Handout-4 on Environment & Ecology by Mrs.

Vaishali Anand

Learn some new terms today-

1. Keystone Species- The term keystone species was first coined by Robert Paine
(1966)
A keystone in an arch's crown secures the other stones in place. Keystone species play
the same role in many ecological communities by maintaining the structure and integrity of
the community. Thus, a keystone species is an organism that helps define an
entire ecosystem. Without its keystone species, the ecosystem would be dramatically
different or cease to exist altogether. Keystone species are species that play a
disproportionately large role in the prevalence and population levels of other species within
their ecosystem or community. Most importantly, the preservation and restoration of
keystone species is essential for maintaining and/or reestablishing the historic structure
and function of the ecosystems they inhabit.
Any organism, from plants to fungi, herbivore or carnivore, may be a keystone species;
they are not always the largest or most abundant species in an ecosystem.
For example- In African savannas such as the Serengeti plains in Tanzania, elephants are
a keystone species. Elephants eat shrubs and small trees, such as acacia, that grow on
the savanna. Even if an acacia tree grows to a height of a meter or more, elephants are
able to knock it over and uproot it. This feeding behavior keeps the savanna a grassland
and not a forest or woodland. With elephants to control the tree population,
grasses thrive and sustaingrazing animals such as antelopes, wildebeests, and zebras.
Smaller animals such as mice and shrews are able to burrow in the warm, dry soil of a
savanna. Predators such as lions and hyenas depend on the savanna for prey.
Large Mammalian Predators- While small predators are important keystone species in
many ecosystems, as mentioned above, large mammalian predators are also considered
keystone species in larger ecosystems. For example, the lion, jaguar and gray wolf are
considered keystone species as they help balance large ecosystems (e.g., Central and
South American rainforests) by consuming a wide variety of prey species.

2. Umbrella Species-
Umbrella species are often conflated with keystone species. Both terms describe a single
species on which many other species depend. The key distinction between umbrella
species and keystone species is that the value of an umbrella species is tied to its
geographic species range.
Umbrella species have large habitat needs, and the requirements of that habitat impact
many other species living there. Most umbrella species are migratory, and their range may
include different habitat types.
The identification of an umbrella species can be an important aspect for conservation. The
minimum species range of an umbrella species is often the basis for establishing the size
of a protected area.
The Siberian tiger, an endangered species, is an umbrella species with a range of more
than 1,000 kilometers (620 miles) in Russia’s far east, with territory stretching into China

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and North Korea. The species range includes heavily forested ecosystems in both
temperate and boreal (subarctic) biomes. Populations of deer, boar, and moose are under
the snowy “umbrella” of the Siberian tiger range.

3. Foundation Species-
Foundation species play a major role in creating or maintaining a habitat.
Corals are a key example of a foundation species across many islands in the South Pacific
Ocean. These tiny animals grow as a colony of thousands and even millions of
individual polyps. The rocky exoskeletons of these polyps create enormous structures
around islands: coral reefs. Coral reefs are one of the most vibrant and biologically diverse
ecosystems on the planet. Microscopic plankton, as well as crustaceans, mollusks,
sponges, fish, and marine reptiles and mammals are all part of healthy coral reef
ecosystems.

4. Indicator Species-

An indicator species describes an organism that is very sensitive to environmental

changes in its ecosystem. Indicator species are almost immediately affected by changes to
the ecosystem and can give early warning that a habitat is suffering.

Changes associated with external influences such as water pollution, air pollution,
or climate change first appear in indicator species. For this reason, indicator species are
sometimes known as “sentinel species.” This makes ‘coral polyp’ as indicator species too.

5. Flagship Species-
A flagship species acts as a symbol for an environmental habitat, movement, campaign, or
issue. They can be mascots for entire ecosystems. The identification of a flagship species
relies heavily on the social, cultural, and economic value of a species. They are often
“charismatic megafauna,”—large animals with popular appeal due to their appearance or
cultural significance. Flagship species may or may not be keystone or indicator species.
Flagship species can sometimes be symbols of general ideas about conservation, not
representatives of specific ecosystems. However, specific issues are often associated with
a specific animal. Polar bears are the unchallenged flagship species associated with
climate change.
The giant panda is perhaps the most familiar flagship species. Pandas are the global
symbol of endangered species and the value of captive breeding.

