Professional Documents
Culture Documents
HSV
HSV
*Political Causes:-
1) Lord Dalhousie’s Policy of ‘the Doctrine of Lapse’:-if the ruler of a subordinate state
died without a heir , his adopted son was not allowed to occupy the throne and the state
was annexed to the British Empire in India. Lord Dalhousie annexed the states of Jhansi,
Satara and Nagpur.
2) Ill treatment of Nana Sahib and Rani of Jhansi:Baji Rao II: The last Peshwa adopted
Nana Sahib as his son who was denied access to the annual pension of his father. Rani of
Jhansi Laxmi Bai was also not allowed to adopt a son.
3) Annexation of Awadh on the pretext of misgovernment in 1856.
4) Disrespect shown to the Mughal Emperor: (i) Lord Dalhousie had insulted the Emperor
by asking him and his successors to leave the Red Fort in Delhi. (ii) Lord Canning declared
that the title of the Mughal emperor would be abolished after the death of Bahadur Shah
and his fort would be takrn over by the British.
5) Disbanding the armies of the annexed states: as a result thousands of families lost their
means of livelihood.
6) Unpopular administration: The British abolished few Zamindars,and taluqdars which
created suspicion among them. The British administration in India was corrupt and
inefficient.
Social and Religious causes:-
1) Fear of the conversion: (i) The Missionaries showed them the lure of money, jobs and
honour for accepting Christianity.(ii) The prisoners who accepted Christianity were
released. (iii) The study of Bible was made compulsory in the institutions established by
missionaries in the backward areas.
2) Introduction of new laws: (i) Lord Bentinck prohibited the practice of Sati in 1829.
(ii)The Religious Disabilities Act of 1856 also decided that noone would be deprived of his
hereditary property on the ground of changing his religion. (iii) In 1856, the Widow
Remarriage Act was passed by Lord Canning. (iv) The government taxed lands belonging
to the temples and the mosques or charitable institutions.
3) Fear of western innovation: (i) The introduction of Railways and Telegraph had also
created suspicion and fear in the minds of the people. They thought that these measures
were introduced to propogate Christianity,if not followed, would be thrown before the
railway engines or hanged by the Telegraph poles.(ii) The introduction of Railways was
resented on the ground that people of all castes would have to travel in the same
compartments.
4) Humiliation in the name of race: (i) The British regarded the Indians as belonging to an
inferior race and looked down upon them socially. (ii) The Indians could not travel in the
first calss compartment of the Railways. (iii) They were kept away from all social
gatherings and were not allowed to mix up with the Englishmen.
5) General Service Enlistment Act: Passed in 1856, made it compulsory for the Indian
soldiers in the service of the Company to serve wherever required. In those days , sea
voyages were considered against the religious customs and therefore, resented by the
soldiers.
(III)Economic Causes:-
1) Heavy land taxes: (i) During Lord Bentinck’s reign, the zamindars were forced to
pay heavy land revenue and many were deprived of their land. (ii) The appointment
of the Inam Commission also created a problem. It was appointed to look into
proprietary rights of the landlords, in turn, it increased the hardship of the
landlords and peasants.
2) Ruin of handicraft industries: (i) The British imposed heavy import duties on the
manufactured aricles of India entering Britain and charged nominal duties on raw
products going out of India. (ii) As per the Act of 1720 passed by the british
government,prohibited the use of Indian Silk and Calicoes in England. (iii) All the
machine made goods from Britain took over the Indian market which led to the
impoverishment of the craftsmen.
3) Displacement of zamindars and taluqdars: (i) The British confiscated the lands and
properties of many zamindars and talukdars, especially of Awadh. (ii) Lord
Bentinck’s resumption of rent free tenures reduced the landowners to poverty. (iii)
Thousands of jagirs belonging to the jagirdars in the deccan were confiscated by
Lord Dalhousie.
4) Loss of jobs: (i) Thousands of soldiers who were employed under the native states
suddenly became jobless when the states were annexed to the British dominion. (ii)
Many pensioners lost their pension but the English offered them no alternative
employment. (iii)Only the English were offered high posts and were given handsome
salaries in comparison to the Indians.
5) British policy towards tribes: (i) Commercialization of agriculture, tightening of
control over forest zones for revenue purposes and utilization of forest wealth for
the benefit of the urban population resulted in penetration of tribal areas by
outsiders. (ii) The Christian Missionaries were also active in some of the tribal areas
and created hostile feelings among the tribes. (iii) Outsiders like money- landers,
contractors, traders, government officials, for their own interest, disturbed the
social, cultural and economic lives of the tribes and exposed them to exploitation.
6) Inhuman treatment towards indigo cultivators: (i) British planters forced peasants
in some parts of Bihar and Bengal to cultivate indigo. (ii) These planters provided
loans to the farmers at very high interest rates which forced them to remain
indebted for the whole of their life. (iii) After the crop, the farmers were paid only
2.5 percent of the market price. (iv) The property of the farmers who refused were
either mortgaged or destroyed.
(IV) Military causes:-
1) Low salary and poor prospects of promotion: (i) All the high ranks in the army were
reserved for the British only. (ii) The native sepoys could not rise above the rank of
Risaldar or Subedar.(iii) An English soldier was paid more than 8times the Indian
sepoy while their duties were of similar nature. (iv) The Indian sepoy had to pay for
his food and clothes ,for which the English were paid extra.
2) Annexation of Awadh: (i) Three-fourth soldiers became unemployed. (ii) The
disbanded soldiers were ready to join in any activity to overthrow the British power.
3) Disproportion between Indian and British troops: Indian sepoys were four times
more in number as compared to the English soldiers which gave courage to Indian
soldiers to take up arms against the English.
4) Loss of British prestige in the Ist Afghan War: (i) The defeat of the British exposed
thir weakness. (ii) This increased the self confidence of the Indian sepoys to
challenge the so called mighty Britishers.
5) Effects of the Crimean War: A number of British soldiers were engaged in Europe
,in the war between England and Russia.
6) Discontent and disaffection in the Bengal army: (i) The sepoys and officers of the
Bengal Army were mainly high-caste Hindus of Awadh. They refused to cross the
River Sindhu to take part in the Anglo-Afghan War because sea voyage was
forbidden by their religion.
7) General Service Enlistment Act( refer the para above for explaination)
(v) Immediate cause: (i) The greased cartridges to be used in the Enfield Rifle. (ii) Before
loading , the soldiers had to bite the tip with their teeth. (iii) A rumour spread out that
these cartridges were greased with the fat of cows and pigs (iv) Both the Hindus and
Muslims were enraged and thought that the English Government wanted to defile their
religions
EVENTS:
(1) Meerut: On May 6, 85 soldiers refused to use the cartridges and were send to 10 years
imprisonment.May 10, the soldiers released the prisoners, killed many European officers
and marched towards Delhi This was the beginning of the revolt of 1857.
(2) Delhi:The soldiers reached Delhi and proclaimed Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of
India. Sir John Nicholson with the help of Sikh soldiers besieged Delhi. Bahadur Shah was
deported to Rangoon where he died in 1862. The Mughal Empire came to an end.
(3) Kanpur: Nana Sahib ,the adopted son of Peshwa Bajirao II,was denied the right to get
the pension of his father so he with the help of Tantiya Tope started the revolt. General
Havelock defeated Nana Sahib who fled away to Nepal.
(4) Lucknow: The last Nawab of Awadh Nawab Wazid Ali Shah was exiled in Calcutta so
his wife Begum Hazrat Mahal crowned her son Birjis Qadr as the ruler of Awadh and
started the revolt.
(5) Central India: Rani of Jhansi took part in the revolt because her adopted son was not
recognized as apparent king to the throne. Tantiya Tope provided full support to her.
(6)Bihar: Kunwar Singh in Jagdishpur –Bihar.
Causes of the failure of the revolt of 1857:
(1) Lack of a common goal and unity of purpose: (i) Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, Begum
Hazrat Mahal, Nana Sahib , Tantia Tope, Rani Laxmi Bai neither planned nor cooperated
with one another as one unit. (ii) The British acted under one command, one direction and
with one fixed aim.
(2) Better resources of the British: (i) The rebels were fighting with swords and spears,
while the English were using newly introduced rifles. (ii) The British possessed good
artillery while the rebels either lacked it or could not utilize it in battlefield. (iii) The
Telegraph proved very useful to the English.
(3) No unified leadership: (i) There was an absence of a capable leader who could organize
the scattered forces of the rebels into one unit. (ii) The revolt failed to get national
involvement whereas the English had military commanders like Havelock, Neil, Nicolson
and Hugh Rose. (iii) The English got support from the tribes in the territory of the north-
west and the Afghans to defeat the rebels.
(4) No support of native rulers: (i) Many native rulers, instead supporting the rebels,
helped the British in suppressing the revolt. (ii) The rulers of Patiala, Jind, Gwalior,
Hyderabad etc. supported the British by all possible means. (iii) The King of Nepal also
helped the British by putting his army under the command of the English.
(5) Non participation of the Middle Class: (i) The educated Indians and the middle class
also did not support the cause of the rebels. (ii) On the contrary, their feelings were against
it therefore, the revolt neither could be organized nor could found support on intellectual
and emotional grounds.
Consequences of the revolt:-
(1) End of the Company Rule: (i) The Government of India Act 1858 or the Queen’s
Proclaimation saw the end of the rule of the British East India Company. (ii) A new
government department , the India Office, was creayted, to handle the be governance of
India.(iii) It was headed by the Secretary of State for India. (iv) He was assisted by a
Council of fifteen members.
