I.

FUNGI (Mycology)
u Diverse group of heterotrophs
heterotrophs..
u Many are ecologically important saprophytes (consume dead and
decaying matter)
Chapter 12: u Others are parasites.

u Most are multicellular

multicellular,, but yeasts are unicellular.
Fungi, Algae, Protozoa, and
u Most are aerobes or facultative anaerobes.
Parasites u Cell walls are made up of chitin (polysaccharide).
u Over 100,000 fungal species identified. Only
about 100 are human or animal pathogens.
u Most human fungal infections are nosocomial and/or occur in
immunocompromised individuals (opportunistic infections).

u Fungal diseases in plants cause over 1 billion

dollars/year in losses.

CHARACTERISTICS O F FUNGI (Continued)

CHARACTERISTICS O F FUNGI
2. Molds and Fleshy Fungi
1. Yeasts
u Multicellular, filamentous fungi.
Multicellular,
u Unicellular fungi, nonfilamentous , typically oval or u Identified by physical appearance, colony characteristics,
spherical cells. Reproduce by mitosis: and reproductive spores.
u Fission yeasts:
yeasts: Divide evenly to produce two new cells u Thallus: Body of a mold or fleshy fungus. Consists of many
Thallus:
( Schizosaccharomyces
Schizosaccharomyces).
). hyphae..
hyphae
u Budding yeasts:
yeasts: Divide unevenly by budding (Saccharomyces
(Saccharomyces)) . u Hyphae (Sing: Hypha
Hypha):
): Long filaments of cells joined together.
u Septate hyphae:
hyphae: Cells are divided by cross-
cross- walls (septa).
Budding yeasts can form pseudohypha
pseudohypha,, a short chain of
u Coenocytic ( Aseptate
Aseptate)) hyphae
hyphae:: Long, continuous cells that
undetached cells.
are not divided by septa.
Candida albicans invade tissues through pseudohyphae
pseudohyphae.. Hyphae grow by elongating at the tips.
u Yeasts are facultative anaerobes, which allows them to Each part of a hypha is capable of growth.
grow in a variety of environments. u Vegetative Hypha
Hypha:: Portion that obtains nutrients.
u Reproductive or Aerial Hypha
Hypha:: Portion connected with
u When oxygen is available, they carry out aerobic respiration.
reproduction.
u When oxygen is not available, they ferment carbohydrates to produce
produce
u Mycelium:: Large, visible, filamentous mass made up of many
Mycelium
ethanol and carbon dioxide.
hyphae..
hyphae

Mycelium: Large, Visible Mass of Hyphae

Characteristics of Fungal Hyphae:
Septate versus Coenocytic

1
 LIFECYCLE
LIFE CYCLE O F FUNGI
CHARACTERISTICS O F FUNGI (Continued)
u Filamentous fungi can reproduce asexually by
Dimorphic Fungi
fragmentation of their hyphae
hyphae..
u Can exist as both multicellular fungi (molds) and yeasts.
u Fungal spores are formed from aerial hyphae and are
u Many pathogenic species.
used for both sexual and asexual reproduction.
u Mold form produces aerial and vegetative hyphae
hyphae..
1. Asexual spores:
spores: Formed by the aerial hyphae of one organism.
u Yeast form reproduces by budding. New organisms are identical to parent.
u Dimorphism in pathogenic fungi typically depends on u Conidiospore: Unicellular or multicellular spore that is not
Conidiospore:
temperature: enclosed in a sac.

u At 37o C: Yeast form. u Chlamydospore: Thick- walled spore formed within a hyphal
Chlamydospore:
segment.
u At 25o C: Mold form.
u Sporangiospore: Asexual spore formed within a sac
Sporangiospore:
u Dimorphism in nonpathogenic fungi may depend on other
(sporangium).
factors: Carbon dioxide concentration.
2. Sexual spores: Formed by the fusion of nuclei from two opposite
mating strains of the same species. New organisms are different
from both parents.

IMPORTANT DIVISIONS OF FUNGI Opportunistic Infection by Candida

1. Deuteromycota albicans in an AIDS Patient
u Not known to produce sexual spores.
u Reproduce asexually.
u Catch-- all category for unclassified fungi:
Catch
u Pneumocystis carinii
carinii:: Causes pneumonia in AIDS
patients. Leading cause of death in AIDS patients.
Originally classified as a protozoan.
u Candida albicans : Causes yeast infections of vagina in
women. Opportunistic infections of mucous
membranes in AIDS patients.

