Torsion

Torsion is the twisting of a straight bar when it is loaded

by twisting moments or torques that tend to produce
rotation about the longitudinal axes of the bar.
For instance, when we turn a screw driver to produce
torsion our hand applies torque ‘T’ to the handle and
twists the shank of the screw driver.

Sign convention – Right Hand Rule

Shafts are structural members with length
significantly greater than the largest
cross-sectional dimension used in
transmitting torque from one plane to
another.
Turbine: Exerts a Torque on the Shaft.
Shaft: Transmit the Torque to the Generator
Generator: Creates an equal and opposite
Torque.
Torsion: twisting of a straight bar when
loaded by moments (or torques)
Moments or torques tend to produce
rotation about the longitudinal axis of the
bar (twisting).

Couple: the pair of forces that tends to

twist the bar about its longitudinal axis.

Moment of a couple:
T (Nm)= Force (N) x Arm (m) or
T (lb in.)= Force (lb) x Arm (in.)

Representation of the moment of a couple:

a vector with a double-headed arrow

Then we can write the moments as

T1 P1 d1 T2 P2 d 2
Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses
Net of the internal shearing stresses is an internal torque,
equal and opposite to the applied torque,
Although the net torque due to the shearing
stresses is known, the distribution of the stresses is not.


Distribution of shearing stresses is statically indeterminate –
must consider shaft deformations.
Unlike the normal stress due to axial loads, the distribution
of shearing stresses due to torsional loads can not be
assumed to be uniform.
 Torque applied to shaft produces shearing stresses on the faces
Axial Shear perpendicular to the axis.
Components Conditions of equilibrium require the existence of equal
stresses on the faces of the two planes containing the axis of
the shaft.
The existence of the axial shear components is demonstrated
by considering a shaft made up of axial slats.
The slats slide with respect to each other when equal and
opposite torques are applied to the ends of the shaft.

From observation, the

angle of twist of the
shaft is proportional to
the applied torque and
to the shaft length.

  T
  L
Torsional Deformations of Cylindrical Bars
When subjected to torsion, every cross-section of a
circular shaft remains plane and undistorted then the
bar is said to be under pure torsion.
Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular shafts
remain plain and undistorted because a circular shaft
is axisymmetric.
Cross-sections of noncircular (non-axisymmetric)
shafts are distorted when subjected to torsion.

Consider a cylindrical bar of circular cross

section twisted by the torques T at both the
ends.
Since every cross section of the bar is
symmetrical, we say that the bar is in pure
torsion.
Under action of torque T the right end of the
bar will rotate through small angle known
as the angle of twist.
The angle of twist varies along the axis of
the bar at intermediate cross section denoted
by ( x )
 Shear Strains at the Outer Surface
¢;(x

.L

IJtr = (r)(d · = dx )(rmax )I

d¢
Yn ax = r it
'V o: Angl e of twist p er unit length
1 1 1

Ir rol
' max
d ¢J
O= =
max
ab = cd = d x
1d,
 Torsional Deformations of a Circular Bar
The rate of twist or angle of twist per unit
length
d 
 dx
Shear Strain at the outer surface of the bar
bb |
max   r
ab dx
For pure torsion the rate of twist is
constant and equal to the total angle of
twist divided by the length L of the bar
r
max r 
L
For Linear Elastic Materials
From Hooke’s Law  G 
G is shear modulus of elasticity and is
shear strain

From Shear Strain equation :

r
max r 
L
Shear Stress at the outer surface of the
bar : Shear Stresses in cylindrical bar with circular cross
max G r  section.

Torsion Formula : To determine the

relationship between shear stresses and
torque, torsional formula is to be
accomplished.

Longitudinal and transverse shear stresses in a circular bar subjected to torsion.

