Accepted Manuscript

Genesis and evolution of the Watukosek fault system in the Lusi area (East Java)

Andrea Moscariello, Damien Do Couto, Fiammetta Mondino, Jacqueline Booth,

Matteo Lupi, Adriano Mazzini

PII: S0264-8172(17)30382-3
DOI: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2017.09.032
Reference: JMPG 3090

To appear in: Marine and Petroleum Geology

Received Date: 31 January 2017

Revised Date: 17 September 2017
Accepted Date: 29 September 2017

Please cite this article as: Moscariello, A., Do Couto, D., Mondino, F., Booth, J., Lupi, M., Mazzini,
A., Genesis and evolution of the Watukosek fault system in the Lusi area (East Java), Marine and
Petroleum Geology (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2017.09.032.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
1
2 Genesis and evolution of the Watukosek fault system in

3 the Lusi area (East Java)

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5 Andrea Moscariello (1), Damien Do Couto (1), Fiammetta Mondino (2), Jacqueline

6 Booth (1) Matteo Lupi (1), Adriano Mazzini (3)

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7

8 (1) Department of Earth Sciences, University of Geneva, 13 Rue des Maraichers,

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9 1205 Geneva, Switzerland,

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10 (2) Leon Gaud 5, 1206 Geneva
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11 (3) Center of Earth Evolution and Dynamics, University of Oslo, Sem Sælandsvei 2A,

12 0371 Oslo, Norway

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13

14 Abstract
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15 Detailed analysis of two-dimensional seismic lines acquired in the NE Java basin has
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16 been performed to unravel the subsurface geology of the region around the Lusi mud
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17 eruption. This work revealed the existence of a system consisting of a complex set of

18 faults, here called the Watukosek fault system, forming triangular deformation zones
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19 converging at the top of the early Miocene Carbonates. This system continues
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20 downwards with vertical individual fault segments, often bordering the steep margins

21 of the carbonate platforms. The analysis of data includes the interpretation of seismic

22 lines, regional structural data inferred from basement gravity maps and present-day

23 main direction of stress. Results suggest that a possible rotation of stress direction

24 from N40E-S40W to N-S occurred during the post-Miocene history of the Java back

25 arc tectonic evolution. The Watukosek fault system was first generated as a

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26 tensional lineament during the E-W sinistral transpressive strain, which involved the

27 basement. In this phase, synthetic and antithetic Riedel faults formed, the former

28 controlling the NW-SE orientation of the structural highs represented by Oligo-

29 Miocene carbonate platforms. As a consequence of the rotation of the main principal

30 stress direction to a N-S direction, the Watukosek fault and similar parallel

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31 lineaments became sinistral Riedel shears, developing intense triangular

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32 deformation zones. Based on the stratigraphic position of gentle anticlinal

33 deformations with axis corresponding to the N40E-S40W oriented triangular

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34 deformation zones, the transpressive strain linked to the N-S main stress

35 compression occurred likely in the Late Pliocene-Early Pleistocene.

36
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The detailed examination of a) stratigraphy at the wells BJP-1 and Porong-1 as well
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37 as b) the seismo-stratigraphic architecture of the entire succession in the study area,
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38 allowed a new subsurface interpretation and revision of the stratigraphic units below

39 Lusi. The thick Early Miocene Tuban Formation is found sandwiched between the
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40 coheval Upper Kalibeng Formation and the Early Miocene Carbonate of the Kujung
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41 Formation, which in turn overlain the older Ngimbang Formation.

42
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43 Introduction

The sudden catastrophic Lusi eruption started on May 29th 2006 in East Java (Van
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44
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45 Noorden 2006; Mazzini et al., 2007). The subsurface processes leading to such an

46 exceptional phenomenon have been subject of intense scientific research and

47 debate over the last decade (Satyana, 2005; Fukushima et al., 2009; Tanikawa et

48 al., 2010; Rudolph et al.; 2011; Mazzini et al., 2012; Shirzaei et al., 2015;

49 Inguaggiato et al., 2017; Mazzini et al., 2017; Sciarra et al., 2017). The triggering

50 mechanisms of this active mud eruption have been discussed by several authors

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51 (Manga 2007; Mazzini et al 2007, Davies et al., 2008; Tingay et al., 2008; Mazzini et

52 al., 2009; Mori et al 2009; Sawolo et al., 2009; Davies et al., 2010; Sawolo et al.,

53 2010; Lupi et al., 2013, 2014; Tingay et al., 2015, Miller and Mazzini, 2017) and are

54 beyond the scope of this work. Lusi is located in a geologically complex region where

55 tectonic and sedimentary basin processes (i.e. compressional stress regime,

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56 compaction, diagenesis and deep fluid circulation) and volcanic processes are

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57 intimately connected (Satyana, 2005; Mazzini et al., 2012; Inguaggiato, et al., 2017;

58 Mazzini et al., 2017; Sciarra et al., 2017).

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59 The interplay between mud eruption, deep fluid circulation and structural elements

60 within an active tectonic framework has been well established in several different

61
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geological and tectonic settings (Medialdea et al., 2009; Morley et al., 2011; Bonini,
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62 2012; Mascle et al., 2014; Bonini et al., 2016). It is known that piercement eruptions
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63 can be triggered by earthquakes and seismicity often influences the geological

64 systems in the near- and far-field (Mellors et al., 2007; Bonini, 2009, Manga et al.,
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65 2009; Lupi et al., 2013; Bonini et al., 2016; Miller and Mazzini., 2017). Similarly, it
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66 has been proposed that the Lusi eruption was triggered by the MW 6.3 Yogyakarta

67 earthquake (e.g. Mazzini et al., 2007, 2009; Istadi et al 2009; Sawolo et al., 2009,
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68 2010; Tanikawa et al., 2010; Lupi et al., 2013, 2014; Miller and Mazzini, 2017).
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69 The distribution, activity and emplacement of piercement structures is often

