Loads

Dead loads
Imposed loads
floor
roof
Determining load per m and m2
Wind
Structures transmit loads from one place to another

Where do loads come from

Dead loads - permanent and stationary

Structure itself
Plant and equipment

Some rough figures (note that values are subject to variation depending on specifc material type)
Also note values are forces per unit volume not mass per unit volume.

Unit Weights of baisc construction materials kN/m3

Aluminium 24
Brick 22
Concrete 24
Steel 70
Timber 6
Precast concrete beam length

1. Calculate weight of beam per unit length.

2. Calculate total weight of beam in it is 10.5m.

First cross sectional area of beam =

(0.6 x 0.25) - (0.4 x 0.15) = 0.09m2

From table unit weight of concrete = 24kN/m3

Weight per unit length = 0.09 x 24 = 2.16kN/m

Total weight = 2.16 x 10.5 = 22.68kN

Often we are dealing with sheet materials or we know a layer thickness of floor or roof build up.

Figures here are per unit area

Again when using these type of charts some care is needed to ensure you have the correct figure, or
that it corresponds with your design.

Unit weight of basic sheet materials kN/m2

Asphalt (19mm) 0.45
Aluminium roof sheeting 0.04
Glass (single glazing) 0.1
Plasterboard and skim 0.15
Rafters battens roofing felt 0.14
Sand/cement screed (25mm) 0.6
Slates 0.6
Timber floorboards 0.15
Plaster on wall face 0.3
Calculate the dead load in kN/m2 of the following
floor build up:

Timber floor boards

40mm sand/cement screed
125mm reinforced concrete slab

timber floor boards = 0.15

screed = 0.6 x 40/25 = 0.96
concrete slab = 0.125 x 24 = 3.00

dead load /m2 = 4.11kN/m2

if we are dealing with a wall acting on a beam we are interested in load per linear unit of the beam
In this example calculate the load per metre on the beam.
The build up is a double glazed window on a cavity wall of
102.5mm brick outer face and 100mm plastered lightweight block-
work which is 12kN/m3.

brickwork = 1.2 x 0.1025 x 22 = 2.71

blockwork = 1.2 x 0.1 x 12 = 1.44
plaster = 1.2 x 0.3 = 0.36
double glazing = 2 x 1.3 x 0.1 = 0.26
load on beam = 4.77kN/m
Imposed loads - or live loads, movable loads that act on the structure when it is in use.

People, furniture, cars, computers and machinery are all imposed loads.

Normally we consider imposed loads as floor and roof loads

Typical floor loads kN/m2
Art galleries 4.0
Banking halls 3.0
bars 5.0
Car parks 2.5
Classrooms 3.0
Churches 3.0
Computer labs 3.5
Dance halls 5.0
Factory workshop 5.0
Foundaries 20.0
Hotel bedrooms 2.0
Offices (general) 2.5
Offices (filing) 5.0
Private houses 1.5
Shops 4.0
Theatres (fixed seats) 4.0
If a bar should be designed with live load of 5.0 kN/m2 and if an average person is 80kg how many people
are expected to be standing in one square metre of floor?

Force exerted by one person = 80 x 9.81 = 785 N

Number of people per m2 = 5000 / 785 = 6.4 people/m2

equivalently if your house is designed with 1.5 kN/m2 and the total area was 22m2 how many people could
you invite to a party?

Force exerted by one person = 785N

Number of people per m2 = 1500 / 785 = 1.9 people/ m2
Total number of people at party = 1.9 x 22 = 42 and a bit.

certain types of dancing can cause dynamic effects that increase the effect of load.
Calculating imposed roof loads.

What you need to know:

1. Is access to the roof provided? (a load of adjacent floor area is required)

2. Predominant load is snow.
• which is dependant on
• geographical location
• height above sea level
• shape of roof
• wind that redistributes snow into drifts
Estimating ground snow loads in Canada. Info from Canadian Cryospheric Information Network
Find worst case depth and multiply by density (kg/m3) and 9.81

Tables in National Building Code provide further details

In UK snow load varies from 0.3kN/m2 on south coast to 3.0kN/m2 in Scotland

Calculating a snow load in Canada. National Building Code Part 4 4.1.7.