Source: Atlas of Clinical Oral Pathology, 1999

IMPORTANT DIVISIONS OF FUNGI Life Cycle of a Zygomycete : Black Bread Mold (Rhizopus)
Reproduces Asexually and Sexually
2. Zygomycota (Conjugation Fungi)
u Also known as bread molds.
u Saprophytic molds with coenocytic hyphae (lack septa).
u Asexual Reproduction:
Reproduction: Used most of the time.
Sporangiospore: Asexual spore enclosed within a
Sporangiospore:
sporangium or sac at the end on an aerial hypha
hypha..
u Sexual Reproduction:
Reproduction: Occurs through conjugation
conjugation,, the
joining of hypha of two different strains (plus and minus).
Zygospores: Sexual spores which are enclosed in a thick,
Zygospores:
resistant wall.
u Generally not pathogens.
u Rhizopus nigricans:
nigricans: Common black bread mold. May cause
opportunistic infections in diabetes patients

2
Reproductive Structures of Zygomycete (Rhizopus) IMPORTANT DIVISIONS OF FUNGI
Sporangia (asexual) and Zygospore (sexual) 3. Ascomycota (Sac Fungi)
u Molds with septate hyphae and some yeasts.
u Asexual Reproduction:
Reproduction: Conidiospores not enclosed in a
sac. Become airborne easily. Form chains (broom-
(broom-like
structures).
u Sexual Reproduction:
Reproduction: Ascospores enclosed in a sac
sac--like
structure (ascus
(ascus ).
u Include common antibiotic producing fungi and yeasts,
and several human pathogens.
u Penicillium notatum (Produces penicillin)
u Saccharomyces(Brewer’s
Saccharomyces (Brewer’s yeast)
u Trychophyton (Athlete’s foot)
u Aspergillus (Carcinogenic aflatoxin in peanuts),
peanuts),
u Blastomyces(Respiratory
Blastomyces (Respiratory infections)
u Histoplasma capsulatum (Respiratory and systemic infections)

Life Cycle of Eupenicillium (Ascomycete)

Reproduces Asexually and Sexually

Severe nail infection with Trichophyton rubrum in

a 37-year-old male AIDS patient.
Source: Intern. J. Dermatol. 31(1992): 453.

IMPORTANTDIVISIONS
IMPORTANT DIVISIONS O F FUNGI
4. Basidiomycota (Club Fungi)
u Have septate hyphae.
hyphae.
u Include mushrooms, toadstools, rusts, and smuts.
u Sexual Reproduction:
Reproduction: Produce basidiospores
basidiospores:: Spores
formed externally on a club shaped sexual structure or
base called basidium .
u Asexual Reproduction:
Reproduction: Through hyphae
hyphae..
u Examples:
u Cryptococcus:: Causes opportunistic respiratory and CNS
Cryptococcus
infections in AIDS patients.

Disseminated Histoplasma capsulatum, skin infection. u Amanita: Mushroom produces lethal toxins to humans.

Source: Microbiology Perspectives, 1999. u Claviceps purpurea:

purpurea: Produces ergot toxin in wheat and rye.

3
Life Cycle of a Basidiomycete NUTRITIONAL ADAPTATIONS O F FUNGI
Mushrooms are Produced Sexually Fungi absorb their food, rather than ingesting it.
u Fungi grow better at a pH of 5, which is too acidic for
most bacteria.
u Almost all molds are aerobic
aerobic.. Most yeasts are facultative
anaerobes.
u Fungi are more resistant to high osmotic pressure than
bacteria.
u Fungi can grow on substances with very low moisture.
moisture.
u Fungi require less nitrogen than bacteria to grow.
u Fungi can break down complex carbohydrates (wood,
paper), that most bacteria cannot.