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70 controlled by faults operating as migration pathways for over-pressured fluids at

71 greater depths. The feeder system of clastic piercements connects the source of

72 fluids (water, CO2, and hydrocarbons), and sediments with the upper part of the

73 edifice exposed on the surface (Jamtveit et al., 2004; Skinner and Mazzini, 2009;

74 Medialdea et al., 2009, Mazzini et al 2009; Etiope, 2015; Hensen et al., 2015,

75 Collignon et al 2017a, Collignon et al 2017b). Prior to their surface manifestation,

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76 piercements are characterized by subsurface diapiric structures whose growth is

77 driven by gravitative instability and fluids overpressure (Dimitrov, 2002; Kopf, 2002;

78 Revil, 2002; Medialdea et al., 2009; Gamberi and Rovere, 2010; Etiope, 2015,

79 Mazzini and Etiope, 2017).

80 Mud diapirism and clastic piercements are well-known in sedimentary basins

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81 affected by igneous intrusions and hydrothermal fluids migration (Svensen et al.;

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82 2004; Svensen et al.; 2009; Jamtveit et al., 2004; Mazzini et al.; 2011; Ciotoli et al.;

83 2016), both in active and passive margins where e.g. large deltaic environments

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84 developed (Nyantakyi et al., 2016; Van Rensbergen et al., 1999) as well as in back-

85 arc basins (Gamberi and Rovere, 2010; Xing et al., 2016) where fast sedimentation

86
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rates often generate overpressure conditions in unconsolidated sediments. Such
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87 supra-lithostatic pore pressures destabilise the unconsolidated sediments driving
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88 them upwards through the crust forming dome-shaped structures (Somoza et al.,

89 2012).
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90 In the Sidoarjo district in the East Java Basin, where the sediment-hosted
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91 hydrothermal system of Lusi formed (Mazzini et al., 2012), the alignment of a series

92 of mud volcanoes corresponds to the elongation of the Watukosek Fault System

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93 (WFS). The WFS is marked by a more than 100 m high well-defined escarpment
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94 (Watukosek escarpment) and affects the course of the Porong river imposing an “S”
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95 shape bending (Fig. 1). Several authors (e.g. Mazzini et al., 2007, 2009; Roberts et

96 al., 2011; Istadi et al., 2009; Karyono et al., 2017; Obermann et al., 2017) propose

97 an ongoing tectonic deformation of this NE-SW striking left-lateral fault zone. Similar

98 N40E-S40W trending faults, seem to affect the Central Java area whereas in East

99 Java the occurrence of an E-W trending structural pattern is mostly described

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100 (Satyana and Purwaningsih, 2003; Subroto et al., 2007). Yet, the anatomy of these

101 faults in the subsurface, its origin and temporal evolution has not been addressed.

102 The objective of this paper is to investigate and demonstrate the link between the

103 subsurface geology and the surface expression of the WFS by describing the

104 structural characteristics visible from seismic data. We also investigate whether

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105 similar features occur in the surroundings of Lusi, which could lead to similar

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106 phenomena in the future.

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108 Geographic and Geological setting

109 The East Java basin is a prospective province for hydrocarbon exploration and is an

110
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exceptional area where volcanism, piercement structures and active tectonics have
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111 interacted throughout at least the last 8 Ma. Specifically, the study area is located in
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112 NE Java where sedimentary and magmatic volcanism is a widespread phenomenon

113 (Satyana and Purwaningsih, 2003; Mazzini et al., 2007; Satyana, 2008; Istadi et al.,
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114 2012). However, the setting of the Lusi eruption is peculiar when compared to other
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115 mud volcanoes present in Java. Lusi sits at the southernmost tip of the back-arc

116 region neighbouring the Arjuno–Welirang volcanic complex (Fig. 1). The latter
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117 consists of stratovolcanic cones and monogenic craters located in a 50-km SW-NE-
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118 trending zone stretching from the Kawi-Butak cones to the SW to the Penanggungan
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119 cone to the NE. The latter is the northernmost volcano of this complex whose crater

120 is located ~10 km to the SW of Lusi (Fig. 1).

121 The geology of the East Java Basin has been described and discussed in several

122 studies where different genetic models have been proposed (van Bemmelen, 1949;

123 De Genevraye and Samuel, 1972; Hamilton, 1979; Hall, 2002; Sribudiyani et al.,

124 2003; Smyth et al., 2005; Prasetyadi et al., 2006; Istadi et al., 2009).

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125 The regional stress field of Java is roughly N-S oriented (Heidbach et al., 2016)

126 indicating a north-verging compression associated with the back arc tectonic setting.

127 Deeply rooted basement faults oriented NE-SW parallel to one of the main fault of

128 Java (e.g. the Muria-Kebumen fault) induced a general uplift of southern central Java

129 due to structural indentation (Pulunggono and Martodjojo, 1994; Sribudiyani et al.,

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130 2003; Satyana, 2007). The crust to the East of the Muria-Kebumen Fault moved

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131 northward following a sinistral movement of this main strike-slip system. The same

132 NE-SW oriented trend extends offshore, north of the East Java Basin, generating a

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133 series of similarly oriented mini-basins and structural highs (Satyana, 2007). On the

134 other hand, the eastern offshore sector, including the Madura Strait, is characterised

135
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by >400 km long and continuous E-W lineaments, referred as the Rembang-Madura-
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136 Kangean fold and thrust belt (Satyana, 2007) that also corresponds to a deep
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137 sinistral strike-slip system affecting the basement (Istadi et al., 2009). In contrast,

138 onshore eastern Java features ca. N70E trending lineaments correspond to both
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139 Oligo-Miocene carbonate platforms (Satyana, 2007) and younger Plio-Pleistocene