(v) The Governor- General of India now became the Viceroy of India.
(2) Appeasement of the native rulers:- (i) The British assured them that their territories
would never be annexed. (ii) The Doctrine of Lapse was abandoned and the right to
adoption was recognized. (iii) The British declared that they would honour all treaties and
agreements entered into by the East India Company.
(3) Policy of integration:- (i) The Act of 1861 was passed which allowed the Indians to be
elected to the Legislative Council. (ii) Through the Indian University Act, universities were
opened at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
(4) Rise of nationalism:- (i) The revolt ignited the desire among the Indians
To fight against the social, economic and political exploitation by the British.
(ii) The sacrifices made by thousands of people left an indelible mark on the minds of the
Indians eg. Rani of Jhansi, Tantya Tope etc.
(5) Military reorganization:- (i) The Indians were divided into martial and non-martial
races and regiments. (ii) The regiments were raised on caste, religious or regional basis
such as the Sikh Regiment, The Jat Regiment, the Gurkha Regiment etc. (iii) The ratio of
British to Indian soldiers was also increased within India.
(6) Economic exploitation:- (i) The Indian taxpayers paid the salaries of army and
administrative personnel. (ii) More than half of the taxes collected in India now went to
England in the name of the Home charges. (iii) India became the largest market of the
British goods.
Nature of Revolt of 1857:-
1. Sir John Lawrence described the revolt as ‘ mutiny of the sepoys’.
2. Vir Savarkar described the revolt as a planned war of national independence.
3. Indian historian Tara Chand described the revolt as a war for national independence.
4. S N Sen however feels that despite the absence of national feeling among the Indians, the
revolt was a war of independence.
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Formation of the Indain National Congress:A.O.Hume, a retired servent, with the support
of Lord Dufferin- the Viceroy set up the Indian National Congress in 1885. Lord Dufferin
felt that a safe outlet should be provided to vent the intense anti-British feelings of the
Indians and congress was to be used as a ‘safety valve’. He termed it a ‘ microscopic
community’ signifying it a group of few where major part of the population was not
involved. The first session of the INC was held in December 1885 at Bombay under the
Presidentship of W.C. Bonnerjee. A.O.Hume is considered to be the Father or the Founder
of the INC.
By the end of the 19th century, it became critical of the government’s policies. The first
session of INC was attended by 72 delegates which was increased to 600 by the year 1887.
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Ch.3- The Moderates
*Beliefs/Objectives:- (i) To build up strong public opinion leading to the growth of political
consciousness.
(ii) To educate and unite people for a common political programme.
(iii) To persuade the british government to introduce reforms as desired by the nationalists.
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Ch.3-The Radicals
*Why were they called the Radicals?
(i) They stood for complete Swaraj.(ii) They encouraged radical methods in politics, such as
boycott of british goods, government services and titles.(iii) They believed that for any
success, boldness was required.
*Causes of the rise of Radical Nationalism:
1) Non-fulfillment of the demands of the Moderates:
(i) The only act passed by the Government in 1892 was inadequate and disappointing.
(ii) The radical nationalists mocked at the moderate methods of persuasion and petition as
a policy of mendicancy.
(iii) The discontentment with the failure of the moderates to secure any concessions from
the British government.
2) Impact of colonial exploitation:-
(i) The radicals blamed the British for gradual impoverishment of the masses, deterioration
of the agriculture and industries and recurrent droughts and famines.
(ii) Increasing unemployment made the youth restless.
(iii) Famine in 1896-97 killed nearly 45 lakh deaths and Government machinery was slow
in providing relief.
(iv) Tilak wrote article highlighting it. As a result, Tilak was arrested and sentenced to 18
months imprisonment.
(v) The Chapekar brothers killed the Plague Commissioner, Rand.
3) Impact of international events:-
(i) The defeat of the Italians by the Ethiopians in 1896 and of the Russians by the Japanese
in 1905 encouraged the Indians to fight against foreign domination.
(ii) In Ireland people were launching Home Rule agitation.
(iii) Revolutionary movements had also begun in Russia, Turkey and Iran.
(iv) The victory of Afro-Asian forces over western powers shattered the myth of European
superiority and invincibility.
4) Ill treatment of Indians in South Africa:-
(i) In South Africa, the Indians were subject to racial discrimination.
(ii)The Indians were denied the right to vote and couldnot enter the buses and railway
coaches reserved for the whites.
(iii) They were subject to unfair taxation.
(iv) The Registration Act required them to carry their Identity Cards.
5) Repressive policy of Lord Curzon:-
(i) He passed The Official Secrets Act which curtailed the liberties of the people.
(ii) The Municipal Act(1899) which reduced the number of Indian members in Calcutta
Corporation.
(iii) The University Act (1904) aimed at the official control of University senates.
(iv) The Partion Of Bengal which was enforced on 16th October 1905 was to check the
growth of Indian Nationalism and to create division among Hindus and Muslims.
6) Teachings of Social Reformers:-
(i) The teachings of Swami Dayanand , Swami Vivekanand and annie Besant reminded the
people of their glorious past.
(ii) Their teachings inculcated pride in Indian Culture and generated a spirit of
nationalism.
(iii) In Bengal, the worship of Goddess Kali and Durga was revived to inspire the people to
take up arms against evil.
(iv) The heroic tales of Shivaji, Rana Pratap and Rani Lakshmi Bai were narrated by most
of the leaders.
(v) Bankim Chandra’s novel ‘Ananda Math’ with its song, ‘ Vande Matram’ inspired the
youth.
The Congress attitude and the Surat split (1907):-
(i) In the Calcutta session in 1906, the moderates and the radicals sank their
differences and passed a resolution condemning the Partition Of Bengal and
favouring the Swadeshi and Boycott Movements.
(ii) Dadabhai Naoroji, who was respected by both the groups, became the President
in 1906; and declared Swaraj as the goal of the INC.
(iii) The Moderates were not in favour of adopting revolutionary means as
announced by the Radicals in 1906 session on the issue of swadeshi, swaraj and
national education.
(iv) When the Moderates nominated Ras Behari Ghose as the INC President and
Tilak was not allowed to speak, led to clashes in between these two groups.
Beliefs:-
(i) The radical nationalists denounced British rule and defied it. They held them
responsible for the backwardness and poverty of the Indian people.
(ii) Acc. to Tilak, freedom had to be fought for.
(iii) They believed in self reliance, self confidence and self respect as a weapon
against domination.
(iv) They aimed at nothing short of Swaraj.
Principles of the Radicals:-Complete Swaraj, National education, Self reliance and to
drive the British out of India.
Methods:
(i) Aggressive political actions and continuous struggle.
(ii) Wanted to cripple the British administration by using such weapons as
swadeshi, boycott and non-cooperation.
(iii) Drew their support from the masses.They had a wider social base.
(iv) They rejected British rule and held it responsible for the backwardness and
poverty of the Indian people.
(v) They revived the Ganapati and Shivaji festivals to inculcate pride in India’s
glorious culture to generate the spirit of nationalism.
Achievements of the Radicals:-
(i) Mobilization of the masses:- particularly the youth;For the first time, people
from all sections participated in anti-british agitations providing a wide social
base to the struggle for freedom.
(ii) Inculcated self-reliance and national pride by extolling India’s past.
(iii) Raised the slogan-‘Swaraj is my birthright’.
(iv) Organized Swadeshi and Boycott Movements to pressurize the British
government and it encouraged Indian handicraft industries.
(v) Swadeshi Bhandars selling Indian goods were set up every where.
(vi) National College with Aurobindo Ghosh as its Principal was set up to train
Indian youth,both physically and mentally, to fight for freedom.
The Radical Nationalists: (1) Lala Lajpat Rai:
(i) Known as the ‘lion of Punjab’.
(ii) He started various newspapers like Punjabi, VandeMatram(urdu),People
(English).
(iii) He wrote various books like Young India, England’s Debt to India, Political
Future of India and Unhappy India.
(iv) He wrote biographies of Mazzini, Garibaldi, Swami Dayananda, Shivaji and
Pandit Gurudatta.
(v) During his exile in Mandalay, he wrote his autobiography, The Story of My
Deportation.
(vi) In 1907, he along with Sardar Ajit Singh led an agitation against the
Colonization Bill.
(vii) Lala Lajpat Rai was sentenced to six months imprisonment at Mandalay without
a trial.
(viii) He cooperated with the Ghadar Party and also started a Home Rule League in
USA.
(ix) He was opposed to capitalism and became the first President of the All India
Trade Union Congress.
(x) In 1920, he was elected President of the INC, and opposed the Non-cooperation
movement proposed by Gandhiji.
(xi) In 1928, while leading a procession at Lahore against the all white Simon
Commission, he was severely wounded in a lathi charge by a police officer
named Saunders. He succumbed to his injuries on 17 November 1928.
(2) Bal Gangadhar Tilak:-
(i) The true exponent of the Indian Radical National Movement; was one of the
founder members of the Deccan Education Society and the Fergusson College.
(ii) With a view to inculcating courage, self defence and patriotism, he organized
many akharas and lathi clubs where physical training was imparted.
(iii) In 1893 and 1896, Tilak revived the Ganpati and Shivaji festivals respectively to
instill national feeling among the Indians.
(iv) He started two newspapers- Maratha (English) and Kesari(Marathi)- which
soon became the vehicles of his ideas.
