Summary to mark tonicity, tonality and tone.

Tonicity:

❖ Function words that attract the nucleus:

⮚ Narrow focus: yes-no answers and tags; an answer
to a yes-no question involves narrow focus on polarity
and the word that indicates it.
⮚ Prepositions: there are 2 circumstances where in broad
focus the nucleus is located on a prepositions.
When the preposition functions as the complement
of to be: what is it for?
When a preposition is immediately following a wh-
word: what about it?
⮚ Wh + to be: how are you? – tell me how you are.
❖ Words that attract the nucleus:
⮚ o’clock
⮚ hours
⮚ dollars
⮚ too
⮚ as well
⮚ also
⮚ either
⮚ indeed
⮚ anyway
⮚ anyhow
❖ Empty words and pro-forms do not bear the nucleus
Things, people, that woman/ man, the following noun after
some, one, some and any when it’s used as pro-forms.
❖ Vocatives: a vocative at the beginning of an utterance is
accented. The final vocative is usually not accented but
attached to the preceding IP.
❖ Focus: (the concentration of attention on a particular part of the
message). We can either bring everything into focus (BROAD
FOCUS) or we can focus selectively on one part of it
(NARROW FOCUS). The part of the IP that is placed in focus is
 called the FOCUS DOMAIN. The nucleus marks the end of a
focus domain; the onset may tell us where it begins.
⮚ Contrastive focus: (particular kind of narrow focus) the
nuclear accent draws attention to a contrast the speaker
is making. Any word can be accented for contrast. It may
be implicit or explicit.
Pronouns and demonstratives are only accented if they
are placed in contrastive focus.
We may put the nucleus on a given item because we
need to place the item in contrastive focus (for example,
if we want to correct another speaker). If there’s new
information following a contrastive nucleus, it has to be
made onto a separate IP.

Exceptions to the LLI Rule according to Ortiz Lira:

❖ Information status: new information is accented but not old

information.
❖ Event sentences: intransitive verb which denotes
disappearance, appearance or misfortune.
The water’s running – the kettle’s boiling
❖ Nouns + infinitives
I’ve got instructions to leave (= I have to leave instructions)
❖ Wh-questions ending with a verb: the nuclear accent goes
on the noun representing the object of the verb.
How’s the homework going? – Whose advice did you follow?
❖ Final relative clauses
This is the doctor I was telling you about.
❖ Nouns + adjectives/particles
He left the door open. – How often do you have your house
painted?
❖ Transitive verbs + object + verbal particle: Bring in the dog
vs. bring the dog in
Keep your head down
❖ Indirect questions: the nuclear accent foes on the objects of
the verb.
You can’t imagine how much effort Mark put into it.
❖ Subject + passive verb: Classes have been cancelled
❖ Objects of general reference – Nouns of wide denotation:
place, thing, person, colour, time, boy, girl, street, matters.
❖ Final vocatives: they form part of the tail, and go unaccented.
Good morning, Doctor.
❖ Final reporting clauses
I don’t want to go out, he said.
❖ Final adverbials:
⮚ Adverbials of time and place
Autumn seems to be arriving early this year. – There’s a
fly in my soup.
⮚ Adverbials of courtesy: please & thanks in final
position.
I’ve really had enough thank you.
⮚ Adverbs of degree: down-toners reject the nucleus and
intensifiers which are usually accented.
I’m just going out for a bit. Vs. She lost her head
completely.
⮚ Adverbs of proper functioning
She can’t hear properly.
⮚ Sentence adverbials: disjuncts, like naturally,
fortunately, basically; & conjuncts, like though, for
instance, rather
Disjuncts: John speaks English, naturally.
⮚ Non-sentence adverbials
Adjuncts: John speaks English naturally.
❖ Other patterns in broad and narrow focus
⮚ Fossilized expressions: the accent tends to go on the
noun.
To keep one’s fingers crossed
As far as I’m concerned
⮚ Any- in negative statements:
 I don’t think I’m forgetting anything. Vs. I’m not forgetting
anything.
⮚ Reflexive (unaccented) vs. emphatic pronouns
(accented)
Reflexive Pronouns: he won’t worry unless you hurt
yourself.
Emphatic Pronouns: I have to see it for myself.
✔ Typically non-nuclear expressions:
❖ Time-space markers
Time: yet, any more, again, from time to time, today, a minute,
tonight, the other day. E.g. can we sit down for a minute.
Space: general space indicators. E.g. do you coat up while
you’re in here
❖ Cohesion markers
Addition: in fact, as a matter of fact, really, actually. E.g. her
hooter wasn’t that big. Bit like yours really.
Inference: then, so…then, of course. E.g. is sex a problem
then.
Concession: though, if possible. E.g. must have been a bit of a
shock though.
Reinforcement: thank you very much, of course, if necessary,
for example. E.g. bit by bit if necessary.
Contrast: for a change, on other hand. E.g. nice to be on your
own for a change.
❖ Hearer-appeal markers
Softeners or softening-phrases: you know, I mean, then,
thanks, please. E.g. not for me thanks.
Vocatives: don’t fuss man.
Tags: (only when there is a positive host sentence plus a
positive tag). E.g. been working have you?
❖ Textual marker:
Reporting sentences: he/ she said.
Comment clauses: I think, I suppose, I know, I realise, I wonder,
I hope, I imagine. E.g. five I suppose.
 Approximatives: such as in a way, or more, or two, like I did, or
something, and all that, and so on, kind of thing, etc. e.g.
industrial tribunal and all that.
● Tone:

Definitive fall:
 Statements: unmarked and default tone, indicating that what we say is complete,
and we express it with confidence, definitely and unreservedly signaling finality.
 Exclamation: expressions of surprise, anger or excitement always have a fall
(Exclamatory fall) They begin with what or how or other expressions with an
exclamatory mark except for commands which may be written with an exclamation
mark.
 Wh-questions: This is the default tone but it is a businesslike fall.
 Answer: Yes, no and elliptical answers (I do). The default unmarked tone would be
a fall to express agreement with what the other person is saying. Contradictions can
also be said with a definite fall but they imply warmth and solidarity and being
supportive with the other person as in: “You haven´t payed for the coffee. Yes, I
have” (=it´s OK, nothing is wrong)
 Command: Default tone. They are straightforward commands, not warnings. They
are firm, authoritative.
 Interjections and greetings: default tone exclamatory or definitive fall (thank you,
oh good, sure, right) as in: “Unscrew the cylinder head. Right” (=I will). It implies the
potential completion of the conversational interchange. A fall in a greeting is a
straightforward greeting or an exclamation (How nice to see you!) It is more formal.
“Thank you” with a fall expresses genuine gratitude. “Goodbye” with a fall is used to
get rid of an unwelcome guest.

Insistent fall:
● Yes-no questions: with a fall they are marked and it makes the question more
insistent. Also more businesslike, more serious, more threatening. (Did you take the
money) It is also used in guessing games (Do you come from Spain) Also used
when repeating a question because you were not understood (I said, have you
come far?)
● Tag questions: The speaker insists, assumes, or expects that the other person will
agree. He appeals for agreement. You force the other person to agree exercising
control. When tags are attached to exclamations they always have an insistent fall.
(what a surprise, wasn´t it?) After a command a tag with a fall sounds very insistent.
Tag questions included within a statement as parenthesis usually have an insistent
fall. (It´s strange, isn´t it, how she never wants to do her share of the work)
● Elliptical questions: Said with an insistent fall the meaning is slight surprise or
scepticism but accepting the other person has expressed an opinion. It can sound
hostile. (a. There is nothing wrong with greed. b. Isn´t there?) You can also have
reverse polarity negative elliptical yes no question as reaction to a positive
statement (rare) as in: “We really thrashed them this time”. “Yes, didn´t we just!

Reinforcing fall:
● Adverbial: Said with a fall in order to reinforce the sense of the main clause. (“I
promise to love you, for ever” or “You must protest, of course”) “Clearly” or “on the
contrary” “when I am ready” said with a fall are reinforcing (not limiting). Also there
 are some tonality idiomatic expressions used in initial position are said with a fall
even though they are not reinforcing such as:
- at least
- at any rate
- by the way
- incidentally
Rice-fall: The speaker is impressed or expects the listener to be so. (statements,
exclamations and yes-no questions) The other meaning is challenge or disapproval (all
clause types) or ironic (excuse me). With commands, the speaker refuses responsibility,
refuses to be involved (do, take physics then)

Fall plus Rice: the pattern is a very characteristic way for a speaker to emphasize
something early in the utterance while still keeping a nuclear accent in its expected place
on the last lexical item that adds new information. It is particularly common for the first
nuclear accent to go on a word referring to mental state or on an intensifying word. It is
also common for the fall to accent predictable information. the part with the fall contains
the most important idea, while the part with the rise contains an idea of secondary
importance. How do we distinguish the fall plus rise pattern from a simple fall-rise? The
fall-rise implies that there is a but to come, a reservation, while the fall plus rise pattern is a
simple straightforward proclaiming definitive fall.
Commands said with a fall plus rise pattern are pleading requests, rather than orders that
are expected to be obeyed.

