GEOTHERMAL TRAINING PROGRAMME IGC2003 - Short Course

Orkustofnun, Grensásvegur 9, September 2003

IS-108 Reykjavík, Iceland

Management of geothermal resources:

PNOC-EDC experience
Ramonchito Cedric M. Malate
PNOC-EDC, Geothermal Division, Merritt Road
Fort Bonifacio, Makati City, Philippines
malate@energy.com.ph

Abstract
The Philippine National Oil Company - Energy Development Corporation (PNOC-EDC) has
acquired considerable operating experience after more than a decade of managing its geothermal
production fields in the Philippines. PNOC-EDC was able to formulate immediate and long-term
reservoir management strategies for the sustainability of the resource through intensive monitoring
and thorough understanding of the fields’ behavior before and during exploitation. These
management strategies are assiduously modified during the production stage to suit field behavior
and optimize production. These management strategies including the monitoring aspects and
parameters and the different methods of measuring these parameters are reviewed in this paper.

1 Introduction
A geothermal resource is generally considered a finite resource that requires proper
management to sustain its production for a desired duration. The renewability and
sustainability of the resource depends mainly on how the reservoir will be managed and its
response to utilization. Uncertainty on the sustainability of the field arises when the resource
shows negative response to production such as declining field capacity, and field management
intervention is implemented to address this problem.
After more than a decade of managing its geothermal production fields in the Philippines,
the Philippine National Oil Company- Energy Development Corporation (PNOC-EDC) has
acquired considerable operating experience. This experience has aided PNOC-EDC in
formulating suitable field development and management strategies that are constantly
reviewed and modified during the exploitation stage to establish field sustainability and
optimize production. Close monitoring of the response of the field has been the key
parameter implemented by PNOC-EDC in formulating these strategies. Much of the
discussion here is lifted from the recent work of Sarmiento (2000) where he outlined the
major development strategies and physical monitoring activities PNOC-EDC has adopted in
managing its production fields.

2 Resource assessment (exploration and delineation stage)

The primary objective during the exploration and delineation stages is to evaluate the
magnitude of the resource and the size of the power station that can be supported over the
project life. In general, the following desirable features are established in assessing a
geothermal resource (Clotworthy, 1997):

153
Malate 154 IGC2003 – Short Course

1. Suitable resource temperatures for the proposed development (i.e. power or

direct use).
2. A significant amount of stored heat for resource longevity.
3. Large reservoir permeability to provide high well outputs that would minimize
well requirements.
4. A known injection area for brine disposal that would minimize the impact on
the development.
5. Benign chemistry of the reservoir fluid that would give minimal tendency for
mineral deposition or corrosion. Low levels of non-condensible gases.
6. Low risk of volcanic and hydrothermal activities.
7. Good site access.
8. Market proximity.