(v) He opposed the enactment of the Age of Consent Bill on the grounds that a
foreign government had no right to interfere with Indian social and religious
customs.
(vi) In 1897, when Maharastra was with famine and plague, he set up relief camps
and organized no-rent campaigns.
(vii) He was imprisoned for 18 months for his suspected involvement in the murder of
Plague Commissioner, Rand and other anti-government activities.
(viii) He advocated boycott of foreign goods and the use of indigenous goods as a
political weapon for achieving goals.
(ix) He said-‘Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it’.
(x) Tilak was sent to Mandalay jail for 6 years where he wrote two works- ‘Gita
Rahasya’ and ‘Arctic Home in the Vedas’.
(xi) In 1916, he started the Home Rule League in Maharashtra.
(xii) At the Congress Session in Lucknow (1916), he played an important role in
formulating the Lucknow Pact which symbolized Hindu- Muslim unity.
(xiii) In 1918, he criticized the Montague Chelmsford Reforms as unsatisfactory.
(xiv) The Non cooperation Movement of Gandhiji was launched on the ideas of Tilak-
‘swaraj,swadeshi and boycott’.
(xv) People called him’Lokmanya’and Sir called him-‘the most dangerous pioneers
of disaffection and truly the ‘Father of Indian Unrest’.
(3) Bipin Chandra Pal:-
(i) In 1876, he joined Brahma Samaj.
(ii) He delivered forceful speeches condemning the Arms Act and spread the
message of Swaraj and freedom.
(iii) He stressed on swadeshi and boycott as instrumental form of freedom struggle.
(iv) During the Anti-Partition movement, he took active role in popularizing the
radical nationalist ideals.
(v) He emphasized the importance of self-reliance and national pride.
(vi) In 1906, he was imprisoned for 6 months for his refusal to give evidence against
Aurobindo Ghosh who was charged with sedition.
(vii) Initially Pal considered Surendra Nath Banerjee as his political mentor but
gradually drifted from the moderate group and joined Lala Lajpat Rai and
Tilak in the freedom struggle movement.
(viii) He was an educationist ,writer and journalist rolled into one. He wrote books on
Hindu Philosophy and Indian Nationalism.
(ix) He wrote articles in ‘The Englishman’,The Statesman’ and ‘Modern Review’.
He also wrote ‘The spirit of Nationalism’.
(x) In 1911, he advanced the concept of an Imperial Federation.
(xi) In 1918,he and Tilak went to England as members of the Home Rule League
deputation.
(xii) Bipin Chandra Pal was in favour of aggressive methods to be used as weapons in
the Non-cooperation Movement started by Gandhiji. He had to leave the
Congress because of these differences.
(xiii) He advocated the promotion of industries in India,48 hours of work in a week
and higher wages for workers.
(xiv) He proposed to tax the rich to secure more resources to help the poor.
(xv) His economic theories are expressed in his book ‘ The New Economic Menace to
India’.
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Chapter 6
Chapter 7
NATIONAL MOVEMENT(1914-17)
AUGUST DECLARATION
The Secretary of State, Mr. Montague announced in August 1917 about gradual
developments of self governing institutions in India.
Essential features or importance of the August Declaration:
1) Increasing association of Indians in every branch of administration.
2) Gradual development of self governing institutions.
3) Progressive realization of responsible government in India.
4) India was to remain an integral part of the British Empire.
Reaction to the August Declaration:
1) The moderates welcomed it as “ Magna Carta of India”.
2) The Radicals doubted whether thee government would be able to implement it.
3) The Congress and the League had agreed on sharing of seats in legislative councils
4) The leaders of the depressed classes felt that the new system could perpetuate Hindu
rule.
5) The Sikhs wanted to have one third of the seats in the Punjab Legislative Council.
The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms or The Act of 1919:
Main features:
4) Dyarchy in the provinces means the subjects to be dealt by the provincial
Government were divided into:
a) Reserved subjects.
b) Tranfered subjects.
5) Distribution of powers between the Central Government and provincial
governments.
6) Central government remained responsible to the British Parliament.
7) The Provincial subjects were divided into two parts- transferred and reserved
subjects.
8) Many Indians were granted the voting rights.
Criticism of the Act:
1) The system of dyarchy was a total failure.
2) British continued their policy of divide and rule as the communal
representation was now extended to other communities too.
3) The British were reluctant to give their unlimited powers.
4) No time limit for establishing self governing institutions in India.
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*The Congress Socialist Party: Main members- Jayprakash Narayan, Jawaharlal Nehru,
and,Subhash Chandra Bose.
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Main Provisions:
1)Creation of an All India Federation.
(2)Provision of Provincial Autonomy.
(3)Dyarchy was swept aside to be replaced by a system of responsible government in the provinces.
Elections in 1937 witnessed Congress’ victory in 7 out of 11 British provinces and the
Muslim League formed the government in Sindh alone.
1) Muslim League under Jinnah declared 22nd Dec, 1939 as the Deliverance Day, ‘A day of relief
from Congress’ as the Congress resigned from their concerned ministries.
2) Congress resigned because the British officials did not take the consent of Indian leaders to
take India’s support on behalf of Britain in World War II.
Demand for Pakistan: Mohammad Iqbal at the Allahabad session of the Muslim League
in 1930 conceived a plan of a Muslim state. Rahmat Ali had even found a name for this separate
state – Pakistan. In 1940 Muslim League passed a resolution that the areas in which Muslims were
numerically in majority should be grouped to constitute an independent state.
Causes that led to demand of Pakistan:
1. Refusal of the Congress to form a coalition government in provinces where Congress was
in Majority.
2. Poor performance of Muslim League in the elections.
3. The gospel of Hindu Rashtra preached by V.D. Savarkar caused apprehension among the
Muslims.
4. Muslim Mass Contact Movement started by Congress before and after the elections
of 1937.
5. British policy of Divide and Rule
6. Highest personal ambitions of some leaders could only be satisfied by the creation of
Pakistan.
1. Mr. M.A. Jinnah adopted the Two-Nation theory on 24th March, 1940 at Muslim League
session of Lahore.
2. He asserted that Hindus and the Muslims had nothing in common and were, therefore, two
separate nations and needed two separate states.
3. Punjab, Afghan province, Kashmir and Sindh and the Baluchistan were to be included in
Pakistan.
Proposals:
1)After the war, the government would set up a Constitution Making Body to frame the
constitution of India.
5)Government would give due weightage to the minority demads in the new set of reforms.
1) The cold attitude of the government to the demands of the Congress compelled the latter to
withdraw the offer of cooperation.
2) Gandhiji favoured Individual Satyagraha. Acharya Vinobha Bhave inaugurated it.
3) He was arrested on 21st Oct, 1940. Later on, Patel, Rajagopalachari and Azad courted arrest.
It was headed by Sir Stafford Cripps. British needed the help of India
to fight off Japanese army because the possibility of Indian soldiers supporting the Japanese
invaders posed as a threat to the British empire in India. So a mission was sent to India to
resolve the deadlock.
Proposals:
1. India would be given Dominion status immediately after the World War II.
2. Constituent Assembly would be set up.
3. The provinces not consenting to the new constitution would be free to have their own
constitution.
4. Provisions would also be made for the protection of the racial and religious minorities.
5. Viceroy was responsible for the defence of the country.
Muslim League: These did not contain acceptance of the demand for the creation of Pakistan so
the league also rejected it.
Reasons:
Objectives:
1. To launch a massive non-violent movement for independence to end the British rule in
India.
2. It suggested the formation of Provincial Government to resist foreign aggression.
Consequences:
1. S.C. Bose became the Congress President in 1938, and was re-elected in 1939 by defeating
Gandhiji’s candidate, Pattabhi Sitaramayya.
2. On the question of the formation of the Congress Working Committee, Bose wanted
freedom to choose his own Working Committee as he was the President of Congress,
Gandhiji disapproved it.
3. Bose was in favour of rapid industrialization, but Gandhiji opposed it.
4. Bose wanted inclusion of radical members in the Working Committee of the Congress but
Gandhiji opted for equal representation of moderates as well.
5. Bose wanted to take advantage when Britain started facing difficulties due to German
threat. However Gandhiji had a soft corner for the Britishers.
6. Bose wanted to help the people of the Princely states but Gandhiji refused.
7. Nehru and Jayprakash Narayan made efforts to resolve the deadlock between Gandhiji and
Bose, but nothing helped so Bose resigned from Congress on 29th April, 1939 to yield
place to gandhian Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the next President.
Formation of the Forward Bloc (3rd May, 1939): S.C. Bose felt the need of an organized
and disciplined left wing party in the Congress, so after resigning he laid the foundation of
the Forward Bloc on 3rd May, 1939.
Objectives:
1) To mobilize the radical, progressive and left wing members of the Congress.
2) To liberate India with the support of workers, peasants, youth and other radical organizations.
Main Ideals:
2)Abolition of landlordism.
Indian National Army (INA) It was formally established on 1st Sept, 1942.
1. Formation of Indian Independence league under the leadership of Rash Behari Bose.
2. The Tokyo conference met from 28th March to 31st March, 1942, attended by 120
delegates, passed a resolution to form Indian National Army.
1. INA had become the symbol of Indian unity, dedication and supreme sacrifice.
2. INA officers Shah Nawaz, G.S. Dhillon and Prem Sehgal were court-martialled due to
demonstrations all over the country but they were not punished by the government.
