· Creativity, imagination and expression in diary writing are tested.
· You should write as if you have really been a part of the situation.
· It is written in the first person.
· One does not write about things experienced on a daily basis. Only
matters of some significance are recorded.
· It is a secret record of one’s life, so one can be very honest about one’s
feelings and emotions.
Your turn now, with two choices:
1. Write a diary entry of not less than 50 words on a recent, memorable
occasion in your life.
2. You recently watched a movie that has been declared a hit. Make a
diary entry discussing why you liked/did not like it. You should include
a brief account of the storyline, the music, the acting and so on while
discussing your impression of the film. The word limit is 150–200.

1.19.5 Notices
Writing Notices
1. A notice contains important information and is put up for general
intimation.
2. The notice should be brief (within 50 words). It is framed in a box in the
Format shown below.
3. The content should contain all relevant information (within 50 words),
e.g. :
· Category of persons being addressed
· Name of event
· Venue
· Date(s)
· Timing(s)
· Terms & conditions of participation/ attendance
· Prizes, tickets available at, items necessary, etc.

Chennai Public School, Tambaram

Notice
18 January 2016
Workshop on First Aid
This is to inform all students of class IX that a three-day workshop from 20
to 23 January on “First Aid” will be conducted in the conference Hall by St.
Johns Ambulance, Chennai from 9 am to 11 am every day. Attendance is
compulsory.
Brintha
Head Girl

27
A notice may contain rules and regulations. You are preparing a notice about
rules for students who are going to visit a museum. Read the following
pictures. Choose the correct headings and words below to complete the notice.
1.19.6 Articles
To write an article for a magazine one has to
1. research your topic for appropriate content points
2. decide an interesting yet brief title that is eye-catching
3. have a structure – introduction, body & conclusion
4. organize your points in 3-4 paragraphs as required
5. keep to the word limit (120 words, or as specified)
6. sign the writer’s name at the bottom / under the title at the top
Model Format of writing article
· Title
· Writer’s Name
· Content (Value points related to the topic) 3-4 Paragraph
· Para 1: Brief Introduction of the status of the issue
· Para 2: Analysis of the topic in terms ofTypes
· Consequences
· Causes
· Good/bad aspects
· Related information
· Para 3:Implications – social/environmental/Psychological/health related.
· Para 4:Concluding Para-Suggestions / reminders
Expression
· Grammatical accuracy, spellings, coherence, relevance of ideas
and style.
Steps to be taken to write an article
· thinking about the topic and ideas associated with it
· collecting ideas involved through brain storming / discussion / sources
· organising: the ideas in logical order.
· revising critically
Now, you try writing this article on the following concept.
The state government has launched the tool free number for grievance to

28
promote transparency in functioning and enhance service facility to the
common mass. Write an article in 150 words for your school magazine,
praising the initiative and suggesting practical steps to promote transparency
and effectiveness of services to the common mass in Tamil Nadu.
1.19.7 Reports
Introduction to Report Writing
A report is a form of communication in one or more of the following ways viz.
written form, verbal form and audio-visual form.
· describes
· analyses
· summarises
· criticises or praises
· makes predictions about a subject and
· is based on an analysis of current or past events or identifiable
phenomena.
Writing style
When writing:
· be simple and concise
· make sure of the meaning of every word
· don’t fill your report with unnecessary detail:
· The information presented in the report should gradually develop and
cascade from one section to the next, so that the report grows in power
and force of argument to its style.
1.19.8 Dialogue
Dialogue is a piece of conversation. It presents or describes something
through two persons. The students may be asked to imagine conversing with
their friends about something. They may be asked to write down what they
would say to their friends and what their friends would say to them.
· When planning a dialogue the speakers, their location and situation and
the outcome are important.
· Technically, a dialogue involves two speakers, though actually, there
may be three or more.
Dialogue does many things for your story.
· Reveals character (especially through reactions)
· Advances plot