These features are usually seldom all satisfied which would require a trade-off between
them in any geothermal development. The majority of these parameters will not be known at
the early stage of development and this emphasizes the need for the resource evaluation to be
updated during the exploration, development and production phases. As more data become
available, assessment of the resource should become more certain although it is important that
at each stage the uncertainties are fully appreciated, and the level of detail is appropriate
without giving a spurious impression of precision.
Evaluations of geothermal prospects are based mainly on the results of geological,
geophysical and geochemical surveys and investigations in the early stages of exploration.
Surface mapping of faults, geology and sampling of hot springs and steam vents provide the
basis for a geophysical survey program. The major geophysical technique employed is the
measurement of underground resistivity using arrays of detectors with varying spacings and a
current source on the surface. Areas of low resistivity are indicative of the presence of
mineralized water in the rock, indicating potential targets for drilling. Other geophysical
surveys such as aeromagnetics, magnetotelluric and seismic are conducted to complement the
initial resistivity data.
The available geoscientific data are then examined to infer the nature, characteristics and
the probable size of the geothermal resource and construct an initial model of the field. The
exploration model usually represents the probable origin and source temperature of fluids
used in deciding whether to conduct exploration drilling and/or additional geoscientific
investigations.
Static formation temperature tests (SFTT) are performed once exploration drilling has
begun. SFTT’s are used to guide the setting of the production casing shoes. Completion
tests are then conducted according to a standard program once the wells are completed, and
monitoring of the temperature recovery of the wells by downhole surveys then follows. If the
well will not self-discharge, appropriate stimulation technique is then recommended based on
the results of the completion tests and heat-up surveys. The discharge of the well gives vital
information on the temperature, enthalpy and chemical composition of the reservoir fluid.
The behavior of the well on extended discharge gives additional information on the extent of
permeability, particularly if pressure monitoring by other wells (interference testing) is
possible (Sarmiento, 1993).
It is then possible to build an integrated picture (conceptual hydrological flow model) of
the reservoir as a whole, in combination with geological and chemical models, once results
are obtained from a number of wells. The key to successful resource assessment is to develop
and maintain the conceptual hydrological model of the geothermal system, which makes use
of available data from all disciplines (geophysics, geology, geochemistry, reservoir
engineering, drilling, etc). Often data from one discipline can complement those of another in
a way that may not be apparent until they are combined. The results of this preliminary
IGC2003 – Short Course 155 Malate

resource assessment should indicate whether development drilling could go on, and the
probable targets of future wells. The study in many cases includes an initial estimate of the
capacity of the field.
The next stage for a successful development is the delineation phase, where production
wells are targeted to define the boundaries of the reservoir and to provide information on
possible areas for injection. Knowledge of the subsurface conditions is gained as
development begins. It is also then possible to refine the initial conceptual model of the
system and improve the quality of the resource assessment.

2.1 Reserve estimation

Reserve estimation is one of the most important activities in the planning stage of geothermal
development. Any development cannot continue without the assurance that the field has a
reserve capacity to produce over the projected life of the field. Reserve estimation also
impacts on the infrastructure and investment requirements of the project. There are a number
of techniques available that are used to assess geothermal resources. They depend on various
parameters and have been useful at various stages of the resource development.
The most common method used is the volumetric heat-in place (stored heat) calculation
(Muffler and Cataldi, 1978; Muffler, 1981). The principle in the stored heat method is to
estimate the heat stored within the defined reservoir volume, above some base temperature,
and converting it to electrical power using recovery factors and conversion efficiencies. The
stored heat includes the heat stored in both the rock and the in-place reservoir fluid. The
reservoir volume is usually taken as the aerial extent multiplied by the drilled depth plus some
storage volume, commonly another 500 m.
This method has mainly been applied to electrical generation projects although it may also
be useful on direct use projects. The method is normally used at the initial exploration stage
although it is necessary to make assumptions regarding unknown parameters, such as resource
volume, which have a significant impact on the results. As drilling proceeds, these
parameters can be better defined which should result in a refinement of the technique.
The merit in doing a stored heat assessment is that it gives an understandable, rational
basis for comparing the size of different geothermal resources, taking into account both
volume and temperature. The value of the stored heat calculations can be reasonably
demonstrated by applying them to known fields and establishing that they produce what has
been confirmed to be a sustainable output (Menzies, 2000).
Another technique employed to estimate the geothermal resource is the heat flux method
that is derived from physical estimates or chloride flux. This method is used at an early stage
of the project and assumes that the minimum natural heat flux, reflects the absolute minimum
that can be produced from the system. In practice, this estimate is normally very low and it
may be possible, based on experience, to develop a factor that allows a more realistic estimate
to be obtained (Menzies, 2000). However, care is taken in using this method, particularly in
fields where there is little or no surface expression or where there is significant thermal
activity.