3. The Indian Navy and armed forces rose in revolt at Bombay in Feb, 1946.
4. Andaman and Nicobar islands were handed over to INA by Japan; renamed ‘Shahid’ and
‘Swaraj’ islands by Netaji.
5. INA entered Indian territories and captured Mowdok and marched towards Kohima.
1. He passed I.C.S. examination yet he decided to become a freedom fighter and popularly
was known as ‘Netaji’.
2. Formation of Forward Bloc.
3. He took charge of the INA in 1943.
4. On 21st Oct, 1943, announced the formation of the Provisional Government of free India.
5. Andaman and Nicobar islands were handed over to INA by Japan; renamed ‘Shahid’ and
‘Swaraj’ islands by Netaji.
6. ‘Delhi Chalo’ and ‘Jai Hind’ became the battle cry of the INA.
7. INA under him with support from Rash Bihar Bose and Captain Mohan Singh,
hoisted tricolor flag for the first time in 1944 in South-East Asia.
The Wavell Plan: On June 1945, Lord Wavell invited all Indian leaders to attend a
conference in Shimla to discuss the provisions on the Interim Government, as promised
earlier.
Reaction:
1. It failed because Jinnah insisted that all Muslim members of the Executive
Council should be chosen by the Muslim League.
2. This was not acceptable by the Congress because it aimed at representing both
the Muslims as well as the Hindus.
3. Congress had agreed to Wavell’s Plan but the adverse attitude of the Muslim
League made it inoperative.
The Cabinet Mission (March, 1946): Was sent to facilitate the transfer of power and to
help the Indian leaders decide the form of government that would suit them.
1) The members of the mission were Lord Patrick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V.
Alexander, who submitted their plan in March, 1946.
2) The two major parties – Muslim League and the Congress failed to arrive at an
agreement. Congress wanted united India whereas Muslim League wanted creation of
Pakistan. Cabinet Mission was formed to shed the differences between the two.
Proposals:
[M.P. was called Central Province and U.P. was called United Province.]
3. Any province could opt out of the group by a majority decision of the
legislature.
4. Separate constitution for each group.
5. A Constituent Assembly to be set up.
6. Till the new constitution would be framed, an Interim Government should be
created.
7. Federal Government to deal with defense, foreign affairs and communication.
All other subjects were to be looked after by the units of federation.
A. Congress –
1. Agreed to the constitution making plan.
2. Disagreed with the Interim Government as it said that it could not give up the
national character and share the government with the League.
3. Later due to overwhelming seats in the Constituent Assembly elections it formed
the Interim Government.
B. League –
1. First accepted it because it had showed signs of creation of Pakistan.
2. Later on rejected it because Lord Wavell rejected its demand to frame the
government without the Congress and because of apprehensions due to
overwhelming strength of Congress members in the Constituent Assembly.
C. Sikhs -
1. Rejected it because they felt insecure under Muslim dominated provinces.
2. Punjab was grouped in Group B along with Muslim majority states so they felt
they would be at the mercy of the Muslims.
D. Depressed class -
1. Rejected it because there was no reservation of seats for them.
2. Had only one seat in the Interim Government.
1) The league declared 2nd Sept, 1946 as a day of mourning(day on which Congress
formed the government) .
2) On 26th Oct, 1946, the league joined the Interim Government to wreck it from inside.
Reasons:
1. Jinnah charged the Cabinet mission in general and Lord Wavell in particular
with playing into the hands of the Indian National Congress.
2. The Muslim League resolved that any participation by the muslims in the
proposed constitution-making body was full of danger.
3. Jinnah explained that while the British had machine-guns to enforce their will,
and the Congress the weapon of civil resistance, the Muslims alone remained
defenceless, with their hands and feet tied.
4. It was followed that they must bid final goodbye to the constitutional methods
and prepare themselves for self-defense by resorting to direct action.
5. The working committee of the Muslim League met on 30th July, 1946 and
fixed 16th August, 1946 as the Direct Action Day throughout the country to
demand the creation of Pakistan.
Events:
Later Occurrences:
On 13th Oct, 1946, Jinnah informed the Viceroy that the Muslim League had decided to join
the Interim Government. Accordingly on 26th Oct, 1946, the representatives of the League
were inducted into the Government. But they had only joined to wreck the Government from
inside.
The British P.M. Clement Attlee announced that the British Government would leave India
before June 1948 even if there is no agreement between the League and the Congress and hand
over power to one or more Central Government.
Main Provisions:
1. Division of the country into India and Pakistan.
2. Referendum to be held in NWFP to decide whether people want to join India
or Pakistan.
3. Provinces of Assam, Bengal and Punjab to be partitioned.
4. Princely states will have to decide whether to join India or Pakistan.
5. On 15th August, 1947 the power will be transferred.
Reactions:
Provisions:
1. Two Dominions of India and Pakistan would be created on 15th August, 1947.
2. Pakistan to comprise Sind, Baluchistan, NWFP, West-Punjab and East Bengal.
3. Viceroy to be replaced by a separate Governor-General for each dominion.
4. Princely states have the choice to join either of the two dominions.
5. Till the new constitutions are framed governments to rule according to the Act
of 1935.
6. The Constituent Assembly of each country would make its own constitution.
7. Decide whether to stay in British-Commonwealth.
8. Title ‘Emperor of India’ was dropped.
9. Jurisdiction of the British Parliament over India would cease.
10. All the treaties and agreements between the British Government and native
Indian states would lapse.
11. The Indian army was to be divided into the two dominions.
12. Referendum to be held in Sylhet District,Assam.
__________________________________________________________________*Lord
Mountbatten was the first Governor-General of free India.
*********************************************************************
*Origin of UNO:
1) The London Declaration- June 1941, the representatives of Britain, Canada, New
Zealand, Australia and South Africa met and discussed of a world organization which
would be effective than the League of Nations.
2) The Atlantic Charter:- August 1941, US President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime
Minister Winston Churchill signed it.
Aims- (i) Maintaining international peace and security.
(ii) recognizing the equal status of all nations.
(iii) encouraging international cooperation and friendly relations in social, cultural
and economic spheres.
(iv) upholding the right to equality.
3) Washington Declaration:- January 1942, the representatives of 26 nations issued and
signed the Declaration of United Nations- to defeat the common enemy’ Germany’ and
cooperate with each other for the purpose. The term “United nations” was devised by the
US president Roosevelt and was used for the first time in the Washington Conference.
4) Moscow Declaration:-October 1943,The Foreign Ministers of UK,USA, the Soviet
Union and China were held at Moscow and issued a Four-Nations ‘Declaration for the
establishment of an international organization to be based on sovereign equality of all
nations - open to all-big or small for maintenance of peace and security.
5) Dumbarton Oaks Conference:- Sep.- Oct. 1944, representatives of UK,USSR,USA and
China met and prepared the draft of the future world organization which was a major step
towards the formation of the UN.
6) Yalta Conference:- February 1945, held discussions about the nature and structure of the
UN.
7) San Francisco Conference:- April 1945, decided to draft the UN Charter by 26th June.
The Charter was ratified by 50 original members on 24th October 1945,Poland signed it
later and become 51 member country. Since then, 24th October is celebrated as United
Nations Day.
* UN Charter:-It contains the aims, proposals and principles of the United Nations.
* Aims:- 1) To save succeeding generations from the scourge of war,
2) To reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights,
3) To promote social progress and better standard of life.
*Purpose:- 1) To maintain international peace and security,
2)To develop friendly relations among nations based on the principles of equality,
3) To achieve international cooperation in solving international problems,
4) To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in attainment of these common needs.
* Principles:- 1) All members are considered equal.
2) They must accept the decisions of the UN in all respects.
3) All of them have to fulfill their agreements as set forth by the Charter.
4) UN and its members will not interfere in the internal affairs of any country.
* Membership:-
1) Is open to all peace loving nations who believe in the principles of the UN.
2) Who accept the obligations of the UN Charter.
3) Names are recommended by Security Council and are appointed by the
General Assembly.
* Headquarter:- Manhattan, New York-USA. The European office is in Geneva.
* UN Flag:- 1) It was adopted on 20th October 1947.
2) Its a light blue flag with the UN emblem in white in the centre of the flag
3) The emblem depicts the world held between two olive branches which symbolize
peace.
* Official Languages:- Arabic, Chinese, English, Russian, French and Spanish.
* Finance:- Contribution from member states.
* Principal Organs of the UN:
* General Assembly [Composition]-
1) is the main deliberative organ of the UN; also called a Parliament of Nations.
2) Composed of all member states, each of which has one vote
3) Decisions on important matters require two-thirds majority while other matters are
reached by a simple majority.
Sessions:-
1) Regular session begins each year on the third Tuesday in September and continues
until mid- December.
2) Special session at the request of the Security Council if a majority of the members
agree.
3) An emergency session may be called within 24 hours if 9 out of 15 members vote in
favour of it.
Functions:-
1) To consider and make recommendations for the maintenance of international peace
and security;
2) To promote international political cooperation, development and codification of
international law,
3) To receive and consider reports from the Security Council and other organs of the
UN.
4) To consider and approve the budget of the UN;
5) To elect the non-permanent members of the Security Council, the Economic and
Social Council and the Trusteeship Council;
6) To appoint the Secretary – General on the recommendation of the Security Council.
7)‘Uniting For Peace Resolution’, in 1950- if Security Council is unable to reach a decision
because of lack of unanimity among the permanent members, the General Assembly can deal
with the problem[use of armed forces in case of aggression or breach of peace].
* Security Council:- is the executive body of the United Nations.
