Higher National Diploma in English

First year, Second semester Examination – 2017

EN-1214 – Language structure usage & Linguistics I (Full Time & Part Time)
Marking scheme
Question 01
i) Marks should be distributed as follows,
Mood and Aspect – 4.5 Marks each
Tense and Voice – 03 Marks each.

Answer –
 Two tenses : Present and Past
 Four aspects : simple , progressive, perfect, perfect-progressive
 Four moods : indicative, subjunctive, imperative, Interrogative
 Two voices : Active and passive

The following sections discuss the tenses, aspects, moods and voices of the English verb
system.

TENSE

Tense is the expression of location in time of an action or state. Grammatical tense only
roughly relates to time, English has only two verb tenses, present and past. The general
formula for forming the simple present tense in English is;
The base form of a base form of a verb in English is the infinitive without the preposition to
functioning as an infinitive marker.
Despite popular belief, English does not have a future tense; Futurity is, instead, expressed
through modal verbs, specifically will and shall.

ASPECT

Aspect is the expression of the temporal structure of an action or state. Aspect in English
expresses ongoing actions or states with or without distinct end points. English has four
aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect-progressive.

Although not always identified, the simple aspect is the default aspect of the simple present
and simple past tenses. The simple aspect expresses single actions, habits, and routines.

The progressive aspect expresses incomplete or ongoing actions or states at a specific time.
For example, the use of the progressive aspect in I am floating the book indicates that I
started floating the book in the past and am still floating the book in the present and
presumably the future. The formula for forming the present progressive is [simple present "to
be" + present participle]. The formula for forming the past progressive is [simple past "to be"
+ present participle].

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The perfect aspect expresses the consequences resulting from a previous action or state. For
example, the use of the perfect aspect in I have floated the book focuses on the end result of
my floating the book (my having floated the book) as opposed to the process of floating the
book. The formula for forming the present perfect is [simple present "to have" + past
participle]. The formula for forming the past perfect is [simple past "to have" + past
participle].

The perfect-progressive aspect expresses incomplete or ongoing actions or states that began
in the past and continue to a specific time. For example, the use of the perfect-progressive
aspect in I had been floating the book indicates that I started floating the book in the past and
continued to float the book until a specific point in time at which I stopped floating the book.
The formula for forming the present perfect-progressive is [simple present "to have" + past
participle "to be" + present participle]. The formula for forming the past perfect-progressive
is [simple past "to have" + past participle "to be" + present participle].

MOOD

Mood is the expression of modality of an action or state. Modality is the expression of

possibility, necessity, and contingency. Modality can be expressed through modal verbs as
well as through grammatical mood in English. English has three moods: indicative,
subjunctive, and imperative.

The indicative mood allows speakers to express assertions, denials, and questions of actuality
or strong probability. Most sentences in English are in the indicative mood because the
indicative is the most commonly used mood. For example, the statement I read the book and
the question Did you read the book? Are both sentences in the indicative mood.

The subjunctive mood expresses commands, requests, suggestions, wishes, hypotheses,

purposes, doubts, and suppositions that are contrary to fact at the time of the utterance. The
form of the present subjunctive is identical to the base form of English verbs. The form of the
past subjunctive is identical to the plural simple past indicative. However, the subjunctive is
only distinguishable in form from the indicative in the third person singular present
subjunctive and with the verb “to be” in the present subjunctive and the first and third person
singular in the past subjunctive.

The imperative mood allows speakers to make direct commands, express requests, and grant
or deny permission. The form of the English imperative is identical to the base form of any
English verb. The negative form of the English imperative is created by inserting the do
operator and the negative adverb not before the base form of the verb.

Interrogative mood is used to ask questions.

VOICE
Voice is the expression of relationships between the predicate and nominal functions. English
has two voices: active and passive. In the active voice, the subject performs the action of or
acts upon the verb and the direct object receives the action of the verb. In the passive voice,
the subject receives the action of the transitive verb. For example, the sentence I read the
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book is in the active voice because the subject I performs the action of reading and the direct
object the book receives the action of reading. The sentence The book was read [by me], on
the other hand, is in the passive voice because the subject The book receives the action of
reading.

ii)

No. Sentence Tense Aspect Mood Voice

01 The authority removed Past Simple Indicative Active
John from his post.
02 Everyone, get up! Present Simple Imperative Active
03 The man was watching Past Progressive Indicative Active
the house
04 Was the seminar Past Simple Interrogative Passive
postponed?
05 Please come down. Present Simple Imperative Active

(1 x 5 = 5 marks)

Question 02

i)
Candidates should have written at least 05 uses (2 x 5 = 10 marks)

What is passive voice?