2.2 Monte Carlo simulation

The stored heat method described above uses a “deterministic” approach to the estimation of
reserves where uncertainty in the parameters is not addressed. In practice, it is more proper to
allow the variables to vary over a defined range, with the probability of any particular value
being determined from an appropriately defined distribution. This process becomes the basis
of the “Monte Carlo Simulation” technique. The distributions used in the exploration stage
may cover a wide range but as additional data becomes available, the parameter distributions
can be refined.
Malate 156 IGC2003 – Short Course

In this simulation technique, “random numbers” are generated with the defined statistical
distributions to determine the values of the parameters used to calculate the stored heat. This
calculation is repeated, normally more than 1,000 times, until a defined probability
distribution for the output parameter of interest, such as power potential is obtained.
There are a considerable number of possible statistical distributions that can be used to
describe each of the variables. The most common set of distributions, are the triangular and
lognormal distributions as they can be skewed to various degrees (see Figure 1). In the
triangular distribution, the most likely minimum and maximum values are used to define the
distribution. Such is the case in the reservoir temperature and area that may be described in
this way. For the lognormal distribution, the mean and standard deviation need to be defined.

PDF for Reservoir Thickness PDF for Reservoir Porosity

Triangular Distribution Log-normal Distribution

minimum value = 500m mean = 0.2

most likely value = 1,000m std. dev. = 0.05
Probability

Probability
maximum value = 1,250m

250 500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Thickness [m] Porosity

Figure 1: Triangular and lognormal probability distributions (after Menzies, 2000).

The results of the Monte Carlo simulation are usually presented as a Probability Density
Function (PDF) of the number of occurrences of a particular value (reserve estimate) and as a
plot of the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF). These are shown in Figure 2. In this
case, the most likely value of the reserve capacity occurs at 100 MWe. The CDF plot shows
there is a 45% probability that the size of the field is less than 100 MWe and conversely, the
probability that the field size is more than 100 MWe is 55%. Moreover, the median value
occurs at a cumulative probability of 0.5 and is 105 MWe.

Probability Density Function (PDF) Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)

0.3 1.0
Cumulative Probability

0.8
Probability

0.2
0.6

0.4
0.1
0.2

0.0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Equivalent electrical power [MW] Equivalent electrical power [MW]

Figure 2: Results of Monte Carlo simulation (after Menzies, 2000).

IGC2003 – Short Course 157 Malate

2.3 Natural state model

The natural state computer model of the field is commonly developed after the stored heat
assessment to verify the conceptual model of the system. Matching the temperature profiles
and thermodynamic states of the wells and the pressure profile of the reservoir will provide an
estimate of the fluid flow rate in the natural state. This can then be compared to the known or
estimated flow through the system. A reservoir with a high throughput provides evidence of
recharge that is usually not taken into account by the stored heat calculation. Production
modeling based on the natural state model can provide an initial check on the size of the field,
and will be very crude as the reservoir porosity and horizontal permeability have not been
matched. It will also provide a check on the field size obtained from the stored heat method.
Reservoir modeling is conducted to understand and predict the dynamic behavior of
geothermal systems. There are several methods that have been applied from relatively simple
analytical and lumped parameter models to sophisticated three-dimensional numerical models
that include heat and mass transfer, and phase changes. These methods are also conducted
during the development stage, but are usually used during the production stage as a tool in
reservoir management.

3 Development strategy (production stage)

Confirmation on the existence of the geothermal resource leads to the development of the
reservoir to support a power station. In an ideal case, the resource is developed only after
completion of fieldwide testing and evaluation of the development strategies that will
correspond to the anticipated behavior of the field. A staged development in some cases is
undertaken with an initial development that is comfortably within the field capacity such as in
the case of Tongonan 1 (see Figure 24). The selection of a field development strategy is
initially based on the reserve capacity, well characteristics, conceptual model, terrain and the
economic cost of the project.
It is also important to obtain as complete a set of baseline data as possible before the
reservoir is disturbed by full-scale production. The initial thermodynamic state of the fluid in
the reservoir is characterized, together with the possible external interactions such as
groundwater and deep recharge. Modeling of the performance of the reservoir is much more
difficult if this baseline data has not been collected.

