University of the Immaculate Conception

Graduate School
Father Selga Street, Davao City

The Ecology of Educational Administration

PHDEL 604

Submitted to:

Dr. Cesar A. Adegue IV

Professor

Submitted by:

Radee King R. Corpuz, RN, MAN

Student

October 2018
 ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT

Reflection:
Usually conflict happens in the workplace. It is particularly an
important topic to understand. As its about 30% of people experience
conflict at least once a week and just as important most middlemen is
swallowed by this situation that they try to avoid. In organizational
term, conflict is when two systems interact in such a way that the
actions of one system… prevent or compel one outcome against the
resistance of the other. Conflict rarely occurs suddenly but rather
occurs thru series of conflict events. For instance, conflict begins as a
minor disagreement or misunderstanding, and then it slowly escalates
to become questioning, or challenging of others and then it escalates a
little bit more to something a bit more physical. However, conflict is not
necessarily a bad thing, confident can be functional. Especially when it
supports the goals the group and improves the organization’s
performance. Some theorists the interactionists say we should
encourage conflict to stimulate change and innovation within the
organization. In most settings there appears to be an optimal level of
conflict if there’s too low conflict the organization becomes stagnant and
apathetic, and there’s a lack of new ideas. Disruptive and people
become uncooperative. So in the middle we get this optimum level
where innovation occurs. Basically, administrators must rule out:
 Administrators must accept the need to influence the
developmental dynamics of a conflict, so that the parties' attitudes
and actions will lead to better coordination and a more appropriate
interdependence. They must not seek to stifle or eliminate
organizational conflict — for that is hardly a realistic goal
 Administrators must accept and indeed occasionally encourage
conflict, because change and other desirable consequences are
 products of conflict. The challenge administrators face is to utilize
such conflict management techniques that would ensure that as a
conflict passes from a latent to a manifest phase, it proceeds
towards its potential and realizes its constructive values.
Administrators must have conflict resolutions process to understand
and explore differences and use them to interact in a more positive
productive way.
The Normative and Descriptive Approaches.
 Normative research is concerned with how things should be,
whereas descriptive research addresses itself to what is — rather
than what could or should be. This dual perspective is most
apparent in approaches to the issues of conflict and conflict
management in organizations. Normative approaches reflect
attitudes and beliefs which identify all conflicts as destructive and
promote conflict-elimination as the formula for organizational
success.
 Descriptive approaches accept conflict as inevitable and consider
its proper management the primary responsibility of all
administrators. This paper pertains to the descriptive mode of
inquiry in presenting a framework for the study of conflict in
organizations. But it goes beyond this domain in suggesting that
administrators must take the offensive and seek to manage
conflict, and also in advocating that traditional methods of dealing
with conflict be replaced by a new and more sophisticated
approach.
Prior to the occurrence of conflict, the following conditions are
antecedents: Scarce resources, conflicting attitude, ambiguous
jurisdiction, communication barriers, need for consensus, unresolved
prior conflicts knowledge of self and others. Existence of the above
antecedents definitely triggers conflict/s. Furthermore, administrators
can stimulate to create conflict by: not being a role model, take
credit, no recognition, be judgmental, send written messages,
subordinate should come to see me, make oneself inaccessible to the
team, individual vs. team approach, come tomorrow, introduce
change without consultation or discussion.
So far, there are three common workplace conflicts, but this
conflicts are results of management/leadership types:
1. Leadership conflict. The administrator management
leadership style may not be most pleasant for underlings,
but it can be effective. The team leader sets a high bar
and expects excellent results. This perhaps a necessary
form in a crisis, but in other situations it can lead to
conflicts disaffected workers and burnout.
Problem
John has been the sales manager for over a year. His sales
reports show an increase in sales and he seems to know how to
motivate his reps pretty well. But, a few of the reps repeatedly
complain about John’s management style. He tends to get very
involved with their techniques, calls them out when he thinks they
are making a mistake, and doesn’t take criticism himself very
well.
One of the top producing reps complains more than the
others, and he is threatening to quit.
Solution:
 First, it’s important to let the two employees resolve their conflicts
without interference from Human Resources. But, if it becomes
clear that unsupervised resolution isn’t likely, mediation is your
next best step.
 In mediation the needs of both employees should be
acknowledged. Emotions make for difficult terrain in a workplace,
so it’s best to empathize with all parties, making it clear that you
will not take sides.
 Once each person feels heard, there is a possibility they will be
able to think more clearly about a solution.
 Sometimes when we are angry we tend to be fatalistic and believe
there is no possible way to resolve a conflict. Getting both
employees to calm down and sees things with less emotion and
more logic is the best first step to agreeing on a solution.
 2. Work Style Conflicts. This could be interpersonal form of
conflict. Occurs when two people or more have
incompatible needs, goals, or approaches in their
relationship such as different communication or work
styles.

Problem:___
Ashlee and James both work in accounting. James was hired
a few months ago and Ashlee has been with the company for
eight years. James, while being a proficient worker, tends to wait
until the last minute to get his work done. Ashlee works more
steadily and keeps on top of her work daily. Ashlee complains that
she feels she has to worry now about his work and her own. And,
because they rely on each other for certain tasks, she is
uncomfortable with waiting until an hour or so before a deadline
when they are forced to collaborate. Because of the conflict,
James is missing more work and you suspect it’s because he
wants to avoid Ashlee and her wrath.
Solution:
 Again, it’s important that, once these employees are forced to
resolve their differences in mediation, you try to understand their
feelings and make them feel heard.
 If your accounting (or other) department is small and you can’t
rearrange personnel easily, you may consider changing the
structure of their work, making it so they don’t need to interact as
much.
 Working in silos is not ideal in most cases, but it’s a small
compromise to keep your employees happy. Differences in work
styles is an extremely common conflict, but it can generally be
resolved with a little understanding and re-organization.
3. Cultural Conflicts. Values conflict. Involves
incompatibility of preferences, principles, and practices
that people believe in such as religion, ethics or politics.
Problem:
 Susan and Louise work in payroll. Susan is a devout
Christian who always votes Republican and has religious figurines
in her cubicle. Louise is a professed atheist and liberal who feels
that extremely religious people are less intelligent. Both women
try to avoid discussing politics or religion, but they both know the
other’s feelings on current events and at times there is palpable
tension. One day Susan comes to work wearing a shirt declaring
support for a Republican candidate for political office, and Louise
decides she has had enough. She feels this action is alienating
and hostile. She is threatening to not only quit, but to sue the
company for allowing a hostile work environment.
Solution:
 Many times these kinds of conflicts can be resolved pre-emptively
by having clear rules and boundaries in your employee manual.
 Review of this manual once or twice a year will make people more
aware and less inclined to encroach on company policy.
Declarations of religious or political allegiance should be
extremely controlled at any organization.
 In the case of Susan and Louise, they were probably breaking
some rules and not being held accountable for it early on. Now
that the problem has reached a fever pitch, you are dealing with
possible litigation, something that every company strives to avoid.
 Giving both women the chance to air their grievances is your first
step to resolution. This should be followed by a renewed
commitment to following company policy when it comes to being
respectful of others’ beliefs.
 Both women should be assured that if they will keep their personal
beliefs to themselves, they will be safe from recrimination and
hostility. They should feel they have the support of the company in
doing this.
Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR).
Alternative dispute resolution or simply conflict resolution simply
means how you solve conflicts . Although there are many phrases
available, one phrase is developed that can adapt for any situation.
Which later can be able to use this tool to prevent conflict and to help
others work thru conflict. Some common conflict resolution terms:
mediation (a phrases to resolve differences conducted by an impartial
third party), mediator (a person who attempts to make people involved
in a conflict come to an agreement; a go-between:"the government
appointed a mediator to assist in finding a resolution to the dispute"),
dispute (an argument or disagreement, especially an official one
between, for example, workers and employers or two countries with a
common border), apparent conflict (existing situations or relationships
that reasonably could appear to other parties to involve a conflict of
interest. For instance, where A works at company X, which has as a
supplier company Y, and A’s daughter B is considering applying for a job
at Y, this is not yet an actual or apparent conflict because B has not yet
moved her job plans forward. But (depending on a variety of facts not
provided in this example) the potential for a conflict is there. ) and
hidden conflict ( ).
However, the commonly used ADR methods are arbitration,
mediation and conciliation. These three are primarily resorted to by
parties as an expedient and cost-effective ways of settling disputes.
Arbitration is the process of referring a dispute to an impartial
intermediary chosen by the parties who agree in advance to abide by
the arbitrator's award that is issued after a hearing at which all parties
have the opportunity to be heard. Arbitration resembles traditional civil
litigation in that a neutral intermediary hears the disputants' arguments
and imposes a final and binding decision that is enforceable by the
courts.
Mediation is a rapidly growing ADR technique. It consists of
assisted negotiations in which the disputants agree to enlist the help of a
neutral intermediary, whose job it is to facilitate a voluntary, mutually
acceptable settlement. A mediator's primary function is to identify
issues, explore possible bases for agreement, discuss the consequences
of reaching impasse, and encourage each party to accommodate the
interests of other parties through negotiation.
 A minitrial is a process by which the attorneys for the parties
present a brief version of the case to a panel, often comprised of the
clients themselves and a neutral intermediary who chairs the process.
Expert witnesses (and less frequently, lay witnesses) may be used in
presenting the case. The question of who decides in the disputes process
are:
Negotiation. Parties themselves;
Mediation. Parties with the help of 3rd party;
Conciliation. Parties with the help of neutral 3rd party who actively
suggests solutions;
Arbitration. Parties agree to let 3rd party make a binding decision;
Tribunals. Parties go to a tribunal where a panel of independent
people
make the decision for them;
Litigation (Court). Parties go to court and the judge decides the
case.
Grievance. A grievance is a complain against management,
because management in some way violated the language of the
collective agreement. For example, if you contract says that you get
paid overtime at time and half after forty hours in a week and your
employer insists you take time rather than money, then your employer
has broken a clause in the collective agreement. Every collective
agreement contains a section on the grievance procedure. As a
member, you will go to your steward and say: “I want to file a
grievance.” Your steward takes down the information and together, you
go to the supervisor point out what the contract language says and ask
that it be honoured. If the supervisor says no, you can take the
grievance to the next step in the grievance process. If the grievance is
still unresolved, it can then be referred to an arbitrator who is an
independent third party who will listen to both you and the employer and
will make a ruling according to the language in the collective agreement.
Don’t forget that for a legitimate grievance you need more than a
complaint. There must be a violation of the rights spelled out in your
collective agreement. It doesn’t cover a disagreement between
workers. These problems must be addressed in other ways. Some
problems are best dealt with by the health and safety committee a joint
accommodation committee or by an unfair labour practice charge.
Grievance Committee. a committee formed by a labor union or by
employer and employees jointly to discuss and where possibly eliminate
grievances. What does the grievance committee do as a jury evaluates
potentially criminal conduct to determine whether the evidence and
testimony presented warrants indictment and trial in a similar manner
the grievance committee receives ethics complaints and arbitration
requests to determine, if taken true on their face, a hearing is to be
warranted.
Application in Higher Education:
With only 14% of researched universities reporting mandatory
courses in this subject, and with up to 25% of the manager day being
spent on dealing with conflict, education needs to reconsider the
importance of this subject. The subject warrants emphasis on enabling
students to deal with conflict management. "Providing more conflict
management training in undergraduate business programs could help
raise the emotional intelligence of future managers." The improvement
of emotional intelligence found that employees were more likely to use
problem-solving skills, instead of trying to bargain. Students need to
have a good set of social skills. Good communication skills allow the
manager to accomplish interpersonal situations and conflict. Instead of
focusing on conflict as a behavior issue, focus on the communication of
it.[13]
With an understanding of the communications required, the student will
gain the aptitude needed to differentiate between the nature and types
of conflicts. These skills also teach that relational and procedural conflict
needs a high degree of immediacy to resolution. If these two conflicts
are not dealt with quickly, an employee will become dissatisfied or
perform poorly.[14]
It is also the responsibility of companies to react. One option is to
identify the skills needed in-house, but if the skills for creating workplace
fairness are already lacking, it may be best to seek assistance from an
outside organization, such as a developmental assessment center.
These organizations "have become a popular means for providing
coaching, feedback, and experiential learning opportunities". Their main
focus is fairness and how it impacts employees' attitudes and
performance. These organizations teach competencies and what they
mean. The students then participate in simulations. Multiple observers
assess and record what skills are being used and then return this
feedback to the participant. After this assessment, participants are then
given another set of simulations to utilize the skills learned. Once again
they receive additional feedback from observers, in hopes that the
learning can be used in their workplace. The feedback the participant
receives is detailed, behaviorally specific, and high quality. This is
needed for the participant to learn how to change their behavior. [16] In
this regard, it is also important that the participant take time to self-
reflect so that learning may occur. Once an assessment program is
utilized, action plans may be developed based on quantitative and
qualitative data.