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140 anticlines and faults zones. These lineaments define the structural boundaries of a

141 series of elongated narrow basins and structural highs (e.g. West and East Cepu
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142 High, Ngimbang Basin, Kemandung Ridge, Porong Basin). At the surface,
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143 indications of active present-day brittle deformation are evident. The Lusi eruption
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144 site is frequently affected by large fracture zones with slickenlines-rich surfaces

145 (Mazzini et al., 2012). Additionally, the Watukosek fault escarpment (Mazzini et al.,

146 2007, 2009; Sciarra et al., 2017) extends for about 3 km from the Penanggungan

147 volcano towards NE (Fig. 1). Sinistral strike-slip deformation is also highlighted by

148 the modification of the course of the Porong River that bends in correspondence of

149 the intersection with the fault trace. Moreover, the concentration of mud volcanos

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150 along the NE-SW fault trend strongly suggests a relationship between fault and mud

151 eruptions (Mazzini et al., 2007; Istadi et al., 2009; Sawolo et al., 2009). The interplay

152 between different structural trends in the study area mentioned above will be

153 described and discussed in the following paragraphs.

154

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155 The sedimentary infill and tectonic deformation of the basin where Lusi resides

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156 record the evolution of a Tertiary back-arc basin (Kusumastuti et al., 2000; Doust

157 and Noble, 2008 and references therein). The area is located in the Kendeng Basin

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158 (Fig. 1) oriented ca. E-W to the north of the volcanic complexes. This is one of the

159 youngest tectonic sectors in the eastern Java formed in a continuously subsiding

160
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basin starting from Late Miocene/Early Pliocene to the end of the Middle Pleistocene
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161 (Satyana and Asnidar, 2008). The upper sedimentary sequence (Plio-Pleistocene) is
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162 dominated by poorly consolidated thick succession of organic-rich clastic deposits,

163 accumulated almost entirely in shallow-marine environment (middle to sub littoral),

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164 intercalated with tuffaceous and volcanoclastic deposits (Mazzini et al., 2007, Lupi et
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165 al., 2014). These packages, characterized by sedimentation rates of about 2.5

166 km/million year since the Pleistocene (Mazzini et al., 2009) accumulated rapidly over
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167 the last 5 Ma. They lay over an Early Miocene and Oligocene carbonate sequence,
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168 characterised by isolated build-ups and more continuous platforms whose

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169 architecture and extension is well visible in deep penetrating seismic (Fig. 2 and 3).

170 The Oligo-Miocene carbonate units are often the target for hydrocarbon exploration

171 (Kusumastuti et al., 2002; Sharaf et al., 2005; Ramdhan et al., 2013).

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173 Geochemical analysis of fluids associated with the Lusi eruption (Mazzini et al. 2012,

174 Mazzini et al 2017) indicate that deep seated (>4000 m) magmatic intrusions and

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175 hydrothermal fluids would be responsible for the enhanced heat that altered the

176 source rocks and/or gas reservoirs. Thus, Lusi is interpreted to be a sediment-hosted

177 hydrothermal system rather than a mud volcano (Mazzini et al., 2012, 2017). The

178 deep provenance of the fluids has also been recently confirmed by Oligocene fossils

179 sampled from the vent of the Lusi volcano, indicating that mobile sediments (likely

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180 from the Ngimbang Formation, see later) must have been overpressured below the

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181 Oligo-Miocene carbonate sequence (Samankassou et al., this volume).

182

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183 Methods

184 In the frame of the Lusi Lab project (European Research Council grant n°308126)

185
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we examined a series of densely spaced 2D seismic reflection lines in the Sidoarjo
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186 district (East Java, Indonesia) and well logs from the Banjarpanji-1 and the Porong-1
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187 deep wells (BJP-1 and PRG-1, respectively) located on a East-West transect

188 crossing the Lusi area (Fig 1). The quality of 2D seismic, acquired in 1991 to image
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189 deep geological objectives, is variable making at places the interpretation of data not
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190 univocal, especially in correspondence of structurally complex area characterised by

191 tenuous lithological contrasts (i.e. volcanic complexes, thick clastic sedimentary
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192 packages). Logs including gamma ray, sonic, resistivity and check shots were used
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193 to correlate seismic profiles with wells. Deviation data allowed the conversion of
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194 stratigraphic tops from measured drilling/logging depth (MD) to true vertical depths

195 (TVD). Data were provided by Lapindo Brantas Inc. oil company. Stratigraphic

196 nomenclature used in this paper followed internal Lapindo Brantas Inc. convention

197 reported by Mazzini et al. (2007; 2012). Regional stratigraphic framework was based

198 on Mudjiono and Pireno (2002).

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199 Seismic interpretation was carried out focusing on seismic facies and structural

200 discontinuities using seismic attributes provided by the Petrel (Schlumberger)

201 seismic interpretation platform that aimed at enhancing structural features. The

202 original seismic display is relatively noisy. For this reason, two particular seismic

203 attributes have been computed from the original dataset: the structural smoothing

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204 and the variance. Firstly, the structural smoothing attribute (Gaussian smoothing)

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205 has been computed in order to increase the resolution and continuity of the seismic

206 reflectors and clear the background noise of the seismic signal. To compute such

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207 seismic attribute, we used a standard deviation of 1.5 meaning that the software

208 uses 3 traces on either side of the central point for a total of 7 traces in each

209
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direction. Then, the reflection amplitude variance attribute was also calculated. This
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210 seismic attribute is often used to represent the trace-to-trace variability of the
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211 amplitude and it helps to interpret lateral changes in acoustic impedance such as

212 faults (Randen et al., 2001), channels (Pigott et al., 2013) or fluid escapes (Ostanin
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213 et al., 2012). This attribute is quantified as the variance in amplitude normalized by
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214 the square of the average amplitude. The reflection amplitude variance has been

215 computed for the complete set of 2D seismic lines with the Petrel software (®
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216 Schlumberger) in order to detect structural disturbances such as fractures, faults or

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217 fluid pipes that may help to recognize and characterize the WFS. Horizontal surfaces
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218 were regularly created every 250 ms (from the top surface up to 4s TWT) on which

219 the variance surface attribute was computed by extraction of the variance of each

220 seismic line. Then variance maps were created for several acoustic depths.