29
· Brings scenes to life
· Adjusts the story's pace
· TAKES UP SPACE!!! (Start a new paragraph every time a new
character speaks. This takes up space, which is useful if you need a
story of a certain length.)
Tips on writing dialogue
· avoid long greetings and goodbyes. These slow the story and add little.
· convey character by showing a character's reaction or way of speaking.
· don't use dialogue as a substitute for action. Example: If you have an
earthquake in your story, write a great earthquake scene with lots of
action. Don't have a character say "Oh! An earthquake!" and leave it at
that.
1.19.9 Speech
Speech is researched in terms of the speech production and speech perception
of the sounds used in vocal language. Other research topics concern speech
repetition, the ability to map heard spoken words into the vocalizations
needed to recreate them, that plays a key role in vocabulary expansion in
children and speech errors
Speech – what does that mean?
Learning to talk and understand is a complicated process. There are lots of
things a child needs to be able to do when they are learning to talk. They
have to:
· understand words, sentences and conversations and know how to listen
to others
· talk using the right words and in sentences that make sense
· know how to use their language the right way socially with others
· say sounds the right way so that their speech can be understood
Developing good Speech – guidelines
1. Begin with Honourable Judges and my dear friends, I stand before
you to express my views for/against the motion “Topic”.
2. Total agreement or disagreement, the topic should be
expressed forcefully and clearly.
3. Use argumentative style and logical reasoning.
4. Bank up arguments with relevant information.
5. At the end write ‘Thank you’ at extreme end on the left.
6. Always make a rough draft, edit and time yourself (20 minutes)
7. Use powerful expressions like:
- In my opinion
- I’d like to argue
- May I ask? etc. etc.
30
8. Refer to your opponent’s view/views
9. Stick to your view point either in favour or against

1.19.10 Advertisement
The functional definition is Advertising is the structured and composed non-
personal communication of information, usually paid for and usually
persuasive in nature, about products (goods, services, and ideas) by identified
sponsors through various media. Let’s take this definition apart and analyze
its components. Advertising is, first of all, a type of communication. It is
actually a very structured form of applied communication, employing both
verbal and nonverbal elements that are composed to fill specific space and
time formats determined by the sponsor.
Main characteristic of advertisement
· Categorized into column according to different classes.
· Space, more economical
· Written in short phrases and words
· Language simple and concise
· Mode of applying
· Contact address and phone no.
Situation Vacant
Wanted a smart, confident PA/Stenographer for a leading export house.
Qualification graduate, age 25-30 yrs, typing speed 40 w.p.m. Preference to
those who can handle computer. Salary negotiable. Apply with complete
Bio-data up to 15-05-2016 to Secretary, Orient Export House, M. H. Nagar,
Chennai – 670001
Situation Wanted
A first class B Tech Civil Engineer from Calicut University seeks a job in
or around cochin. Presently working with a private firm in Calicut. Salary
expected 25000. Please contact. Rajesh Kumar – ShastriNivas- Kannur
(Dt.) Phone 0497 - 2786003

How to develop Advertising skills among students?

Some of you may apply correction regularly to students and it is acceptable.
So correct quite directly at times, but in a conversation lesson avoid it in most
cases, certainly during the later stages.
Explain this to a group of students once who were curious to know why. So as
well as explaining the difference between fluency and accuracy, speak briefly
about their responsibility to correct themselves. To this end, write mistakes
on the board the group had made, and ask them to correct them, which they
all did instantly.

31
Students need to learn to listen to themselves and correct themselves. That is
something most will never do in a teacher dependent classroom.
Suggestions for Follow on Activities
· Students read ads in a newspaper or magazine and design alternatives.
· Students advertise the school.
· Students think and talk about how advertising has changed over 50
years, and how it will look in the future.
· Students write and perform a TV ad for something, preferably
something funny like a trip to the moon. You can film this and other
classes can come and see it.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
6. What are the things to be kept in mind while writing a letter?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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7. What are the main characteristics of advertisement?

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1.20 METHODS
1.20.1 The Grammar Translation Method
A long tradition in teaching the foreign language according to academic and
formal trends is present in the Grammar-translation method. The knowledge
of grammar constitutes the core, and translation is the most important type
of exercise. The study of written texts of classical languages exerts a great
influence.
Theoretical background:
Language is reduced to the grammatical system. The sentence is the main
unit of reference, and its morphological elements must be organized
according to a series of prescriptive rules. Logico-semantic criteria are used to
describe the linguistic model. Learning is understood as a result of a great
intellectual effort where the memorization of rules and vocabulary is
necessary. This mental discipline is taken to a general social conduct.