Torsional Formula
Since the stresses act continously they have
a resultant in the form of moment.
The Moment of a small element dA located
at radial distance and is given by
The resultant moment ( torque T ) is the
summation over the entire cross sectional Distribution of stresses acting on a cross section.
area of all such elemental moments.
 M  A  2 Max A
T dM  max   dA  max
2
Ip r
A
r A
r
Polar moment of inertia of circle with I  2A
radius r and diameter d A

Maximum Shear Stress


   T 
r 4 4
Max 
I p  d max Tr 16T3 r I Polar
 32 I d
p Generalized torsion formula
 T  Generalized
 
Angle of twist
  I torsion formula L
per unit length
Polar

  TL
      
T
G  L Total angle of twist
GI P GI P

Equations derived above

are only for bars of
circular cross sections
Circular tube in torsion.
A solid steel bar of circular cross section has diameter d=1.5in and a length of
l=54in.The bar is subjected to torques T acting at the ends if the torques have
magnitude T=250 lb-ft . G=11.5x106psi
a) what is the maximum shear stress in the bar
b) what is the angle of twist between the ends?

a) From torsional formula

16T 16 * 250 *12 4530 psi

 max  3 
d *1.53
4 4
d *1.5 .4970in4
I p  
32 
b) Angle of twist
32

TL 250lb  ft 12in 54in 

   0.02834rad
GI P 11.5 10 6

psi 0.4970in 4

Examplel
Design a steel (G = 78 GPa) shaft, either
as a solid circular bar or as a circular
tube,to transmit a torque of 1,200 N·m.
Given: Tallow = 40 MPa,
B8110w = 0.75°/m
In case of tube construction,t = d:/10.

Two design criteria:

(a) (b)
(a) Strength Criterion: Tanow = 40 MPa
Tr T \d { • . • {d0 f or solid sl1aft
·1 )
2
Tnwi: = -=> I,= = 15x 10-6 d n1· ,,·here d =
Ip Tll1la:D d for 11ollo\\.sl1aft

(b) Stiffness Criterion: Banow = 0.75°/m = 0.01309 rad/m

T T
B= => I,= = l.175 x l0-6 111
GI , GBnua:ro
 4
li" stre) = r x 10-6d• m4 IP(st .!e.. ) = 1.175 x 0 m
Jrd 4 4 32I P
(a) For solid sl1aft : I P
1 = . :::::} d0 =----
2 J[

Sbe11gth : .4 32 x (15 x l J-6 d 0 ) => i-l = 0. .

d0 = 0 .53:> 1n
Jl 0
4 32 x 1.175 10-6
Stilf11ess : d0 = => d0 = 0.0588 m
Jl

I Stiffness governs the design --+ d0 = 58.. 8 n1n1 I

1 b f 011: 110110'. sl1afts : t = d 2 /10 -=:::::p d 1 = d -2t = 0.8d 2

l = Jl"(d -d{ ) = Jl" fo .5904 di) ::::) d4 = li'
p ::l2 3.2 - 0.0.5796
4
Stre11gth : d' =
15 x 10-6 d2
. ====> d ... = 0.06.l7 111
- 0.05796 - - •
Stif 111ess . d 4 _ 1. 75 X 10 => d... = 0.0671m
·2-
0.05796
I Stiffness governs the design --+ d 2 = 67.. 1 n1m I
Compare the solid and hollow shafts

dhollow 67.1mm
Size   1.14
d solid 58.8mm
2
Ahollow 1273mm
Weight per unit length   2
0.468
Asolid 2715mm
 Hollow shafts vs Solid shafts
TR
strength  Max 
IP

Angle of twist per T

unit length  
GI P
1
Both are proportional to
IP

Weight is proportional to the cross-sectional area (A)

Non-Uniform Torsion Bars consisting of prismatic segments with
constant torque throughout each segment.
Non-Uniform Torsion Bars with continuously varying cross sections
and constant torque.

Bars with continuously varying cross sections

and continuously varying torque.
 A shaft/gear assembly

Shaft is driven by a gear at C.