Dependent rise:
● Clause or smallest element: a leading dependent element may have a rise (After
lunch, we could call on Mary) though the default tone is a dependent fall-rise. A
trailing dependent element the most usual tone is a rice to indicate that it belongs
with what went before. (We are going to Spain, in August) The rise merely
announces the topic, it doesn´t draw attention to it. (newsreaders use fall to
announce a topic)
● Open lists: rise indicates non finality, leaving matters open.
● Alternative questions: Is Mary ready or does she need more time? (first part rise
like in open lists)
● Limiting adverbials: When they limit the sense of the whole clause like
“unfortunately”, they tend to have a trailing rise (sometimes a leading rise though
fall-rise is more common)

Encouraging rise:
● Statement: Used in short responses encouraging further conversation signaling
that the social interaction is running smoothly. (Have a cup of tea. That´s very kind
of you)
● Wh questions: It makes it more gentle, kindly, encouraging, sympathetic,
interested (why are you angry?) Also used in echo questions such as: I came back,
why, because I love you (interested rise)
● Commands: Use to encourage the other speaker to continue as in “go on”.
Likewise, commands said with a rise sound soothing and kindly, but when
speaking to children since to adults they may sound patronizing. (come to daddy,
now take your time) Likewise if the tags comes after a command and has its own IP
you it has an encouraging rise giving a softening effect.
 ● Greetings: It is more personal. It not means I am greeting you but it expresses an
added interest in the person addressed, “as I greet you, I am acknowledging you”.
Also a vocative after hello or hi always have a rising tone.
● Farewells: goodbye and its equivalents always have a rise, because it expresses
good will and an acknowledgment of the other person (exception “see you” with a
fall-rise)
● Interjections: when said with a rise, inviting the other person to speak or continue
speaking as in hello? (answering the phone), yes?, uh-huh, good morning (talking
to a customer). “Oops and whoops always have a rise. In other cases an
encouraging rise in an interjection means continue with your course of action (It´s
my exam tomorrow. Good luck!) Besides we use this tone when calling someone by
their name (or fall-rise to get their attention)
● suggestions

Non-supportive rise: it’s use to contradict what the other person says implying
defensiveness and unfriendliness.
✔ Statements: uptalk.
✔ Yes, no elliptical answers: Have you done your homework? No, I haven´t. (and I
am not going to) It is aggressive (truculent). Or to contradict the other person as in:
“You haven´t brought the milk. I have” implying defensiveness and aggressiveness.
If you (oh) yes, (oh) no, before a contradiction we need to IP´s, fall in first one and
rise in second one. In this category we also include perfunctory as in thank you with
a rise is not genuine but signals routine acknowledgment (perfunctory) In some
cases interjections with a rise mean “please continue with your course of action” as
in “It´s my exam tomorrow. Good luck” “would you like me to do it now? Yes,
please”
Trailing dependent rise: To indicate that it belongs to what went before (They are going
to Spain, in August)

Yes-no rise:
 Yes-no question: default tone. They include requests such as “would you pass me
the salt?”
 Tag questions: if genuinely asking for information with a rise to check whether the
other person agrees or not. Also constant polarity tags if they have their own tone
they have a rise as in: what a lovely dress! You like it, do you?
 Independent elliptical questions: When reacting to a statement made by another
speaker we use this default tone (I am thinking of taking a break. Are you?) I may
indicate anything from boredom to surprise (really?)
 Checking: The words right and OK
 Declarative questions: usually said with yes-no rise (sometimes with fall-rise)
Declarative questions are grammatically like statements (they do not present the
usual inversion of the subject and verb like other yes-no questions), and they can
be identified as questions only by their intonation, or by the pragmatics of the
situations where they are used.