Composition: 1) It consists of 15 members.
2) It has five permanent members- USA,UK,China, France and Russia.
3) The ten non-permanent members are elected by a two – third majority for a term of 2 years.[in
an alphabetical order]
4) A retiring member is not eligible for immediate re- election.
Voting Power:- 1) Each member has one vote.
2) Decision on important matters by an affirmative vote of nine members, including all five
permanent members.
3) The negative vote of a permanent member of Security Council is called a veto power, but
abstention from voting does not amount to a negative vote or veto.
Session:- 1) Regular session every month.
2) Session can be arranged even before the regular session, if required
Functions: 1) to maintain international peace and security;
2) To investigate any dispute which might lead to international friction; To make plans to
regulate armaments;
3) To take military action against an aggressor;
4) To recommend admission of new members;
5) To exercise trusteeship functions of the UN in strategic areas
6) To determine the existence of threat to peace.
*International Court of Justice:- the principal judicial organ of the UN.
Composition:- 1) It is composed of 15 judges elected by General Assembly and
Security Council for a term of 9 years.
2) No two judges of can be of one State only.
3) The President and the Vice President of the Court are elected for a term of 3 years.
4) They can be re-elected.
Headquarter:- Hague, Netherlands but it can hold its meetings elsewhere, if it, so decides.
Functions:- 1) It renders advice to General Assembly and the Security Council
On legal matters.
2) It interprets international laws.
3) The Court decides on reparation- the compensation to be made by a party for a breach of an
international agreement.
4) It solves all disputes pertaining to the interpretation of international laws.
5) Decides disputes by applying international conventions.
*The Economic and Social Council:- is the principal organ to coordinate the economic
and social functions of the UN.
Composition:- It consists of 54 members who are elected for a term of 3 years.
Session:- generally holds a five week long session each year alternating between
Geneva and New York.
Functions:- 1) serves as the central forum for the discussions on international economic and
social issues of global nature;
2) Formulate policy recommendation;
3) Helps in promoting respect for and observance of human rights and
fundamental freedom.
*Trusteeship Council:- performs the task of supervising the administration of the 11Trust
Territories placed under its care.
Composition:- It is made of the five permanent members of the Security Council.
Functions:- 1) The Trust territories should attain self government either as separate states or
by joining in neighboring independent countries.[Palau in Pacific Island was the last in the list
who has gained independence and is a UN member country now]
2) To help newly independent States through economic assistance.
*Secretariat:- is the administrative body of the UN.
Is headed by Un Secretary General- Ban Ki- Moon of South Korea.
*Agencies of UN-
*UNDP- United Nations Development Programme was created in 1965.
Composition- It is governed by a 36-member executive body.
Funds- Voluntary contributions of member states.
Headquarter- New York.
NON-ALIGHNED MOVEMENT:
Meaning:- It does not mean”isolation” or “neutrality”.It is an independent movement stressing
that nations should follow their own policies without joining any of the power blocs. It upholds
the rights of all states to freedom of choice and action in an international field.
Features of NAM:-
(i) It does not support power blocs.
(ii) It was against the cold war.
(iii) Member nations judged each issue on merit.
Factors which led to the formation of NAM:-
1. Global tention caused by Cold War.:- (i) Newly independent countries of Asia and
Africa realized that joing any of the power bloc would result in danger world peace. (ii)
They opted to remain away from the danger of a world war and decided to promote world
peace.(iii) They adopted the policy of keeping out of alliances in general and military pacts
in particular.
2. Struggle against imperialism and neo-colonialism:- (i) Newly independent countries
opted for non alignment because most of these countries were under the
big powers. (ii) They wanted to enjoy their freedom and the power that had come
with it.
3. Right of independent judgement:- (i) They wanted to solve their problems themselves
without any outside interference or influence.(ii) Newly independent nations were able to
keep their own identity by not aligning with any of the power blocs.
4. Economic development:- (i) Newly independent countries were facing the problemsof
poverty and slow economic development. (ii) They needed financial and technical
assistance from both the power blocs.
Formation of NAM:-
(1) The Asian – Relations Conference:- In New Delhi in March-April 1947; hosted by Pt.
Nehru- was the first attempt to assert the Asian unity.
(2) Panchsheel:- It was a part of a resolution signed by Pt. Nehru(India) and Chou-En-Lai
(China) , containing five principles collectively known as’ Panchsheel’.These were-
(i) Mutual non- interference in each other’s internal affairs;
(ii) Mutual Non-Aggression;
(iii) Equality and mutual benefit;
(iv) Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignity;and
(v) Peaceful co-existence.
(3) Bandung Conference:- An Afro-Asian Conference was held at Bandung in Indonesia
which was attended by the representatives from 23 Asian and 6 African countries. Jawaharlal
Nehru (India), Sukarno (President of Indonesia) and Chou En Lai (Prime Minister of China)
(4) Founding Fathers:- They are Jawaharlal Nehru (India), Sukarno (President of
Indonesia),Tito of Yugoslavia, Abdul Nasser of Egypt and Nkrumah of Ghana.
(5) Belgrade Conference:- The first summit of NAM was held at Belgrade in 1961, was
attended by leaders of 25 countries.
(6) 27-Point Declaration:- The Belgrade Conference adopted a 27- point declaration which
contained an appeal to the super powers to maintain peace and security in the world. It
condemned all forms of colonialism. It called for complete disarmament. It condemned the
policy of racial segregation being practiced in South Africa.
(6) Objectives:-
1. Stabilization of peace.
2. End of colonialism and imperialism.
3. Peaceful coexistence among nations.
4. Condemnation of racial discrimination.
5. Opposition to military alliances and the armaments race.
6. Protection of the environment.
7. Promotion of human rights.
(7) Nehru’s role in NAM:-
(i) During the Korean Crisis of 1950, when North Korea attacked South Korea,India under the
leadership of Nehru strongly condemned it.(ii) In spite of its friendly relations with Russia, she
condemned the appearance of the Soviet Russian forces and tanks in the streets of
Budapest(Hungary).(iiiIn Indo- China crisis of 1956, India under Nehru stood by the Democratic
Republic of Ho Chi Minh. (iv) In 1957, India condemned the Anglo- French attack on Egypt
over the Suez Canal issue.(v)In theCuban crisis of 1962, India supported the popular leader Fidel
Castro to set up the people’s government there. (vi) Nehru had always condemned the aggressive
policies of Israel and insisted upon the vacation of Arab territories occupied by Israel. (vii) He
strongly advocated the principles of Democratic socialism.
(8)Role of NAM:-
1. From only 25 members in 1961 it has now grown into a large body of 118 members.
NAM nations appealed to all powers to give up the policy of the confrontation when the
problems of Berlin Blockade, Vietnam War and the Congo civil war was goingon.
2. The Belgrade Summit demanded freedom for all colonial people. More than 100
countries got their freedom in the decade of 1960 only.
3. In the decade of 1970, NAM showed concern on economic development.
4. Disarmament was the main focus of the New Delhi Summit(1983). Apartheid and racial
discrimination Were condemned at the 8th summit held at Harare in 1986.
5. During 1990s, main issues which were discussed in the NAM Summits were-
condemning terrorism,calling for an expansion of the Security Council and a Plea for
Economic Cooperation.
6. The Tenth Summit at Jakarta (1992) condemned state sponsored terrorism.
7. The Eleventh Summit(1995) held in Columbia called for the reform of the World Bank
and IMF, where the developing countries have no voice.
8. The 13th Summit was held at Havana in Sep. 2006- global poverty,unfair trade practices
and arbitary actions of powerful nations to control the UN.
Relevance of NAM in the Post Cold War Period:-
1. It is free and equal association of states united by common interests.
2. Is the largest political formation in the world, next only to the UN.
3. The member countries are against the race for armaments.
4. With the emergence of neo-colonialism,NAM provides a strong base for the small
and weak countries to seek economic justice.
5. NAM represents the Third World Countries
6. Since US has become the only super power in the world has not dissolved the NATO
pact and can dictate terms to other nations.of the world.
7. NAM has taken up the issue of reshaping the UN Security Council in order to make
more democratic,representative and an effective body.
8. UN is controlled by big powers whereas NAM give equal opportunity to everyone.
Achievements of NAM:-
1. Played an important role in bringing about an end of the Cold War.
2. Played a major role in promoting disarmament.
3. Check over US over the issues of Iran, North Korea.
4. Proposed reforms at improving the transparency and democracy of UN
Decision making.
5. It has advocated New International Economic Order based on greater economic
cooperation and justice.
6. It condemned Colonialism, Imperialism and Racial Discrimination.
7. 12th Summit at Durban in 1998,called for a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
(CTBT).
*** Fifteenth NAM Summit was held at Sharm-el-Sheikh, Egypt where 118
countries participated.
***************************************************************
The Cold War:-The term cold war was first used by an American Statesman Bernard
Baruch in his speech in 1947.
Meaning:- an atmosphere where there is no armed struggle but there is an ideological
hatred and political distrust. It was the state of conflict, tension and competition that
existed between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies.
Origin of cold war: Division of the world into two power blocks:- (i) After the end of the
Second World War, the USA and the Soviet Union emerged as two super powers. (ii) The
bloc led by USA was of the Capitalist nations comprising of USA, Britain, France and other
countries while the bloc led by the Soviet Union was of the Communist nations which
included Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania.