References:
Alper, S.; Tjosvold, D.; Law, K. S. (2000). "Conflict management, efficacy,
and
performance in organizational teams". Personnel Psychology.

Amason, A. C. (1996). "Distinguishing the effects of functional and

dysfunctional conflict on strategic decision making: Resolving a
paradox for top management teams". Academy of Management
Journal.

Anastacia, V. (2010). Conflict Management, How to Resolve.

Baron, R. A. (1997). Positive effects of conflict: Insights from social

cognition. In
C. K. W. DeDreu & E. Van de Vliert (Eds.), Using conflict in
organizations. London: Sage.

Batcheldor, M. (2000) The Elusive Intangible Intelligence: Conflict

 Management and Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace. The
Western Scholar.

Behfar, K. J.; Peterson, R. S.; Mannis, E. A.; Trochim, W. M. K. (2008). "The

critical
role of conflict resolution in teams: A close look at the links between
conflict type, conflict management strategies, and team
outcomes". Journal of Applied Psychology.

Deutsch, M. (1981). The Resolution of Conflict

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_management.
Mckinney, P. (2018). Introduction to Management, Community College
Leadership,

Singer, K. (1949). "The Meaning of Conflict", Australian Journal of

Philosophy.

Kelly, J. (1969). Organizational Behaviour.

Mack, R.W. (1965). "The Components of Social Conflict", Social Problems.

OPSEU Education. (2015). Grievance.

ORGANIZATIONAL THEORIES:
Reflection:
Organizational theory is a loosely knit family of many approaches
to organizational analysis. Its themes, questions, methods, and
explanatory modes are extremely diverse. Organizational theory is not a
single theory. Dwight Waldo noted in a review of field work in 1978 :
"Organization theory is characterized by vogues, heterogeneity, claims
and counterclaims", and even greater differentiation in theory and
practice have developed since then. Certainly, cannot described as an
orderly progression of ideas, or unified body of knowledge in which each
development build carefully on and extends the one before it.
Organizational Theory. Is the study of how the organizations
function and how they affect and are affected by the environment in
which they operate.
Classical Management Theory, broadly speaking, is based upon
Henri Fayol, Frederick Taylor, and Max Weber's overlapping management
theories. These three management theories came together to form what
we generally refer to nowadays as Classical Management Theory.
Virtually all areas of organizational studies from management, to
business, to organizational communication put these three theorists at
the foundation of most modern day organizations for developing theories
of 1) Administrative science, 2) Scientific Management, and 3)
Bureaucracy. Taken together, they form the basis for how organizational
structures and relationships between managers and employees.
Classification of Organizational Theories:
1. Classical Organizational Theory. This theory states that there is
only one way to perform a task. The classical organizational
theory spouses two perspectives; the scientific management
and administrative management. Now coming on to the
scientific management it basically the organization in which the
management is organized in a very scientific manner focusing
on the management of the workers and of the work. Coming on
to the second perspective of the classical organizational theory
 is the administrative management. Addressing the issues
concerning how overall organization should be structured.
Basically, when we talk about the organizational classical
theory it states that how the organization has to be managed,
how organization has to be structured, how the people and the
work has to be managed in a very scientific manner. As we
discussed the two perspectives: the scientific management and
to the administrative management both these perspectives are
so important to manage the organizations of today that even
the theories which have been pro-founded in earlier years they
have a strong meaning and application in today’s perspective
also although there are sea changes which have taken place in
the organization because of the liberalization, globalization,
and privatization but, yes the perspectives which have been
addressed in the yester years by the big management people
that is FW Taylor, Winslow Taylor, Henri Fayol, they all have a
deep meaning as to how the organization has to be managed
and how the organization behavior has to be contained in the
present contemporary world so they have a deep meaning and
even the applications are very practical these days.
3 Fathers of Classical Organization Theory  “Human as Machine”. Max
Weber. The Bureaucratic Perspective, Frederick Taylor. The Scientific
Management Theory.
2. Neoclassical Organization Theory. This theory was really an
attempt to incorporate the behavioral sciences into
management thought and the goal was to look at solving
problems caused theory practices the premise of this inclusion
was really based on the idea that the role of management is to
use employees to get things done in organizations so rather
than focus on production and structure or technology. Neo
classicists were concerned with the employee with social
interactions and with behaviors that would then bring about
increased production and success for the organization. The Neo
 classic theory is concentrated on answering questions related
to the best way to motivate employees to structure
employment operations and to support employees with in the
organization. So a study is during this time and beyond
including the popular Hawthorne study really looked at and
reveled social factors that contributed to increased production
and productivity such as employee relationships and employee
environment that really were important for managers to
consider. They found that employees needed to find some
intrinsic value in their job, that they really needed to be around
other and interact with other co-workers so that they could
share tasks information and knowledge and so that they would
be more fulfilled with the work they were doing so that was a
major part of the neoclassical organization group although
there are criticisms that it’s not really a theory it’s not large
enough to be a theory.
3. Modern Organization Theory. Modern organizational behavior
has become complex. It synthesizes the classical and
neoclassical theories of organization, while incorporating
technological development. Modern
theories of organization are classified into:
1. Quantitative Theory.
The quantitative theory includes operation research and
quantification of the problem. It analyses the problems from
quantifiable angles and provides solutions to complex problems
only with the help of statistical and mathematical models such as
linear and non-linear programming, game theory, decision tree,
simulation and probability. Computers are used to solve
management problems whereas mathematical models were
previously used for the purpose. A large number of problems are
solved with the use of simulation equations and computers. The
development of equations requires specialized skills and advance
knowledge of mathematics, statistics, economics and behavioral
sciences. Models are tested while the context of the real world
and use of operation research. Operation research is conducted
by diverse specialists and management experts. It is useful from
the levels of planning for organizing, actuating and control. It is
known that mathematical models do not provide the ultimate
solutions. If they are used in a given environment with real
assumptions, they can suggest appropriate measures which can
be used for solving problems. The quantitative approach is merely
a tool for finding a suitable solution, but is not a solution in itself.
It has become a valuable supplement rather than a substitute for
management and organization. The role of human skills and
behavior cannot be ignored for the purpose of management. Even
in highly computerized systems, the human element cannot be
ignored. The use of computers has economized and facilitated
many problems. The management does not need to resort to
monotonous cumbersome processes but can easily and swiftly find
the real problem or can diagnose the problem with real solutions.
Computers have helped managements and people arrive at correct
decisions which would not be possible without the use of
quantitative techniques. This precise and prompt approach has
also prevented other problems. The cost of communication and
maintenance of huge files has been considerably reduced by
the computerized management technique.
2. System Theory.
A system is a set of interconnected and inter-related
elements of management activity. It is an arrangement of
components of activities performed for achieving certain
objectives. Thus, a system has three components: arrangement,
objectives and a plan. The arrangement is designed and planned
in an effective manner to achieve the objective. Men, materials
and money are planned to achieve the objectives of the
organization. Recently, it has been agreed that the organization is
a system wherein operation, marketing, finance, etc. are
 subsystems. The modern organization theory believes in
the General Systems Theory (GST) which is applicable to all
scientific phenomena. Kenneth and Boulding have contributed a
systems theory to establish to single, self-contained and
generalized theory for particular disciplines. The system
approach believes in a static structure and a dynamic and
cybernetic system. It has increased mobility, technological
behavior, self-awareness and the goal-directed approach. The
system is an organization wherein the various components are
subsystems which are managed and mobilized for attaining
the organizational goals. It is an interconnected, interdependent
and interacting arrangement of men and materials. For example,
business is a social technical system, a plant is a botanical system,
and a car is a mechanical system and so on.
3. Contingency theory.
A 1959 symposium held by the Foundation for Research on
Human Behavior in Ann Arbor, Michigan, was publish as Modern
Organization Theory. Contingency theory views organizational
design as “a constrained optimization problem,” meaning that an
organization must try to maximize performance by minimizing the
effects of varying environment and internal constraints. It claims
there is no best way to organize a corporation, to lead a company,
or to that is effective in some situations, may not be successful in
other situations. The optimal organization, leadership, or decision
making style depends upon various internal and external
constraints. Some of these constraints are: the size of the
organization, how the firm adapts itself to its environment.
Differences among resources and operations activities.
References:
Cec Ugc, (2017). Classical Organizational Theory.
Hatch, Mary Jo. Organization Theory: Modern, Symbolic, and
Postmodern Perspectives. OUP-USA, 1997.
 https://www.mbaknol.com/management-principles/modern-
theories-of-organization/

Nickelson, Jack A., and,(2002). Being Efficiently Fickle.