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222

223

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224 Results

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226 Stratigraphy:

227 Distinctive seismic reflectors can be recognized and traced in the study area allowing

228 the identification of main stratigraphic horizons. Based on the stratigraphy

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229 encountered in BJP-1 and PRG-1 wells (Lapindo Brantas personal comm; Lupi et al.,

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230 2014) combined with the regional stratigraphy (Mudjiono and Pireno, 2002; Lelono

231 and Morley, 2011), the following key stratigraphic markers have been identified in the

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232 study area (from top to bottom, Fig. 2 or 3):

233 1. Alluvial deposits (Holocene to present day);

234
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2. Pucangan Formation consisting of shallow marine sand and shales (Late
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235 Pleistocene);
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236 3. Upper Kalibeng Formation consisting of blueish-gray clay (Middle

237 Pleistocene) overlaying volcanoclastic deposits (BJP-1) passing laterally to

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238 the East (PRG-1) to interstratified sand and shale succession accumulated in
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239 middle to sublittoral marine environment (Early Pleistocene – Early Pliocene);

240 4. Tuban Formation consisting of deepening upwards marine transgressive

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241 marls (Early Miocene).

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242 5. Kujung Fm consisting here of two units:

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243 a. Prupuh unit made of coralline limestones forming carbonate buildups

244 (Early Miocene)

245 b. Kujung unit consisting of transgressive sequence of shallow-water

246 carbonates and calcareous shales with localized carbonate build-ups

247 (Satyana, 2005).

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248 6. Ngimbang Formation composed of a thick package of shales changing from

249 lacustrine at the base, to transgressive shallow marine at the top (Middle

250 Eocene to Early Oligocene, according to Lelono et al., 2011). Within this unit a

251 continuous layer of (possibly lacustrine) carbonates is present. The Ngimbang

252 Formaiton is separated from the carbonates of the Kujung Formation by an

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253 unconformity.

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254

255 The stratigraphic intervals are generally bounded at the top and at the base by

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256 undulated surfaces whose folding (i.e. shortening) develops primarily perpendicularly

257 to the main regional compressive strain direction.

258
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To the South-West, when approaching the volcanic complex, a clear contrast in
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259 seismic facies occurs between chaotic volcanoclastic wedges and clastic-prone
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260 sedimentary successions, as well as between the deeper stratigraphic units

261 consisting of carbonates and lateral shale units (Fig. 3).

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262 Seismic facies of siliciclastic terrigenous intervals including Quaternary and Tertiary
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263 sequence from Early Pliocene age are defined by vertical and lateral changes in

264 reflector amplitude, frequency and continuity. Low angle truncations, onlaps and
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265 pinch out geometries (Fig. 3) are frequent. This suggests a high level of
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266 heterogeneity formed during primary depositional processes (volcanoclastic deposits

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267 possibly associated with sedimentary gravity processes, i.e. lahars). In contrast,

268 zones of reflector discontinuity near the top of Late Pliocene units are interpreted as

269 the result of a decollement process possibly associated with transpressive

270 deformation as indicated by the occurrence of gentle anticlines located vertically

271 above these zones (see below).

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272 The lateral continuity of stratigraphic markers and isopach intervals measured across

273 vertical discontinuity such as fault or fault zones is poor. The thickness of individual

274 sequences, identified by the markers mentioned above, can vary of several

275 milliseconds across faults.

276

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277 Stratigraphic implications:

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278 Based on this seismic stratigraphic approach integrated with the analysis of check-

279 shot data (Lapindo Brantas personal comm.) and a derived average velocity of the

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280 lower Upper Kalibeng Fm of ca. 2180 m/s, the top carbonates of the Kujung

281 Formation at the BJP-1 well location, is estimated at ca 3260 m TVD, ca. 440 m

282 below the BJP-1 total depth.

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283 The seismic stratigraphic interval further below the bottom of BJP-1 well (Fig. 2)
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284 consists of transparent seismic facies on-lapping on the margin of the carbonate

285 build-ups and resting above the carbonate seismic marker. This transparent facies
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286 was not penetrated during the drilling of the BJP-1 well and probably just crossed by
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287 the PRG-1 well (Kusumastuti et al., 2002; see later). This unit is interpreted as the

288 shallow marine shales of the Early Miocene Tuban Formation highly discontinuous.
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289 Low frequency seismic reflectors within this unit support the occurrence of shales
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290 and clays. In addition, the onlap of this seismic unit upon the carbonate buildups of
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291 the Early Miocene favours the interpretation of this unit as generated by the

292 transgressive trend associated with the Tuban Formation.

293 The thickness of the Tuban Formation however changes considerably below the

294 BJP-1 (estimated thickness ~430 m) and PRG-1 where it may reach a thickness of

295 2-5 m at maximum. This suggests a sin-tectonic tilting of the carbonate build up

296 ridge, inducing its subsidence towards the WSW during the deposition of the

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297 transgressive Tuban shales. In addition, the presence of Early Miocene fossil record

298 recovered both from the PRG-1 well (Kusumastuti et al., 2002) and the Lusi mud

299 eruption (Samankassou et al., this volume), confirms independently our new

300 proposed seismic-stratigraphic interpretation.