S = Ss (Cb x Cw x Cs x Ca) + Sr

Snow load per m2

ground snow load in kPa (kN/m2)

roof snow load factor = 0.8???

wind exposure factor

slope factor

accumulation factor

associated rain load

National Building Code of Canada appendix c for tables of climatic information
wind exposure factor

is 1.0 but can be reduced to 0.75 or in exposed areas north of treeline to 0.5
if
building is an exposed location and exposed on all sides
no obstructions around building
no obstructions on roof such as parapet
snow cannot drift onto roof from adjacent surfaces

slope factor based on roof angle a and surface type.

is 1.0 if a <= 30⁰
is (70⁰ - a)/40⁰ when a> 30⁰
is 0 if a > 70⁰

if roof is a slippery surface (where snow and ice slide off)

slope factor is 1.0 if a <= 15⁰

is (60⁰ - a)/40⁰ when a > 15⁰
is 0 if a > 60⁰
accumulation factor

is 1.0
except when
for large flat roofs when
1.2 x [1-(30/l)2] but not less than 1.0 for roofs with wind factor = 1.0
1.6 x [1-(120/l)2] but not less than 1.0 for roofs with wind factor = 0.75 or 0.5

w = smaller plan dimension

L = larger plan dimension
and
l is 2 x w - ( w2/L) in metres

can be assigned other values when:

roof shapes are arched, curved or domes
snow loads in valleys
snow drifts from another roof
projections on adjacent roofs
snow sliding or drainage from adjacent roofs
Theres more:

in reality full and partial loading has to be considered

In addition to the load calculation above roofs of slope less than 15⁰ and arched or curved roofsmust be
designed with accumulation factor 1.0 on one portion while half that load is applied to the remainder .
Calculate snow load on this roof
structure

What is the snow load per metre

length of truss?

What is the total snow load on one

roof truss?

What is the load per metre on the

supporting wall? Assume that loads
from trusses are evenly distributed
Calculate snow load for Halifax S S = Ss (Cb x Cw x Cs x Ca) + Sr

Snow load per m2

ground snow Halifax = 1.7
ground snow load in kPa (kN/m2)
snow load factor = 0.8
roof snow load factor = 0.8???

wind exposure factor = 1.0 wind exposure factor

slope factor
slope factor = (70 - 40) / 40 = 0.75
accumulation factor
accumulation factor = 1.0 associated rain load

rain load Halifax = 0.5

S = 1.7 x (0.8 x 1 x 0.75 x 1) + 0.5

S = 1.52kN/m2
Trusses are at 0.6m centres

So snow load per metre length of

truss is:

0.6 x 1.52 = 0.9kN/m

Note load is vertical so 1m dimen-

sion is measured horzontally

For 7m truss load is

7 x 0.9 = 6.4 kN
Load per m on wall = 1.52 x 3.5 = 5.32 kN/m
Wind loads act normal (or perpendicular) to building surfaces

winds can cause pressure or suction.

For this reason building structures must resist horizontal forces as well as vertical forces.

In addition some light weight structures can be subject to uplift forces from the wind so need to be ad-
equately held down.

Wind loads like snow loads vary depending on:

geographic location
degree of exposure
building height and size
building shape
wind direction in relations to structure
positive or negative pressures in the building
Faster moving air creates lower pressure (bernoulli effect) as in plane wings.

The same principle causes forces to act on building surfaces.

Structure for resisting wind loads
These principles should be well understood by now if not

Look at:

Francis Ching. Building Construction Illustrated

Edward Allen. Architect’s Studio Companion

For structural design it is often necessary to consider several load cases due to the wind blowing from
different directions.

Designing a building in Halifax calculating wind loads. National Building Code of Canada Part 4 4.1.8.

p = q x Ce x Cg x Cp

external pressure acting statically and

normal to surface

reference velocity pressure

exposure factor

gust effect factor

external pressure coefficient

National Building Code of Canada appendix c for tables of climatic information

net pressure on a surface is the difference between internal and external

similar to external pressure internal pressure is calculated according to the NBC

p = q x Ce x Cg x Cp

internal pressure acting statically and

normal to surface

reference velocity pressure

exposure factor

gust effect factor

internal pressure coefficient

reference velocty pressure three are shown in table 1 in 10, 1in 30, 1in 100

these are probabilities of pressure occuring

so 1 in 10 is used for cladding and stuctural design for vibration and deflection

1 in 30 for structural strength

post - disaster buldings use the 1 in 100 pressure values.

exposure factor

exposure increase with height

height m exposure factor
> 0 and <=6 0.9
> 6 and <=12 1.0
> 12 and <=20 1.1
> 20 and <=30 1.2
> 30 and <=44 1.3
> 44 and <=64 1.4
and so on more heights given in nbc
gust factor

1.0 or 2.0 for internal pressures to be found somewhere in the 500 pages of appendix A!!
we’ll use 1.0 for now.