32
Key Features:
According to Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979:3), the key features of the
Grammar Translation Method are as follows:
1. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the
target language.
2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
3. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
4. Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction
often focuses on the form and inflection of words.
5. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
6. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as
exercises in grammatical analysis.
7. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences
from the target language into the mother tongue.
8. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
Advantages:
· When words and phrases are translated into mother tongue, his
understanding of those words become very better and quicker.
· The Grammar-Translation Method develops the art of translation.
· In this method the child associates foreign words with translated words
so strong memory bond is created.
· The use of mother tongue helps the children in vocabulary getting. It
saves time and more effective.
· The words and phrase are easily learnt and explained if translation
method is used.
· The working knowledge of mother tongue helps them to learn grammar
of a foreign language.
Disadvantages:
· The Grammar-Translation Method does not emphasis on the basic skills
like listening and speaking etc.
· It is not possible to translate important aspect of spoken language like
pronunciation, articulation, intonation, pauses, pitch etc.
· There are words, idioms, phrases in English for which words can not be
translated into mother tongue. For example; prepositions and
propositional phrases.
33
· Translation into mother tongue affects the originality of the words. It
affects the sense and beauty of the words.
· It prevents students to think directly in English. Students first think in
mother tongue and then in English. Thus it prevents establishing of
direct bond between thought and expression.
1.20.2 Direct Method
The criticism of the traditional Grammar-translation method has a response
in the second half of the 19th century. Several authors react against an
excessive theoretical and academic tradition which did not prove to be
efficient in everyday language conversation.
Thus, importance was attached to the exclusive use of the target language as
a direct methodology and an easy sequence of concepts to present and practice
the content. Gouin created the series method, where sequenced actions as
such concepts are taught step by step. Learners will associate each sentence
to the specific movement to which it refers.
The features of the Direct Method can be summarized along the
following lines:
1. Only the target language is used.
2. Everyday language is the first goal.
3. Questions and answers are the main vehicle for a graded oral
progression.
4. Inductive techniques so that learners discover rules.
5. Correction is not neglected.
Principles of Direct method are compiled in six aspects:
1. Foreign language study should begin with the spoken language of
everyday life.
2. Pupils must be familiarized with the sounds of the FL. Conventional
spelling is postponed.
3. The most common sentences and idiomatic phrases must be introduced
at a first stage. Dialogues, descriptions and narratives will follow in a
natural, easy way.
4. Inductive way for first levels. Grammar must be postponed.
5. The FL meaning must be explained with direct reference to objects or
concepts and not to the native language.
6. When writing is introduced, a sequence is recommended from
reproduced texts to free composition. Translation belongs to the most
advanced stage of the course.

34
Advantages of Direct Method:
· This method is called natural method. The English is taught as the
child learns his mother tongue.
· The pronunciation, accent, intonation and rhythm are essential for
better and effective communication. This method helps to speak
language effectively.
· This method is based on the principle of "Learning by Doing". Thus this
method is scientific and very effective.
· New teaching points are introduced orally.
· Both comprehension and speech are taught.
· Grammar is taught inductively.
Disadvantages of Direct Method:
· For every sentence or subject matter, the teacher cannot perform an
action and show any object. It means that every subject matter cannot
be explained by an action or showing any object.
· This method is not useful in over crowed classes.
· This method does not help in important aspect of language learning like
reading and writing.
· To use this method in the class, teacher should be a perfect teacher.
1.20.3 Dr.West’s New Method
Dr. M. P. West, Principal of Training College in Dacca, and Director of
Education in pre-partition Bengal invented this method. In this method
some of the limitations of Direct Methods have been removed.
Dr. West was of the opinion that in India, English is taught because:
1. It promotes internationalism and brotherhood.
2. It is a medium of communication among different parts of the world.
3. No Indian language is rich in the field of science.
4. This method lays emphasis on the development of reading abilities and
improvement of vocabulary.
Emphasis on Developing Reading Ability:
According to Dr. West, the ability to read is more important than the ability
to write for Indian children who have less opportunity to speak that
language. Silent-reading habits can be more useful, because most of them
leave their schools before completing the course. They can engage themselves
in self-education by reading printed English material. Dr.West calls it the