Gears at B and D are driven by the
shaft. It turns freely at A and E
d 30mm LBC 500mm
T2 450N.m LCD 400mm
T1 275N.m G 80GPa Determine the maximum shear stress and the angle of
twist between gears B and D.
T3 175N.m

TCD 275N m 450N m 175N m

CD 
TCD 
2 

2 33.0MPa
Ip
32
 
TCD  LCD 175N .m0.4m
  0.0110rad
CD
G I P 80 10 Pa 7.9510 m  
9 8 4

TBC 275N m

BC 
TBC
2 
 
2 51.9MPa
Ip 7.95 108 m4

 
TBC  LBC 275N .m0.5m 
  0.0216rad
BC
G I P 80 10 Pa 7.95 10 m  
9 8 4

BD BC CD

 0.0216 0.011 0.0106rad 0.61o
 A tapered bar in torsion

Change of diameter with length:

 1
Evaluate the integral of this type of equation
x
 a  bx 
4

3ba  bx 3
where d B d A
a d A ..........b 
L
32TL 1 1 
   3 
3G d B  d A  
 d 3 
d B 
A


Stresses and Strains in Pure Shear

Analysis of stresses on inclined planes: (a) element in pure shear, (b) stresses
acting on a triangular stress element, and (c) forces acting on the triangular stress
element (Free-body diagram).
 Stress elements oriented at = 0 and 
Graph of normal stresses  and shear stresses = 45° for pure shear.
 versus angle of the inclined plane.
Torsion Failure
In torsion, a ductile material will break along
the plane of maximum shear, that is, a plane
perpendicular to the shaft axis.
A brittle material, will break along planes whose
normal direction coincide with maximum
tension, that is, along surfaces at 45o to the
shaft.
Note: Brittle materials are weaker in tension than in
shear. Ductile materials generally fail in shear.

Torsion failure of a brittle material by tension

cracking along a 45° helical surface.
Stress elements oriented at = 0 and = 45° for pure shear.
 
Strains in Pure Shear 
The shear strain is the change 

in angle between two lines that 
were originally perpendicular to 
each other. The element changes 
its shape while the volume is 
maintained constant (shear 
distortion). For a elastic 

material:
Strains in pure shear: (a) shear distortion of an element
 oriented at = 0, and (b) distortion of an element oriented
  at = 45°.
G
E If we rotate the element 45o, there will be no shear stresses and
G 
the normal stresses will be maximum. When inclined 45 o, the
21   elongation is given by:

  0   0 o

45  45
o
1   
o

2G 1  
o
E 2
 Aluminum tube with G=27G Pa
(a) Determine the maximum shear, tensil e and
compressive stresses in the tube.
Max Tr  4000N.m 0.080m 58.2MPa
 
IP 

0.080m4 0.060m4 
32
The maximum tensile stress occurs at a n
inclination of 45ocw:

(b) Determine the maximum strains

 Max  58.2MPa 0.0022rad


G 27000MPa
 Max 0.0022rad 0.0011rad

2  2
Relationship Between E and G.

Before shear the distance bd is equal to: Lbd h 2

After shear the distance bd is equal to: Lbd h 2 1 Max 

Using the Law of Cosines: L2bd h 2  h 2 2.h2 
  
.Cos 
2

1  Max 2 1   1 Max 2 1 2Max

Max
2

  
Cos 
2  Cos   As the ε and are very small,
 the equation is reduced to:
2 Sin


Substituting for torsion
  
1 Max 1  
2
  
G  G
E

Max 
 
Max  1   1   
2 E E
 Transmission of Power by Circular Shafts
The most important use of circular shafts is to transmit mechanical power from
one device or machine to another. The work done by a torque of constant
magnitude is equal to the product of the torque (T) and the angle through which
it rotates (ψ).
d
W T dW T  T
Power is the rate at which work is done
(=rad/s): P  dt dt
2nT ....n(rpm)..T (N  m)...P(watts)
P  60

2nT ...n(rpm).....T (lb  ft)...H (hp)

H  33,000
Steel shaft in torsion that
transmit 40hp to gear B. The
allowable stress in the steel
is 6000psi.