In English, all sentences are in either "active" or "passive" voice:

active: Werner Heisenberg formulated the uncertainty principle in 1927.

passive: The uncertainty principle was formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927.

In an active sentence, the person or thing responsible for the action in the sentence comes
first. In a passive sentence, the person or thing acted on comes first, and the actor is added at
the end, introduced with the preposition "by." The passive form of the verb is signaled by a
form of "to be": in the sentence above, "was formulated" is in passive voice while
"formulated" is in active.
In a passive sentence, we often omit the actor completely:

The uncertainty principle was formulated in 1927.

In some sentences, passive voice can be perfectly acceptable. You might use it in the
following cases:

1. The actor is unknown:

 The cave paintings of Lascaux were made in the Upper Old Stone Age. [We don't
know who made them.]

2. The actor is irrelevant:

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  An experimental solar power plant will be built in the Australian desert. [We are not
interested in who is building it.]

3. You want to be vague about who is responsible:

 Mistakes were made. [Common in bureaucratic writing!]

4. You are talking about a general truth:

 Rules are made to be broken. [By whomever, whenever.]

5. You want to emphasize the person or thing acted on. For example, it may be your main
topic:
 Insulin was first discovered in 1921 by researchers at the University of Toronto. It is
still the only treatment available for diabetes.

6. You are writing in a scientific genre that traditionally relies on passive voice. Passive
voice is often preferred in lab reports and scientific research papers, most notably in the
Materials and Methods section:
 The sodium hydroxide was dissolved in water. This solution was then titrated with
hydrochloric acid.

In these sentences you can count on your reader to know that you are the one who did the
dissolving and the titrating. The passive voice places the emphasis on your experiment rather
than on you.
ii.
a. Listen! This should be reported immediately.
b. She will sell her house at a very low price
c. Uncle Bert told me that his car had been donated to a needy family.
d. By whom had the photos uploaded to the web sites?
e. You are still responsible for this! You must call everyone for the meeting.
f. The minister was not happy with what his secretary told at the media conference.
g. Was a picture of a playground drawn by the child?
h. You/We may find bacteria everywhere.
i. What have they planned for the New Year celebration?
j. Food for international market is being produced by the company.
(1 x 10 = 10 marks)
(Total 20 Marks)
Question 03
i. 2.5 x 4 = 10 marks to be given to each category

Adjectives can be classified into four categories in relation to the manner in which they
function in a sentence. They are retributive, predicative, post positive and as the head of noun
phrase.

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Adjectives are attributive when they pre-modify a noun in a noun phrase. “It is a small
garden” sentence, “small” is the adjective and it pre-modifies the noun “garden”, when an
adjective pre-modifies a noun in a sentence in this manner. It is referred to as having an
attributive function. As in the example attributive adjectives usually occur between a
determiner and a noun.
Adjectives are predicative when they are used with certain linking words such as be, seem,
become, etc.
Ex- The girl seems attractive.
In the above sentence the adjective “attractive” is referred to have a predicative function as it
is used with the linking verb “seem” and moreover it describes the subject of the sentence
“The girl”, Therefore, it is the subject complement of the sentence.
Kamal found viva very difficult
In the above example, the adjective “Difficult” is referred to have predicative function and it
describes the object of the sentence “viva”, Thus , it can be mentioned that it is also the object
complement of the sentence. Therefore it is said that adjectives are predicative when they
function as the subject complement or object complement of a sentence.
Adjectives are said to be post positive when they are used with indefinite pronouns.

Ex- 01) I want to drink something cool

02) He wanted to marry someone innocent.

