CHAPTER 1

Architectural Design
 INTRODUCTION

Architecture

This is the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing

buildings and other physical structures. A general terms to describe buildings and

other physical structures. Means offering or rendering professional services in

connection with the design and construction of buildings, or built environments.

Definition of Terms

Architectural designs

Perspective

A way portraying three dimensional surface by suggesting depth or

distance.

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Floor Plan

The most fundamental architectural diagram, a view from above showing

the arrangement of spaces in building in the same way as a map, but showing

the arrangement at a particular level of a building.

Technically it is a horizontal section cut through a building (conventionally

at four feet / one meter and twenty centimeters above floor level), showing

walls, windows and door openings and other features at that level.

Elevation

View of a building seen from one side, a flat representation of one façade.

This is the most common view used to describe the external appearance of a

building.

A horizontal orthographic projection of a building on to a vertical plane,

the vertical plane is normally being a parallel to one side of the building.

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 Pers
pective

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Ground Floor plan
Scale1:100

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Second Floor plan
Scale1:100

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Third Floor plan
Scale1:100

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Front Elevation

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Left Side Elevation

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Rear Side Elevation

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Right Side Elevation

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CHAPTER 2

Slab

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 INTRODUCTION

SLAB

A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings.

Horizontal slabs of steel reinforced concrete, typically between 4 and 20 inches

(100 and 500 millimeters) thick, are most often used to construct floors and

ceilings, while thinner slabs are also used for exterior paving.

Sometimes these thinner slabs, ranging from 2 inches (51 mm) to 6 inches

(150 mm) thick, are called mud slabs, particularly when used under the main floor

slabs or in crawl spaces.

In many Domestic and Industrial Buildings a thick concrete slab,

supported on foundations or directly on the subsoil, is used to construct the

ground floor of a building. These can either be "ground-bearing" or "suspended"

slabs. In high rise buildings and skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are

slung between the steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level.

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 Definition of Terms

Types of Slab:

One – way Slab

Needs moment resisting reinforcement only in its short-direction

because the moment along long axes is so small that it can be

neglected.

When the ratio of the length of long direction to short direction of a slab

is greater than 2 it can be considered as a one way slab.

Long direction = ly Short direction = lx

One way slab IF ly/lx > 2

Two – way Slab

Needs moment resisting reinforcement in both directions.

If the ratio of the lengths of long and short side is less than two then

moment in both direction should be considered in design.

Two way slab IF ly/lx < 2

Direct – Design ( Two – way Slab )

Step by step procedure and limitations of direct design method.

Deflect in two directions and primary reinforcement placement is in two

directions.

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The direct analysis method because it determines or prescribes

moments for different parts of the slab panel without the need to

conduct structural analysis, is explained in the following sections.

Slab depth should be determined in addition to specify column strips and

middle strips.

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CHAPTER 3

Beams

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 INTRODUCTION

BEAMS

A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally

to the beam’s axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads

applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beam’s support points. The

total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear

forces and bending moments within the beam, that in turn induce internal

stresses, strains and deflections of the beam.

Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of

cross-section), length, and their material.

Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil

engineering structural elements, but any structures such as automotive automobile

frames, aircraft components, machine frames, and other mechanical or structural

systems contain beam structures that are designed to carry lateral loads are

analyzed in a similar fashion.

Is a structural member used for bearing loads. It is typically used for

resisting vertical loads, shear forces and bending moments.

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Definition of Terms

Types of Beams

 Singly Reinforced
o The beam that is longitudinally reinforced only in tension zone, it is

known as singly reinforced beam.

o In Such beams, the ultimate bending moment and the tension due to

bending are carried by the reinforcement, while the compression is

carried by the concrete.

o Practically, it is not possible to provide reinforcement only in the

tension zone, because we need to tie the stirrups. Therefore two

rebars are utilized in the compression zone to tie the stirrups and the

rebars act as false members just for holding the stirrups.