(a) Find the diameter (d) of the shaft

if it operates at 500rpm.

33,000H 33,000 40hp 5042lb in

T  
2n 2500rpm

Max 16T3 d 3 16T 16 5042lb in 4.280in3

 
d allow 6000 psi
d 1.62in

The diameter of the shaft must be larger than 1.62in if the allowable shear
stress is not to be exceeded.
Solid steel shaft in torsion. Motor transmits
50kW to the shaft ABC of 50mm diameter
at 10Hz. The gears at B and C extract
35kW and 15kW respectively.
Calculate the maximum shear stress in the
shaft and the angle of twist (AC) between the
motor and the gear C. Use G=80GPa.
P 2fT TA  P 
50000watts
796N.m
2f 210Hz 
16 239N.m
P  35000watts 557 N.m   9.7MPa
T 2f  210Hz   
BC 3
B 0.050m
P 15000watts BC 239 N .m 1.2m  0.0058rad
T    
239 .
Nm 80000000Pa   0.050m 
4 
2f 210Hz 
C
32 
16TAB 16 796 N .m
AB  3  32.4MPa Maximum shear stress = 32.4MPa.
d 0.050m3
T L 796 N .m 1.0m AC AB  BC
 AB  AB AB 
GI Polar 80 109   0.0162rad
Pa 
 AC
 0. 050m
4

0.0162 1.26o
0.0058
0.022rad  
32 


Statically Indeterminate
Torsional Members
The equilibrium equations are not enough for
determining the torque. The equilibrium equations
need to be supplemented with compatibility equations
pertaining to the rotational displacements.
First step : Write the equilibrium equations

T T1 T2
Second Step : Formulate equations of compatibility. 1 2
T1L T2 L
1  2 
Third Step : Relate the angles of twist to the
torques by torque-displacement relationships.
G1I P1 G2 I P 2
Solving:
G2 I P 2

1
T 1 P1 
    
Bar ABC is fixed at both ends and loaded at C by a
torque TO.
Find the reactive torques TA and TB., the maximum
shear stresses and the angle of rotation.
Equilibrium equations: TA TB TO
Compatibility equations

Separate the bar from the

support at the end B. The
torque TO produces an
angle of twist 1. Then 1 2 0
apply the reactive torque
TB. It alone produces an
angle of twist 2.
 TO LA T LA
Torque-Displacement Equations: 1  2  GI
B

TB LB
GI PA PA GI PB
The minus sign appears because TB produces a rotation that is opposite in direction
to the positive direction of 2
Substitute in the equation: 1 2 0
TO TB LB
TB LA 0
LA  
Solution: GI PA GI PB
GI PA
 LI   LI 
TA T O  T B  T O
B PA A PB

 L 
A PB 
 B PA  A PB  B PA
L I L I L I I
  


Maximum shear stresses

AC TAd A  CB TB d B

2I PA 2I PB
 TO LB d A TO LAd B
 AC   
2LB I PA  LA I PB  2LB I PA  LA I PB 
 Angle of Rotation: The angle of rotation C at section C is equal to the
angle of twist of either segment of the bar.
TA LA TB LB TO LA LB
C   
GI PA GI PB GLB I PA  LAI PB 




In the special case that the bar is prismatic TA TO LB TB TO LA

L L

AC TAd  CB TB d

2I P 2I P
TO LB d TO LAd
 AC   CB 
2I P LB  LA  2I P LB  LA 




TA LA TB LB TO LA LB
C   
GI P GI P GI P LB  LA 


Strain Energy in Torsion

and Pure Shear
The work W done by the torque as it rotates
through the angle is equal to the area below
the torque-rotation diagram.
U W T
2
2 2

TL T L  GI P
  U   2L
GI P 2GI P
Non-uniform torsion
The total energy of the bar is obtained by adding the
strain energy of each segment
n n 2
Ti Li
U U i 
i 1 2Gi  I P 
dU 
i 1 2GI p (x)
i