35
‘surrender value’, which a pupil gets from attending an incomplete course of
instruction. He believes that ‘reading a language is by far the shortest road
to learning to speak and write it.’
Formal grammar demands teaching of nouns, verbs, subjects, predicate, etc.
According to Dr. West, grammar is not a code of rules. It is like table
manners. It is in a state of constant change. Dr. West designed a new type of
reading books in which the vocabulary is strictly controlled. The vocabulary
is selected according to the mental development of the pupils. Only the
common and most frequently used words have been selected. A new word is
introduced very carefully. To make its meaning clear, the word is used again
and again. Dr. West allows the use of mother-tongue. According to him, the
reading vocabulary differs from written vocabulary. A minimum of 1158
words are adequate for expressing one’s ideas in day-to-day conversation.
Advantages of the Method
· Of the four aspects of language learning, this method helps in
developing one aspect i.e. reading ability – to read with comprehension
and correct pronunciation, which is very necessary for learning a foreign
language.
· It lays emphasis on silent reading.
· Both oral reading and silent reading induce the pupils’ self-activity.
· Reading helps in making writing easy.
· Not much stress is laid on phonetics in this method, so students find
learning English easy.
· Pupils do not feel the over-load of grammatical rules.
· The use of mother-tongue at times makes students feel at home.
· Quite a lot of reading develops a taste for English literature.
· It develops interest in elarning literature.
· It develops interest in learning literature.
· It is an economical method in terms of both time and money.
· It lays down definite procedures of teaching for the teacher and makes
his work easy.
Disadvantages of this Method
· This method ignores three aspects (understanding, speaking and
writing) of language.
· This method is not psychologically sound.
· Dr. West insists more on reading only. Therefore, without acquiring
speaking ability, students cannot do good reading.

36
· In the absence of other activities, reading becomes monotonous. It is
boring and creates dullness.
· Dr. West remarked that speaking is more difficult than reading and so
students should start learning English by reading. It is not true,
because the ability to speak a language can be acquired more easily
than the ability to read.
1.20.4 Audio-Lingual Method
It was Nelson Brooks of Yale University who suggested the term “Audio -
Lingual’ for ‘Aural - Oral’. This method is called ‘Structural Approach’ in
Britain. The method emphasised speech as the primary mode of expression
and was based on some of the characteristic features of Bloomsfieldian
linguistics and the Skinnerian model of learning, the basic tenets of which
are:
1. Language is speech, not writing.
2. A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks
they ought to say.
3. Languages are different; they have similarities and differences which
can be systematically studied.
4. Language is behaviour and behaviour is a matter of habit. Language
learning is a mechanical skill and no intellectual process is involved in
it. Because it is mechanical, the linguistic behaviour can be conditioned.
So, in teaching a language the teacher should follow the stimulus -
response - reinforcement pattern and in language teaching there should
be controlled, spaced, repetition.
5. Teach language, not about language.
Linguists described language in terms of certain levels: phonology,
morphology and syntax. Audio Linguists believed in the separation of the
skills : listening, speaking, reading and writing (LSRW) and the Audio
Lingual Method used certain practical techniques like mimicry,
memorization, pattern practice and the language laboratory; it encouraged
the use of dialogues and substitution tables. The most important aspects of
the Audio Lingual Method are summarized by Richards and Rodgers (1986):
1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language; the material is
taught orally before it is presented in written form.
2. The target language is the language of the classroom.
3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.