Causes of the Cold War:-
1) Ideological confrontation:- (i) The Us bloc considered communism as a potential
danger to freedom, liberty, democracy and open society. (ii) The Soviet bloc
branded the USA and the capitalist nations as the imperialist; they regarded their
democratic institutions as a means to exploit the poor workers.
2) Emergence of Communist Governments in Eastern Europe:- (i) Soviet Union set up
Communist Governments in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania and
Hungary(ii) This led to mutual distrust because it was against to the Yalta
Declaration of 1945, signed by Winston Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin to create a
liberated Europe.(iii) The countries of the Soviet Bloc were called “iron curtain” by
Winston Churchill.
3) Soviet Russia’s grievance:- (i) USA did not take Soviet Union into confidence before
taking a decision on dropping of bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. (ii) USA
emerged as the first nuclear power of the world by violating the norms of the
Potsdam Conference. (iii) Soviet Union wanted to impose heavy reparations on
Germany but Britain and US opposed this. (iv) The German lands east of Order
Nisse line were under Polish administration, which Soviet Union considered as final
whereas the US and Britain regarded it as a provisional settlement.
4) Truman Doctrine or Policy of Containment:- (i) On March , 1947 President Truman
announced in the Us Congress that America should provide moral and financial
support to countries whose political integrity was threatened by communism. (ii)
The Policy of containment meant keeping Russia’s power or area of control within
acceptable limits or boundaries. (iii) Us gave huge financial and military aid to
Greece and Turkey to contain communism. (iv) In response, Soviet Union in 1947
formed Cominform- an organization of various communist parties in Europe to
strengthen its grip on Eastern European countries.
5) Marshal Plan:- (i) The US Secretary of State, George C. Marshal, announced the
European Recovery Plan in June 1947. (ii) Main emphasis was to increase financial
aid to European countries so that they could be saved from the communist influence
and to integrate the European economies. (iii) It was an economic counterpart of
Truman Doctrine- to fight against poverty and hunger. (iv) US gave aid of about 12
billion dollars to 16 European countries. (v) To counter this,USSR announced the
Molotov Plan to provide economic aid to rebuild the countries in Eastern Europe.
(vi) Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov rejected the Marshal Plan as ‘ Dollar
Imperialism’.
6) Formation of military alliances:- (i) In 1949-NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation)US, Canada,UK, France Holland. (ii)In 1954-SEATO (South East
Asia Treaty Organisation)US,UK,France, New Zealand, Australia, Pakistan. (iii)
1955-The Baghdad Pact which was renamed as CENTO (Central Treaty
Organisation)UK,Turkey,Iran,Pakistan (iv) To strengthen its position ,Soviet Union
and its allies signed the Warsaw Pact binding them against the western powers.
Main crises:- The Berlin Blockade(1948-49),the Korean War, The Berlin crisis, the
Vietnam War, the Soviet- Afghan War and the Cuban Crisis.
Consequences/Impact/Results of the Cold War:-
1) Arms race and militarization:- (i) Race for armaments was justified by (MAD)
the Doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction and Nuclear Competitions. (ii)
Russia exploded its first Atom Bomb in 1949.
2) Proxy Wars:- (i) Ware were fought between two powers using third parties as
substitutes rather than fighting each other directly. (ii) US and Soviet Union did
not engage in direct military action since that would have the risk of nuclear
warfare. (iii) The super powers did their utmost to capitalize upon regional
conflicts such as the Korean War, the Vietnam War and Arab-Israel conflict.
3) United Nations remained ineffective:- (i) UN was created to maintain peace in
the world but it was not allowed to function independently. (ii) The big five with
their veto power tended to become a hurdle while taking decisions. (iii) Because
of the opposition of the western powers, entry of Albania, Bulgaria and Somalia
were not allowed in the UN. (iv) Entry of China was prevented till 1971.
4) Emergence of NAM:- (i) Most of the newly independent Asian countries wanted
to retain their freedom and decided to establish NAM to help each other rather
than taking support from any of the two existing blocks. (ii) NAM was
established in 1961.
5) Division of Germany:- (i) At the Potsdam Conference, the Allies divided
Germany into four military zones- French in the southwest, British in the
northwest, United States in the South and Soviet Union in the east. (ii) In 1948,
the western zones merged into one state- the Federal Republic of Germany with
Bonn as its provisional capital. Soviet Union opposed this and retaliated by
blocking all communications to West Germany. (iv) Supplies of food and
essential commodities had to be air lifted to save West Germany from
destruction.(v) The Berlin Blockade was lifted on May 1949 and within few
months The Soviet occupied Germany was formed into the German Democratic
Republic with Berlin as its capital.
6) Berlin Blockade:- (i) It was one of the first major international crisis of the cold
war. (ii) It was to force West Berlin people to join the Soviet Zone and did not
allow the circulation of Deutsche Mark from entering Berlin. (iii) Aim was to
force the western powers to allow the Soviet controlled regions to start supplying
Berlin with food and fuel, thereby giving them nominal control over the entire
city. (iv) The Westers Allies formed the Berlin Airlift to supply food, fuel,
medicines. (v) The Blockade was made unsuccessful by the Western Powers and
was lifted in May 1949.
7) Fall of the Berlin Wall:- (i) The West German economy progressed so Germans
from the Soviet zone began to pour into Western Germany which annoyed
Russia. (ii) A wall (43 km. long) was built to prevent people getting into or
outside Germany. (iii) Several meetings were held to discuss about the German
Unifications in the year 1961, 1971 and 1972. (iv) The Berlin Wall was pulled
down in 1989. (v) With the breaking of the Berlin Wall, the ‘iron curtain’ was
removed.
8) Reunification of Germany:- (i) The Foreign Minister of US, Britain, France and
Russia signed the Treaty for Germany’s Unification. (ii) The Chancellor of the
Federal Republic of Germany was chosen as head of the State of unified country.
(iii) The Union symbolized the unity of the Eastern and Western powers. (iv) The
government of the unified introduced western type of democratic election and
adopted the policy of freemarket economy.
9) Eastern European Countries:- (i)Eastern Europe rejected the uniparty system of
communist governments. (ii) They demanded liberalization, democratic
governments and multiparty system as found in western Europe. (iii)
Czechoslovakia was divided into the Czech and Slovak Republics in 1993.
10) Paris Pact:- (i)On 19th November 1990, a historic pact was signed by the heads of
34 states belonging to the NATO and Warsaw Pact alliances. (ii) They agreed to
reduce arms and improve trade among themselves. (iii) It marked a new phase
of peace, free from the tension of the cold war.
11) Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty:-(i)President Gorbachev and US President
George Bush signed START- a pact to reduce the production of long range
nuclear weapons by 30%. (ii) START II between them announced that by 2003
nuclear weapons would be reduced by two thirds.
12) Collapse of Communism :- (i) 1991is the year that witnessed the collapse of the
erstwhile Soviet Union. (ii) Economy was facing low growth rate, high inflation,
unemployment and the agriculture, industrial output was declining.(iii) The
President of Soviet Union Gorbachev introduced ‘Glasnost’ and ‘Perestroika’-
the people were allowed freedom of speech, publication of banned items was
permitted and economy was being opened up. (iv) In 1991, Gorvachev was
arrested then he resigned, and Yeltsin became the President.
In February 1992, Us President George Bush and Russian President Yeltsin
formally announced that the cold war was over.
******************************************************************
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Union Parliament
Parliament is the legislative organ of the government; consists of Lok Sabha,Rajya Sabha and the
President. India has federal form of government means distribution of legislative, executive and
financial powers between the Union and the States.
Universal Adult Franchise:- All those who have attained age of 18 (earlier it was 21) are elligible
to use the right to give vote to person of his choice by secret ballot system means without any fear
or favour. Oath by Members:- By the President of India . (i) he will bear true faith and allegiance
to the Constitution of India,(ii) will faithfully discharge the duty upon which he is about to enter.
Sessions:- period during which the House meets to conduct its buisness,gap between two session
should not be more than 6 months, three sessions are- Budget session,Monsoon session,Winter
session. Salary and allowances: Salary 50,000 per month, 2000/ allowance, 45,000 Constituency
allowance,45,000 office allowance,Rs. 5 Crore per M.P. as Local Area Development Fund.
Languages to be used in Parliament: Buisness is transacted in Hindi and English. Leader of
Opposition:- Leader of the largest among the opposition parties is regarded as the leader of
Opposition and enjoy same status as a Union Cabinet Minister.
Lok Sabha: 0r lower house,consists of directly elected representatives.Term:-5 years unless
dissolved earlier, can be extended for one year by a law of Parliament during Emergency.
Composition:- consists of not more than 552 members-530 from States and 20 members from
Union Territories and 2 members of Anglo Indian community in case of inadequate representation.
U.P. sends maximum members and Mizoram Nagaland and Sikkim send only one member. Some
seats are reserved for the Scs and STs. Present strength of Lok Sabha= 545.Presiding Officer is
Speaker,in case he is not present then Deputy Speaker and in the absence of both Protem Speaker.
Qualifications: 1. Citizen Of India, 25 years of age, mentally sound, not holding any office of
profit, should not be proclimed offender. Vacation of seats: (i) resignation,(ii) absent for a period
of 60 days,(iii) if member becomes subject to any disqualification, (iv) member is disqualified on
ground of Defection. Importance of Lok Sabha:- 1. Mirror and Voice of Nation- (i) Universal
Adult Franchise means all those who are 18 years of age are elligible to take part in electing the
members of Lok Sabha.2. Maker of the Government- (i) President invites leader of majority to
come and frame the government.(ii)Many Cabinet Ministers are members of Lok Sabha. 3. The
Council of Ministers are responsible to Lok Sabha. 4. Controller of the National Purse.