Zenger, T .R. (2002). Theory of organizational

choice." Organizational
Science.

Pfeffer, J. (1997). New Directions for Organization Theory:

Problems
and Prospects. Oxford University Press.

Putnam, L., and Jablin, F. (2004). New Handbook of Organizational

Communications: Advances in Theory, Research, and
Methods. Sage Publications Inc..

Wagner-Tsukamoto, S. (2003). Human Nature and Organization

Theory
Edward Elgar Publishing.
 GENERAL SYSTEM THEORY

General System Theory also known as GST. The conceptual theory

and its contributions and application in today’s world within higher
education.

“All things by immortal power near or far hiddenly

to each other inked are that thou canst not stir
a flower without troubling of a star”
Reflection:
This quote helps frame the purpose of General System Theory,
this quote talks about the interrelatedness of nature and our universe
which is a key conceptual theory of Open System Theory. That science
and philosophy was about synthesis according to Ludwig Van Bertalanffy.
In organization and organizing rational natural and open system
perspective by Scott and Davis Burton wasn’t concerned about the
growing compartmentalization of science. He in a truly holistic view of
the world and interdisciplinary thought of science. The main piece is
that systems are open systems. They influenced by the environment
and contain raw materials, people information resources of different
types. Those inputs are then transformed thru the building process to
create outputs which are products and services. Throughout this entire
time there are subsystems which you can think of as departments
programs divisions within higher education who are constantly providing
feedback to one another throughout the transformation process that
allows for an open system to be continually extracting from its external
environment and it’s internal environment to make sure that the output
products and services are what the organization is looking to do. A way
that you can look at this is making a printing photos, have digital
camera which is the input taking picture, the transformation process is
the computer and you are going ahead and editing the photos making
sure everybody looks wonderful and finally the output is the printer
where those photos are being printed. The difference between the open
system and close system is that a close system is self-perpetuating and
receive no outside energy or resources. Close system do not take into
account the environmental on an organization and it is overlay focused
on internal functions and behaviors only there is no constant use of
feedback to be able ensure that the system is working the most
efficiently so one way to think of a closed system is a workstation
running proprietor software or a watch has a role of making sure time is
showing there are many internal little pieces working together to make
sure that the time is but the environment and other factors do not make
any changes to how your watch actually works. Another cornerstone of
General System Theory our feedback loops as you saw in the open
systems theory feedback is important in ensuring that processes are
examined and changed to be able to produce the most efficient product.
The two different types of that can be received are negative feedback
which provides information on what is not going well in the
transformation of inputs and outputs to provide corrective action. It is
described as a self-correcting control system that is sensitive to
selected factors in the environment.
In higher education can be making changes to a policy on alumni
feedback. Positive feedback provides information on what is going well
in the transformation of inputs and outputs to amplify the initial
disturbance to lead to improve outcomes. Example, a retention effort for
Latino students that initial disturbance the program that was created to
support retention has to improves outcomes and the feed back is
provided to ensure that those disturbances the retention efforts are kept
going. Interdependent in relationship is also another part of General
Systems Theory. Concern of compartmentalization of science a
connection between scientific discipline with organizational
management emerged which was General System Theory the idea
created was a relationship between all organization similar to how there
were relationships between nature that would produce an independent
of parts to reach a common goal in order for that to happen within
higher education and organizations there must be communication plans
to ensure exchange of relevant information. Also, the various
departments programs are also considered subsystems which are
interrelated parts that turn inputs into outputs and everything together
creates the outputs for the organization dynamic equilibrium exists when
system components are in the state of change but at least one variable
stays with in a specified range. Homeostasis is a condition of dynamic
equilibrium between at least two system variables. This can be seen in
higher education as a retention rate and making sure that one variable
stays within a certain range and all the pieces so the academic
departments. Student affairs department’s, Maintenance departments
are working towards keeping that one variable within that specified
range. Homeostasis can be seen as retention and graduation rates so
those two variables that are being kept between a specific range.
There are criticisms with General Systems Theories, one of them
is the interdependence of personnel that within the system to work
truly openly. Personnel need to be willing to work with one another
across disciplines. Also, the effect of environment on structure and
function. Open systems are influenced by their internal and external
environments. There may be the best plan laid out however, if there
are external factors that are creating what is going on as the final
output that may be due to the inability of the system to actually do
what it’s planned to do but, more of reaction of what the environment is
pushing it to do. The idea of nature versus nurture of the organization.
There are two examples of the theory application within higher
education: The instructor versus the learning paradigm knowledge exists
versus being created instruction paradigm believes learning is
cumulative and the learning paradigm believes that learning is linear.
There is a set production schedule that learning happens within a
dedicated time frame in the classroom. This can be service-learning
where the teacher is taking students out into an environment which may
be a service organization to do work that is interrelated to the class
session. Interdisciplinary learning is also another example in which
holistic learning taking multiple disciplines and combining them together
for increased critical thinking and thought. It helps to reduce
department silos because all the subsystems, the departments are
working together towards the common goal of education. It also helps
extend resources, have the opportunity to have funding from two
deffirent departments come together to be able to support a class or
program. An example of this is interdisciplinary Math and English class
which is team taught by a mathematician and an English faculty. The
benefit to the student would be having a greater opportunity of
understanding math problems from an English focus as well as having
the content expertise of a mathematician to be able to solve the
problems.

References:
Kast, F.E., & Rosenzweig, J.E.(1992). General Systems Theory:
application for Organization Management. Academy of
management journal, 15(4), 447-465.

Reyes, P. (1990). The Journal of Higher Education, 61(3),

357-360. doi:1. Retrieved from
http://www.istor.org/stable/1982138

Scott, W. & Davis G. (2006). Organizations and Organizing:

 rational, natural, and open systems perspectives. Upper
Saddle River , NJ: Prentice Hall.

Skyttner, L. (2001).General Systems Theory: Ideas and

Applications. River Edge, US: Imperial College Press,
Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com

ROLE THEORY

Reflection:

People define roles for themselves and others based on social

learning and reading. People form expectations about the roles that
they and others will play. People subtly encourage others to act within
the role expectations they have for them. People will act within the
roles they adopt.
 We all have internal schemas about the role of leaders, based on
what we read, discuss and so on. We subtly send these expectations to
our leaders, acting as role senders, for example through the balance of
decisions we take upon ourselves and the decisions we leave to the
leader. Leaders are influenced by these signals, particularly if they are
sensitive to the people around them, and will generally conform to
these, playing the leadership role that is put upon them by others.
Within organizations, there is much formal and informal information
about what the leader's role should be, including
'leadership values', culture, training sessions, modeling by senior
managers, and so on. These and more (including contextual factors)
act to shape expectations and behaviors around leadership. Role
conflict can also occur when people have differing expectations of their
leaders. It also happens when leaders have different ideas about what
they should be doing vs. the expectations that are put upon them.
Role expectations of a leader can vary from very specific to a
broad idea within which the leader can define their own style. When
role expectations are low or mixed, then this may also lead to role
conflict.
Role theory is a perspective in sociology and in social psychology
that considers most of everyday activity to be the acting out of socially
defined categories (e.g., mother, manager, teacher). Each social role is a
set of rights, duties, expectations, norms and behaviours that a person
has to face and fulfill. The model is based on the observation that people
behave in a predictable way, and that an individual’s behavior is context
specific, based on social position and other factors. The theatre is a
metaphor often used to describe role theory. Although the word role (or
roll) has existed in European languages for centuries, as a sociological
concept, the term has only been around since the 1920s and 1930s. It
became more prominent in sociological discourse through the theoretical
works of George Herbert Mead, Jacob L. Moreno, Talcott Parsons, and
Ralph Linton. Two of Mead’s concepts – the mind and the self – are the
precursors to role theory. Depending on the general perspective of the
theoretical tradition, there are many ‘‘types’’ of role theory. The theory
posits the following propositions about social behaviour:
1. The division of labor in society takes the form of the interaction
among heterogeneous specialized positions that we call roles;
2. Social roles included "appropriate" and "permitted" forms of
behavior, guided by social norms, which are commonly known and hence
determine expectations;
3. Roles are occupied by individuals, who are called "actors";
4. When individuals approve of a social role (i.e., they consider the
role "legitimate" and "constructive"), they will incur costs to conform to
role norms, and will also incur costs to punish those who violate role
norms;
5. Changed conditions can render a social role outdated or
illegitimate, in which case social pressures are likely to lead to role
change;
6. The anticipation of rewards and punishments, as well as the
satisfaction of behaving in a prosocial way, account for why agents
conform to role requirements.
In terms of differences among role theory, on one side there is a
more functional perspective, which can be contrasted with the more
micro level approach of the symbolic interactionist tradition. This type of
role theory dictates how closely related individuals’ actions are to the
society, as well as how empirically testable a particular role theory
perspective may be. A key insight of this theory is that role conflict
occurs when a person is expected to simultaneously act out multiple
roles that carry contradictory expectations.
References:

Merton, R.K. (1957). Social theory and social structure, NY: Free Press

Pfeffer, J. and Salancik, G.R. (1975). Determinants of supervisory

behavior: A
role set analysis. Human Relations, 28, 139-153

P. F. Secord and C. W. Backman, (1974). Social Psychology. 2nd ed. New

York:
 McGraw-Hill,. Chapters 13 (Social Roles) and 14 (Role Strain and
Its Resolution).

Robert King Merton, Sociological Ambivalence. New York:Free Press.

Winship, C., Mandel, M. (1983). Roles and positions: A critique and

extension
of the blockmodeling approach. In Sociological Methodology.

Wikipedia.org article, adapted under

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/...
 MODERN STRUCTURE ORGANIZATION THEORY

The “modern” structuralists are concerned with many of the same

issues that the classical social structuralists were, but their theories have
been influenced by and benefited greatly from advancements in
organization theory since the second World War. “Modern” structuralists’
tenets are similar to Classical structuralists’ thinking: organizational
efficiency is the essence of the organizational rationality, and the goal of
the rationality is to Increase the production of wealth in terms of real
goods and services. Structural organization theory is concerned with
vertical differentiations (hierarchical levels of organizational authority
and coordination, and horizontal differentiations between organizational
units) such as those between product or service lines, geographical
areas, or skills.
Modern Structural Organization Theory. ... They focused on
the structure or design of organizations and their production processes.
There are four basic assumptions of modern structural theory: 1)
Rational organizational behavior through formal rules and hierarchy.
Modern organization theory is rooted in concepts developed during the
beginnings of the Industrial Revolution in the late 1800s and early
1900s. Structural organization theory is concerned with vertical
differentiation, hierarchical levels of organizational authority and
coordination, and horizontal differentiation between organizational units.
It becomes modern because most organizational theorists from the
classical school also were structuralist. They focused on the structure or
design of organizations and their production processes.
There are four basic assumptions of modern structural theory:
1) Rational organizational behavior through formal rules and
hierarchy.
2) There is a best structure but best is determined by many factors
 3) Division of labor increases productivity.
4) Most problems are from structural flaws.

