Introduction to geothermal

power generation 1
L.Y. Bronicki
Ormat Technologies Inc., Reno, Nevada, United States

Geothermal energy is the only alternative energy source that can supply base-load or
dispatchable power, independent of the climate. Although not evenly distributed
geographically, geothermal energy potential is very important, particularly if research
and development into technology such as engineered geothermal systems (EGS) will
be actively pursued.
Chapters included in this publication cover subjects dealing with the nature of
geothermal energy resources, their utilization, conversion technologies, as well as
its future development. The chapters also highlight the greatest challenge in
geothermal development, namely, the geothermal resource. Power conversion is the
least uncertain part of a geothermal project but requires designs to ensure an economic
exploitation of the resource over the designed life of the project. The risks and chal-
lenges are related to exploration, drilling, and managing the resource. Optimization de-
pends on the manner in which the power station configuration is adapted to the
available resource.
The distribution of geothermal resources is irregular due to unequal distribution
of volcanoes, hot springs, and heat manifestations at specific locations over the Earth’s
surface. Geothermal resources are a reflection of the underlying global, local geolog-
ical, and hydrological frameworks. The most thermally rich resources tend to concen-
trate in environments with abundant volcanic activity and tend to be controlled by plate
tectonic processes or spreading centers evident as volcanic chains associated with
subduction zones and hot spots. The local geological characteristics that favor useful
resources include relatively shallow resource depths to high permeability in the rocks
surrounding the resource, and adequate resource fluids.
Exploration starts with the analysis of available geological information to identify
the potential target. Once the target is identified, geochemical studies and core drilling
are undertaken. These studies are complimented or sometimes preceded by geophys-
ical surveys including aeromagnetic or resistivity studies and remote infrared and
hyper spectral techniques.
Hydrothermal systems have differing types of chemical properties which in turn
impact the choice of materials and design of the power plant. The source of heat is usu-
ally a magma chamber a few kilometers below the surface. Fluid origin is meteoric,
namely rain water, which infiltrates the ground to depths of a few kilometers. The
permeability and degree of fracturing of this cap rock vary from site to site according
to the intensity and abundance of the surface hydrothermal systems manifestations,
such as hot springs, steam vents, geysers, etc.

Geothermal Power Generation. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100337-4.00001-2

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Geothermal Power Generation

In the early stages of exploration of a hydrothermal system when there is only sur-
face evidence, the aim of a geochemical survey is the generation of a model that eval-
uates the temperature and chemical conditions of the fluid at depth.
Drilling of the wells for extracting geothermal energy resources is a niche within
the larger drilling services industry that focuses primarily on oil, gas, and minerals.
In particular, deep drilling required in most exploration programs for geothermal po-
wer generation projects will likely use large drill rigs typical in oil and gas extraction.
There are several aspects unique to geothermal drilling. Mainly, geothermal forma-
tions, by their nature, involve elevated temperatures, which are usually significantly
higher than those experienced when drilling for oil and gas. The rock that hosts these
formations are typically harder (granite, granodiorite, quartzite, basalt, volcanic tuff),
more abrasive, highly fractured, and underpressured. Caustic elements may be present
that can cause corrosion and scaling in the wellbore.
These unique characteristics present challenges in dealing with geothermal wells,
which, unlike oil and gas wells, do not produce economically until used through elec-
tric generation or direct uses. For power production, geothermal wells must be of a
larger diameter than oil and gas wells to produce sufficiently high flow rates for
commercial production. Depths of geothermal wells vary according to location and
can reach over 3000 m and even more for EGS projects.
Reservoir engineering is the comprehensive integration of all available surface
and underground information regarding geology, geophysics, geochemistry, well
drilling-testing, exploitation data, information concerning the geothermal developer,
and objectives of a geothermal development (eg, market targets, costs, and finance),
so it is the most powerful tool to evaluate the feasibility of a project. As in any scien-
tific or engineering activity, results derived from reservoir engineering depend on the
quantity and quality of the information, as well as the associated processing and inter-
pretation of the information. Reservoir engineering is not limited to the final numerical
tool but also includes acquisition of information which allows prediction of the
impacts on a geothermal resource 20e30 years into the future.
Geothermal reservoir monitoring is the means for maintaining a sustainable
geothermal field during operation. Using techniques such as downhole monitoring,
surface monitoring, and introducing the collected data into the numerical model of
the reservoir, the impact on the long-term sustainability of a geothermal field can be
closely evaluated to ensure that the resource is not prematurely cooling and that any
cooling or adverse impact can be mitigating by drilling makeup wells correctly located.
The promising engineered geothermal systems (EGS) aims to exploit hot rock not
accessible via conventional geothermal technology. Commercialization of this tech-
nology could unlock many thousands of megawatts of power. For example, the esti-
mate of the technical potential for EGS in the United States is estimated at
100 GWe, which is more than 30 times the total current installed geothermal capacity
in the United States from current sources. As of the end of 2014 there has been some
success in particular on engineered injection wells of existing plants, but no actual
electricity production using both engineered production and injection wells on the
same plant. Once EGS becomes commercialized, the system needs to demonstrate
sustainability.
Introduction to geothermal power generation 3