 Doubly Reinforced
o The Beam that is reinforced with steel both in Tension and

Compression zone.
o This type of beam is mainly provided when the depth of the beam is

restricted, if a beam with limited depth is reinforced on the tension

side only it might not have sufficient resistance to oppose the

bending moment.

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 o The moment of resistance cannot be increased by increasing the

amount of steel in tension zone. It can be increased by making the

beam over reinforced but not 25% on the strained side. Thus doubly

reinforced beam is provided too increase the moment resistance of a

beam having limited dimensions

Besides this, doubly reinforced beams can be utilized under the

following conditions.

1. When the outside load is alternating, that means the load is acting on

the face of the member.

2. The load is eccentric and the eccentricity of the load is changing from

one side to another.

3. The member is subjected too shock or impact or accidental lateral

thrust.
 T – Beams
o is a load-bearing structure of reinforced concrete, wood or metal, with a

t-shaped cross section.

o The top of the t-shaped cross section serves as a flange or compression

member in resisting compressive stresses. The web (vertical section) of

the beam below the compression flange serves to resist shear stress and

to provide greater separation for the coupled forces of bending.

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o Has a big disadvantage compared to an I-beam because it has no

bottom flange with which to deal with tensile forces.

o One way to make a T-beam more efficient structurally is to use an

inverted T-beam with a floor slab or bridge deck joining the tops of the

beams. Done properly, the slab acts as the compression flange.

o Common construction type.- used in conjunction with either on-way or

two-way slabs.
o Sections consists of the flange and web or stem; the slab forms the

beam flange, while the part of the beam projecting below the slab forms

is what is called web or stem.

CHAPTER 4

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 Column

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INTRODUCTION

COLUMNS

Is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of

the structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a column

is a compression member.

The term column applies especially to a large round support (the shaft of

the column) with a capital and a base or pedestal and made of stone, or appearing

to be so. A small wooden or metal support is typically called a post, and supports

with a rectangular or other non-round section are usually called piers.

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 Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which the

upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, "column" refers to such a

structural element that also has certain proportional and decorative features.

Might also be a decorative element not needed for structural purposes;

many columns are "engaged", that is to say form part of a wall

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Definition of Terms

Types of Columns:

Spiral

Are cylindrical columns with a continuous helical bar wrapping around

the column. The spiral acts to provide support in the transverse direction

and prevent the column from barreling.

The amount of reinforcement is required to provide additional load-

carrying capacity greater than or equal to that attributed from the shell

as to compensate for the strength lost when the shell spalls off.
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 With further thickening of the spiral rebar, the axially loaded concrete

becomes the weakest link in the system and the strength contribution

from the additional rebar does not take effect until the column has failed

axially. At that point, the additional strength from spiral comes into play

and prevents catastrophic failure, instead giving rise to a much slower

ductile failure.

Tied column

Have closed lateral ties spaced approximately uniformly across the

column.

The spacing of the ties is limited in that they must be close enough to

prevent barreling failure between them, and far enough apart that they

do not interfere with the setting of the concrete.

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CHAPTER 5

Square Footing

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INTRODUCTION

FOOTINGS (Foundation)

Is the element of an architectural structure which connects it to the ground,

and transfers loads from the structure to the ground.

Foundations are generally considered either shallow or deep. Foundation

engineering is the application of soil mechanics and rock mechanics (Geotechnical

engineering) in the design of foundation elements of structures.

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Definition of Terms

Types of Footings (Foundations)

Strip Footing

A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall. A strip footing is also

provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that their

spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other.

In such a case, it is more economical to provide a strip footing than to

provide a number of spread footings in one line. A strip footing is also

known as continuous footing.

Spread or isolated Footing

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 A spread footing (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to support an

individual column.

A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform

thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to spread the load over

a large area.

Strap or cantilever footing

Consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural slab or a

lever.

The strap connects the two footings such that they behave as one unit.

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The individual footings are so designed that their combined line of action

passes through the resultant of the total load.

Mat or Raft Foundation

Is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under the

entire structure.

A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the

columns and walls are so closed that the individual footings would

overlap or nearly touch each other.

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Useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-homogenous soils

or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual columns.

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