301 The lack of Late Miocene succession (Ngrayong Fm and Wonocolo Fm) in the study

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302 area attests to a significant stratigraphic discontinuity between the Tuban Formation

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303 and the Upper Kalibeng Formation. This is indicated by the angular unconformity

304 marked by individual seismic horizons (e.g. downlaps) of the younger stratigraphic

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305 unit on the older one.

306 Following the same approach, the Kujung Fm (including the Prupuh Unit) thickness

307
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below the BJP-1 and PRG-1 well has been estimated to range between ca. 590 and
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308 760 m respectively. This would therefore imply the top of underlying Ngimbang
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309 Formation at ca 3.85 km true vertical depth (ca. 3.3 sec TWT). The seismic data

310 examined do not allow identifying the base of the Ngimbang Formation with
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311 confidence in the area of the BJP-1 well. However, based on the seismic facies we
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312 speculate that the basement could be located below 4.5 sec TWT.

313
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314 Structural geology

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315 Examination of individual 2D seismic lines shows that stratigraphic reflectors are
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316 often interrupted by offsets associated with high angle faults or by highly segmented

317 and diffused amplitude disturbances (Fig. 4, 5 and 6), interpreted primarily as large

318 deformation zones (DZ). These are characterised by steeply dipping but converging

319 discontinuous fault segments dipping at ca. 45 to 85 degrees to the SSE and NNW

320 forming overall triangular deformation zones (TDZ). The latter can reach a width at

321 the shallower depth (Late Pliocene at ca. 1500 m TVD) of ca. 5 km. The spatial

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322 distribution of these TDZ form lenticular shaped areas with main axis oriented ca.

323 W20S – E20N (see map inset in Figs. 4 and 5). Based on 2D seismic data quality,

324 fault segments rarely can be mapped all the way to the surface (Figs. 4 and 5).

325 At depth, fault segments, severely affecting the entire succession of Pleistocene-

326 Pliocene terrigenous strata, are broadly converging towards the apex of the

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327 triangular zone into individual almost vertical segments which often terminate at the

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328 top of the Early Miocene Carbonate. In several instances (Fig. 4) where the deepest

329 individual segment stops, a new, more vertical and deeper fault segments continue

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330 through the Oligo-Miocene carbonate sequence.

331 Within individual TDZ, several shorter segments can be identified dipping in opposite

332
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direction forming complicated pattern of synthetic and antithetic fault systems.
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333 However, their extension and geometry of branching pattern cannot be assessed
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334 with high accuracy due the limitation of seismic resolution.

335 When mapping the distribution and extension of these TDZ on individual 2D seismic
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336 lines, it becomes clear that the distribution of these features forms two elongated
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337 ellipsoids with longest axis oriented N70E-S70W. The two ellipsoids are

338 disconnected and form an en-echelon pattern (Fig. 7).

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339
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340 Associated with the TDZ, shale units display ductile deformation associated with
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341 fault-controlled diapirism. Consequently, the latter controls the deformation of

342 overlying stratigraphic units and possibly deep fluids circulation. Several large

343 deformations associated with shale movement at depth are known in the area

344 (Satyana and Asnidar, 2008). In the study area a narrow and deep synform is visible

345 in the vicinity of the PRG-1 well (Fig. 2) and is interpreted as a large collapse

346 structure formed during the post eruptive phase of a hydrothermal vent system

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347 (Sawolo et al 2009; Istadi et al., 2009, 2012). Similarly to Lusi, vertical deformation

348 zones (“pipes”), likely associated with deeply rooted fault systems extend down to at

349 least to ca. 3.5 sec TWT (Fig 6). Such features are often located at the interface

350 between harder carbonate rocks (forming isolated build ups) and the laterally

351 extensive neighbouring clastic (shale-prone)-units (Fig. 6).

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352 In the upper stratigraphic section, gentle anticlines with axis oriented N70E–S70W

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353 are well developed in the Pliocene-Pleistocene sequences. These structures are well

354 known in the area as potential structural traps for hydrocarbons (Sawolo et al.,

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355 2010). They lay above a decollement level localised within a ductile interval

356 occurring stratigraphically at the top of Late Pliocene. Anticline curvature generally

357
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increases from bottom to top suggesting a continuous deformation process through
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358 time (Fig. 4 and 5). These anticlines are intensely faulted and are located above the
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359 TFZ.

360
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361 In order to assist the identification and mapping of discontinuity and related TDZ, the
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362 distribution of seismic variance attribute was examined on several horizontal slices

363 (every 250 ms TWT). This technique allowed us to identify clear alignments of high-
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364 variance spots whose spatial distribution can be interpreted within the general
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365 structural framework. In the stratigraphic interval above 1.5 sec TWT, two parallel
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366 belts, ca. 2 km wide, orientated N70E are identified where a concentration of high-

367 variance occurs. These two belts are 5 km apart and lay to the NW of a wider and

368 more continuous high-variance zone corresponding to the southern part of the study

369 area, dominated by volcanic deposits (Fig. 2). Similarly, N-S oriented alignment of

370 high-variance zones, shorter than the N70E trending ones, also occur in the area,

371 suggesting the occurrence of a conjugate fault and fracture system. The latter seems

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372 to be responsible of the offset of the southernmost high-variance belt which is thus

373 segmented.

374

375 Interpretation and Discussion

376

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377 The kinematic reconstruction using subsurface data (2D seismic reflection data and

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378 vertical and spatial variance distribution), combined with the information provided by

379 local morpho-tectonics indicates the presence of an active large sinistral strike-slip

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380 fault zone (SX-FZ) oriented N70E–S70W genetically linked to a σ1 matching the

381 present-day stress regime (N-S). Riedel shear elements such as synthetic Riedel (R)

382
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and antithetic Riedel (R’) develop oriented N40E–S40W and N10W-S10E (Fig. 8),
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383 respectively. The Watukosek fault system is thus a sinistral large-scale synthetic
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384 Riedel shear of this larger strike-slip systems. The N-S lineament trends inferred by

385 high-variance 2D mapping and supported by 2D seismic interpretation would in this

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386 case correspond to tensional lineaments formed parallel to the N-S maximum stress
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387 orientation.