As with any other geothermal energy source, EGS development involves some
impact on the environment. Geothermal resources are environmentally important as
natural thermal features. Typically, the most significant environmental impacts are
associated with the exploitation of high-temperature, liquid-dominated geothermal
systems for electric power generation. However, the majority of these impacts can
be avoided or minimized with appropriate techniques. Moreover, as geothermal energy
generally offsets use of fossil fuels, the use of geothermal resources is more likely to
improve air quality and overall water quality.
Geothermal power conversion are the techniques used for the conversion of thermal
energy content of geothermal fluid into mechanical power to drive a generator and pro-
duce electrical power. Power conversion is the most predictable part of a geothermal
project, as it consists of well-established and straightforward engineering design
with work executed by experienced manufacturers, engineering firms, and contractors.
Today, more than 10 GW of geothermal power plants are in operation in the world,
and a majority of them use steam turbines that operate on dry steam or steam produced
by single- or double-flash with about 1.5 GW using organic Rankine cycles (ORC) or
geothermal combined cycles. However, to widen the range of resources suitable for
power generation beyond dry steam and flashed steam plants, ORC cycles have
been implemented in the last 30 years and will probably continue to grow as a common
technology driving future development of geothermal resources.
Operational experience confirms the advantages of ORC power stations, not only
for low-temperature, liquid-dominated resources but also for certain high-
temperature resources where the brine is aggressive or the fluid contains a high
percentage of noncondensable gas. The higher installation cost of these systems, where
economically feasible, is justified by environmental and long-term resource manage-
ment considerations.
From the concept of sustainability and renewability of geothermal systems and
the relationship between renewable and sustainable capacities, it is possible to estimate
the commercial, sustainable, and renewable capacities of a geothermal system. Sus-
tainability is defined as the ability to economically install and maintain power capac-
ity over the amortized life of a power plant. This is done by taking practical steps, such
as drilling “makeup” wells as required to compensate for resource degradation.
Renewability is defined as the ability to maintain an installed power capacity indefi-
nitely without encountering any resource degradation. Typically, the renewable power
capacity at a geothermal site is generally too small for commercial development of
electrical power capacity but may be adequate for district heating or other direct
uses of the geothermal energy.
The cost of production for geothermal electric generation is important. In partic-
ular, the levelized cost of power is the applicable measurement for the cost of
geothermal energy. Unlike fossil fuel power plants, most of the capital costs are
incurred upfront in the development of the resource. Power cost is an objective crite-
rion that favors geothermal solutions compared to other alternative energy sources.
However, the costs are heavily tied to the resource and the need for makeup well
drilling to maintain full generation capacity over the planned period of operation to
provide an adequate return on investment.