FUNGAL DISEASES Systemic Mycosis: Histoplasmosis

Mycosis: Any fungal disease. Tend to be chronic because
fungi grow slowly.
Mycoses are classified into the following categories:
I. Systemic mycoses
mycoses:: Fungal infections deep within the
body. Can affect a number if tissues and organs.
u Usually caused by fungi that live in the soil and are
inhaled. Not contagious.
u Examples:
u Histoplasmosis ( Histoplasma capsulatum):
capsulatum): Initial infection in
lungs. Later spreads through blood to most organs.
Disseminated Histoplasma capsulatum, lung infection.
u Coccidiomycosis ( Coccidioides immites): Resembles tuberculosis.
Source: Microbiology Perspectives, 1999.

FUNGAL DISEASES (Continued) Cutaneous Mycosis

II. Cutaneous mycoses
mycoses:: Fungal infections of the skin, hair,
and nails.
u Secrete keratinase
keratinase,, an enzyme that degrades keratin.
u Infection is transmitted by direct contact or contact with
infected hair (hair salon) or cells (nail files, shower
floors).
u Examples:
u Ringworm (Tinea capitis and T. corporis
corporis))
u Athlete’s foot ( Tinea pedis)
pedis)
u Jock itch ( Tinea cruris)
cruris)

Ringworm skin infection: Tinea corporis

Source: Microbiology Perspectives, 1999

4
 Cutaneous Mycosis FUNGAL DISEASES (Continued)
III. Subcutaneous mycoses
mycoses:: Fungal infections beneath the
skin.
u Caused by saprophytic fungi that live in soil or on
vegetation.
u Infection occurs by implantation of spores or mycelial
fragments into a skin wound.
u Can spread to lymph vessels.

IV. Superficial mycoses:

mycoses: Infections of hair shafts and
superficial epidermal cells. Prevalent in tropical climates.

Candida albicans infection of the nails.

Source: Microbiology Perspectives, 1999.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

FUNGAL DISEASES (Continued)
u 25 -50% of harvested fruits and vegetables are damaged
25-
Opportunistic mycoses:
mycoses: Caused by organisms that are by fungi.
generally harmless unless individual has weakened
u Fungal infections of plants are commonly called rots,
defenses:
rusts, blights, wilts, and smuts.
u AIDS and cancer patients
u Phytophthora infestans:
infestans: Caused great potato famine in mid-
mid-
u Individuals treated with broad spectrum antibiotics 1800s. Over 1 million people died from starvation in Ireland.
u Very old or very young individuals (newborns). Many immigrated to the U.S.
u Examples:
u Beneficial fungi:
u Aspergillosis:: Inhalation of Aspergillus spores.
Aspergillosis
u Candida oleophila:
oleophila: Prevents fungal growth on harvested fruits.
u Yeast Infections or Candidiasis
Candidiasis:: Caused mainly by Candida
u Saccharomyces cerevisiae:
cerevisiae: Used to make bread and wine.
albicans.. Part of normal mouth, esophagus, and vaginal flora.
albicans
u Genetically engineered yeast strains are used to make proteins
(Hepatitis B vaccine).
u Taxomyces: Produces anticancer drug taxol
taxol..
u Trichoderma:: Produces cellulase . Used to make fruit juice.
Trichoderma

II. ALGAE II. ALGAE

u Simple eucaryotic photosynthetic autotrophs . u Vegetative Structures of multicellular algae:
u Unicellular or multicellular
multicellular.. Kingdom Protista
Protista.. u Thallus : Body. Lacks conductive tissue.
u Most are found in the ocean or other bodies of water. u Holdfasts: Anchor alga to rock.
Need water for support, reproduction, and nutrition. u Stipes: Hollow, stem-
Stipes: stem-like structures. Does not support
u Absorb nutrients from the water over entire surface. weight.
u Reproduction: All reproduce asexually. Some can also u Blades: Leaf -like structures.
reproduce sexually. u Pneumatocyst:: Floating, gas-
Pneumatocyst gas-filled bladder.
u Most are not pathogens. A few produce toxins that are
harmful to humans.

5
 Comparison of Algae and Plant Structure DIVISIONS OF ALGAE
u Green algae:
algae : May be unicellular or multicellular
multicellular..
Have cellulose cell walls, contain chlorophyll a and b, and
store starch like plants. Most are microscopic. Live close
to water surface. Believed to be the ancestors of
terrestrial plants.
u Brown Algae or Kelp:
Kelp: Macroscopic (up to 50 m long).
Most are found in coastal waters, at intermediate depths.
Rapid growth. Can be harvested regularly.
u Red Algae:
Algae : Live at greater ocean depths than other
algae. Red pigments allow them to absorb blue light that
penetrates deepest into ocean. Agar is extracted from
many red algae. Some produce lethal toxins.