388 The occurrence of intensely faulted anticlines oriented N70E–S70W, likely

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389 associated with localised decollement at stratigraphic levels within the clastic Late

Pliocene succession (Fig. 4) is consistent with a strike slip deformation zone with σ1
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390
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391 parallel to the regional stress orientation and associated transpressive deformation

392 (Fig. 7).

393 At the regional scale, the Lusi mud-eruption develops at the intersection of N20E

394 oriented system along which volcanic cones have migrated north-eastwards (Mazzini

395 et al., 2012).

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396 Integrating the results of our study with the regional structural elements of East Java

397 inferred from the literature (Mudjiono and Pireno, 2002; Sribudyani et al., 2003;

398 Satyana et al., 2007; Istadi et al., 2009; Sawolo et al., 2010), we propose also a

399 kinematic reconstruction for an earlier phase of deformation, which may have

400 affected this area. Specifically, the structural elements such as those oriented N70E

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401 and N10E (beside the N20E of the Watukosek fault) can be associated with an

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402 earlier phase of strike slip systems. Here the long E-W oriented (Fig. 1) fault would

403 have played a major kinematic role as sinistral strike-slip system. This is supported

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404 by the configuration of the basement according to gravimetric data (Istadi et al.,

405 2009) where basement highs, such as the one forming the Madura island, are clearly

406
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segmented in a E-W direction. This would likely require a direction of maximum
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407 stress σ1 oriented N40E, which corresponds to the strike direction of the Watukosek
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408 fault. In this early structural configuration, therefore, the Watukosek fault system

409 corresponded to a tensional lineament, without shear component. Moreover, the

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410 N70E would correspond to Riedel shear whose (transpressive) activity may have
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411 controlled the development of the narrow and elongated basins and highs (e.g. West

412 and East Cepu High, Kemandung Ridge, BD Ridge; Fig. 1), which were later
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413 occupied by Oligo-Miocene carbonate accumulation (Satyana, 2005).

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414
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415 The structural complexity observed in the studied area results from the interplay of a

416 heterogeneous sedimentation linked to both mixed marine deposits (shales and

417 sand) and volcanic/volcanoclastic accumulation during an active deformation

418 (shortening) in a back arc tectonic setting. The several angular unconformities and

419 lenticular geometries of reflectors (i.e. pinch outs and truncations), attest for an

420 active sin-sedimentary deformation. This structural complexity, coupled with the

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421 heterogeneous and laterally variable deposits make the detail structural

422 interpretation a non-trivial task.

423 The vertical and lateral discontinuity of seismic signal highlighted by the use of

424 variance attribute on seismic lines does allow the identification of key vertical

425 deformation zones within the studied area. Where not affected by critical acquisition

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426 conditions (undershooting illumination issues due to e.g. buildings, roads, rivers)

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427 these zones of high variance are used to identify regions of deformation affected by

428 both fault movement and/or occurrence of subsurface fluids (Fig. 7).

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429 However, the data examined in this study indicate clearly the presence of large

430 N70E-S70W deformation bends which have been developing through time.

431
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Specifically, our study highlights the occurrence of at least two deformation phases
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432 associated with a different orientation of the maximum stress (Fig. 8). The latter
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433 rotated anticlockwise of ca. 40 degrees and induced a different behaviour of the

434 Watukosek fault system which originated first as tension lineament and then
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435 developed a sinistral strike-slip movement (Fig. 8). This later deformation phase was
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436 also the one responsible for the N-S compression and decollement of upper

437 stratigraphic layers and consequent formation of gentle transpressive anticlines

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438 associated with the TDZ. The stratigraphic information inferred from wells and
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439 seismic indicate that this second phase started likely during the Early Pleistocene
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440 (Fig. 2 and 4).

441 The mechanisms of deformation affecting the basement rock and the overlying

442 stratigraphic deformed units, may have also have affected both deep (i.e.

443 hydrothermal) and shallower (i.e. meteoric) fluid circulation.

444 Based on this study, the location of Lusi’s mud eruption corresponds to the

445 intersection between the N70E-S70W and N-S lineaments, the latter being a

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446 tensional feature which may have generated the predisposing condition for the

447 overpressured fluids to migrate to surface.

448

449 Conclusions

450 • A detailed analysis of 2D seismic and well data from the NE Java specifically

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451 including the region around the Lusi mud eruption was carried out. The results

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452 have been integrated with existing regional structural geology knowledge, and

453 provide new insights on the stratigraphic and structural subsurface

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454 architecture.

455 • A large deformation zone referred as the Watukosek fault system has been

456 identified.
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457 • The deformation style of the study area results from a complex tectonic
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458 history genetically associated with a regional E-W oriented strike slip system

459 which probably evolved through time as a consequence of a principal stress

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460 rotation from N40E-S40W to N-S.

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461 • The early deformation phase causing the development of basement

462 segmentation in the E-W orientation developed with a σ1 oriented N40E and
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463 likely caused the formation of the proto Watukosek fault system as tensional
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464 lineament, possibly during Middle Eocene.

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465 • The present-day N40E oriented sinistral strike slip Watukosek fault system

466 was activated as a consequence of a rotation of δ1 which likely occurred in

467 the Early Pleistocene.

468 • At depth, the Watukosek fault system is linked to a complex of synthetic and

469 antithetic fault segments forming large triangular fault zones, deeply rooted in

470 pre-Oligocene successions. At the surface, the poor seismic resolution in the

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471 first 150-200 ms impair the clear recognition of the intersection of the fault

472 segments with the topography (e.g. Watukosek escarpment).