2.0 for the building as a whole and main structural members

2.5 for small elements

external and internal pressure coefficients

again appendix A we’ll use 1.0 for now.

Forces due to wind on simple building

external pressure p = q x Ce x Cg x Cp

1 in 30 year Pressure Halifax = 0.52 kPa (kN/m2)

Walls below 6m so exposure factor is 0.9

Gust factor = 2.0 external and 1.0 internal

Pressure coefficient = 1.0

external p = 0.52 x 0.9 x 2.0 x 1.0 = 0.936 kN/m2

internal p = 0.52 x 0.9 x 1.0 x 1.0 = 0.468 kN/m2

so 0.936 - 0.468 = 0.468 kN/m2 acting normal to

vertical surfaces windward

and 0.936 + 0.468 = 1.4kN/m2 leeward

Forces due to wind on simple building

external pressure p = q x Ce x Cg x Cp

1 in 30 year Pressure Halifax = 0.52 kPa (kN/m2)

Roof above 6m so exposure factor is 1.0

Gust factor = 2.0 external and 1.0 internal

Pressure coefficient = 1.0

external p = 0.52 x 1.0 x 2.0 x 1.0 = 1.04 kN/m2

internal p = 0.52 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.0 = 0.52 kN/m2

1.04 kN/m2 acting normal to vertical surfaces at roof level

normal to roof 1.04 x Sin(40) = 0.67

windward = 0.67 - 0.52 = 0.15 kN/m2
leeward = 0.67 + 0.52 = 1.19(suction)
Next up:
A couple of other load types (to know about)
Uniform and point loads
Safety factors
Calculating load on beams
Load paths

Pin Jointed structures

A couple of other load types (to know about)
Uniform and point loads
Safety factors
Calculating load on beams
Load paths
Hydrostatic pressure loads from soils and liquids

Increases linearly with depth.

Application of safety factors to loads

Loads discussed are realistic estimates of loads or characteristic loads

when checking ultimate strength characteristic loads are increased by multiplying by a safety factor.

The result is the design load.

Safety factors

load combination dead imposed wind

dead and imposed 1.4 or 1.0 1.6 -
dead and wind 1.4 or 1.0 - 1.4
dead, imposed and wind 1.2 1.2 1.2
 imposed roof
For example

to obtain the maximum compressive design in the support at B

wind two load combinations should be checked and the larger value used
imposed floor
1.4 x dead + 1.6 imposed

or

dead load 1.2 x dead + 1.2 x imposed + 1.2 wind

to obtain maximum tensile design load in the support at A

we need to minimise the effect of the dead and imposed loads by

using

1.0 x dead + 1.4 x wind

A B
 Point load (kN)

Uniformly distributed load (kN/m)

Calculating loads on beams

Example

Building type - office

Floor construction = 4.11kN/m2
Perimeter wall construction = 4.77kN/m2
self weight of beams = 0.6 kN/m

safety factors are 1.4 for dead load B6

and 1.6 for live load
to find design load

design load kN/m2

floor 1.4 x 4.11 5.75
wall 1.4 x 4.77 6.68
beams 1.4 x 0.6 0.84
imposed 1.6 x 2.5 4.00

total design floor load = 5.75 + 4.00 = 9.75kN/m2

Beam B1 (8m span)
supports a total width of 6m

load from floor = 9.75 x 6 = 58.50kN/m

self weight of beam = 0.84 kN/m

design UDL = 59.34 kN/m

symmetry indicates reactions will be equal

reaction = (59.34 x 8) / 2 = 237.4 kN

beam B2 is the same as B1

Beam B3 suports a 3m width of floor plus the perimeter
wall

Load from floor = 3 x 9.75 = 29.25 kN/m

load from wall = 6.68kN/m
self weight of beam = 0.86kN/m

total design UDL = 36.79kN/m

symmetry indicates reactions will be equal

reaction = (36.9 x 8) /2 = 147.6kN

 B6

Beam B4 has same UDL as B1 and B2 but span is 6m

B6
Beam B6

Supports perimeter wall and a point load from the reaction of B2.

Load from wall = 6.68kN/m

self weight of beam = 0.86kN/m

design UDL = 7.54kN/m

design point load = 237.4kN

Reaction from symmetry

= ((7.54 x 12) + 237.4) / 2 = 163.9kN

Now work out reactions for B5
Load paths
Working through load path for a simple sign.