In the above sentences, the adjectives “cool” and “Innocent” follow the indefinite pronouns
“something” and “someone” respectively. Such indefinite pronouns can be modified only
post-positively.
Certain adjectives proceed by the definite article function as the head of a noun phrase.
Ex- The rich help the poor.
In the example, “rich” and “poor” are adjectives and they are used with the definite article
“the”, Thus when adjectives are proceeded by the definite article “the”, they are said to have
the function as the head of a noun phrase. Moreover, the adjectives that express nationalities
may function as the head of a noun phrase.
Ex- The Japanese wear kimonos.
In the above example, “Japanese” is the adjective and it is preceded by the definite article,
Thus, the “Japanese” refers to the people in Japan and it acts as the head of a noun phrase.
In conclusion, it can be mentioned that adjectives synthetically function attributively,
predicatively, post- positively and as the head of a noun phrase.
ii.
i). A non gradable adjective – daily / other relevant examples
ii). An adjective used attributively – obvious, miserable / other relevant examples
iii).An adjective used predicatively – much, minimum, unfortunately/ other relevant examples
iv). An Adverb of manner- Comfortably / other relevant examples
v). An transitive verb – spoil / other relevant examples
vi). An intransitive verb – exit / other relevant examples
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vii). An adverbial of manner – with furniture / other relevant examples
viii) An adverbial of place – in prison, miscellaneous, inquiry / other relevant examples
ix) Comparative adjective – better / other relevant examples
x). A word which can be used both as an auxiliary and a full verb – have /other relevant
examples

Question 04
Language 01 Mark
03 differences – 03 Marks each

Vocabulary differences

As a percentage of the total English vocabulary the number of words which are used only in
one or country is very small, but the problem for learners of English is that these words are
among the common in the language. There are many words that are used almost exclusively
by American, which understood by most Britons, and vice versa. But there are others which
can cause difficulty. For most Britons know that American call biscuits cookies and flats
apartment, but not so many knows an alumnus or a fender is. Similarly Americans know that
what they call their yard is called garden, Britain and that trucks are Lorries. But common
British English words like plimsolls or offficence may nothing to them.
Am En Br En
Vacation Holiday
Fall Autumn
Flashlight Torch
Baggage Luggage
Movie Film
Elevator Lift
Hood Bonnet
Mailman Postman
Check Bill
Candy Sweets
Gas Petrol
Pronunciation

British English and American English sound noticeably different. The most obvious
difference is the way the are pronounced. In British English when r comes after a vowel in
the same syllable (as in car, marker) the r is not pronounced In American English r is
pronounced.
Americans and Britons agree in most cases o n where a word in stressed. For example
everyone pencil and class, cinema and consider, but the following words from the table are
stressed differently two dialects.

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  ballet – BrE ballet – AmE
 Address – BrE address – AmE
 garage- BrE garage – AmE
 advertisement – BrE advertisement – AmE

The difference in pronunciation of the other words lie in the vowel sounds, not in differently-
stressed syllables. They are therefore more difficult to illustrate in writing without recourse to
phonetic script. Which few people know. Their pronunciations are illustrated therefore by
reference to common words with the same sound.

 vase – vars as in card (BrE) vace as in face (AmE)

 route – root as in shoot (BrE) rout as in shout (AmE)
 ate - et as in let (BrE) ate as in late (AmE)
 tomato – tomarto (BrE) tomayto (AmE)
 leisure – as in pleasure (BrE) leesure , lee and in shee (AmE)

Grammar –
British English and American English grammar are mostly in agreement. There are however
some interesting variations. For example there are differences in certain word forms, in AmE
the past tense to fit is fit, in BrE it is fitted. Americans say I‟ve gotten to know her well.
Britons I‟ve got to know her well. in BrE the present perfect tense is used for situations in
which AmE would typically use the past simple. For example using the words just and
already. Britons would be more likely to say I‟ve just seen him or I‟ve already done it.
Whereas AmE it would be common to hear I just saw him or I already did it.
As another example, American are much more likely to be technically correct in the
agreement of collective noun and verb forms that Britons. So in standar AmE it would be The
team is playing well this season. whereas BrE it is common and acceptable to say The team
are playing well. Similar differences can be seen in the use of words like government,
committee etc. The government is – (AmE) , The government are - (BrE)

Spelling differences

In general, where there are differences between British English (BrE) and American English
(AmE) spelling, it can also be said that American English has more economical and phonetic
spelling. Unnecessary letters are left out and words are spelled how they sound. An obvious
example is the omission in AmE of the letter u in words such ad color, neighbor, honor etc.
Compare also the AmE words traveling, Jewelry, program with their BrE counterparts
travelling, jewellery and programme. howeer the rule does not always apply. For example
you would expect skilful to be the AmE spelling and Skillful the BrE but unfortunately you
would be wrong.