Rajya Sabha: Elections to Rajya Sabha are indirect. Consists of not more than 250 members, 238
are elected representatives of the States and Union Territories with the system of proportional
representational by means of single transferable vote. 12 members are nominated by the President
from among the persons having special knowledge in literature,science,art and social science.
Present strength of Rajya Sabha= 245.Presiding Officer is Ex officio Chairman and Deputy
Chairman. Ex-officio Chairman is Mr. Hamid Ansari (Vice President). Functions of Chairman is
same as of Speaker. Qualifications:- Citizen of India,30 years of age, not holding any office of
profit, should not be an insolvent. Term:- Rajya Sabha is a permanent body, it cannot be dissolved.
The term of office for its members is six years, one third retire every second year.Members can be
re elected.
Speaker: The members of Lok Sabha elects one person among themselves as Speaker and one as
Deputy Speaker. The Speaker can be removed from office by a resolution passed by the majority
of the members of the Lok Sabha. If he resigns then letter should be addressed to the Deputy
Speaker. His tenure is for 5 years but he continues until a new Speaker is elected.Meera
Kumar(Congress) is the Speaker of Lok Sabha. Functions: 1.Regulates Proceedings: Presides
over the meetings,interprets the rules of procedure,decides whether a bill is a money bill or an
ordinary bill,decides the admissibility of questions and resolutions,signns bills passed by House
before they are sent to the Rajya Sabha or to the President.Disciplinary Functions: Maintains
order and decorum, decides matters related to a breach of priviledge or contempt of the
House.Administrative Functions: communicates the decisions of the House to the concerrned
authorities, regulates admission of visitors and Press people. Parliamentary Functions: ex-officio
chairman of some of Parliamentary Committees,appoints Chairman of all Committees.
Miscellaneous Functions: presides over joint sessions of both the Houses of
Parliament,nominates personnels for Parliamentary delegation to other countries, presides over the
conference of Presiding Officers of Legislative bodies in India, he recognizes members or allows
them to speak, ask a member to yield the floor i.e. stop speaking, decides about Contempt of the
Lok Sabha.
Powers of Parliament:- 1. Legislative powers:- (i) exclusive power over 97 subjects of the Union
List (ii) legislate on subjects given in Concurrent list along with State Legislature but in case of a
conflict parliament law prevails(iii) can legislate on subjects of State list when- Rajya Sabha passes
a resolution by 2/3rd majority that a subject in State List has assumed national importance.,when 2
or more states want Parliament to legislate on a State subject,During President’s Rule,if it require
to fulfill international commitments, Residuary subjects means which are not mention in any of
three list i.e. Union list, State List and Concurrent list,are decided by Parliament.(iv) The President
may promulgate ordinance when the Parliament is not in session but all ordinances must be
approved within six weeks from the re assembly of Parliament. 2. Financial Powers:- (i) No
money can be spent or raised as taxes without the consent of the Parliament. (ii) Union Budget
which contains the estimate of receipts and expenditure of the Government of India.3. Judicial
powers:- (i) power to impeach and remove the President, (ii) can remove judges of the Supreme
Court, High Court, Election Commissioner, Comptroller and Auditor General of India- when a
resolution by 2/3rd majority is passed in both the Houses.(iii) to try a person for its contempt.4.
Elective Functions:- (i) Along with State Legislature elects the President. (ii) elects the Vice
President. 5.Constitution Amendment powers: (i) Articles related to qualification for
citizenship,creation of new states, abolition or creation of upper chamber in States by simple
majority. (ii) Articles by 2/3rd majority. (iii) Articles related to election and powers of the
President, Union Judiciary, legislative relations between the Union and the States and
Representation of States in Parliament by 2/3rd majority and ratification by half of the federating
states. [ The President is bound to give assent to the Constitution Amendment Bill.He cannot even
return the Bill for reconsideration by the Parliament. In 1973, Supreme Court in the famous case
of ‘ Keshvanand Bharati v. State of Kerala, held that Basic Structure should not be changed.5.
Other powers:- (i) composition and powers of the Supreme Court. (ii) May altar the name or
boundaries of any State. (iii) to set up a common High Cort for two or more States.6. Control over
executives: (i) Right to Interpellation means to question ministers (any flaws or the inefficiency
of the Government). (ii) Adjournment Motion to discuss urgent matters (about inefficient handling
by the Govt.of any urgent matter). (iii) Cut Motion means when the budget is under consideration,
the Parliament shows its displeasureby reduction of a Demand of Grant. (iv) No confidence Motion
against the ministry will leads to its resignation. (v) Censure Motion can be passed to show the
strong disapproval of their deeds.(vi) The Miniteries can continue in office as long as they have
the confidence of the Lok Sabha.
Importance of Rajya Sabha: (i) If Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by 2/3rd majority that a subject
in State List has assumed national importance then Parliament can make law. (ii) It is
apermanent house, cannot be dissolved even when Lok Sabha is dissolved and can approve the
proclaimation of General Emergency or President’s Rule in a State. (iii) May create a new All
India Service. (iv) checks hasty law making (v) it has more mature and eminent Indians as
members.
Differences in between Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha:- Lok Sabha:- Members are directly
elected, Minimum age is 25,Tenure is for 5 years, Prime Minister and his Council Of Ministers
are responsible to it,Money Bill can be introduced in Lok Sabha only, In case of a dispute over an
Ordinary Bill, the wishes of Lok Sabha prevails because of its numerical strength.Rajya Sabha:-
Members are indirectly elected, Minimun age is 30 years,Even if Rajya Sabha passes a Vote of No
Confidence against the Council of Miniters it does not have to resign, Money Bill can be retained
by Rajya Sabha for 14 days during this time either they accept it, reject it or keep it for more than
14 days it is considered to be passed by Rajya Sabha.Similarities in between Lok Sabha and
Rajya Sabha:- In the election of the President, and the Vice President, Any house can introduce
an Ordinary Bill.
Priviledges of the Members of Parliament(MP):-
(i) Freedom of Speech:- No member shall be liable to proceedings in any court for
anything said or any vote given by h im in Parliament.
(ii) Freedom from Arrest:- During continuance of the Parliament session and during a
period of 40 days before and after such session.
(iii) Freedom from Jury services:- Freedom from attendance as Jurors and witnesses.
(iv) Power to regulate the Affairs of the House:- To regulate the internal affairs, strangers
from the galleries,to punish members for contempt of the house.
Parliamentary Procedures:-
1. Quoram- Minimum members to remain present to conduct the day to day buisness of the
Parliament,1/10the of the total membership.Lok Sabha=55,Rajya Sabha=25.
2. Casting Vote:- If votes in favour or against a proposal are equal then it is decided by
casting vote of the Speaker.
3. Question Hour:- 11 to 12 noon- First hour is kept to put questions. Questions are of thre
types- (i) Starred Questions:- marked with an asterik , oral answers would be accepted)
Unstarred Questions:- without any asterik mark,answers to be given in writing. (iii) Short
Notice Questions:- donot require notice, (I but the concerned minister has the choice to
either accept and answer at that time or not.
4. Zero Hour:- followed by Question Hour when M.P.s can ask questions of any type.(12 to
1p.m.)
5. Motion:- A proposal made in the House of a Legislature to get its decision on a subject.
6. Resolution:- Majority opinion of the House.
7. Adjournment Motion:- To adjourn or suspends the Day’s agenda and discuss an
important matter. To get the government to take proper action immediately on an urgent
matter or to highlight any wrong decision or inaction of the government.
8. Cut Motion:- When the Budget is under consideration , amotion for the reduction of a
Demand of Grant may be introduced.Three kinds-(i) Disapproval of policy cut-‘amount to
be reduced to Rs.1’(ii) Economy Cut-Amount to be reduced by..(specified amount(iii)
Token Cut-amount of the demand be reduced by Rs.100.
9. Motion of Thanks: passed after the President’s Address is debated and approved.
10. Summoning of the House:The President summons the House to meet at such time and
place as he thinks fit.
11. President’s Address: (i)At the commencement of the first session after each General
election and First session i.e. Budget Session every year.(ii) Policy Statement of the year.
(iii) Drafted by the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers.
Parliamentary Committees:-1)Three Financial Committees-Public Account Committee,
Committee on Public Undertaking(Rajya Sabha also a part of these two), Committee on
Estimates( only Lok Sabha members).2)Departmentally Related Standing Committees-24
in number for agriculture, communication , defence,Commerce and HRD.3) Standing
Committee examin Bills and consider the Demands for Grants of the
concernedminitries.Buisness Advisory Committee –advice on allocation of time for
discussion, Rules Committee-procedure and conduct of buisness, Committee on Priviledges-
inquires into any breach of Privileges of Parliament. 4) Ad hoc Committee- inquire and report
on specific subjects ex. JPC to probe the 2G Spectrum Scam.
Legislative Procedure: 1) Ordinary Bill into an Act:- A Bill is a legislative proposal passed
by both Houses and assented by the President becomes an Act. Public Bill related to a matter
applying to public in general and can be introduced by a Council of Minister only whereas
Private Bill relates to a person , corporation or institution can be introduced by any MP.