Seaweed is a Multicellular Brown Alga (Laminaria) DIVISIONS OF ALGAE (Continued)

u Diatoms:: Unicellular or filamentous algae with complex
Diatoms
cell walls with silica or calcium.

u Two parts of cell wall fit together like Petri dish.

Distinctive patterns are used for identification. Store
energy in form of oil.

u Some diatoms can cause neurological disease (memory

loss and diarrhea) in people who eat mussels, due to
domoic acid intoxication.

u Fossil deposits of diatoms (diatomaceous earth) are

used as filtering agents and abrasives in several
industries.

u Dinoflagellates (Plankton)
(Plankton):: Unicellular free-
free-floating Euglenoids are Flagellated, Unicellular Algae
algae. Rigid structure due to cellulose in plasma
membrane.
Some dinoflagellates produce neurotoxins, which kill fish,
marine mammals, and humans.
u Paralytic shellfish poisoning:
poisoning: Consumption of clams and mussels
that have eaten dinoflagellates (Gonyaulax
Gonyaulax)) that produce
neurotoxin.
u Red Tide : Caused by large concentrations of ( Gonyaulax
Gonyaulax).
).

u Euglenoids : Unicellular, flagellated algae. Semi-

Semi-rigid
plasma membrane (pellicle). Most have anterior red eye
spot. Frequently studied with protozoa, because lack a
cell wall.

6
 Ecological Importance of Algae
u Important part of the food chain in aquatic ecosystems
because they fix carbon dioxide into organic molecules
that can be used by heterotrophs .
u 80% of the earth’s oxygen is believed to be produced by
planktonic algae.
u Algal blooms are indicators of water pollution.
u Grow rapidly in water with high concentrations of organic
material (sewage or industrial waste).
u Petroleum and natural gas reserves were formed
primarily from diatoms and plankton.
u Many unicellular algae are symbionts in animals.
Lichens: Combinations of Fungi and Green
Algae (or Cyanobacterium)
Life Cycle of a Cellular Slime Mold
III. LICHENS
u Combination of a green alga (or cyanobacterium ) and a
fungus.
u Mutualistic relationship in which each partner benefits.
u Alga: Provides nutrients by photosynthesis to fungus.
Alga:
u Fungus:: Provides attachment and protection from desiccation.
Fungus
u 20,000 species of lichens occupy unique habitats, in which
either fungi or algae could not survive alone: rocks,
cement, rooftops, trees, and newly exposed soil.
u Grow very slowly, secreting acids that break down rocks.
u Accumulate nutrients needed for plant growth.
u Sensitive to air pollution.
u Major food source for tundra herbivores (caribou and
reindeer).
IV. SLIME MOLDS
u Have both fungal and animal characteristics.
u Amoeboid stage
u Produce spores like fungi
u Eucaryotes,, classified as protists
Eucaryotes protists..
u Cellular and plasmodial (acellular
acellular)) slime molds.
u Life Cycle of Cellular Slime Molds:
u Amoeba stage: Germinate from a spore.
u Slug stage: Many amoebas aggregate and sheath forms.
Migration.
u Fruiting body: Releases spores which germinate into amoebas.
u Plasmodial (Acellular
Acellular)) Slime Molds
u Mass of protoplasm with many nuclei (plasmodium
(plasmodium).
).
u Capable of sexual reproduction.
V. PROTOZOA
u Unicellular, chemoheterotrophic
chemoheterotrophic,, eucaryotic organisms of
(3--2000 µ m).
kingdom Protista (3
u Protozoan means “first animal”.
u 20,000 species, only a few are pathogens.
u Most are free-
free-living organisms that inhabit water and
soil. Some live in association with other organisms as
parasites or symbionts
symbionts..
u Reproduce asexually by fission, budding, or schizogony
schizogony..
u Some exhibit sexual reproduction (e.g.: Paramecium
Paramecium)).
u Trophozoite: Vegetative stage which feeds upon bacteria
Trophozoite:
and particulate nutrients.
u Cyst: Some protozoa produce a protective capsule under
Cyst:
adverse conditions (toxins, scarce water, food, or oxygen).
7
 Medically Important Protozoa
V. PROTOZOA (Continued) 1. Amoeboflagellates (Phylum Sarcomastigophora
Sarcomastigophora))
Nutrition Move using pseudopods (false feet) or flagella.
u Most are heterotrophic aerobes. Intestinal protozoa can A. Amoebas (Subphylum Sarcodina )
grow anaerobically
anaerobically.. u Move by extending blunt, lobelike projections
(pseudopods ).
u Some ingest whole algae, yeast, bacteria, or smaller
u Amoebas engulf food with pseudopods and phagocytize it.
protozoans . Others live on dead and decaying matter.
Parasitic protozoa break down and absorb nutrients from u Several species cause amoebic dysenteries of varying