Reflection:
It is clear that structure is very important in organizations. I
believe that the different theorist over time have contributed to the new
concepts of modern structural theory. There were different important
models and theorist in the past. We can say that organizations must
establish a structure that is effective to improve its processes in order to
improve the goods or provide better services to customers in order to
increase profits. The question is which structure is the best based on the
current organization situation and other factors? Organizational
efficiency is the essence of organizational rationality, and the goal of
rationality is to increase the production of wealth in terms of real goods
and services.

References:
Shafritz, J., Ott J., & Jang, Y. (2011) Classics of organization theory.
Wadsworth. Boston, MA.

Anonymous (2014). Organization Theory. Retrieved

from http://www.answers.com/topic/organization-theory

Bhupendra, R. (2014) Organization Theory. Retrieved

from http://www.clib.dauniv.ac.in/E-Lecture/OT.pdf

https://www.ukessays.com/essays/business/modern-structural-
organization-theory-
 ENHANCING HUMAN CAPITAL:
VALUES, ATTITUDES AND JOB SATISFACTION

Reflection:

“Human capital is created by changes in a person’s that bring

about skills and capabilities that make them able to act in new ways.” So
let’s go ahead and dissect this definition to hit the main points of what is
human capital really is. Firstly, it’s created by changes in persons that
means it comes from within our human capital is attached to us and we
are attached to our human capital in order to unleash it we must make
some change, have an investment of energy, time, hard work because
we know that human capital is going to bring about our skills and
capabilities. It’s going to bring about what we are good at what we can
offer to ourselves and those around us and ultimately it’s going to help
us act in new ways this is the really key part. It implies that human
capital is valuable allowing us to do new things, create, produce, do
something of value. Now that we have kind of a rough idea of what
human capital is as this can be applied at a very small scale to a very
large scale; this the human capital spectrum and really this is a way of
harnessing the different ways or understanding the different ways that
human capital is harnessed depending on who’s involved. So, if you
take a look at the very individual level the most micro level (the
individual level). But, as more people get involved (the interpersonal
level) and more people are trying to harness it, there’s more of a
necessity for leadership, for oversight. We move our way over to the
bigger side of the spectrum (the institutional level) as this is the context
in which we really seen human capital applied for.
To ensure employees are effective contributors to the organization,
it is critical they remain content and are made to feel part of the
company's culture using effective human capital strategies. Employers
need to remain transparent. Employees value the truth in regards to an
organization's overall financial performance and operations. Work-life
balance rates highly with employees. It is important for employers to
foster a culture where the employees feel that their lives outside of the
company are respected and valued. An organization that values open
communication should consider establishing common areas where
employees can congregate and share ideas. Employers need to have a
clear career pathway in place for employees who are focused on career
advancement. Employees are motivated by feeling recognized by the
organization and their peers. This can be as simple as issuing an
employee with an achievement award.
Like anything else, human capital is not immune to depreciation,
which is often measured in wages or the ability to stay in the workforce.
In this case, the most common ways that human capital can depreciate
are unemployment, injury, mental decline or the inability to keep up with
innovation. Because many employees have specialized skills that they
bring into the workforce, long periods of unemployment may make then
unable to keep these levels of specialization, because their skills may no
longer be in demand when they are finally able to enter the workforce.
Furthermore, the human capital of an employee who is unable or
unwilling to adopt new technology or techniques may decrease or
depreciate when compared to his more willing competitors.
Six Recent Trends in Human Capital
The way we manage, lead, collaborate, and organize ourselves at
work has been undergoing radical change. Over the last few years,
leadership, organization culture, employee engagement and work
simplification are some of the top concerns that have emerged in the
human capital world.
As the business world continuously evolves and becomes more global in
nature, HR will not be about just HR anymore. With a new generation of
workforce that brings with it innovative ideas, the world of human capital
is set to undergo a massive wave of change.
Some of the recent trends in HR in the year gone by and what to
expect in 2016.
1. Leadership.
Developing leaders across levels has been and will remain a major
concern for HR across sectors. It is time for companies to build leaders
from their Millennial workforce. The need of the hour is of leaders who
can engage their employees, drive innovation and push forward a
strategy of growth. For this to happen, companies must invest in robust
leadership development programs, and increase their focus on coaching
and mentoring young leaders to prepare them for bigger roles.
2. Culture and Engagement.
The second biggest challenge for companies is in terms of the
prevalent culture of their organizations and how it affects employee
engagement and in turn, retention. Business and HR leaders alike must
work hard towards building a workplace culture that focuses on
meaningful work, employee engagement, and strong leadership.
Companies that can engage employees tend to attract better talent and
have a lower attrition rate. This, in turn, helps them see better financial
performance as well. This year will also see companies paying more
attention to 360-degree feedback systems for a holistic employee
engagement.
3. Learning & Development.
Learning & development, like leadership, has been an area of
concern over the years and 2016 is set to see companies go all out to
build their employees’ skill set. The more organizations focus on
improving their L&D initiatives, the better they will be at engaging and
retaining capable workforce.
It is a critical business priority where organizations must revamp their
employees’ learning experience, and invest more time and budget on an
emerging digital trend in this sphere. Companies should prioritize on
digital transformation, while also focusing equally on open peer-to-peer
learning. Coaching and mentoring initiatives will also go a long way in
helping employees grow and make use of their potential.
4. Work Simplification.
Deloitte’s annual report on Human Capital trends for 2015 had
flagged the importance of simplifying work in response to employees
becoming overwhelmed by increasing organizational complexity,
growing information overload, and a stressful 24/7 work environment.
The trend is set to continue this year, with organizations trying their best
to simplify work for their employees by investing more on technology
that makes work simpler and more integrated in nature. An important
HR task will be process simplification and doing away with complex
processes that serve no good, and building an organizational culture that
actively helps employees to focus on what really matters. Many
companies are also set to bring in policies that encourage work-life
balance.
5. Digitalization of HR.
This year is sure to see the arrival of digital HR that will include
modern tools and technology, design thinking, video-based learning, and
major dependence on analytical tools. Dated HR technology is moving
towards redundancy and a new range of cloud-based platforms is going
to take its place, right from performance management to payroll to
learning to employee engagement and wellness.
6. Performance Management.
This is one area that is going to see a complete overhaul. Old
performance management systems that have been in place for years
have not been of much use in employee engagement and development.
To bring about real change in the coming time, companies are on their
way to reinvent their performance management process. There is a big
move towards doing away with traditional ratings and instead, bringing
about a change in the way employees are assessed.
 According to Josh Bersin of Bersin by Deloitte, we will see “a profound
change in thinking, forcing us to rethink our culture, rewards, the role of
managers, and how we direct and align people in the organization.”

References:
Becker, Gary (1994). Human Capital: A theoretical and empirical
analysis
with special reference to Education. The University of Chicago
Press.

Gibbons, Robert; Waldman, Michael (May 2004). "Task-Specific

Capital". American Economic Review.

Hansen, W. Lee (1970). Education, Income and Human Capital.

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/humancapital.asp

https://www.bersin.com/josh-bersin/

ENHANCING HUMAN CAPITAL

Reflection:

Human Capital is a term popularized by Gary Becker an economist

from the University of Chicago Jacob Mincer that refers to the stock of
knowledge, habits, social and personality attributes, including creativity
embodied in the ability to perform labor so as to produce economic
value. Alternately, human capital is a collection of resources of the
knowledge, talents, skills, abilities, experiences, intelligence, trainings,
judgment and wisdom possessed individually and collectively by
individuals in a population. These resources are the total capacity of the
people that represents a form of wealth which can be directed to
accomplish the goals of the nation or state or a portion thereof. It is an
aggregate economic view of the human being acting within economies
which is an attempt to capture the social, biological, cultural, and
psychological complexity as they interact in explicit and/or economic
transactions. Many theories connect investment in human capital
development to education and the role of human capital in economic
development, productivity growth and innovation has frequently been
cited as a justification for government subsidies for education and job
skills training.
Enhancing Human Capital is to have a long-term vision set out for
the future vision with high added value as a key of focus that has been
established a unique position that leverages strengths. To realize the
vision, consider it vital to increase the organization’s human resources,
capabilities-one of the strengths- and promote various initiatives to
enhance human capital.
The logic tree below forms the basis for implementation of plans
and proposals for human capital enhancement.
Maximize the capabilities of individuals and organization.
Career Support:
The primary driver for this enhancement of human capital lies in
the strengthening of the human resource (organizational) capability
itself. While promoting the growth of employees and the organization, it
also aims to further enhance the capabilities of employees by providing
an environment to enable diverse human resources to fully utilize their
individual capabilities and support them in living active lives. Bolster
initiatives for creating corporate culture, such as sharing values, and
establish a foundation for individual employees to continue striving for
personal growth. Support group-wide programs and individual education
programs tailored to rank and field of specialization. Implement
education programs designed to help the expert skills needed for
individual and create an environment that makes it easy for people to
upgrade their skills, including the introduction of a quick-learning system
that enables individuals to learn anytime, anywhere thru their
smartphones.
Executive Training Programs:
 Also, group-wide education program for managerial personnel
(Administrator/principal, department heads) for them to take a bird’s-eye
view over the entire organization (school) as changes in the
management environment enveloping the institution per se are
accelerating as time goes on.
Next Leader Program:
Selection of personnel who strongly aspire to become future school
administrators and department heads and provide management
education from medium to long term perspective. Create opportunities
to aspirants to expand their horizons by gaining practical experience
thru job rotations after completing the program.
Encourage Diversity.
Basic Philosophy:
Individual growth of employees with diverse characteristics
utilizing their own capabilities and aptitudes as something that assist the
growth of the entire institution. Therefore, work to educate human
resources and create a culture where employee diversity is respected,
and employees of all tribes, genders, ages, and levels of ability can
participate. Create a group-wide promotion framework to encourage
diversity thru-out the entire institution.
Develop Workplace Environment and Optimize Work Styles.
Work Style Reforms:
To maximize the value that can be generated from the work of
individual employees by promoting workstyle reforms in terms of work
processes and workplace reforms in term of work processes and
workplace environments. Create a beneficial cycle where enhancing
operational schedules and creating time helps to improve employees’
work-life balance, health management, and self-development, in turn
helping individual employees to achieve their full potential.
Share Values and Make the Institution Culture Visible.
Organization Health Check thru Awareness Surveys:
The goal of the survey is to ascertain the status of such matters as
employee career awareness, diversity promotion, and work-placement
environments, and to implement it in a PDCA (plan-do-check-act) cycle.
Employ a model of organizational health checks and seek to assess
employees’ awareness regarding their careers and work-life balance, as
well as the penetration of the institution (school) vision, management
policy, and so forth. Use the survey to identify issues to be addressed at
each worksite thru-out the institution (school) and to formulate concrete
counter measures to enhance and strengthen the institution (school) and
“HUMAN CAPITAL.”