If either the cross section of the bar or the torque

varies along the axis, then U 2GI p (x)
Strain Energy Density in Pure Shear
Consider an element of height h and thickness t.
Then the forces V acting on each face is :

V ht
The displacement ( δ )produced is  h
U W V Strain energy per unit volume:
2
h2t 
U  u  2
2

u  2

2G
G2
u 
2
 Prismatic bar loaded with TA and TB
simultaneously
TA 100N.m
TB 150N.m
L 1.6m
G 80GPa
When both loads act on the bar, the torque in segment CB is
I P 79.52 103 mm4
  2 L 
TA and in segment AC is (TA+TB)
T2 L T T
U  Ti 2 Li A  B
n 2 2

A T L T T L
2  A  A B  BL
T
2 
i 1 2Gi I P i 2GI P 2GI P 2GI P 2GI P 2GI P

100N.m 2 1.6m  100N.m 150N.m 1.6m  150N.m  1.6m 

2
U   
280GPa 79.52 10 mm  
3 4
2 80GPa 79.52 10 3
mm 4
  280GPa 79.52 103 mm 4 


U 1.26 J 1.89 J 1.41J 4.56 J

 Prismatic bar fixed at one end and loaded
with a distributed torque of constant
intensity t per unit distance.

t 480lb  in / in
L 12 ft
G 11.5 106 psi T (x) tx
I P 17.18in 4

2
 
2 3
dx t L
U 0  1 0 
L L 2
tx dx
2GI p 2GI P 6GI P
480lb in / in  144in 
2 3

U  t L 
2 3
580in lb
6GI P 
Thin-Walled Tubes
under torsion
Stresses acting on the longitudinal
faces ab and cd produce forces
Fb  btb dx Fc ctc dx
From equilibrium:  btb ctc
shear _ flow t  f cons tan t

dT rfds Where LM denotes the length of the

LM median line and AM is the area enclosed
by the median line of the cross section.
T  f rds 2 fA
m
0
T
 
2tAM
The area enclosed by the median line is not the cross
section area.
AM bh
For a rectangular section: T
vert 
2t bh
1
T
horiz 
2t2bh
Area enclosed by the median line
AM r
2

T
 
2r 2t
Strain Energy of a Thin Walled Tube
Find the strain energy of an element 2  2t 2 ds f 2 ds
and then integrating throughout the dU  tdsdx  dx  dx
volume of the bar. 2G 2G t 2G t
Where f is the shear flow constant
f2 f L M ds  T 2 L
U dU 
M ds
 dx   t 8GA2 
M ds

2G  0 t 0 2G 0 t
2
Introducing a new property of cross T 2L 
J
4 AM U 

section called the Torsion Constant

LM

0 t
2GJ
2 LM 2r
4
For a constant thickness: J  tAM AM r 2
LM For a circular tube of
thickness t
J 2r 3t
TL
T   T 2L  
 
W U
Angle of Twist 2 2G 2 r 3t  G 2 r 3t 



Comparison of circular and square tubes.
Both tubes have the same length, same
wall thickness and same cross sectional
area : r
4bt 2rt b 

Circular Tube Square Tube

2 2

AM 1 r 2 AM b2  r Stresses

2
4
J1 2r t 
3
1 AM 2  r 4
3 3 2 2
J b t  r t
3
   0.79
A1 2rt 2
 8 2 AM 1 r 2
4
A2 4bt 2rt
The circular tube not only
has 21% lower shear
Ratios of circular tube over square tube
stress than does the square
3r 3t tube but it also has a
1 
2
Angles of twist  J 2  8 0.62 greater stiffness against
2 J1
 rotation.
 Stress Concentration
in Torsion
Stepped shaft in torsion.
The effects of stress concentration are
confined to a small region around the
discontinuity.
Tr 16T 
Max KNom K K 
3 
 
IP  D1 





K = Stress Concentration Factor

Nom 1 no min al shear stress

Stress-concentration factor K for a stepped shaft in

torsion. (The dashed line is for a full quarter-
circular fillet.)