their hosts. degrees of severity.

u Entamoeba hystolytica:
hystolytica: Feeds on red blood cells. Produces
u Some transport food across the membrane. dysentery and extraintestinal cysts.
u Others have a protective covering (pellicle
(pellicle)) and required u Dientamoeba fragilis:
fragilis: Found in 4% of humans. Usually
commensal.. Can cause chronic, mild diarrhea.
commensal
specialized structures to take in food.
u Ciliates take in food through a cytostome
cytostome.. u Other diseases include:
u Meningoencephalitis: Caused by Naegleria fowleri.
Meningoencephalitis: fowleri. Penetrate
u Digestion takes place in vacuoles. nasal mucosa of swimmers in warm waters. Mortality rate
u Waste may be eliminated through plasma membrane or almost 100%.
an anal pore. u Keratitis:: Caused by Acanthamoeba
Keratitis Acanthamoeba.. Can cause blindness.
Associated with use of contact lenses.

B. Flagellates (Subphylum Mastigophora

Mastigophora))
u Move by one or more whiplike flagella. Some parasitic Medically Important Protozoa (Continued)
flagellates have up to eight flagella. 2. Apicomplexans (Phylum Apicomplexa )
u Most are spindle shaped with flagella projecting from
u Not motile in their mature form.
anterior end.
u Outer membrane is a tough pellicle. Food is ingested u Obligate intracellular parasites.
through an oral groove or cytosotome
cytosotome.. u Have specialized organelles at tip (apex
(apex)) of cells that
u Important pathogens: penetrate host tissues.
u Trichomonas vaginalis:
vaginalis: Causes genital and urinary infections.
Has undulating membrane. Lacks a cyst stage. Transmitted u Complex life cycles. May have more than one host.
sexually or by fomites
fomites.. Definitive host:
host: Harbors sexually reproducing form.
u Giardia lamblia:
lamblia: Causes a persistent intestinal infection
( giardiasis
giardiasis)) with diarrhea, nausea, flatulence, and cramps. In Intermediate host:
host: In which asexual reproduction
U.S. most common cause of waterborne diarrhea. About 7% of
U.S. population are healthy carriers. occurs.
u Trypanosoma brucei gambiense : Hemoflagellate (blood parasite).
Causes African sleeping sickness.
u Trypanosoma cruzi:
cruzi: Hemoflagellate that causesChaga’s
causesChaga’s disease, a
cardiovascular disease common in Texas and Latin America.

Medically Important Protozoa (Continued) Life Cycle of Plasmodium spp. the

2. Apicomplexans (Phylum Apicomplexa ) Infectious Agent of Malaria
u Important pathogens:
u Plasmodium vivax and falciparum
falciparum:: Cause malaria in humans
(intermediate host).
Initially treated with quinine, drug resistance is a major problem
problem
today.
Major cause of worldwide mortality: Kill 3 million people/year
and infect 500 million.
Transmitted by Anopheles mosquito (definitive host).
DDT was used extensively in 1960s in an attempt to eradicate the
mosquito vector.
Successful vaccine not available yet.