473 • In plan-view, the triangular fault zones form distinct elliptical areas with an en-

474 echelon-like pattern with axis oriented N70E-S70W corresponding to a series

475 of gentle anticlines formed during the late deformation phase (N-S axis) in a

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476 transpressive regime.

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477 • Known large collapse structures (e.g. PRG-1 well) and chaotic stratigraphic

478 intervals are interpreted as the results of movement of unconsolidated fine-

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479 grained sediments from depth, namely ancient piercement structures.

480 • The Lusi mud eruption originated from an intensely faulted and fractured

481
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bedrock zone located at an intersection of lineaments associated with the
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482 compressional strike-slip movement of the Watukosek fault.
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483 • The two major piercement structures identified in this study, the Lusi and the

484 one next the PRG-1 well, account for two very different stages of evolution of
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485 a hydrothermal-sedimentary system. The ongoing Lusi eruption and the

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486 collapsed feature at PRG-1 indicate a strong activity in the recent geological

487 times. A detailed examination of a larger 2D seismic data set around Lusi is
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488 being carried out to identify similar signatures of subsurface hydrothermal

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489 processes and thus develop a piercement risk map of the East Java region.
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490

491 Acknowledgments

492 The Authors would like to thank the management of Lapindo Brantas Indonesia for

493 providing access to the subsurface data and for the authorisation to publish the

494 results of this study. The interpretation and model presented in this paper reflect

495 solely the view of the authors at the stage of the manuscript preparation.

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496 Schlumberger is thanked for granting access to the Petrel platform for seismic

497 interpretation. The work was funded by the European Research Council under the

498 European Union's Seventh Framework Programme Grant agreement n° 308126

499 (LUSI LAB project, PI A. Mazzini). We acknowledge the support from the Research

500 Council of Norway through its Centers of Excellence funding scheme, Project

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501 Number 223272 (CEED). Andrea Moscariello and Matteo Lupi are part of the

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502 SCCER SoE collaborative Geo-Energy research group. Matteo Lupi acknowledges

503 SNF (projects PYAPP2_166900 and PZ00P2_154815). The Editor and two

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504 anonymous Reviewers are thanked for their comments and constructive reviews.

505

506
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723 Java Basin, Indonesian Petroleum Association, Proceedings 29th Annual

724 Convention, 335-346.

725 Subroto, E.A., Noeradi, D., Priyono, A., Wahono, H.E., Hermanto, E., Prapitish,

726 Santoso, K., 2007. The Paleogene basin within the Kindeng Zone, Central Java

727 Island, and implications to hydrocarbon prospectivity. Proceedings, Indonesian

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728 Petroleum Association, 31st Annual Convention and Exhibition, May 2007.

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729 Svensen, H., Planke, S., Malthe-Sørenssen, A., Jamtveit, B., Myklebust, R., Eidem,

730 T., and Rey, S. S., 2004, Release of methane from a volcanic basin as a

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731 mechanism for initial Eocene global warming: Nature, 429, 542-545.

732 Svensen, H., Planke, S., Polozov, A. G., Schmidbauer, N., Corfu, F., Podladchikov,

733
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Y. Y., and Jamtveit, B., 2009, Siberian gas venting and the end-Permian
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734 environmental crisis: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 277, 490-500.
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735 Tanikawa, W., Sakaguchi, M., Wibowo, H. T., Shimamoto, T., and Tadai, O., 2010,

736 Fluid transport properties and estimation of overpressure at the Lusi mud volcano,
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737 East Java Basin: Engineering Geology, 116, 73-85.

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738 Tingay, M., Heidbach, O., Davies, R. & Swarbrick, R. 2008 Triggering of the Lusi

739 mud eruption: Earthquake versus drilling initiation. Geology 36, 639.
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740 Tingay, M., 2015. Initial pore pressures under the Lusi mud volcano, Indonesia.
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741 Interpretation-a Journal of Subsurface Characterization 3, SE33-SE49.

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742 Tingay M., 2016 What Caused the Lusi Mudflow Disaster in Indonesia? AAPG

743 International Conference & Exhibition, Melbourne, Australia, September 13-15,

744 2015 Search and Discovery Article #41791

745 van Bemmelen, 1949. The geology of Indonesia, Vol 1A, Govt. Printing Office,

746 Nijhoff, The Hague, 732 pp.

747 Van Noorden, R., 2006, Mud volcano floods Java: Nature, v.

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748 doi:10.1038/news060828-1

749 Van Rensbergen, P., Morley, C.K., Ang, D.W., Hoan, T.Q., Lam, N.T., 1999.

750 Structural evolution of shale diapirs from reactive rise to mud volcanism: 3D

751 seismic data from the Baram delta, offshore Brunei Darussalam. Journal of the

752 Geological Society 156, 633-650.

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753 Van Rensbergen, P., Morley, C.K., 2000. 3D Seismic study of a shale expulsion

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754 syncline at the base of the Champion delta, offshore Brunei and its implications

755 for the early structural evolution of large delta systems. Marine and Petroleum

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756 Geology 17, 861-872.

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758 Bull., 57, 74-96.

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759 Willumsen, P., Schiller, D.M., 1994. High quality volcaniclastic sandstone reservoirs
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760 in East Java, Indonesia. In: 23rd Annual Convention, I. IPA, 101–111.

761 Xing, J.H., Jiang, X.D., Li, D.Y., 2016. Seismic study of the mud diapir structures in
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762 the Okinawa Trough. Geological Journal 51, 203-208.

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763

764
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765
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766 FIGURES CAPTIONS

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767 Fig. 1: A. Geographical setting of the area of study with indication of main tectonic

768 lineaments (sources: Sribudiyani et al., 2005; Satyana, 2007; Istadi et al., 2009).