The Logic Tree for Enhancing Human Capital

References:
https://www.asahigroup-
holdings.com/en/ir/pdf/annual/2016_14.pdf
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hNdxYIDeiKw
Mincer, J. (1981). Human Capital and Economic Growth.
www.nber.org/papers/w0803.pdf

Shultz, T. W. (1961). “Investment in Human Capital,” American

Economic Review.
 INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVATION

Reflection:
Motivation is the answer to the question “ Why we do what we do
?”. The motivation theories try to figure out what the “M ” is in the
equation: “M motivates P” (Motivator motivates the Person). It is one of
most important duty of an entrepreneur to motivate people. (I strongly
believe that motivating people with visionary and shared goals is more
favorable than motivating through tactics, incentives or manipulation
through simple carrot ands tick approaches because motivating with
vision is natural wheras the former is artificial and ephemeral.
Motivation comes from a Latin m over which means to move and
then it’s typically defined as a study of what causes behavior or people’s
perceptions about the causes of behavior and talked about it in terms of
things like needs, or drives, desires, goals, those kinds of things. There’s
sort of some basic dimension to study motivation and can think about
those in terms of underpinning of the causes and then the
manifestations of those causes. So, the causes of behavior can be
considered physiological, psychological or sociological and then those
causes can manifest in terms of certain observable behaviors, cognition
like people’s perceptions or affects their emotional states.
Motivation is the driving force behind student action and engagement
but it can be difficult because students are motivated by multiple
different things so one method may not work for all students. it is often
long process to build motivation. Motivation equals expectation of
success times value of whatever it is you’re trying to do so if you expect
you can do it that’s going to increase motivation. The value of
accomplishing it is going to increase motivation but it’s a “times” so if
either of those is zero, motivation is zero. So in terms of learning
differences how do you understand yourself as a learner and how that
helps you manage your expectation of success is really important.
When we look at motivation from the differences standpoint is when you
see akid who’s not doing what you think they should it’s still important
to figure that out, but part of it is to make sure they’re having the
experiences that are leading to success, right, the repeated success is
what creates intrinsic motivation.
3 Types of motivation and current examples.
 1. Extrinsic Motivation. Doing an activity to attain or avoid a
separate outcome. Chances are, many of the things you do each day
are extrinsically motivated. According to research published
in Contemporary Educational Psychology, “Extrinsic motivation is a
construct that pertains whenever an activity is done in order to attain
some separable outcome.” Like exercising to lose weight, learning to
speak Italian to impress your friends, or getting to work on time to avoid
being yelled at by your boss. “Extrinsic motivation is doing something
for the external rewards you get from it. In your career, this can include
financial gain, benefits, perks and even avoiding getting fired,” says
Shawna Clark, owner of Clark Executive Coaching, a leadership
development company. When you find your inspiration waning, re-
focusing on external rewards is a quick way to recommit to a goal or
activity, whether that be performing well at work or sticking to an
exercise routine. If you find yourself grumbling through your commute
each day (to perform a job you’re not crazy about) try focusing on the
external rewards — be it the paycheck that pays your rent, the health
insurance or even the free fruit in the cafeteria — to get motivated.
2. Intrinsic Motivation. An internal drive for success or sense of
purpose. The journal of Contemporary Educational Psychology defines
intrinsic motivation as doing “an activity for its inherent satisfaction
rather than for some separable consequence. When intrinsically
motivated, a person is moved to act for the fun or challenge entailed
rather than because of external products, pressures, or rewards.”
Hopefully you have a handful of actions you perform each day that fall
under this bucket. Your job may not provide obvious sources of intrinsic
motivation, but perhaps you head out for a run because you enjoy the
experience of unplugging and pounding the pavement or help your
neighbor carry their groceries up the stairs because you genuinely feel
good doing it.
“Intrinsic motivation is doing something because it feels good to you.
You feel internally rewarded for doing it,” says Clark. “In a job, this can
be doing work that feels purposeful, enjoying time with your teammates
or achieving goals you’ve set for yourself.”
3. Family Motivation. Motivated by the desire to provide for
your loved ones. Finding intrinsic motivation isn’t always easy,
especially for those of us who aren't passionate about our work. Luckily,
there is a way to compensate: Think about your family. This has
emerged as a third source of motivation proven to be a strong source of
inspiration — even for those who do not feel intrinsically or extrinsically
motivated to do something.
A new study published in the Academy of Management Journal looked at
a group of factory workers whose jobs entailed performing the same
mundane task day after day, without any rewards for good performance.
You’d think in the absence of both an intrinsic and extrinsic motivator,
the workers would have little incentive to work hard in their roles. But
what the researchers found was that some people who lack both kinds of
motivation are still spurred on by a third factor called “family
motivation.”
Those who identified with the statement “I care about supporting my
family” felt more energized and performed better each day, even when
they didn’t find the work enjoyable and had no financial incentive to
perform it.
“Family motivation can relate to both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. If
family is a top value of yours, then your family can serve as an intrinsic
motivator. If you feel family pressure or obligations, then that's more of
an extrinsic motivator,” says Clark. As organizational psychologist Nick
Tasler says, “Every job — whether you’re washing dishes or performing
kidney surgery — provides us with the opportunity to affirm our
identities as capable, respectable individuals, upon whom the most
important people in our lives can rely.” We’ll keep that in mind next time
we spend the afternoon wrangling our email inboxes.
“Family motivation can relate to both intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. If family is a top value of yours, then your family can serve
as an intrinsic motivator. If you feel family pressure or obligations, then
that's more of an extrinsic motivator,” says Clark.
As organizational psychologist Nick Tasler says, “Every job — whether
you’re washing dishes or performing kidney surgery — provides us with
the opportunity to affirm our identities as capable, respectable
individuals, upon whom the most important people in our lives can rely.”

References:

https://www.nbcnews.com/better/health/3-types-motivation-can-inspire-
you-
do-anything-ncna781826.

https://www.scribd.com/document/274197881/A-Brief-Introduction-to-
Motivation-Theory-pdf

Leadership (2018). Central.com. All rights reserved.

Steinhilber, B. (2017). 3 types of motivation that can inspire you to do

anything.
 PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF MOTIVATION

Reflection:
Motivation is hard to come by. There’s always another task,
another project, another objective–and any motivation you manage to
scrape together for one thing is absent for the next. But motivation
isn’t a resource–at least not in the way the language surrounding
motivation suggests. Motivation is a response to stimuli, and that
response isn’t always the same. Different stimuli trigger different parts
of the brain and motivate us toward productivity in different ways. So
instead of wishing for motivation or hunting for more motivation, it
might be more helpful to think about the different types of motivators
we experience, and what’s going on in our brains when we experience
them.
Over the years, neuroscientists and psychologists have
established that we generally experience motivation when dopamine–a
neurotransmitter that relays signals between brain cells–is released
and travels to the nucleus accumbens. The nucleus accumbens is an
area of the brain that mediates reward behavior: So when dopamine
reaches the nucleus accumbens, it solicits feedback on whether a good
thing or a bad thing is about to happen. As Kimberly Schaufenbuel ,
program director of UNC Executive Development, explains, this
prediction prompts us to respond in ways that either “minimize a
predicted threat (the bad) or maximize a predicted reward (the good).”
So if you get an email from your boss with a new assignment,
dopamine hits up the nucleus accumbens to form a prediction of what
will happen if you do the assignment or not, or if you do it well or
poorly. With that prediction in place, you’ll either act to increase the
probability of reward (payment, praise, sense of accomplishment) or
decrease the probability of punishment (demotion, yelling, sense of
failure).
Motivational issues are important for education organizations
because motivation is major factor of students’ learning process.
Learning is one of determination factors of development of students’
personality. Interest to learn is product of some factors which are depend
on personality, ability of individual, exclusivities of obligation,
encouragers and other environmental factors. Also, education experts
have reported repeatedly that although students are very similar in
terms of talent and ability to learn but they are acting differently from
each other in academic development and informal activities. After years
from Mac Kllnd research, many studies have been conducted to further
investigate around the nature and effects of motivation. Some of these
studies examined the characteristics of individuals and discovered that
they have development motivation; it means that this people are acted
in a special and certain ways. People who have high development
motivation believe in excellence for its own sake not because they are
interested in seeking the reward. They are interested in progress for
achieving to personal growth not group working. They prefer choose
expert people instead friends as their colleague. They prefer situations
that can accept personal responsibility for the results of their efforts. Bal
believed in that people who have high level of development motivation
always have more concerned about the medium-term future instead of
long term future because they have longer prospect about future and
future rewards compared with the other people. They prefer big rewards
in future instead of smaller rewards in present time. Perhaps, because of
this exact awareness about over the time, these people believe in that
time runs fast and they don’t have enough time for finishing all
obligations. There are different perspectives on individual motivation
that are included: behavioral, cognitive and social perspectives.
Therefore, cognitive perspective believes in that shouldn’t
emphasis on external pressure. Cognitive Vision recommended that
should be given more opportunities to students for controlling the
cognitive outcomes. R.W White theory was adapted with cognitive
perspective of motivation; he introduced the definition of Competence
Motivation. Competence motivation refers to the fact that people are
excited to deal with their environment effectively, having control on the
world of around of them and processing data efficiently. White believes
that people do not do these works for taking necessities of life
advantage. They do it because of exist of internal motivation for
interacting with their environment effectively.

References:

Antin, J. & Churchill, E. F.(2011): Badges in Social Media - A Social

Psychological Perspective, Proceedings of the CHI 2011,
Vancouver.

Heckhausen, H.(1977): Achievement motivation and its constructs:

A
cognitive model, Motivation and Emotion.

Hidi, S., Renninger, K.A., Krapp, A. (2004): Interest, a Motivational

Variable
That Combines Affective and Cognitive Functioning, In.

https://www.fastcompany.com/90217110/here-are-the-4-types-of-
motivation-and-what-they-do-to-your-brain.

http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/motivation/7-most-important-types-of-
motivation-business-management/5379.

Byabangard, I. (1990), Educational Psychology (Psychology of Learning),

Tehran, Verayesh, page 583.

Mccoubrey, C. (2001). "R. W. White, 96; Put Focus on Personality". New

York Times. Retrieved.