37
4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an
Essential Service Vocabulary is covered.
5. Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms
should be taught before complex ones.
6. Reading and writing are introduced when a sufficient lexical and
grammatical basis is established.
Advantages of Audio - Lingual method
· Like the Direct Method, it is also an oral-based approach. The Audio-
Lingual Method drills students in the use of grammatical sentence
patterns.
· Unlike the Direct Method, it has a strong theoretical base in linguistics
and psychology.
· Based on psychological principles of conditioning: It was thought that
the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the target language was
through conditioning
· Helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and
reinforcement. Learner should overcome the habits of their native
language and form the new habits required to be target language
speakers.
1.20.5 Natural Method
The Natural Approach Tracy Terrell (1977, 1981) developed the natural
approach based on Krashen’s monitor model. The main goal of this method is
to develop immediate communicative competency. For this reason, most, if
not all, classroom activities are designed to encourage communication. Terrell
(1977) suggested that the entire class period be devoted to communication
activities rather than to explanation of grammatical aspects of language. In
this method, the key to comprehension and oral production is the acquisition
of vocabulary. Thus, much opportunity for listening/speaking (when ready) is
afforded to students. Class time is not devoted to grammatical lectures or
mechanical exercises. According to Terrell (1977), error correction is negative
in terms of motivation and attitude; thus, he does not advocate the correction
of speech errors in the process of oral language development.
This position reflects Krashen’s affective filter hypothesis, which purports
that when students experience an embarrassing situation, the affective filter
goes up, interrupting the language acquisition process. Thus, error correction
would have a negative effect on the process.
Design
Concerning the syllabus, typical aims for language classes primarily
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emphasize oral communication skills, such as requesting information,
obtaining lodging in a hotel, etc. (Krashen & Terrell 1983: 67).
Communication goals are described in terms of situations, functions and
topics, which are most likely to be useful and interesting for beginners
(Krashen& Terrell 1983: 67). Therefore the aims of a class are “based on an
assessment of student needs” (Krashen& Terrell 1983: 71). The learning and
teaching activities of the Natural Approach focus mainly on the presentation
of comprehensible input in the target language. To minimize anxiety among
learners they do not have to say anything until they feel ready to do so. Until
then they have to respond to teacher commands or questions in other ways,
for example physically (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 185). Charts, pictures,
advertisements or other realia serve as form of comprehensible input and can
be used by the teacher to ask questions which students at the beginning
respond with yes or no or with single words (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 186).
Pair and group work may also be carried out in class in which meaningful
communication takes place.
To sum up, the Natural Approach does not introduce any new teaching
procedures and techniques. It rejects explicit grammar instruction and the
organization of the syllabus around grammatical categories. The Natural
Approach can be viewed as a method that “emphasizes comprehensible and
meaningful practice activities, rather than production of grammatically
perfect utterances and sentences” (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 190). Since the
method does not introduce any innovations in terms of language teaching
materials or grammar teaching materials, the method will not be considered
in the analysis part of this paper (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 190).

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
8. Suggest the most important aspects of the Audio Lingual Method are
summarised by Richards and Rodgers (1986).
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9. Explain Natural approach in brief.

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1.21 LET US SUM UP

Every language is mainly to serve the purpose of communication. The
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purpose of language teaching is to communicate effectively. A person has to
communicate in different form like oral form, written form, using body
language etc. How to communicate is taught in the classroom in the form of
storytelling, dialogues, role plays etc. Multimedia resources play a
transformational role in teaching and learning English. To communicate
effectively suitable skill sets in reading, writing, listening, speaking has to be
constantly developed and updated by the learner. Furthermore in using
English certain basic structures and their way of writing is equally important
for e.g. poetry, short story, letter etc. Developing awareness about poetry,
short story etc. will help in finding meaning and appreciation towards
English language. Teacher has to use suitable methods to develop knowledge
and proficiency of the English language among students.

1.22 UNIT END EXERCISE

1. Describe Role play.
2. Explain Authentic materials and multimedia resources
3. Differentiate: Intensive reading and Extensive reading.
4. Bring out the various methods of teaching English.

1.23 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Telling a story can captivate an audience…that is, with the right
techniques and a little practice: Remembering and retelling the
plot.
· map the plot as a memory technique
· use story skeletons to help you remember the key events
· think of the plot as a film or a series of connected images
· tell yourself the story in your own words
· create your own version of the story (adapt and improvise)
· retell it numerous times until it feels like a story
2) The characteristics of Role-play:
· The role is an unstructured simulation.
· The performance is impromptu (without preparation).
· The role play performance sets up a problem, presents a criteria of
behavior and provides a basis for subsequent discussion and exchange
of ideas.
· The purpose of role-play is to learn something about the sort or person
or about the dynamics of that sort of situation. For e.g. The purpose
here is to allow the student’s own traits to emerge so that they may be
discussed and possibly modified.