8
 Medically Important Protozoa (Continued)
Medically Important Protozoa (Continued)
2. Apicomplexans (Phylum Apicomplexa ) 3. Ciliates (Phylum Ciliophora
Ciliophora))

u Important pathogens: u Move and obtain food using cilia.

u Toxoplasma gondii:
gondii: Causes toxoplasmosis in humans. Causes u Only known human pathogen is Balantidium coli,
coli, which
blindness and lymphatic infections in adults. Dangerous to
causes a severe intestinal infection in pigs and humans.
pregnant women, causes severe neurological defects in unborn
children. Cats are part of life cycle, oocysts excreted in feces. 4. Microsporans (Phylum Mycrospora
Mycrospora))
Contact with infected feces or meat are means of transmission.
u Obligate intracellular parasites, lack mitochondria and
u Cryptosporidium:: Causes respiratory and gallbladder infections
Cryptosporidium
in immunosuppressed individuals. Found in intestines of microtubules.
mammals and water. Major cause of death in AIDS patients. u Discovered in 1984 to cause chronic diarrhea and
u Cyclospora cayetensis:
cayetensis: New parasite (1996) caused diarrhea conjunctivitis, mainly in AIDS patients.
associated with raspberries.

VI. HELMINTHS (WORMS)

Paramecium caudatum is a Ciliated Protozoan
Conjugation Between Opposite Mating Strains
Characteristics
u Eucaryotic, multicellular animals that usually have
Eucaryotic,
digestive, circulatory, nervous, excretory, and
reproductive systems.
u Worms with bilateral symmetry, head and tail, and tissue
differentiation (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm).
u Parasitic helminths spend most or all of their lives in host
and usually have the following specializations:
u May lack a digestive system.
system. Absorb nutrients from host’s food,
body fluids, or tissues.
u Have a reduced nervous system.
system.
u Means of locomotion is reduced or absent.
u Complex reproductive system. Individuals produce many eggs
that can infect another host.

VI. HELMINTHS (Continued)

VI. HELMINTHS (Continued) I. Platyhelminths (Flatworms)
Two main groups (phyla) Flattened from front to back.
u Platyhelminths (Flatworms) Include:
u Nematoda (Roundworms) 1. Trematodes or Flukes
Life Cycle u Leaf shaped bodies
u Extremely complex u Ventral and oral suckers for attachment and sucking
u Intermediate hosts harbor larval (developmental) stage. fluids from host.
u Definitive host harbors adult stage. u Some can absorb nutrients through their cuticle
cuticle..
u Sexual reproduction strategies: u Named for host tissues in which adult lives.
u Dioecious: Male and female reproductive organs are found in
Dioecious: u Blood Fluke ( Schistosoma spp.
spp.) : Cause schistosomiasis which
affects over 400,000 immigrants in U.S. and 200 million people
separate individuals.
worldwide.
u Monoecious (Hermaphroditic): One animal has both male and Cause damage to blood vessels, liver, and many other organs.
female sex organs. Most hermaphrodites copulate with other Live in waters contaminated with feces, burrow through skin of
animals, a few copulate with themselves. human and enter the circulatory system, particularly abdominal
and pelvic veins.

9
Free-Living Flatworm Life Cycle of Blood Fluke VI. HELMINTHS (Continued)
Planaria (Schistosoma ) I. Platyhelminths (Flatworms)
1. Trematodes or Flukes
u Asian Liver Fluke ( Clonorchis sinensis)
sinensis) : Infests gallbladder, bile
ducts, pancreatic ducts, causes biliary cirrhosis and jaundice.
Cannot be transmitted in U.S. because intermediate hosts are not
available.
u Lung Fluke (Paragonius
(Paragonius westermani):
westermani): Lives in bronchioles of
humans and other animals. 12 mm long. Infection from eating
undercooked crayfish.

Asian Liver Fluke (Clonorchis sinensis) VI. HELMINTHS (Continued)

I. Platyhelminths (Flatworms)
2. Cestodes or Tapeworms
u Long flat bodies
u Intestinal parasites
u Lack a digestive system, absorb food through cuticle.
Body Organization:
u Head or scolex has suckers for attachment.
u Body is made up of segments called proglottids .
u Each proglottid has both male and female reproductive organs.
u Proglottids farthest from head are mature and contain many
fertilized eggs.