Slavin, R (2006) Educational Psychology, Psychology Press,

Effective Organization.
 White, R. W. (September 1959). "Motivation reconsidered: The concept of
competence". Psychological Review. 66 (5): 297–
333. doi:10.1037/h0040934.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Reflection:

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs says that all human behavior can be

explained by motivation. It is a motivational theory that explains why
humans do the things. In the 1950’s Abraham Maslow developed this
theory called the Hierarchy of Needs and it can be shapes like a
pyramid. He says that it is very important for human development.
This pyramid also has steps and so the humans has to climb these steps,
but you just can’t around this pyramid, you have to go step by step. You
cannot go all the way to the top without completing the previous step.
These steps are psychological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem
needs, self-actualization needs, and transcendence needs. Those can be
broken down into basic needs, psychological needs and self-fulfillment
needs. Let’s imagine a person. Now this person’s one job is to stay
alive. So the first step on that pyramid is physiological needs. This I
anything for survival. This person needs to survive at all costs so, that
includes having enough oxygen. You just can’t jump in water and stay
there forever. You need to breath, sleep, food anything that is vital for
survival. Once that step is fulfilled that person can go to the next step.
The next step is safety needs, that’s your need for safety and security.
So, in the wilderness say this could include shelter. You need to not
always be anxious about predators attacking you. In the modern world,
we aren’t too concerned about predators so this can include job security.
How can I be sure that I can get enough money to buy food for survival?
That’s why sometimes we take the job that we don’t want just so we can
feel secure. Once that step is fulfilled the human can go to the next step
which is social needs. Social needs include acceptance, intimacy,
friendship, relationship, giving and receiving love. Now what helps us
survive better? We survive better if we are in group. Better defense of
predators, ways to get food, more offspring. This is obviously subjective
for each person. Some people may need more friends than others.
Some people may need to feel more accepted than others. With you
Maria, I remember you saying that you don’t want kids. So, maybe an
animal companion may suffice while for other people they want kids and
they want that offspring so a romantic relationship is what they need.
Once that step is fulfilled this moved to the next step which is esteem
needs. This is firmly stable and high evaluation of yourself or high self
esteem. It is also a kind of a high evaluation in the eyes of others. This
is also subjective so if you think that you have a good job, good
education, lots of money and you see yourself as that then you have
high self esteem and if you think that others see yourself as that, then
you have good high self reputation. After that step is fulfilled, we move
to the next step which is self actualization and Maslow describes this as
finding what you’re best fitted for. Even though you may have a good
job, you may have a lot of money, people like you, you may feel this
urging sense that you’re not doing what you’re meant to be doing.
Maslow again describes this as an artist needing to paint. So if an artist
is doing a doctor’s job he’s not going to feel self-fulfilled. This artist
need to paint. Another name for this is first world problems. So the next
step is transcendence . this was later added by Maslow in the 70’s. it’s a
kind of this going beyond yourself state. Being very altruistic, very
spiritual. It’s more of being charitable and helping the community. So, is
this really why we do things? Does this explain every aspect of our
behavior? Scientifically, these things can’t be empirically measured so
its vert hard to tell. There’s no way to measure if each individual has
gone thru these steps. Maslow himself tried to find people who were
self-fulfilled thru biographies like Thomas Jefferson, but a problem with
that is that he has researcher bias. Another researcher might read his
biography and say no Thomas Jefferson was not self-fulfilled. That is
another criticism of the study. Other studies have seen this hierarchy in
other cultures but, maybe in a different order. Furthermore, other
studies have shown that it is very much pluralistic. I can be hungry and
find my passion. I don’t necessarily have to go thru these steps one by
one.

References;
Bernstein, L. (1959). New York,. Abraham Maslow, Motivation and
Personality,
2d ed., Harper & Row, New York,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6P0A0YBBjow

Goble, F.T, (1970). Third Force, Grossman, New York,

Martin, D. & Joomis, J. (2007). Building Teachers: A constructivist

Approach to
Introducing Education. Belmont, CA.

Maslow, A. (1970), “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychological

Review, Vol. 50, .

Neher, A. (1991). “Maslow’s Theory of Motivation: A Critique,” Journal of

Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 31, No. 3.
 MOTIVATION THEORIES (OTHER THEORIES OF MOTIVATION)

Reflection:

Motivation is one of the key factors driving us towards achieving

something. Without motivation, we will do nothing. Therefore,
motivation is one of the key aspects when it comes to corporate
management. In order to achieve the best business results, the
organization or any institution for that matter needs to keep employees
motivated.
The Following are the other motivational theories practiced in the
modern world:
1. Acquired Needs Theory: According to this theory, people are
motivated by the greed for power, achievement and affiliation. By
offering empowerment, titles and other related tokens, people can be
motivated for doing their work.
2. Activation Theory: Humans can be aroused by their nature, In
this motivation theory, the arousal is used for keeping the people
motivated. Take an army as an example. The arousal for eliminating the
enemy is a good motivation factor.
3. Affect Perseverance: Let’s take an example. An employee is
attracted to a company due to its reputation. Once the employee
starts working, he/she develops loyalty towards the company. Later,
due to some issue, the company loses its reputation, but employee’s
loyalty remains.
4. Attitude-Behaviour Consistency: In this motivation theory, the
alignment of attitude and behaviour is used for motivating people.
5. Attribution Theory: The urge people have to attribute is used
as a motivational factor. Usually, people like to attribute oneself as well
as thers in different context. This need is used for motivation in
this theory. As an example, getting one’s name published in a magazine
is a good motivation for the same person to engage further in writing.
6. Cognitive Dissonance: This theory emphasizes the fact that the
non-alignment to something could make people uncomfortable and
eventually motivate them to do the right thing.
7. Cognitive Evolution Theory: This could be considered as the most
widely use motivation theory across many domains. When we select
tasks to complete, we chunk them down to be doable tasks. The person
is motivated to do the tasks as they as simply doable.
 8. Consistency Theory: This theory uses our internal values for
keeping us motivated. As an example, if we promise to do something,
we will feel bad about not doing it.
9. Control Theory: Giving the control to someone is one of the
best ways to motivate them. People are thrilled to have control over
things.
10. Disconfirmation Bias: People can be motivated by keeping
them in an environment which is in alignment with what they
believe.
11. Drive Theory: People’s need to satisfy their needs is used
in this theory. As an example, imagine a case where a person is hungry
in an unknown house and find some food under the staircase. When the
same person feels hungry at some other unknown issue house, the
person may look under the staircase.
12. Endowed Progress Effect: This motivation theory uses the
progress as the motivation factor.
13. Escape Theory: Keeping the person in the wrong place may
motivate that person to escape from that Place. This is sometimes used
in corporate environments for employees to find where they really
belong.
14. Extrinsic Motivation: This is also one of the most used
theories in the corporate world. The employee is motivated through
rewards.
15. Goal Setting Theory: Desire to achieve goals is the driving
force behind this motivation theory. For example, asking a production
manager to cut costs by 90 percent might be overwhelming. Cutting
costs by 20 percent might make a reasonable challenge. Similarly,
requiring order takers to double the amount of orders they take in an
hour could discourage them. A goal of 15 percent more orders per hour
might be more reasonable and challenging.
 16. Investment Model: The organization gets the employees
to invest on certain things. If you have invested on something, you will
be motivated to enhance and improve it.
Positive Psychology: This way, employees are motivated by making
them happy when it comes to environment, rewards, personal space
etc.. For example, the husband forgot the anniversary but he is working
very hard so that they can go on there dream vacation. The point is to
make this exercise work for you and fit it into your lifestyle. And
remember that when we habituate to certain things, their impact might
diminish, so coming up with ways of keeping the strategy fresh will also
affect its outcome.
17. Reactance Theory: reducing the salary of a low
performer and later setting goals to get the salary back is one
of the examples for this type of motivation. For instance, Charlie's mom
tells him to wear his dress shoes instead of his sneakers to church.
Suddenly, wearing the sneakers seems like a much more attractive
choice because of his mother's insistence that he not wear them. In
choosing to wear sneakers instead, Charlie protects his freedom by
doing what his mother told him not to do.
Motivation Theories suggest many ways of keeping the employees
motivated on what they do. Although, a manager is not required to learn
all these motivation theories, having an idea of certain theories may be
an advantage for day-to day activities. These theories give the
managers a set of
techniques that they can try out in the corporate environments. Some
of these
theories have been used in business for decades, although we do not
know them Explicitly. These theories are use to motivate employees or
staff for greater productivity through enhanced performance.
References:
https://yourbusiness.azcentral.com/examples-business-goalsetting-
theory-21287.html.

Johnson, K. ( ). Ameriprise Financial, the Rutgers University MBA

 program. New York Daily Times.

Mind Tools: Locke’s Goal Setting Theory, University of Washington.

Management Study Guide: Goal Setting Theory of Motivatio n.
Winter, K.A. (2012). Career Goals and Actions of Early Engineering
Graduates. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blachburg, VA.
 ENHANCING THE ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE/ CULTURE
Organization Climate/ Culture and its Significance to Educational
Development

Reflection:
The concept of organizational climate has been developed by
Lewin, Lippitt and White (1939) The aim is to identify and indicate
climate factors that affect organizational creativity. Therefore, testing
organizational climate has become more interesting issue. School
culture: beliefs, values, traditions, behavioral patterns, safety practices,
climate, environment, the way things are done.
Climate is what members of the organization experience, and
culture is a reflection of the values of the organization. The climate is
variable, determined by organizational and psychological processes,
which, in turn, affect the overall performance and good results of the
organization. Noticed when conducting research that organizational
climate had a significant impact on job satisfaction and productivity.
Therefore, the climate can be a modifier that increases or decreases the
effects of the entity. Organizational processes include group problem-
solving, decision making, communication and coordination. Therefore,
organizational climate factors (e.g. the external environment in which
the organization operates, the resources available within the
organization, as well as its culture and management practices) can play
an important role in bringing organizational creativity, including the
employee. Meanwhile, the psychological processes include learning in
the organization, individual problem solving, creating, motivating and
commitment.
 If culture is the personality of the organization, then climate
represents that organization’s attitude. It is much easier to change an
organization’s attitude (climate) than it is to change its personality
(culture).
Essentials of School Culture: Focus on reflection, Democratic
governance, Clear policies and expectations for behavior, Student
leadership, Respect and caring, Diversity recognized and celebrated,
Pick Me Ups (formal time to start each day as a community), Rituals (e.g.
new student orientation; alumni reunions; etc.), Students are
comfortable talking with adults about academic and personal issues, Low
dropout rate, Emphasis on professional development/life-long learning
for staff members.
Key Elements that Frame School Culture: Structure, powerful ,work
ethics (attitude, common sense, competence, gratitude, initiative,
Integrity, perseverance, professionalism, reliability, respect), common
behavioral and academic expectations for students and staff, trust, staff
and parent empowerment. Establish Structure: Mission, Vision,
Transparency, Expectations, Establish Decision Making Policies, Common
Knowledge, Staff Development, Shared Goals, Evaluation.
Uncommon in the world is to examine the organizational climate of
higher education institutions as a source of creativity of students and
working scientists. This seems to be very interesting issue because the
education system should create chances and opportunities to develop
creative competence. It's the degree of orientation of universities and
staff employed there, including degree of their creativity, depends on
how students, and thus potential employees of the future will have
competences enabling them for creativity and employment in the
creative sectors. The modern trend of the world economy sees creativity
as a resource, values that determine development at the country, region
or company / institutional level.