3.1 Engineering design

Engineering design of surface facilities (i.e. separator stations and pipelines) and power plant
interface data are conducted where the characteristics of the wells drilled are taken into
account, once a decision has been made to proceed with the development of the reservoir to
support a power station. Siting of injection wells and estimates of their injection capacities
are also crucial for pipeline and pump designs. Flexibility in the design stage is emphasized
to account for variations in well and reservoir behavior with time. Facilities for
measurements on wells (i.e. downhole surveys, inhibition test and output testing) are also
considered before the design is finalized.

3.2 Production strategy

The main production philosophy in developing the resource normally focuses on the
maintenance and sustenance of the field during exploitation where the total project cost and
field capacity is optimized. Generally, production is spread out in the field from selected
groups of wells if surplus capacity is available. A production strategy can also include
drilling of additional wells within the two-phase zone (steam cap) of the reservoir to minimize
the amount of brine for injection thereby reducing the effects of injection returns to
production wells (e.g. Tongonan 1 and Palinpinon 1). However, production from the highly
Malate 158 IGC2003 – Short Course

two-phase zone may be limited due to the faster anticipated run down and presence of
unwanted non-condensible gases (CO2 for example).

3.3 Injection strategy

Geothermal brine injection is primarily conducted to dispose of the waste fluid and provide
pressure support in the reservoir during its exploitation. PNOC-EDC identifies brine injection
as a critical component of field development. The overall injection philosophy includes deep
injection to improve thermal recovery of the injection fluid and dispersal of injection fluids to
avoid possible returns into a particular production sector. The harmful effects of injection
returns into the production wells in Palinpinon have forced PNOC-EDC to locate most of the
injection wells at the edges (or outside) the proven boundaries of the field. Gravity injection
is implemented since the injection pads are usually located at lower elevation than production
pads. This scheme translates to lower total project cost of the Fluid Collection and Disposal
System (FCDS). Injection pumping is only adopted when targeted injection wells have higher
elevations than separator stations.
PNOC-EDC has also adopted zero waste disposal schemes in support of the government’s
environmental policy and guidelines. This scheme includes the disposal of steam condensates
from the power plant and discharges from well testing activities.
The overall development strategies implemented by PNOC-EDC are validated through
close monitoring of production data such as temperature, enthalpy, massflow, chemistry and
surface activity. Continuous monitoring of these production parameters will prove whether
the resource is capable of sustaining production or expansion of the resource. Alternatively,
whether the plant capacity was oversized for the available resource which would require
additional reserves to be found. It is also through the changes in these monitoring parameters
that must be established in order to continue updating the conceptual model of the system.
Monitoring of a geothermal field provides an up-to-date evaluation of the resource.
The following management actions are undertaken when changes in the monitoring
parameters are obtained (Sarmiento, 2000):

a) Validate well utilization strategy and make adjustments in the wells’ production
and injection schedule to meet steam interface conditions at the power station.
b) Predict the rundown rate of steam to the power station and the timing of
maintenance and replacement (M & R) wells and well intervention (workover) to
prevent steam shortfall and/or power outages.
c) Forecast reservoir performance by updating the initial natural state field model
from recent field observations and implement changes on the current management
strategy to sustain production and/or to determine whether an expansion of the
field capacity is warranted.
d) Optimize the exploitation of the resource and keep the operating costs of the field
at a minimum to attain a desired return of investment (ROI) by being able to avoid
unnecessary maintenance works caused by deteriorating steam supply due to
flawed management strategy.
e) Check the power station performance with regard to its steam consumption and
efficiency.
f) Program well tests to confirm surface and subsurface abnormalities observed from
the wells and/or the FCDS.
IGC2003 – Short Course 159 Malate

4 Field monitoring techniques

The aim of a long-term monitoring program is to establish a baseline prior to large-scale
disturbance of the system, and then monitor the established parameters frequently enough to
enable changes in the state of the system to be detected as they take place. The field
monitoring techniques employed by the company generally includes downhole surveys, well
discharge and flow measurements and chemical sampling. Downhole surveys and discharge
and flow measurements deal with monitoring of physical parameters, while chemical
sampling pertains to monitoring of chemical parameters in the reservoir and discharge fluid.