American English British English

Color Colour
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 Flavor Flavour
Neighbor Neighbour
Center Centre
Liter Litre
Theater Theatre
Offense Offence
Defense Defence
ii).
a. I‟ll try to visit you at the weekend. - BrE
I‟ll try and visit you on the weekend - AmE
b. please write me when you arrive. - AmE
Please write to me when you arrive. - BrE
c. He was born 3/27/1981 - AmE
He was born on 27/3/1981 - BrE
d. She arrived at twenty to two. - BrE
She arrived at twenty of two - AmE
e. I‟ve got an idea - BrE
I have an idea. - AmE
f. Did you call Dave yet? - AmE
Have you called Dave yet? - BrE
g. Their team are winning - BrE
Their team is winning – AmE
h. Go get your book - AmE
Go and fetch your book - BrE
i. The jury have not yet reached their decision - BrE
The jury has not yet reached its decision. - AmE
j. Have you got a pen? - BrE
Do you have a pen? – AmE

Question 05
i.
 Stress
 Tone
 Intonation
 Pitch
(1 x 4 = 4 Marks)
ii..
Intonation

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Intonation refers to variations in the pitch of one‟s‟ voice. There are four major variations in
intonations Falling, Rising, Falling-rising and Rising –falling intonation. These intonation
patterns do for your speech what punctuation does for your writing. They indicate pause, stop
and questions and also communicate emotions. Varied intonation tells your listener whether
you are finished talking or not. If you are asking a question and whether you are exited,
angry, surprised or confused. Not using these rising and falling patterns can confuse the
listener and can also leave your speech sounding monotone. Another common misuse of
these patterns is the current tend toward “up speak”, which is ending each sentence with a
rising intonation. This makes the speaker sound insecure and makes their statements sound
like questions.
(3 Marks)

iii..
Introduction – 1 Mark
One Example – 1 Mark

Falling Intonation

This is when your pitch lowers at the end of a phrase or sentence. We use falling intonation at
the end of a statement or with a question that uses who, what, when, where, why or how.

Statement 1. My computer is broken. 2. He is coming home.

Question 1. Where are you going? 2. Why did he leave? 3. How did he fall?

Rising Intonation

This is when your pitch goes up. It is used when asking a yes/no question.

Are you leaving? Is it true? can you believe it?

Rising-Falling intonation

Rising-Falling intonation is a pattern within a sentence that includes rising intonation

followed by falling intonation in the same sentence. We use non-final intonation or rising-
falling intonation for unfinished thoughts, introductory words and phrases, with a series of
words and when expressing choices.

Unfinished Thoughts

When you raise your pitch at the end of a phrase, it indicates that your thoughts are not
complete even if you stop talking. For example,
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1.If I had million dollars… 2. When I grow up…
Finished Thoughts
Unfinished, then completed.
1. I have a million dollars. If I had a million dollars I would take a nice vacation.
2. I am an adult. When I am an adult, I will live in my own apartment.
3. She never listens to me. If she would listen to me, she would understand.
4. I‟m hungry. I‟m hungry, so I will eat some dinner.
5. I bought the game, I bought the game and I want to play it tonight.

Introductory words

Rising-Falling intonation is used with sentences that begin with introductory words and
phrases such as ,
1.As a matter of fact. 2.As far as I‟m concerned. 3. In my opinion.

Falling-Rising intonation.
Falling-Rising intonation means that the pitch of the voice falls and then rises over time.
Ex –They have not gone there, have they?
She has not had, has she?
(2 x 4 = 8 Marks)
iv.
a. Falling
b. Rising-Falling
c. Falling
d. Rising
e. Falling-Rising
(1 x 5 = 5 Marks)
(Total = 20 Marks)
Question 06
i..
a.. Connected Speech

Connected speech, or connected discourse, in linguistics, is a continuous sequence of sounds

forming utterances or conversations in spoken language. Analysis of connected speech shows
sound changes affecting linguistic units traditionally described as phrases, words, lexemes,
morphemes, syllables, phonemes or phones.