References:
 A Resource and Promising Practices Guide for School Administrators &
Faculty: Section I: School Climate and Culture; New York State
Education Department.

Bambrick-Santoyo. (2014). Build a meaningful student culture from Day

One. Kappan 95(8), 72-73.

Gruenert, S. (2008). School Culture, School Climate: They Are Not the
Same Thing. Principal, March/April 2008, National Association of
Elementary School Principals.

Habegger, S (2008). The Principals Role in Successful Schools: Creating

a Positive School Culture. Principal, September/October 2008,
National Association of Elementary School Principals.

Kuntz, B (2012) ASCD Community: Create a Positive School Culture.

Volume 54, Number 9, (formerly the Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development).

ASSESSING ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE/CULTURE AND ITS

USE FOR EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Reflection:

Organizational culture and climate are integral components of the

school improvement process. They affect decisions throughout all
phases of that process. In turn, they are affected by the decisions made
in all phases of the process. Although amorphous and complex enough
to cause both contradictory and confusing discussions in the professional
knowledge base, culture and climate are very real, very powerful forces
in organizations. Although difficult to measure precisely, both constructs
can be discerned within an organization if the evaluator has sufficient
time and access to witness the daily behaviors of members of the
organization and probe deeply as to the values, beliefs, and fundamental
assumptions underlying those behaviors. Leaders of school improvement
processes can utilize the information gained through the assessment of
the school's climate and culture to help guide each phase of the change
process, from determining the school's readiness for change to selecting
the types of improvements most likely to be compatible with the
organization's climate and culture, from implementing the improvements
to ensuring that they become institutionalized. Despite considerable
discussion in the professional knowledge base as to how feasible it is to
make significant changes in a school's climate or culture, in some cases
it is the climate or culture, itself, which most needs to be changed if true
school improvement is to occur. Through judicious use, over time, of
power/coercive, rational/empirical, and, primarily, normative/re-
educative change strategies, school leaders can shape and develop
cultures and climates that are in harmony with, and supportive of, the
desired organizational changes.
Organizational Climate is a fundamental construct in work and
organizational settings, as it provides an appropriate context for
studying organizational behavior, allowing the exploration of individual
and group behaviors. Relationships between organizational climate
and variables related to behavior and attitudes and since then, a large
number of empirical studies have linked this construct with diverse
factors, such as job satisfaction, commitment, psychological well-being,
absenteeism, psychosocial risks, or violence at the workplace. Relations
have also been found between organizational climate and various types
of performance in organizations, including economic (profitability,
productivity, etc.), technological (development of new products, etc.),
commercial (market share, specific niches, etc.) and social (effects on
consumers, supplies, and general public).
The most common way of assessing organizational climate0 is
through self-reports covering of several subdimensions that make up the
construct. However, there is no unanimous agreement on the
dimensions comprising the organizational climate construct identified
eight key dimensions: autonomy, cohesion, trust, pressure, support,
recognition, impartiality, and innovation.
The most common way of assessing organizational conflict is
through self-reports covering of several subdimensions that make up the
construct. However, there is no unanimous agreement on the
dimensions comprising the organizational climate construct identified
eight key dimensions: autonomy, cohesion, trust, pressure, support,
recognition, impartiality, and innovation. Having an organizational
climate instrument with an essentially one-dimensional structure will
facilitate its application, comprehension, and norms development, and
will provide an accurate diagnosis of the working environment.
A school's culture and climate can interact with the school
improvement process in many ways and in all phases of that
improvement process. The traditional change-path straight forward to
the future illustrates a typical school improvement process, which
progresses from a planning phase to implementation, and eventually to
institutionalization of the desired changes. As in reality, school
improvement processes are not as linear as diagrams such as: The
traditional change-path straight forward to the future suggest. However,
the basic phases of the model offer a useful structure for examining
potential interactions between the process and the school's climate and
culture.

Revise School Base Management Tools:

I. Leadership and Governance. A network of leadership and
governance guides the education system to achieve its shared vision,
mission and goals making them responsive and relevant to the context
of diverse environments.
II. Curriculum and Instruction. The curriculum learning systems
anchored on the community and learner’s contexts and aspirants are
collaboratively developed and continuously improved
III. Accountability and continuous Improvement. A clear, transparent,
inclusive, and responsive accountability system is in place,
collaboratively developed by the school community, which monitors
performance and acts appropriately on gaps and gains.
 IV. management of Resources. Resources are collectively and
judiciously mobilized and managed with transparency, effectiveness, and
efficiency

References:
Barth, R. (1990). Improving schools from within: Teachers, parents, and
principals can make a difference. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Beach, R. H., & Lindahl, R. (2004). A critical review of strategic planning:

Panacea for public education? The Journal of School Leadership,
14(2), 211-234.

Burke, W. W. (2002). Organization change: Theory and practice.

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Fullan, M. G., with Stiegelbauer, S. (1991). The new meaning of

educational change (2nd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.

Maehr, M. L., & Buck, R. M. (1993). Transforming school culture. In M.

Shaskin & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Educational leadership and school
culture I (pp. 40 - 60).

Stoll, L., & Fink, D. (1996). Changing our schools: Linking school
effectiveness and school improvement. Buckingham, England: Open
University Press.

Schnake, M.E. (1983). An empirical assessment of the effects of affective

response in the measurement of organizational climate. Personnel
Psychology, 36, 791-807.

ESTABLISHING AND SUSTAINING A CULTURE OF

EXCELLENCE

Reflection:

Every employee must understand not only the organization’s

vision, but also know their own roles, responsibilities and the specific
actions they need to take in order to help achieve this vision. In a
Culture of Excellence, employees feel that what they are working on is
meaningful, significant, and purpose-based. Every employee is
supported and encouraged to become a master in their role and area of
expertise. Employees develop the flexibility and resilience to deal with
change, challenge and uncertainty. Top Level
Management/Administrators support their teams in staying focused and
on track, despite difficulties and challenges. Every employee and all
teams are working together toward a common organizational vision,
hence, they feel they are on the same side. Employees and teams are
encouraged to explore, nurture and co-create to achieve common goals.
In establishing and sustaining a culture of excellence: recognize the
need for change (Identify compelling reasons for culture change and the
broad desired outcomes.
Top leaders should communicate their vision of required changes
and a set of appropriate strategies to attain them); Diagnose existing
organizational culture (Assess the characteristics of the existing
organizational culture: the way in which quality is viewed, talked about
and interpreted in the organization. Decide which current values, beliefs
and norms can be retained and which need to be changed); Determine
the desired culture which supports organizational vision and strategy (
Ensure that the new culture is aligned with organizational vision and
strategy); Communicate the desired culture to all organizational
members (Messages communicated should be few and compelling-
centered upon organizational vision, goals and core values); Modeling of
desired behavior by leaders(Leaders must model the desired behavior in
what they say and do; they must practice what they preach); Conducting
appropriate training at all levels to imbibe new culture (Training is
essential to secure organizational commitment to quality improvement
efforts, minimize resistance to change, and to enable employees to
handle new task demands); Reinforcing the desired behavior (To
accelerate and sustain the cultural change process, the desired behavior
of employees should be reinforced); Evaluating progress towards desired
culture (Continually monitor and evaluate the cultural change efforts to
determine if the desired behavior were attained) . How to Build a Culture
of Excellence in Your Organization: To creating a Culture of Excellence
that both creates an immediate impact, and is sustainable over the long
term. The answer is a unique three-phase approach:
Phase 1: Mindset of Excellence. The first step in building a
corporate culture that will drive a high performance organization is to
create a mindset that will engage and align every employee with your
vision, mission and values, and leave them speaking a common
language of excellence. You will build a new capacity for growth. Your
employees will think in more creative and innovate ways, and will
develop the tolerance to continue to move forward despite challenges,
change and potential distractions.
Phase 2: Strategies for Excellence. With the new mindset of
excellence in place, your teams will be ready to focus on achieving their
specific goals and plans for performance excellence. This phase is all
about growth—building the skills and competencies required to grow the
business.
Phase 3: Sustaining Excellence. When the first two phases are
complete, and you have a strong collective mindset of excellence in
place, alignment around performance goals and the skills and
competencies required to deliver excellence, it’s time to focus on
developing strong leadership to ensure that the new mindset and
performance skills learned are sustainable and simply become the way
things are done. This is a critical step often missed in organizations— but
is required to ensure that employees don’t revert back to old habits.
Strategies for Excellence, and Sustaining Excellence. Creating a
culture that encourages, accelerates, and sustains quality, improvement,
and performance excellence is a challenging – yet critical – role for
leaders. But the research is consistent and compelling: if leaders focus
on only a handful of key areas – those eight listed above – they’ll have a
much greater chance of inspiring, cultivating, achieving, and sustaining
high performance.

“The Greatest Danger for most of us is not that we Aim too High
and we Miss It, but we Aim too Low and we Reach It.”
 – Michelangelo.

References:

Burke, W.W., Litwin, G.H. (1992). A causal model of organisational

performance and change. Journal of Management, 8(3), 523–
546

Dessler G., Turner, A. (1992). Human Resource Management in Canada.

Prentice-Hall Canada Inc.: Scarborough, Ontario.

Giri, V. N., Kumar, B. P. (2007). Organizational commitment, climate and

job satisfaction: An empirical study. The ICFAI Journal of
Organizational Behaviour, 6, 7-17.