4.1 Downhole measurements

Downhole temperatures and pressures are measured using mechanical gauges and electronic
instruments. These downhole surveys are conducted in the wells either during shut or flowing
condition and taken periodically during the course of the field operation. Shut surveys taken
prior to full-scale exploitation are used to determine the baseline (natural state) temperature
and pressure condition of the reservoir, as well as identify the permeable horizons within the
reservoir. Isotherms, isobars (pressure control point PCP plots) and permeability distribution
are established from these surveys, which delineate the different features of the reservoir (i.e.
upflow, outflows, natural recharge). Pressure transient tests (interference tests) are also
conducted in the wells to establish well/reservoir permeability. Flowing temperatures and
pressures are also taken to establish the permeable zones feeding the well during discharge.
Similarly, downhole surveys conducted during injection will determine the zones where fluid
is accepted into the reservoir.
The changes in the reservoir are then established from the variations of the updated
parameters against baseline measurements. Frequency of the surveys depends on the
availability of the wells. Availability of the wells is usually limited to periodic annual or
biennial plant shutdowns (for preventive maintenance) and irregular shutdowns for
unscheduled repairs. It is important to take advantage of these opportunities for additional
surveys. Generally, downhole surveys in each well are conducted quarterly to provide a
reliable trend on the reservoir temperature and pressure including an update on the condition
of the wells (i.e. blockages, casing problems).
Regular downhole measurements are also taken in available monitor (marginal) wells to
record the changes in reservoir pressures. These are used together with shut-in downhole
pressure and temperature surveys to evaluate local variations in temperature or pressure
decline.
Geophysical measurements such as micro-gravity can also supply independent data to
supplement the downhole measurements discussed above. This can give an independent
estimate of mass depletion or addition, and their aerial location if micro-gravity changes can
be reliably monitored. For production sectors, this can provide an independent assessment of
fluid saturation.

4.2 Discharge and flow measurements

Discharge output of the wells is generally computed either through a separator or by the
James Lip Pressure method where the well is discharged through the silencer. The flows of
separated water and steam through the separator are normally measured using orifice plates.
Separating the water and steam phases in a cyclone separator and measuring the two phases is
considered a more accurate method in testing the output of the well. The Lip Pressure method
uses a set of equations derived from correlation of the critical discharge pressure (lip
pressure), separated water flow (weir flow) and discharge enthalpy.
The plot of total discharge (massflow) and enthalpy against wellhead pressure gives the
well characteristic curves that enable information about the reservoir to be deduced. The well
Malate 160 IGC2003 – Short Course

output is then regularly monitored during the course of exploitation as shown in Figure 3
below. The field capacity (steam availability) is updated against plant load requirement to
establish the performance of the reservoir. Moreover, the rundown rate of steam available for
the power station is calculated which determines steam supply or injection capacity shortfall.
This is then addressed by drilling replacement wells or by other well intervention techniques
such as acid treatment. In some cases, discharge data for individual wells are not available so
that trends of total massflow and enthalpy for a separator station are then monitored.

80

60
Massflow, kg/s

40

20

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Wellhead Pressure, MPag
2400
Pre-commissioning
1983
2200 1984
1985
Enthalpy, kJ/kg

1986
2000
1987
1988

1800 1989
1990
1991
1600 1992
1993

1400 1994
1995
1996
1200

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Wellhead Pressure, MPag
Figure 3: Well output trend with wellhead pressure at various times during exploitation (after
Sarmiento, 2000).

