CARBOHYDRATES AND LIPIDS:

STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

The bulk (i.e., more than 90%) of the human body weight is provided by only three elements: oxygen,
carbon, and hydrogen. We get these elements primarily from the food we eat, from the water we drink,
and from the air we inhale around us.

Biogeochemical cycles such as the carbon-oxygen cycle and the water cycle play important roles in
ensuring that we have access to these important elements. All forms of life, not only that of humans, are
made up of four kinds of important large molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. All
of these have carbon atoms as their backbones since carbon is capable of forming up to four chemical
bonds with atoms of other elements.

What do humans get from food?

Heterotrophs, such as human beings, obtain energy and raw materials from food. These are important for
cell growth, cell division, metabolism, repair, and maintenance of the body. Nutrients can be classified as
either organic nutrients (i.e., those that contain carbon such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,
and nucleic acids) or inorganic nutrients (i.e., those that do not contain carbon such as water and mineral
salts).

What are carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. These compounds
have a general formula of CnH2mOm. This means that the hydrogen and oxygen atoms are present in a
ratio of 2:1. For example, glucose has a formula of C6H12O6 and sucrose has a formula of C12H22O11.

Carbohydrates are usually good sources of raw materials for other organic molecules and energy. One
gram of carbohydrates provides four food calories or 16 kJ of energy. In the human diet, carbohydrates
mainly come from plants although they are found in all organisms.

How are carbohydrates formed?

Carbohydrates are examples of macromolecules. These are chainlike molecules called polymers (mere
means part) made from repeating units like monomers. Polymers can be formed from covalently-bonded
monomers much like a single structure can be made out of repeated building blocks linked to each other.
These monomers, called monosaccharides, form covalent bonds when one monomer loses a hydroxyl
group and the other loses a hydrogen atom in dehydration or condensation reactions, forming
disaccharides. This reaction requires energy to occur. The bond formed is called a glycosidic linkage.

Longer polysaccharide chains are formed by monomer addition through succeeding dehydration
reactions. These reactions can occur in the human liver as carbohydrates are stored as polysaccharides
called glycogen or in ground tissues of plants where these are stored as starch.

Polysaccharides are broken down into simpler components through the use of water to break covalent
bonds and release energy. The process, known as hydrolysis (hydro means water and lysis means split),
is the opposite of dehydration reactions and often occurs in the digestive tract during chemical and
mechanical digestion. Here, enzymes break bonds within polysaccharides. With the aid of water, one – H
group attaches to a monosaccharide while another –OH group attaches to the other.

How are carbohydrates classified?

Carbohydrates can be classified into three main categories, according to increasing complexity:
 monosaccharides (monos means single and sacchar means sugar)
 disaccharides (di means two)
 polysaccharides (poly means many)

Classification Functions Structure Example

Monosaccharide  major cellular  contains a carbonyl  Ribose—a 5C aldose that forms part of the
nutrient group (C=O) and backbone of nucleic acids
 often may be classified as  Glucose—a 6C aldose that is the product of
incorporated into an aldose or ketose photosynthesis and the substrate for
more complex depending on the respiration that provides energy for cellular
carbohydrates position activities
 may have three to  Fructose—a 6C ketose that is found in
seven carbons in the many plants and is often bonded to glucose
skeleton
 may be arranged in a
linear form when
solid and is converted
into a ring form in
aqueous solution (α
form when H is on
top of plane of ring
and β form when -OH
is on top of plane of
ring)
 Classification Functions Structure Example
Disaccharide  energy source  forms when a  Maltose (glucose + glucose)—malt sugar
 sweetener and glycosidic linkage often found in sprouting grains, malt-based
dietary forms between two energy drinks, or beer
component monosaccharides  Lactose (glucose + galactose)—milk sugar
that is a source of energy for infants; an
enzyme called lactase is required to digest
this. Many adult Filipinos have low levels of
this enzyme leading to a condition called
lactose intolerance.
 Sucrose (glucose + fructose)—found in
table sugar processed from sugar cane,
sweet fruits, and storage roots like carrots
Polysaccharide  storage material  forms when hundreds  Storage polysaccharides are large
for important to thousands of molecules retained in the cell and are
monosaccharides monosaccharides are insoluble in water (formed from α 1,4
 structural joined by glycosidic linkage monomers; with a helical structure)
material for the linkages  Starch—amylase is unbranched starch
cell or the entire forming a helical structure while
organism amylopectin is branched starch, these are
present in plant parts like potato tubers,
corn, and rice and serve as major sources
of energy.
 Glycogen—found in animals and fungi;
often found in liver cells and muscle cells
 Structural polysaccharides (formed from β
1,4 linkage of monomers; strands associate
to form a sheet-like structure)
 Cellulose—tough sheet-like structures
that make up plant and algal cell walls
that may be processed to form paper and
paper-based products; humans lack the
enzymes to digest β 1,4 linkages so is
passed out of the digestive tract and aids
in regular bowel movement
 Chitin—used for structural support in the
walls of fungi and in external skeletons of
arthropods
 Peptidoglycan—used for structural
support in bacterial cell walls

What are lipids?

Lipids are a class of large biomolecules that are not formed through polymerization. They have diverse
structures but are all non-polar and mix poorly, if at all, with water. They may have some oxygen atoms in
their structure but the bulk is composed of abundant nonpolar C-H bonds. They function for energy
storage, providing nine food calories or 37 kJ of energy per gram. They also function for the cushioning of
vital organs and for insulation. Furthermore, they play important roles in plasma membrane structure and
serve as precursors for important reproductive hormones.

How are lipids classified?

Lipids can be divided into three main classes according to differences in structure and function

* Fats are an essential part of a healthy diet when consumed in moderation.