Hershberger, S.L., Lichtenstein, P., Knox, S.S. (1994). Genetic and

Environmental Influences on Perceptions of Organizational
Climate, Journal of Applied Psychology.

http://twitter.com/LassiterBrian.

www.performanceexcellencenetwork.org.

http://go.dynamicachievement.com/blog/six-key-characteristics-of-a-
culture-of-excellence
 ASSESSING ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE/CULTURE AND ITS
USE FOR EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Reflection:

It is essential to recognize that large-scale organizational

improvement does not occur in a vacuum or sterile environment. It
occurs in human systems, organizations, which already have beliefs,
assumptions, expectations, norms, and values, both idiosyncratic to
individual members of those organizations and shared. School culture
and climate are integral components of the school improvement process.
They affect decisions throughout all phases of that process. In turn, they
are affected by the decisions made in all phases of the process. Although
amorphous and complex enough to cause both contradictory and
confusing discussions in the professional knowledge base, culture and
climate are very real, very powerful forces in organizations. Although
difficult to measure precisely, both constructs can be discerned within an
organization if the evaluator has sufficient time and access to witness
the daily behaviors of members of the organization and probe deeply as
to the values, beliefs, and fundamental assumptions underlying those
behaviors. Leaders of school improvement processes can utilize the
information gained through the assessment of the school's climate and
culture to help guide each phase of the change process, from
determining the school's readiness for change to selecting the types of
improvements most likely to be compatible with the organization's
climate and culture, from implementing the improvements to ensuring
that they become institutionalized. Despite considerable discussion in
the professional knowledge base as to how feasible it is to make
significant changes in a school's climate or culture, in some cases it is
the climate or culture, itself, which most needs to be changed if true
school improvement is to occur. Through judicious use, over time, of
power/coercive, rational/empirical, and, primarily, normative/re-
educative change strategies, school leaders can shape and develop
cultures and climates that are in harmony with, and supportive of, the
desired organizational changes.
Many school leaders have consciously recognized the need to
change the climate and/or culture of their school and have set out to do
so. In the private sector, some organizations have taken what may be
the most direct approach - removing certain members of the
organization and selecting and socializing new members of the
organization who already have values and belief systems consonant with
the desired culture. In schools, however, tenure or continuing contract
laws, student and teacher rights, community pressure, and a host of
other factors mitigate against this as a feasible approach. This approach
to cultural change clearly falls into the trap identified by who sagely
noted that many approaches to cultural change are too simplistic and
promise too much.
As noted, organizational culture changes are generally neither
wholly revolutionary nor evolutionary. This recalls three approaches to
change: (a) power/coercive; (b) empirical/rational; and (c) normative/re-
educative. When applied to changing climates and cultures, all three can
be utilized. The first two approaches can be utilized to change behaviors
recommended as the starting point in cultural change. However,
power/coercive changes are more likely to result in compliance, not true
cultural change. Once behavior has been changed, it is necessary to
address the deeper, more change-resistant levels of the culture, e.g.,
values and beliefs. To make changes at these levels, normative/re-
educative approaches are needed. Normative/re-educative approaches
to cultural change require extended periods of time and sustained,
virtually daily, efforts by those leading the school improvement effort. As
many authorities on organizational culture note, one of the primary ways
leaders can gradually accomplish normative/re-educative change is
simply through the deliberate, consistent attention they focus on specific
behaviors, values and fundamental assumptions . it discussed the
importance of clarifying shared beliefs and values and motivating by
moral imperatives. It is further emphasized the importance of clarifying
shared beliefs and values and of motivating by moral imperatives.
Discussions on the essentiality of leaders modeling behaviors and values
should be consistently. Modeling is especially essential as leaders deal
with organizational crises or handle conflict.

References:

Allen, R. F. (1985). Four phases for bringing about cultural change.In R. H.

Kilman, M.J. Saxton, & R. Serpa (Eds)., Gaining control of the
corporate culture (pp. 332-350). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Barth, R. (1990). Improving schools from within: Teachers, parents, and

principals can make a difference. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Hopkins, D. (2001). School improvement for real. London: Falmer Press.

Maehr, M. L., & Buck, R. M. (1993). Transforming school culture. In M.

Shaskin & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Educational leadership and school
culture I (pp. 40 - 60).

Stoll, L., & Fink, D. (1996). Changing our schools: Linking school
effectiveness and school improvement. Buckingham, England: Open
University Press.

Thompson, K. R., & Luthans, F. (1990). Organizational culture: A

behavioral perspective. In B. Schneider (Ed.), Organizational climate
and culture (pp. 319-344). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
 FOUR TYPES OF CONFLICT

Reflection:
First, there has been renewed debate about human nature and the
roots of intergroup violence and warfare in evolutionary biology, in
psychology, and in anthropology. The “ordinary man” hypothesis
explains why and how humans justify and participate in violence and
atrocities. Second, in addition to interstate wars, political scientists have
been studying insurgencies, ethnic cleansing, civil wars, genocide, ethnic
riots, and other modes of violence called “new wars.” Based on hundreds
of case studies, comparative research and large quantitative data sets,
they have theorized about the root causes and dynamics of these
conflicts, and about prevention, deterrence, conflict management, and
peace making. Third, the social movement and collective action field in
sociology developed a mobilization theory for explaining why and how
relatively powerless groups confront regimes, how the dynamics of
confrontations escalate to civil strife, what outcomes result, and whether
violence was necessary for change. All three research traditions
contribute insights and findings for conflict theory. In the conclusion, I
argue that a theory of conflict should integrate group with state/regime
centered analysis (micro with the macro), give more weight to dynamics
than to root causes, and make conflict management an equal partner
with violent conflict.
Types of Conflict:
 External Conflict. A struggle between the character and an outside
force. Two characters fighting. A character who tries to find a safe place
during a storm. External conflict can be conflict with: another person,
an animal or force of nature, society
Internal Conflict. A struggle that takes place in a character's heart
or mind. For example, a character may have to decide between right
and wrong or between two solutions to a problem. A character who has
to make a tough choice or decision. A character has to decide whether
to do the right or wrong.
1. Person vs. Person. When the person (character) experiences
conflict with another character in the story. (External) Example: William
Shakespeare’s play Othello represents a case of man versus man. There
are other conflicts, such as the racism in the society, but the key
struggles are between Othello and his confidant Iago. Iago is upset with
Othello for two main reasons—Othello has promoted another man
instead of Iago, and Iago believes that Othello has slept with his wife,
Emilia. Iago therefore sets up scenarios in which Othello confronts
insurmountable obstacles. Ultimately, since Iago wants to destroy
Othello and his happiness, he and Othello are at odds in their desires.
Othello, however, remains unaware that they are in conflict until it is too
late, falsely believing that he is in conflict instead with his wife
Desdemona and her supposed lover.
2. Person vs. Self. When the character experiences conflict in
his/her heart or mind. {internal}. Example: Arthur Miller’s play Death of
a Salesman is a tragedy in that all of the main characters are deluding
themselves about reality. Willy is the eponymous salesman, and
patriarch of the Loman family. He and his wife are under the delusion
that he is a well-liked and successful salesman and that his company is
glad to have him. Unfortunately, when Willy tries to get a job promotion
he is instead fired. While there are external conflicts in how Willy is
treated, the main conflict is between Willy and the delusions he has. This
comes out even more starkly when he begins to hallucinate and talk to
himself. As is foreshadowed in the title, Willy cannot overcome his
conflict with himself and commits suicide, believing that this is the only
way he can lessen the burden on his family.
3. Person vs. Nature. When the person (character) experiences
conflict with aspects of nature (such as weather, animals, etc.)
{external}Example: The Old English epic poem Beowulf is the tale of
the eponymous hero who must defeat three monsters. These monsters
include Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and a dragon. The three monsters
are not human and represent the fears that the Anglo-Saxons had about
the natural world and its ability to destroy humanity. In turning the
natural world into monsters that could be vanquished, the tale
of Beowulf helped appease some of these fears.
4. Person vs. Fate (Society). When the person (character)
experiences conflict with aspects in society out of his control (such as
the law, rules set in society, etc.) {external}. Margaret Atwood’s
novel The Handmaid’s Tale is a futuristic dystopia in which the
protagonist must confront the incredibly unjust world in which she is
living. This society, which is set in the former United States of America,
is a theocratic dictatorship in which women are subjugated. The
protagonist, Offred, and other “handmaids” are actually concubines
given to couples in the ruling class who are infertile. Offred finds out
about a resistance network and does what she can to overthrow the
ruling class.

References:
Burstein, P. (1998). Discrimination, Jobs and Politics. Chicago: Chicago
University Press.

http://www.literarydevices.com/conflict/

Piven, F, & Cloward, R. (1977). Poor People’s Movements: Why They

Succeed,
How They Fail. New York: Vintage.

Schelling, T. (1963). The Strategy of Conflict. New York: Oxford University

Press
 Wallensteen, P. (2002). Understanding Conflict Resolution. Thousand
Oaks
CA: Sage.

CREDITS:

Sincere thanks to the following classmates who shared their time and efforts
and softcopies of their presentation reports in PHDEL 604 – Perspectives in the Ecology
of School Administration. Much more to our Professor Sir Cesar A. Adegue IV & the UIC
Grad School:

1. Organizational theories.
By: Aileen Grace L. Ang
2. General system theory
By: Kirk Heruela
3. Roles Theory, Modern Structure Organization Theory
By: Ma. Chrystella Zuzette I. Velasco
4. Enhancing Human Capital (Values, Attitude and Job Satisfaction)
By: Josefina D. Ortega
5. Enhancing human capital
By: Antonio T. Joyno
6. Introduction to motivation
By: Jeson J. Reyes
7. Other theories of motivation
 By: Maria Lourdes P. Songkit
8. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
By:
9. Psychological perspectives on motivation
By: Melchora E. Marzo
10. Enhancing the organizational climate/culture
Organizational climate/Culture and it’s significance to education
By: Jorge R. Alfante
11. Assessing organizational climate/culture and It’s use for educational
development
By:
12. Establishing and sustaining a culture of excellence
By: Pene G. Oxales
13. Four types of conflict
By: Mario S. Lozada
14. Organizational conflict
By: Radee King R. Corpuz, RN
15. Organizational Change (Impact to education, Rational approach to change,
The power coercive approach of changing)
By: Pilariza
16. Organizational Change (Force field analysis, Total quality management and
organizational change, Mechanism or tools on identifying issues and
providing for its solution)
By: Ramirez
17. Communication (Fundamentals of communication)
By: Escol
18. Communication (Common barriers in communication)
By: Epondo
19. Communication (Communication in organizational context, New
communication approaches for organizational development)
By: Catalan
20. Power and Politics (Power and the concept of delegation, Types of power and
power bases, Power in groups and power of individuals-establishing
coalition)
By: Blaise
21. Power and Politics (Navigating politics, Politics as power in action)
By: Pagangon

22. Planning and Implementation of Development (Vision and Mission, Matrix for
Key Result Area/s( KRAs), Objectives and strategies, Time line, Responsible
person or office/budget
By: Beñales
23. Planning and Implementation of Development (Simplified strategic plan
matrix, Supervision and evaluation matrix)
By; Manos
24. Sample Strategic Plan
By: Castro

#Radee King R. Corpuz