Source: http://www.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~parasite/a-h.html

Cestode (Tapeworm) Body Structure:

VI. HELMINTHS (Continued)
Scolex and Proglottids I. Platyhelminths (Flatworms)
Cestodes or Tapeworms (Continued)
u Parasitic human tapeworms:
u Beef Tapeworm ( Taenia saginata)
saginata): Human is definitive host.
Can reach up to 6 meters in length, scolex is 2 mm long with
hundreds of proglottids
proglottids.. Infection occurs by ingestion of
contaminated, undercooked beef (“measly beef”).
u Pork Tapeworm ( Taenia solium)
solium) : Human is definitive host.
Infection can occur from eating infected undercooked pork
(rare in the U.S.) or from human to human contact.
u Echinococcus granulosus:
granulosus: Dogs and coyotes are definitive
hosts. Humans may become infected by contact with dog feces
or saliva.

10
 Comparison of Body Organization of Flatworms,
VI. HELMINTHS (Continued)
Roundworms, and Earthworms
II. Nematodes (Roundworms)
u Cylindrical body tapered at each end.

u Have a complete digestive system:

system: mouth, intestine, and Flatworm
anus.
u Body is covered by tough cuticle that resists drying and
crushing.
u Most species are dioecious : separate males and females.
Roundworm
u Males are smaller than females and have one or two spicules on
posterior end.
u Over 90,000 known species. Most are free-
free-living. Only
about 50 are human parasites.
u Life cycle of parasitic nematodes is simpler than that of
flatworms. Earthworm
u Infections can be caused by eggs or larvae.

II. Nematodes (Roundworms) Continued

Infectious eggs
u Pinworm (Enterobius
(Enterobius vermicularis)
vermicularis) : Spends entire life in human Pinworm (Enterobius vermicularis)
host. Adults live in large intestine. Female lays eggs in perianal
region which causes itching. Up to 90% of children are infected
through contaminated clothes or bedding. Infection usually
disappears after a few years.
u Ascaris ( Ascaris lumbricoides
lumbricoides)): Large nematode, up to 30 cm.
Dioecious with sexual dimorphism. Live in small intestines of
humans, horses, and pigs. Eggs can survive in soil for long time.
time.
Infectious larvae
u Adult Hookworm (Necator
(Necator americanus
americanus):
): Live in small intestine of
humans, eggs are excreted in feces. Enter host by penetrating
skin. Enters bloodstream, travels to lungs, swallowed in sputum.
sputum.
Avoided by wearing shoes.
u Trichinosis (Trichinella
(Trichinella spiralis):
spiralis): Reproduce sexually in small
intestine of humans. Obtained from eating undercooked pork.
Larvae enter blood vessels and form cysts throughout body.
u Anisakines (Wriggly worms): Infected fish and squid. Killed by
Source: http://www.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~parasite/a-h.html
freezing and cooking.

Pinworm Eggs (Enterobius vermicularis) Ascaris (Ascaris lumbricoide s)

Source: http://www.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~parasite/a-h.html Source: http://www.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~parasite/a-h.html

11
 Head of Ascaris (Ascaris lumbricoides) VII. Arthropods as Vectors
u Segmented bodies, hard exoskeleton (chitin), and jointed
legs.
u Largest phylum in animal kingdom, over 1 million
species.
u Several classes of arthropods:
u Arachnida (8 legs): Spiders, mites, and ticks.
u Crustacea (4 antennae): Crabs, crayfish. Most are aquatic.
u Insecta (6 legs): Largest group of living organisms on earth.
Include bees, flies, lice, cockroaches, mosquitoes, and fleas.
u Arthropods that transmit microbial diseases are called
vectors..
vectors
u How do arthropod vectors transport microbes?
Notice three lips characteristic of Ascaris u Mechanically: Houseflies and cockroaches.
Mechanically:
u Hosts:: Tick vectors of Lyme disease.
Hosts
Source: www. soton.ac.uk/~djab/ascaris.html
Mosquito vectors of malaria and encephalitis.

Arachnids are Arthropods with Eight Legs Insects are Arthropods with Six Legs

Tse-tse Fly: Host Vector of

African Sleeping Sickness

Lyme Disease Vector Spotted Mountain Fever and

Tularemia Vector Source: www. soton.ac.uk/~djab/ascaris.html

Source: www. soton.ac.uk/~djab/ascaris.html

Crustaceans are Arthropods with

Four Antennae

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