The frequency of bore output measurements (BOM) using the silencer also depends on the
availability of the wells. The output measurement is usually conducted in one opening only,
normally at the operating wellhead pressure before the well was cut out. The output at other
well openings is measured when the well is cut out at longer periods such as during scheduled
plant shutdown. Recently, a tracer dilution method has been applied by PNOC-EDC to
measure well outputs when the standard BOM through the silencer are not practical
(Macambac et al., 1998; Magdadaro, 1998).
The injection of liquid and gas tracers simultaneously into the two-phase flow stream at
known rates enables the mass flowrates of both the liquid and steam phases and enthalpy to be
determined. Tracers must partition completely into their respective vapor or liquid phase.
The liquid tracer must be highly soluble in water to facilitate injection and metering while the
vapor phase tracer must have high vapor pressure (Hirtz and Lovekin, 1995).
IGC2003 – Short Course 161 Malate

The tracers used in flow measurements are magnesium chloride (MgCl2), sodium
flourescein (Na-flourescein) and sodium benzoate (Na-benzoate) for brine flow, and sulfur
hexaflouride (SF6) for steam flow measurements. MgCl2 is normally used to measure brine
flow in injection wells (e.g. capacity or reinjection load monitoring), while Na-benzoate
together with SF6 are used to measure the discharge output of the well. The tracer dilution
method requires precise measurements of the vapor and liquid phase tracers injected into the
two-phase flow stream. Analyses of the collected samples of each phase are evaluated to
determine the tracer amount, from which the massflow of each phase is calculated based on
the measured concentration and the injection rate of each tracer.

The liquid phase mass rate is given by:

mT
mL =
(CTL − CBL)

where, mL = liquid phase mass rate

mT = tracer injection mass rate
CTL = liquid-phase tracer concentration by weight
CBL = liquid-phase background concentration by weight

The vapor-phase mass rate is given by:

mT
mV =
(CTV − CBV)

where, mV = vapor phase mass rate

mT = tracer injection mass rate
CTV = vapor-phase tracer concentration by weight
CBV = vapor-phase background concentration by weight

The mass rates calculated are valid for the temperature and pressure at the sample collection
point. The total fluid enthalpy can then be calculated using a mass and heat balance equation
at the given separation pressure as shown by the equation:

H = ((mV x HV) + (mL x HL)) / (mV+mL)

where, HV and HL are the vapor and liquid enthalpies, respectively.

The tracer dilution method is also applied to measure steam supplied to the plant and brine
flows that are disposed to the injection wells.

4.3 Chemical monitoring

Regular monitoring of water and steam chemistry in the discharge fluid also provides
additional reservoir information that is vital to field management. These data include source
of fluid recharge to the reservoir, cool dilute groundwater, condensate or injection fluids.
Downhole chemistry of the fluid is also taken depending on the availability of the wells to be
sampled. These geochemical observations are combined with the physical measurements to
build up a more complete picture of the performance of the field.
Malate 162 IGC2003 – Short Course

5 Monitoring parameters
The various parameters prioritized by PNOC-EDC in monitoring of its operating fields can be
summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: Reservoir parameters monitored by PNOC-EDC to manage the geothermal fields

(after Salera, 1991).