Pardon question rise:

● what, sorry or pardon. You can either query the entire utterance or just one element
for instance asking who? If you didn´t hear the name of the person.
● Echo questions: You will have to do it again. I will have to do it again? You can
also query a particular element as in: I´ll have to? It is also possible to query two or
more words individually with a pardon question rise in both. I was talking to James
Smith. James?/ Smith? Second-order questions are a type of echo questions with
 perhaps a narrower focus (where did it happen? Where? or when?) We also have a
please repeat wh question as in: She took a tonga. What did she take? She took a
what? Broad focus pardon questions request a repetition of everything (what was
that again? What did you say?) Clarifications always have a fall (what is a tonga?)
● Uptalk sounds like a pardon question rise

dependent fall-rise (leading)

the speaker has not reached the end of what he wants to say (I opened the door,
and…) indicating that the word, phrase or clause that bears it is part of a larger
structure. With a leading dependent element this is the usual tone and it indicates
that there is more material to come. It is also possible for a fall-rise to be
implicational (I don´t know about you, but I am starving) where you is in contrast
with me. So the usual pattern would be fall-rise + fall. We can also say that the fall-
rise corresponds to the topic and the fall to the comment as in “My brother (topic)
will be very angry (comment)” The fall-rise not only announces the topic (rise) but
also draws attention to it. We also use it for open lists to signal they are not yet
complete. Likewise, adverbials placed at the beginning usually have a leading non-
final fall-rise and they limit the sense of the main clause in some way. The
dependent fall-rise is used in leading and trailing tones, topic and comment, open
lists and most adverbials that limit the sense of the main clause in some way, so we
call this pattern limiting non-fall.

Implicational fall-rise: (unmarked head tone is falling)

 Statements: the speaker implies something without necessarily putting it into words
so he states one thing but implies something further: a contrast between what is
expressed and what has not (yet) been expressed. Something is left unsaid,
perhaps some kind of implication or reservation. It is a tone that signals a “but” to
come. (What can we have for tea? Well, we´ve got some strawberries (but we
haven´t got any cream)) Also a speaker that uses a fall-rise has reservations about
what is said so his statement may be true under some conditions but not under
others as in: Have you ever visited France? I have been to Paris (but not to many
other parts of the country) The implicational fall-rise also allows us to be tactful and
politely indirect but also hypocritical and devious. (what is she like as a colleague?
She works very hard) meaning that maybe she is not a good teacher or something
else uncomplimentary. The fall-rise also signals that the speaker is tentative about
what he says (I am not sure or I don´t want to commit myself to this) “We could try a
riesling”.
Also if someone has made a mistake and we want to correct them in a polite way
we use this tone. It is also used to make a partial statement, that is to say
something applies partially but not completely. “What was the food like? Well the
fish was good”
Implication can be spelt out: positively with a fall or negatively with a fall-rise
The fall-rise is often used in negative statements: she wasn´t very pleased. The
implication is that the corresponding positive statement is not true. Besides it has a
special function in negative sentences since it indicates that the scope of
negation includes the word bearing the nucleus but not everything whereas a falling
tone does not restrict the scope of the negation as in I won´t eat anything (fall) = I
will eat nothing and with a fall-rise it means I will eat certain things.
 Commands: For warnings we often use a fall-rise but negative commands often
have a fall-rise (as negative statements) without necessarily implying a warning.
 Interjections and greetings: When calling someone by their name, we use this
tone to get their attention. The greeting “see you” usually has a fall-rise.
 Mid-level: The main use is as a leading dependent tone. Except for some
interjections, the mid level is not used as an independent nuclear tone. The
meaning is non-finality. Used for vocatives called from a distance and short routine
utterances as: come and get it! (the food is ready), thank you, can I help you
(answering the phone),lists. To mark non-finality without conveying any expectancy.

● Tonality:

✔ 1 clause = IP: each sentence and each clause is mark by an

intonation break. There is usually an intonation break between
coordinate clauses (and) unless the subject of the coordinate clause is
ellipted “Peter likes him and trusts him”. Coordinate clauses with one
object and two subjects require an IP.

Mary has prepared / and we have all just eaten / a

delicious meal.

✔ Simple structures = 1 IP: I want to apologize, I think he is wrong, He

said he was sorry, I hope you haven´t forgotten.

✔ Vocatives: in initial position, they tend to form a separate IP. When

not initial, they are usually attached to what precedes them, forming
part or the tail of the IP. In greetings, however, a final vocative often
has its own IP.

✔ Imprecations: own IP when initial if part of a longer utterance.