Aspects of connected speech are ; Linking, assimilation and elision

Assimilation is the influence of a sound on a neighboring sound so that the two become
similar or the same.

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"[Assimilation] may be partial or total. In the phrase ten bikes, for example, the normal form
in colloquial speech would be /tem baiks/, not /ten baiks/, which would sound somewhat
'careful.' In this case, the assimilation has been partial: the /n/ sound has fallen under the
influence of the following /b/, and has adopted its bilabiality, becoming /m/. It has not,
however, adopted its plosiveness. The phrase /teb baiks/ would be likely only if one had a
severe cold! The assimilation is total in ten mice /tem mais/, where the /n/ sound is now
identical with the /m/ which influenced it."

Elision is very simply the omission of certain sounds in certain contexts. The most important
occurrences of this phenomenon regard:

 Alveolar consonants /t/ and /d/ when „sandwiched‟ between two consonants (CONS –
t/d – CONS),

e.g.

 The next day…. /ðə ˈneks ˈdeɪ/

 The last car… /ðə ˈlɑ:s ˈkɑ:/
 Hold the dog! /ˈhəʊl ðə ˈdɒg/
 Send Frank a card. /sen ˈfræŋk ə ˈkɑ:d/

Linking is a phenomenon where words or sounds linked together

Constant to vowel linking – when the first word ends with a constant sound and the second
word

Constant to vowel linking Ex. – Fried egg / a box oveggs / cupov tea /doyer? we change the
sound to flow!

Vowel to vowel linking – when the first word ends in a vowel and the next word begins with a
vowel. We add a „w‟ or „y‟ sound. Ex.- „go in‟ / say it / do it / two eggs / hiya! / cudyer?

Constant to constant linking – When the first word ends in a constant and the next one begins
with constant sound, we don‟t hear both separately, we just hear one, Ex- We only hear one
/t/. Ex- a bit tall/ lot to do

b.. Word stress.

Words stress It ot have a great articulatory effort on a syllable of a word. There are rules to
follow in stress syllables of words i.e – monosyllabic words receive stress on the available
syllable, disyllabic noun, adjectives – first syllable, disyllabic verbs – second syllable , weak
syllables are not stressed, compound nouns – first part , compound adjectives & verbs –
second part etc. (The student should write some of these words stress rules)

c.. Dialect

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A dialect is a distinctive variety of a language, usually associated with social or geographical
distinctions which characterized by differences in pronunciation (accent), vocabulary and
grammar with regards to other varieties of the same language.

 For example in the English dialects of the England the most widespread past tense
of catch / kæʧ/ is catched / kæʧt/ , while the standard dialect and some other
dialects have caught /kɔːt /. The English past tense forms catched / kæʧt/ and
caught /kɔːt /. are different linguistic items.

Everyone speaks a dialect – in fact, many dialects at different levels. The People who speaks
the same dialect is called a speech community. For instance, the suffix –ing of written
English, in coming, is pronounced / Iŋ / and /In/, as in /ˈkʌmɪŋ / and /ˈkʌmɪn/ and the two
Pronunciations have different social distributions: the former is a typical standard
Pronunciation and the latter a typical non-standard pronunciation. The English
Suffixes / Iŋ / and /In/ are different linguistic items. Some of the larger dialectal divisions in
the English speaking world are ,
British English , American English, Australian English, Northern American English,
Southern American English etc.

BrE/AmE = lay by / rest area, petrol / gasoline, Lorry / truck , minerals / soft drinks

Dialect is also sometimes refer to a daughter language of a same language or language

family.

a. Regional Dialect.

A regional dialect is not a distinct language but a variety of a language spoken in a particular
area of a country. Some regional dialects have been given traditional names which mark them
out as being significantly different from standard varieties spoken in the same place. Some
examples are 'Hillbilly English' (from the Appalachians in the USA) and 'Geordie' (from
Newcastle upon Tyne in the UK).

b.. Sociolect (Social Dialect)

Sociolect is a variety of a language used by people belonging to a particular social class or

societal stata. The speakers of a sociolect usually share a similar socio-economic and/or
educational background. Sociolects may be classed as high or low in status. For example,
“He and I were going there” (higher sociolect)
“Im‟n me was goin there” (lower sociolect)

The sociolect with the higher status in a country is often the standard variety, the difference
between the sociolect and another can be investigated by analyzing the recorded speech of
large samples of speaker from various social backgrounds. The differences are referred to as
socio-lectal variation or social dialectal variation.

d.. Adjective phrases.