769 Blue patches indicate the fault controlled structural highs where Oligo-Miocene

770 carbonate formed in the area (Satyana and Purwaningsih 2003). WCH: West Cepu

771 High; ECH: East Cepu High; KR: Kamandou Ridge; BDR: BD Ridge. The yellow

772 rectangle delimits the study area. B. Close-up view of the Watukosek fault trace in

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773 red and the location of the 2D seismic lines provided by Lapindo Brantas. Bold black

774 lines 1 to 5 appoint to seismic sections presented in Figures 4 and 5.

775

776 Fig. 2: 2D seismic line passing through the Banjar Panji 1 and the Porong 1 deep

777 wells (BJP-1 and PRG-1, respectively) with displayed GR and Sonic logs. Vertical

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778 scale is in TWT. BJP-1 well reached a maximum depth of 2819 m TVD stopping ca.

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779 440 m above the top of Miocene Carbonates. The PRG-1 well reached a maximum

780 depth of 2628 m TVD penetrating the carbonates for ca. 54 m. The ancient collapse

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781 feature in proximity of the PRG-1 is well visible on the right of the figure. Reflector

782 discontinuity and faulting around the BGP-1 well, accounts for the severe degree of

783
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brittle structural deformation in this location and deep fluid circulation.
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784
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785 Fig. 3: Stratigraphic setting of the Kendeng Basin in the Sidoarjo district (East Java,

786 Indonesia). Composite 2D seismic line oriented N-S shows the vertical and lateral
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787 relationship between the main stratigraphic unit present in the area. Stratigraphic
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788 nomenclature based on Mudjiono and Pireno, 2002.

789
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790 Fig. 4: Subsurface expression of the fault pattern West of the Watukosek fault zone
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791 along seismic section 1 and 2 (see location on Fig. 1). The deformation zone marks
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792 a triangular zone converging at depth. The width of the deformation tends to

793 decrease approaching the Watukosek fault zone. Red arrows points to the surface

794 trace of the Watukosek fault. Dashed white line delineates the top of the Miocene

795 carbonate buildups.

796

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797 Fig. 5: Subsurface expression of the fault pattern East of the WFS zone along

798 seismic sections 3, 4 and 5 (see location on inset and Fig. 1). Red arrows points to

799 the surface trace of the Watukosek fault. Dashed white line delineates the top of the

800 Miocene carbonate buildups.

801

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802 Fig. 6: Top: Structural smoothing seismic attribute and variance attribute of a seismic

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803 line crossing the PRG-1 well allowing the detection of deep fluid circulation. Note that

804 the chaotic facies observed on the structural smoothing seismic section and

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805 interpreted as an ancient collapse structure is marked by a high-variance spot.

806 Bottom: Structural smoothing seismic attribute and variance attribute of the seismic

807
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section 2 crossing the Watukosek fault trace (see location on Fig. 1) showing the
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808 convenience of using the variance to detect fault traces marked by vertical
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809 alignments of variance anomalies. Faults are displayed in dashed yellow lines.

810
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811 Fig. 7: Seismic variance map at 750 ms TWT with indication of main lineament
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812 inferred by the alignment of high-variance values (red). The trace of the surface

813 expression of the Watukosek fault is reported. In the inset, the distribution of
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814 triangular deformation zones (indicated as faulted section in the figure) around the
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815 BJP-1 and PRG-1 well are reported showing a distribution pattern which follows a.
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816 N40E-S40W direction, parallel to the extension of carbonate build ups ridges (Fig. 1).

817

818 Fig. 8: Tentative kinematic evolutionary reconstruction based on subsurface regional

819 literature data (seismic and gravimetry from Sribudiyani et al., 2005; Istadi et al.,

820 2009) and this work. A: E-W oriented strike slip system active regionally result in the

821 generation of sin- and antithetic Riedel. N40E-S40W lineaments parallel to main

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822 principal stress component form as tensional features (proto Watukosek fault); B: the

823 40º rotation of principal stress direction (N-S) activate the Watukosek fault with a

824 sinistral strike-slip movement as a Riedel shear feature of a larger N70E-S70W

825 strike-slip zone; C: the new N-S stress component activate a transpressive shear

826 zone along main N70E-S70W faults forming distinct deformation areas with

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827 ellipsoidal shape distributed in a en-echelon-like pattern. Gentle anticlines formed in

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828 these areas.

829

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831

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Department of Earth Sciences

Prof. Dr. Andrea Moscariello

Direct line: +41 22 379 66 10 – +41 22 379 66 19

andrea.moscariello@unige.ch
Editorial Board
Marine Petroleum Geology

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Geneva, 16h September 2017

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Concerning: Highlights for review:

Genesis and evolution of the Watukosek fault system in the Lusi area (East Java)

By Moscariello, Do Couto, Mondino, Boost, Lupi, Mazzini

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Dear Editor,
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Hereby, I submit our manuscript to be considered for publication in the Special Issue: “10 years of
Lusi eruption”.
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This paper provides:

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1) original insights on the subsurface of the Lusi area (East Java) and specifically on the
genesis and evolution of one of the key structural features existing in the area.
2) a first structural and seismo-stratigraphic model of the area around the Lusi eruption vent
and two key wells (BJP-1 and Prorong-1)
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3) the interpretation and attribute analysis of existing industry 2D seismic lines.

4) the reconstruction the initial genetic phase of the Watuckosek fault starting as tensional
lineament and then evolving into sinistral Ridel shear following a anticlockwise rotation of
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the main compressional stress direction.

5) an evolutionary model of the Watuckosek Fault System explaining the occurrence of Late
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Pliocene / Lower Pleistocene transpressive anticlines.

Yours sincerely,

Andrea Moscariello

Section des Sciences de la Terre et de l’Environnement

13 rue des Maraîchers - CH-1205 Genève - Tél. +41 22 379 61 11 – Fax +41 22 379 32 10
http://www.unige.ch/sciences/terre/geologie