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Now learn about some important Ecosystems-
WETLANDS-
Wetlands are areas where water is the primary factor controlling the environment and the
associated plant and animal life. They occur where the water table is at or near the surface
of the land, or where the land is covered by water. Once treated as transitional habitats or
seral stages in succession from open water to land, the wetlands are now considered to be
distinct ecosystems with specific ecological characteristics, functions and values.
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands define wetlands as: "areas of marsh, fen, peatland or
water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or
flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low
tide does not exceed six metres".
Wetlands, natural and manmade, freshwater or brackish, provide numerous ecological
services. The density of birds, in particular, is an accurate indication of the ecological
health of a particular wetland. The destruction of wetlands is a concern because they are
some of the most productive habitats on the planet. They often support high
concentrations of animals—including mammals, birds, fish and invertebrates—and serve
as nurseries for many of these species. Wetlands also support the cultivation of rice, a
staple in the diet of half the world’s population. And they provide a range of ecosystem
services that benefit humanity, including water filtration, storm protection, flood control and
recreation.
Different types of Wetlands-
1. Coastal Wetlands-
Coastal wetlands are found in the areas between land and open sea that are not
influenced by rivers such as- shorelines, beaches, mangroves and coral reefs.
A good example are the mangrove swamps found in sheltered tropical coastal areas. The
partly submerged roots of mangrove trees spread out beneath the water to trap sediment
and prevent it being washed out to sea. Around 70% of tropical coastlines are mangrove-
lined.
2. Shallow lakes and ponds-
These wetlands are areas of permanent or semi-permanent water with little flow. They
include vernal ponds, spring pools, salt lakes and volcanic crater lakes. They are small,
shallow, intermittently flooded depressions in grasslands or forests, and are often only wet
in winter and early spring.
3. Bogs-
Bogs are waterlogged peatlands in old lake basins or depressions in the landscape.
Almost all water in bogs comes from rainfall. Bogs have specialised and unique flora that
have evolved in their nutrient-poor and acidic conditions, including for example the
carnivorous pitcher plant. As bogs are unsuitable for agriculture, forestry or development
they offer an undisturbed habitat for a wide range of species, including moose, black bear,
lynx, snowshoe hare and mink.

4. Marshes and Swamps

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Also known as palustrine wetlands, marshes, swamps and fens account for almost half of
all wetlands throughout the world. Marshes are one of the broadest categories of wetlands
and in general harbour the greatest biological diversity. Marshes form in depressions in the
landscape, as fringes around lakes, and along slow-flowing streams and rivers. Marshes
are dominated by floating-leafed plants like water lillies and duckweed. Marshes slow
down the rate of rainfall drainage and control its flow into rivers, lakes, and streams.

Threats to Wetlands- unsustainable use of wetland without reckoning of their assimilative

capacity constitutes major threat to the conservation and management of these vital
biodiversity rich areas.
As per WWF, over half of the world's wetlands have disappeared since 1900. Development
and conversion continue to pose major threats to wetlands, despite their value and
importance. Conversion of wetlands for commercial development, drainage schemes,
extraction of minerals and peat, overfishing, tourism, siltation, pesticide discharges from
intensive agriculture, toxic pollutants from industrial waste, and the construction of dams
and dikes, often in an attempt at flood protection, are major threats to wetlands
everywhere.

Conservation Efforts for Wetlands-

Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017
Seeking to protect over 2 lakh wetlands across the country, the Centre has come out with
rules to identify and manage these ecologically fragile areas which play an important role
in flood control, groundwater recharge, preserving plant varieties, supporting migratory
birds and protecting coastlines. The new rules, notified by the environment ministry,
decentralise wetlands management by giving states powers to not only identify and notify
wetlands within their jurisdictions but also keep a watch on prohibited activities. It also
indirectly widens the ambit of permitted activities by inserting the 'wise use' principle,
giving powers to state-level wetland authorities to decide what can be allowed in larger
interest. The notification says, "The wetlands shall be conserved and managed in
accordance with the principle of 'wise use' as determined by the Wetlands Authority." The
Centre's role under the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017, will be
restricted to monitoring its implementation by states/UTs, recommending trans-boundary
wetlands for notification and reviewing integrated management of selected wetlands under
the Ramsar Convention — an international arrangement to preserve identified wetlands.
Some definitions as per rules-
“wetland" means an area of marsh, fen, peatland or water; whether natural or artificial,
permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt,
including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters,
but does not include river channels, paddy fields, human-made water bodies/tanks
specifically constructed for drinking water purposes and structures specifically constructed
for aquaculture, salt production, recreation and irrigation purposes;
“wetlands complexes" means two or more ecologically and hydrologically contiguous
wetlands and may include their connecting channels/ducts;
“wise use of wetlands” means maintenance of their ecological character, achieved through
implementation of ecosystem approach within the context of sustainable development;

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“zone of influence” means that part of the catchment area of the wetland or wetland
complex, developmental activities in which induce adverse changes in ecosystem
structure, and ecosystem services.
These rules shall apply to the following wetlands or wetlands complexes, namely:— (a)
wetlands categorised as 'wetlands of international importance' under the Ramsar
Convention; (b) wetlands as notified by the Central Government, State Government and
Union Territory Administration.
Restrictions of activities in wetlands as per the Rules—
(1) The wetlands shall be conserved and managed in accordance with the principle of 'wise
use' as determined by the Wetlands Authority.
(2) The following activities shall be prohibited within the wetlands, namely,-
(i) conversion for non-wetland uses including encroachment of any kind;
(ii) setting up of any industry and expansion of existing industries;
(iii) manufacture or handling or storage or disposal of construction and demolition waste
covered under the Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016; hazardous
substances covered under the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical
Rules, 1989 or the Rules for Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous
Micro-organisms Genetically engineered organisms or cells, 1989 or the Hazardous Wastes
(Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2008; electronic waste
covered under the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016;
(iv) solid waste dumping;
(v) discharge of untreated wastes and effluents from industries, cities, towns, villages and
other human settlements;
(vi) any construction of a permanent nature except for boat jetties within fifty metres from the
mean high flood level observed in the past ten years calculated from the date of
commencement of these rules; and,
(vii) poaching.
National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP)- Government of India
opertionalized National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP) in closed collaboration
with concerned State Government during the year 1985/86. Under the programme 115
wetlands have been identified till now by the MoEFCC which requires urgent conservation
and management initiatives.
Aim of the Scheme- Conservation and wise use of wetlands in the country so as to prevent
their further degradation.
Objectives of the Scheme- The scheme was initiated with the following objectives:-
 to lay down policy guidelines for conservation and management of wetlands in the
country;
 to undertake intensive conservation measures in priority wetlands;
 to monitor implementation of the programme; and
 to prepare an inventory of Indian wetlands.