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In an adjective phrase, the adjective acts as the head of the particular phrase. The structure of
an adjective phrase may be either an adjective preceded by a pre-modifier or an adjective
followed by a post-modifier.

Ex. The student is extremely clever.

In the above sentence, the adjective “clever” is preceded by a pre modifier (adverb or degree)
“extremely”

Ex- This car is good enough for you.

In the above sentence, the adjective “good” is followed by a post modifier (an adverb)
“enough”
An adjective phrase may function syntactically as the complement of the subject in a
sentence.

Ex- Kamal is super-efficient.

In the above example, the adjective phrase “super-efficient” describes “Kamal”, the subject
of the sentence. Hence, it is the subject complement of the sentence.
An adjective phrase may function as the complement of the object.

Ex- he found the exam extremely difficult.

The adjective phrase, “extremely difficult” describes “the exam”, the object of the sentence.
Therefore, it is the object complement of the sentence.
An adjective phrase may function as a pre modifier and a post- modifier of a noun phrase.

Ex- My aunt is wearing a beautiful blouse.

In the above example, the adjective “beautiful” pre-modifies the noun “blouse”

Ex-She wanted to drink something hot.

In the above sentence, the adjective “hot” post-modifies the noun the indefinite pronoun
“something”

In this manner, the adjective phrase functions as the subject complement, object complement,
a pre-modifier and a post modifier of a noun phrase.

e.. Finite and non-finite verbs.

A finite verb is a verb that has a subject and it can be the main verb in a particular sentence. It
and number whether singular or plural. It also has a subject- verb agreement , while it can
themselves in the main clause.

Ex- She is walking along the road.

In the above sentence, “walk” can be cited as the finite verb. It shows the present continuous
“walking” and it has the subject “she” which is singular in number and shows the subject-
verb agreement. Moreover, the verb acts as the main verb and occurs in the main clause.
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Ex- My friends player tennis.
In the above example, “Played” can be mentioned as the finite verb which shows the simple
past also has the subject “my friends” which is plural in number and it shows subject-verb
agreement. Finite verbs are called the tensed verbs.

non- Finite verbs are distinguished from finite verbs non-finite verbs do not show tense,
subject-verb agreement and they occur only in subordinate clauses.

Ex- I saw some birds flying in the sky.

In the above sentence, the verb “saw” is a finite verb which has the subject “I” and shows
simple present with the subject verb agreement and it occurs in the main clause while
“flying” is a non-finite verb present participle which do not show any tense and subject verb
agreement.

Non- finite verbs can be categorized as infinites with or without the preposition “to” present
participle past participle as in the following example.

Ex- 01) To go in this rain is to ask for trouble.

02) I saw a girl jump into the river.
In the above example “to go” is an infinitive with the preposition “to” in the first sentence
and in “jump” is also an infinitive without the preposition “to” in the second sentence. Thus,
they can be named as non-finite verbs as they do not show any tense.

Ex- Seriously injured, the soldier fell down.

Shouting for joy, he ran towards me
In the above examples the verb “injured” and “shouting” can be mentioned as the past
participle and the present participle respectively and they became non-finite verbs as they do
not show any tense, subject verb agreement and also they occur in the subordinate clauses.

(3 x 5 = 15 Marks)
ii..
Full/strong forms Reduced/weak forms
The words which are pronounced with The words which are not pronounced with
emphasizing. Mostly, they are used by emphasizing, Mostly native English speakers
second language speaker and they seem use the weak form/reduced form and they
unnatural. seem natural.

Words Full/strong forms Reduced/weak

forms
You /ju ː/ /ju/
Been /bi ːn/ /bin/
Some /sʌm/ /səm/
Does /dʌz/ /dəz/
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HND_EN1214_LSUL_2017_Marking_Scheme_Re-typed & Edited by Nisal Wanigasuriya
 Can /Kæn/ /kən/
From /frɔm/ /frəm/
But /bʌt/ /bət/
Him /Him/ /Im/
For /fɔː/ /fə/
At /æt/ /ət/

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HND_EN1214_LSUL_2017_Marking_Scheme_Re-typed & Edited by Nisal Wanigasuriya