Procedure:- (i) First Reading- introduction of the bill stating main features.. (ii) Second
Reading-consideration stage or referred to Standing Committee which examines the Bill
clause by clause and submits its report and all clauses are put to vote. (iii) Third Reading-
confined only to arguments either in favour or for its rejection. Once it is passed it is sent to
another House.(iv) Procedure in the other House-It goes through all the stages mentioned
above but if the bill passed by one is amended by the other house it goes back to the house
where it was originated. If amendment is rejected in the first house then it shall be deemed that
the two houses have finally disagreed. (v) Joint sitting of both houses- In case of disagreement
or when more than six months elapse without the bill being passed by the other House, the
President may summon a joint sitting of the two Houses.(presided by Speaker) (vi) President’s
assent- gives assent and it becomes an Act,or withholds assent there is an end of the Bill or he
suggests some changes. If the bill is passed again by the Houses with or without an amendment
the President cannot withhold assent.
2. Money Bill:- It is recommended by the President. If passed by Lok Sabha, goes to Rajya Sabha
for 14 days. Money Bill can be retained by Rajya Sabha for 14 days during this time either they
accept it, reject it or keep it for more than 14 days it is considered to be passed by Rajya Sabha.
Budget is a money bill. Budget:- Annual financial statement of income and expenditure of the
Government of India. It is presented in two parts-the Railway Budget and the General Budget.
Introduction of the budget is followed by discussion then followed by voting of demands for
grants. Estimates of expenditure in the budget are in two groups-(i) Expenditure charged on
the Consolidated Fund of India is not voted for. ii) other expenditure are in the form of demands
for grants which are debated and voted in the house.(iii) separate demand by each ministry which
is voted for or cut motion showing displeasure.(iv) When all demands are voted these are placed
in bill called the Appropriation Bill. (v) Proposals for taxation about the income for the
Government are placed together in a Bill called the Finance Bill. (vi) President’s Assent to the
Appropriation Bill and Finance Bill means the passing of the Budget.
___________________________________________________________________________
UNION EXECUTIVE- THE PRESIDENT
The President of India is the head of state and the supreme commander of the armed forces.
He/she is the first citizen of India. But, the President is the nominal head of the country with the
real powers being exercised by the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister.
Qualifications(Article 58)(i). an Indian Citizen, (ii) thirty five years of age, (iii) Must be
qualified to be a member of the Lok Sabha, (iv)must not hold any office of profit if he is the
President or Vice President, Governor or a Union or the State Minister or Speaker- he can
contest presidential election.
Proposers and seconders: According to the ordinance of 1997- (i) The Presidential candidate
will have to be proposed by 50 members and seconded by another 50 members of the Electoral
College (Mps and MLAs) (ii) Security Deposit is Rs. 15,000 and it would be forfeited if the
candidate fails to get one-sixth of the total votes.
Election :The President is elected indirectly by the members of the electoral college .that
consists of the elected members of the State legislative assemblies including Delhi and the Union
Territory of Pondicherry and the elected members of the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha.
Value of votes: (i) Legislative Assembly:- Total population of the State
----------------------------------------- ÷ 1,000
Total number of elected members.
(ii)Union Parliament:- Total value of votes cast by the elected members of Legislative
Assemblies
Total number of elected members of both Houses.
(iii) The election is held in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means
of single transferable vote through secret ballot. A requisite quota is determined by dividing the
number of valid votes by one and by adding 1 to the quotient
The candidate who gets fixed requisite quota of votes is declared elected. If nobody gets it then
the candidate who gets least number of preference votes is eliminated and the second preference
votes on his ballot are transferred to the remaining candidates. Until one secures the required
number of votes.
(iv) All disputes arising in connection with the election of the Indian President shall be decided
by the Supreme Court of India and its decision will be final.
Reasons for indirect election of the Indian President:- (i) In Parliamentary setup, power is
vested in the directly elected members so it would be an anomaly if a person is directly elected
but doesnot have any power.
(ii) A lot of time , money and energy is involved in the direct election.
(iii) It would involve campaigns of different parties, it would be difficult for the President to
forget his party affiliations.
Oath:- The President takes oath in the presence of the Chief Justice of India.He promises to
preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of India and law.
Term:-is elected for 5 years. He may stand for re-election. The seat may fall vacant under the
following conditions(i) Death,(ii) resignation addressed to the Vice President,(iii)
impeachment.
Salary:-Rs.1.5lakh and other emoluments including free residence Rashtrapati Bhawan.
Impeachment:- (article61) (i) The resolution may originate in any house either in Lok Sabha
and Rajya Sabha. (ii) A 14 days notice ,signed by at least one-fourth of the total number of the
members of the House, is required. (iii)It must be passed by a majority of not less than two-
thirds of the total membership of the House.(iv) Same procedure be adopted in the other House,
if passed by majority, the president stands impeached.
Powers of the President:- [EXECUTIVE POWERS] -
(I) The President appoints the Prime Minister and he in turn appoints the Council of
Minister.
(II) He appoints the Attorney- General of India, the Comptroller and Auditor General of
India, Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, Governors of States and
Ambassadors of India.
(III) He appoints the members of the Finance Commission, the Union Public Service
Commission, the Chief Election Commissioner and other members of the election
commission.
(IV) All agreements and contracts made by the union government would be made in the
name of the president.
(V) He is responsible for the administration of the Union Territories through an
administrator.
Legislative powers:- (i) power to summon or prorogue the houses of the Parliament. (ii)
may address a joint session of both the houses. (iii) No bill can become law without the assent of
the President. (iv) The money bill cannot be introduced without the prior approval of the
President. (v) Has the power to issue ordinances when the Parliament is not in session.
Financial Powers:- (i) No money bill can be introduced without the prior recommendation of
the President. (ii) He causes the annual budget and the supplementary budget to be laid before
the Parliament. (iii) The Contingency Fun d is placed at the disposal of the President. (iv) The
Financial commission is appointed by the President after every five years.
Judicial powers:- (i) To grant pardon or reduce the punishment received by an individual if (a)
the punishment is awarded as court martial,(b)is given for offences made against the union
laws,(c)if the punishment is a death sentence.
(ii) No criminal suit can be initiated against the President in any court during his tenure.
Military powers (i) He is the supreme commander of all the defence forces of India. (ii) He
appoints the chiefs of the Army, Navy and Air force. (iii) He has the power to declare war or
conclude a peace treaty with any foreign nation on the advice of the council of ministers.
Diplomatic powers:-(i) sends ambassadors to other countries and receives ambassadors. (ii) He
enters into treaties and agreements with other countries.
Emergency powers:- (1)Due to war or external aggression (Article 352):-
When there is grave danger to the security of India due to war, external aggression or armed
rebellion. Duration:-It must be passed by both the houses of the Parliament by not less than two-
thirds of the members or else it would cease to operate after one month. Once it is passed, it can
operate for a period of six months.
Effects: (i) The union can give directions to the states regarding the executive powers. (ii) The
Governor act on behalf of the President and act in accordance with the instructions and directions
issued by the President from time to time. (iii) The term of lok Sabha and the State Legislature
can be extended for a year at a time. (iv) Some fundamental rights remain suspended like
freedom of speech, to assemble, of movement etc.
(2) Emergency in States or Presidents’ rule ( article 356)- If the President, on the report
submitted by Governor, is satisfied that the government of a particular state cannot function
according to the provisions of the Constitution.
Effects:- (i) The state is governed by the Governor on behalf of the President. (ii) The legislative
power of the state is exercised by the Parliament. (iii) The annual budget of the state is passed by
the Parliament.
(3) Financial emergency (Article 360):- If the President is convinced that the financial stability
or credit of India or any of its part is threatened, he may proclaim a financial emergency.
Duration:- ceases to operate after two months, unless approved by both the Houses of
Parliament. It continues till it is revoked by the President.
Effects:- (i) The union can give directions to states on financial matters. (ii) The Parliament can
also reduce the salaries and allowances. (iii) Money bills and bills related to article 207 should
be kept for the consideration of the President.
Discretionary Powers:- (i) If no party gets clear majority, he can invite leader of the party as per
his choice, to frame the government and prove majority.
(ii) He can withhold assent to a bill when it comes to him for the first time. (iii) When the Prime
Minister has lost confidence of the Lok Sabha and ask for the dissolution of the House, the
President is not bound to act on the advice of the prime Minister.
Actual position of the President:- (i) The President is the nominal head of the Government. (ii)
A wise and tactful President can help mould the Indian policy without violating the spirit of the
Constitution. (iii) If the Parliament is satisfied that the President is violating the principles of the
constitution, it may impeach the President. (iv) The President acts on the advice of the Council of
Ministers, even the proclaimation of emergencies has to be laid before the Parliament and passed
by both the Houses.
Vice President:- Qualifications- (same as the President ; only one difference that he should
have qualifications required for a member of Rajya Sabha).
Term:- as that of the President.
Election:- (i) elected by the electoral college comprising of the members of the Parliament by
proportional representation with single transferable vote.(ii) absolute majority is necessary.
Removal:- A resolution to remove the Vice President may be passed by the Members of Lok
Sabha and Rajya Sabha is required.
Salary:- Rs.1,25,000 as the Chairman of Rajya Sabha.
Functions:- (i) As the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha he regulates the proceeding of the House,
decides the order of the House, admissibility of a resolution or questions.
(ii) If the office of the president is vacant due to death, resignation or impeachment he discharges
his duty as the President. (iii) He remains as the acting President till a new President is elected.
This period can be extended for a period of six months.
President of India is Mrs. Pratibha Patil and the Vice President is Shri Mohammad Hamid
Ansari.