✔ Adverbials: ordinary adverbs and adverbials are typically not given

their own IP (adverbs of manner). However, adverbials at the
beginning usually form a separate IP. And, in the middle of a clause,
an adverbial is kind of a parenthesis, so it may have its own IP.
Sentence adverbials (adjuncts) modify the whole clause or sentence
tend to have their own IP. If there are several final adverbials
modifying the verb the set them off by IP (Take it slowly, without
rushing, calmly)

✔ Heavy noun phrases: a noun phrase is particularly likely to have its

own IP if it is heavy (long, consisting of several words), objects too
can be long and have their own IP (I have the book you asked about/
to the girl at the checkout)
✔ Short subjects: given their own IP´s for contrastive focus (the
children/I, cats and dogs/can make wonderful companions)

✔ Topics: the first element in a clause is typically the topic (theme),

while the remainder is the comment (rheme). We can signal its status
as topic by giving it a separate IP. (Martha/will have to wait) We can
also topicalize object or complement at the beginning of the clause
(His rudeness/I shall ignore, On the question of guilt/we must suspend
judgement)

✔ Cleft sentences: It was Veronica / that I chose (focus on I, to make a

contrast between my choice and someone´s else)

✔ Pseudo Cleft: What I didn´t like / was the noise.

✔ Defining vs. non-defining: there are two kinds of relative clause: the
defining usually does not have its own separate IP, while the non-
defining does. Some defining relative clauses don’t have an intonation
break at the beginning but there may well be an intonation break after
the clause.

✔ Tags: reverse-polarity tags (the tag is negative if the main clause is

positive and vice versa) tend to have their own IP.

✔ Constant-polarity tags (positive tag, positive main clause) tend not to

have its own IP.

✔ Unimportant words at the beginning: they form part of the pre-head

and therefore are not accented (oh, well, no)

✔ Adverbials at the end: then, though, even, you know, or so, sort of
thing, as it were, a bit. Some others tend to behave in the same way
though alternatively they can have their own IP: if necessary, of
course, please, thanks, thank you, in a way, or thereabouts, for a
change, for ...´s sake, in fact, as a matter of fact, I would/should have
thought, I imagine, enough (unaccented when it follows an adjective),

✔ Lists: With parallel words or phrases, there is likely to be an

intonation break after each component if there are more than two
components or if the components are heavy. The decision whether to
treat each enumerated item on a list as a separate IP is to a large
 extent left to the speaker’s perception of the context of interaction. If
the parallel words or phrases are placed in contrast by the speaker,
then they too are likely to be separated by an intonation break.

✔ Parallel words and phrases: they go on a separate IP if emphasized.

✔ String of letters or numbers: With a string of letters or numbers

there are equally two possibilities. If we think they will be familiar with
the hearer, or if there is no need to be particularly explicit, we run them
together in the same IP. If we think they may be unfamiliar to the
hearer or need to be made especially clear, we can make the
message easier for the hearer to process by placing an intonation
break after each item.

✔ Change of grammatical subject: We will arrive at about ten. The

children can come along later.

Simple heads:

High level head: default type

High falling: default type for fall-rise

Low head only before a rising tone. The head for a trailing dependent rise is a
always low.

Low rising only before a falling tone (protest) because the default head before a
fall is high head.

Independent rise:

 with a high head= soothing and reassuring effect. In short responses

and greetings there is no particular soothing effect (remember this
soothing rise when talking to adults can sound patronizing)

 with a low head = defensive, grudging, non-supportive, brusque or

dismissive of the first speaker´s anxiety.
Low head + rise in yes no questions can sound informal, casual.

Other things to bear in mind in the dialogues:

Unimportant words at the beginning:

They form part of the pre-head. Function words like articles, pronouns, conjunctions and
modals or auxiliary verbs. Optionally it applies to interjections such as yes, no, well, so.

It applies to short introductory phrases such as I think, I mean, I suppose, you know and
reported clauses that precede the quoted words. Alternatively, these unimportant words
can have their own IP for pragmatic reasons (well for instance if the speaker is hesitating,
or and if he is talking with great emphasis.

Onset on a function word:

Some function words are nevertheless accented such as

 interrogative words: who, where, etc. (but not relative wh words as in: when
planning a meal…)

 demonstratives when drawing attention to a new topic (That´s an interesting point),

no the conjunction as in “that boy”

 “There” as an adverb of place (there he sat)

 Initial auxiliary or modal in yes-no questions can be optionally accented

 ought, used, need, dare are accented

 the word “not” and the initial contractive negatives

 we can accent auxiliaries and modals to avoid a very long pre head as in : We are
´going to be late for ´work.

 May, might and should accented

 must expressing inference is accented but when expresses an obligation it is not

 pronouns when contrastive, coordinated or to signal change of grammatical

subjects
 You is accented when subject of an imperative

 Even and only are accented when they point forward to the item that bears the
nucleus as in: I´ve even bought you a new bike

 Prepositions and subordinating conjunctions (when, although, etc.) accented if the

have semantic content

 When prepositions and other grammatical items are coordinated they are accented