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Ramsar Convention on Wetland- The Convention on Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, Iran,
in 1971, is an intergovernmental treaty which provides the framework for national action
and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their
resources. There are presently 158 Contracting Parties to the Convention, with 1758
wetland sites, totaling 161 million hectares, designated for inclusion in the Ramsar List of
Wetlands of International Importance. Ramsar Convention is the only global environment
treaty dealing with a particular ecosystem.
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands was developed as a means to call international
attention to the rate at which wetland habitats were disappearing, in part due to a lack of
understanding of their important functions, values, goods and services. Governments that
join the Convention are expressing their willingness to make a commitment to helping t o
reverse that history of wetland loss and degradation.
In addition, many wetlands are international systems lying across the boundaries of two or
more countries, or are part of river basins that include more than one country. The health
of these and other wetlands is dependent upon the quality and quantity of the
transboundary water supply from rivers, streams, lakes, or underground aquifers. This
requires framework for international discussion and cooperation toward mutual benefits.
Major obligations of countries which are party to the Convention are:
 Designate wetlands for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International
Importance.
 Promote, as far as possible, the wise use of wetlands in their territory.
 Promote international cooperation especially with regard to transboundary
wetlands, shared water systems, and shared species.
 Create wetland reserves.

Montreux Record- Montreux Record under the Convention is a register of wetland sites
on the List of Wetlands of International Importance where changes in ecological character
have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of technological
developments, pollution or other human interference. It is maintained as part of the
Ramsar List.

World Wetland Day- World Wetlands Day which is celebrated each year on 2
February, marks the date of the adoption of the Convention on Wetlands on 2 February
1971, in the Iranian city of Ramsar on the shores of the Caspian Sea. World Wetlands Day
was celebrated for the first time on February 2, 1997, on the 16th anniversary of the
Ramsar Convention. Each year since 1997, government agencies, non-governmental
organizations, and groups of citizens at all levels of the community have taken advantage
of the opportunity to undertake actions aimed at raising public awareness of wetland
values and benefits in general and the Ramsar Convention in particular.

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(Please don’t bother about coordinates. You need not know them.)
The largest wetland of country is- Vembanad Kol Wetland

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Source- https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/Vembanad-lake-
may-vanish-in-50-years-study/article15005270.ece
The smallest wetland of country is- Renuka Wetland
Current Indian wetlands in Montreux Record Keoladeo National Park, designated
01/10/81, Rajasthan, 2,873 ha, Montreux Record 04/07/90,
Loktak Lake, designated 23/03/90, Manipur, 26,600 ha, Montreux Record 16/06/93

Source- https://vicinito.com/posts/the-unique-loktak-lake-in-manipur/5344

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MANGROVES-
Mangroves are trees or large shrubs which are salt-tolerant and grow in intertidal zones in
tropical and subtropical regions. They form dense forests along many tropical and
subtropical coasts. All of these trees grow in areas with low-oxygen soil, where slow-
moving waters allow fine sediments to accumulate. Mangrove forests only grow at tropical
and subtropical latitudes near the equator because they cannot withstand freezing
temperatures.

Many mangrove forests can be recognized by their dense tangle of prop roots that make
the trees appear to be standing on stilts above the water. This tangle of roots allows the
trees to handle the daily rise and fall of tides, which means that most mangroves get
flooded at least twice per day. The roots also slow the movement of tidal waters, causing
sediments to settle out of the water and build up the muddy bottom.
Mangrove forests stabilize the coastline, reducing erosion from storm surges, currents,
waves, and tides. The intricate root system of mangroves also makes these forests
attractive to fish and other organisms seeking food and shelter from predators. So
basically, mangroves are critical coastal ecosystems that impact our lives. They nourish
biodiversity as nursery grounds for many coastal and marine species and support
fisheries. They buffer coastal communities against extreme weather events such as
hurricanes, stabilise coastlines and slow or reduce soil erosion. Despite these benefits,
half of the world’s mangroves (about 32 million hectares) have already been cleared or
destroyed – and those that remain are under threat.
The State of Forest Report 2017, released by the Forest Survey of India, says that the
mangrove cover in the country is increasing only marginally in the past two decades and
now covers some 4,921 sq.km.

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