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3) McCallum (1980) explains that there are many advantages of
games such as the fact that they as follows
· Focus students’ attention on specific structures, grammatical patterns,
and vocabulary items.
· Can function as reinforcement, review and enrichment.
· Involve equal participation from both slow and fast learners.
· Can be adjusted to suit the individual age and language levels of the
students.
· Contribute to an atmosphere of healthy competition, providing an
outlet for the creative use of
· Natural language in a non-stressful situation.
· Can be used in any language teaching situations and with all skill
areas (reading, writing, speaking or listening).
· Provide immediate feedback for the teacher.
· Ensure maximum student participation for a minimum of teacher
preparation.
4) What the teacher can do for better and effective teaching of
reading as listed below:
· The material which teacher present before students should be
according to previous knowledge of the students or related t their own
experience.
· The teacher should emphasize on the stress of learners.
· The teacher should be very careful while process of reading is going
on. If any mistake is committed by learners, he should correct it.
Correction should be friendly and productive.
· The teacher should care about all readers. He should also draw his
attention toward weak readers
· While teacher present model reading, this model reading should be
according the level of readers so that readers could understand it very
well and pronounce very well.
5) We teach dictionary skills because
· We are not born knowing how to use dictionaries well, so students
need to gain this knowledge and these skills, in order to use their
dictionary effectively.

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 · It helps students to disentangle information in the dictionary by
making things explicit to them.
· Dictionaries naturally generate a great deal of thinking about
meaning and language.
· If they can use dictionaries well, there will be minimal classroom
disruption because teachers can rely on students to get the correct
meaning.
· Dictionaries can provide useful support not simply when teachers are
in doubt about something but when they want students to confirm
their own suppositions about something in English.
· Dictionaries can serve as a focus for communication and classroom
interaction.
· Dictionary training can help students explore personal preferences
and learning styles and may also lead students to new modes of study.
6) When we write a letter, the following points must be kept in mind.
· Purpose
· Person to whom it is addressed
· Tone you should adopt
· Completeness of the message
· Action required
· Conciseness of expression
7) Main characteristic of advertisement
· Categorized into column according to different classes.
· Space, more economical
· Written in short phrases and words
· Language simple and concise
8) The most important aspects of the Audio Lingual Method
· Language teaching begins with the spoken language; the material is
taught orally before it is presented in written form.
· The target language is the language of the classroom.
· New language points are introduced and practiced at different
situations.
· Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an
Essential Service Vocabulary is covered.
· Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms
should be taught before complex ones.

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9) The Natural Approach
The natural approach is based on Krashen’s monitor model. The main goal of
this method is to develop immediate communicative competency. Here
classroom activities are designed to encourage communication. The key to
comprehension and oral production is the acquisition of vocabulary. Error
correction is negative in terms of motivation and attitude. The natural
approach bases language acquisition on the natural order of native language
development.
1.24 SUGGESTED READINGS
Abha Ram Bisht (2005).Teaching English in India. Agra: VinedPustakMandircon
Desktop Publishers.
Curtain, H. and C. A. Dahlberg. Languages and Children - Making the Match:
New Language for Young Learners. 3d ed. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon,
2004.
Gavin Dudeney (2003), The Internet and the Language Classroom, CUP

Kohli, A. L. (2002). Techniques of English Methodology and Content. Tandon

Publications.
Marlow Ediger, B.S.VenkataDutt, D. Bhaskara Rao (2003). Teaching English
Successfully.Discovery publishing house.
Ormiston, M., R. Epstein, and D. Campbell.“Apartment Problems.”In English
Language Teaching Materials: A Practical Guide, eds. M. Ormiston and R.
Epstein. Saskatoon, SK: University Extension Press, 2005.
Ruddock, K. (2000), an Argument for the use of Authentic Texts with Beginners of
Japanese as a Foreign Language, Trinity College Dublin,
Sareswathi, V. (2004). English Language Teaching Orient Longman Publishers.
Sharma. S. R. (2004). Modern Methods of Teaching English. Book Enclave
Publishers.
Turner, Joan (2002), How to study: A short introduction. London: Sage.
Venkateswaran, S. (1995). Principles of Teaching English, New Delhi :Vikas
Publishing House.
Wright, A., Betteridge, D., & Buckby, M. (1984).Games for language learning
(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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