Production wells
a) Output: massflows (steam/water), enthalpies, wellhead pressures
b) Downhole temperatures and pressures
c) Downhole blockages/obstructions: scraper samples
d) Fluid chemistry (discharge/downhole)
Injection wells
a) Injection capacity, pressures
b) Downhole temperatures and pressures
c) Downhole blockages/obstructions: scraper samples
Injection lines
a) Fluid chemistry: SiO2
b) Scales samples
Steam Header
a) Fluid chemistry: CO2, H2S, Na
b) Steam flows
Monitor/Observation wells
a) Downhole temperatures and pressures, wellhead pressures
b) Downhole blockages/obstructions: scraper samples
Field microseismicity
Field thermal manifestations, hot springs

5.1 Temperatures
The changes in downhole temperatures can indicate inflow of natural recharge or injection
returns into the reservoir. The source of the recharge can also be delineated from these
changes together with the measurements of reservoir pressures and well output. Figure 4
shows the downhole survey of a well affected by injection returns. The decline in
temperatures at shallow depths could also indicate inflow of cooler fluids. The well also
registered a decline in discharge enthalpies and a drop in wellhead pressure. Conversely,
Figure 5 shows a natural cold inflow into a well that is present before exploitation.
Incorporating this observation in the isotherm plot including other wells could indicate the
source of the cold fluid as shown in Figure 6. The presence of this feature (cold fluid) can
provide early warning as to the possible negative effects to neighboring wells once pressure
drawdown occurs in the sector.
IGC2003 – Short Course 163 Malate

TEMPERATURE (°C)

100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
20
40
60
80
0
900
800
CHF 0 0 700
20 in. 13-3/8 in.

SCS
100 100 600
200 200 500
300 300 400
ACS
400 400 300
500 500 200
600 600 100
700 700 0
800 800 -100
900 900 -200
1000 1000 -300

REDUCED DEPTH (m)

1100 1100 -400
1200 1200 -500
1300 1300 -600
1400 1400 -700
9-5/8 in.

1500 1500 -800

PCS 1600 1600 -900
1700 1700 -1000
1800 1800 -1100
1900 1900 -1200
2000 2000 -1300
2100 2100 -1400
2200 2200 -1500
2300 2300 -1600
2400 2400 -1700
2500 2500 -1800
7-5/8 in.

2600 2600 -1900

7-5/8 BOL 2700 2700 -2000
TD 2800 2800
PERMEABLE ZONE -2100
-2200
mMD mVD
-2300
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40

PRESSURE (MPag)

LEGEND TEMPERATURE PRESSURE

KT-17 28Dec82 FS KP-17 28Dec82 FS

KT-66 28Aug89 FS KP-66 25Aug89 FS

Figure 4: Downhole temperature and pressure profile showing effects of injection returns (after
Sarmiento, 2000).
Malate 164 IGC2003 – Short Course

TEMPERATURE (°C)

100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
20
40
60
80
0
700
CHF 20 in. 0 0 600
SCS 100 100 500
200 200 400
300 300 300
13-3/8 in.

400 400 200

500 500 100
600 600 0
700 700 -100
800 800
ACS -200

REDUCED DEPTH (m)

900 900
-300
9-5/8 in.

1000 1000
-400
1100 1100
-500
1200
1200
1300 -600
1300
1400 -700
1500 1400
TOL
PCS -800
1600 1500
1700 -900
7-5/8 in.

1600
1800 -1000
1900 1700
-1100
MPZ 2000 1800
2100 -1200
1900
2200 -1300
2000
2300
2100
-1400
2400
2200
-1500
2500
BOL TD
PERMEABLE ZONE -1600
2600 2300
2700 BLOCKAGE -1700
mMD mVD
-1800
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40

PRESSURE (MPag) rrmd/pom/mg17d.grf/06jan99

LEGEND TEMPERATURE PRESSURE

KT08 09Dec94 FS KP15 09Dec94 FS

KT09 19Jul95 Shut KP16 19Jul95 Shut

KT10 06Mar96 Shut P17 06Mar96 Shut

Figure 5: Downhole profile showing cold inflow (after Sarmiento, 2000).

IGC2003 – Short Course 165 Malate

1234000

1233000

MN2RD
1232000
MG20D
Zone of Cool MN3RD
Inflow MN1 MG15D
MG4RD MG2RD
1231000
MG1RD MG21D
MG9D
NORTHING (m)

MG3D
MG4DA
1230000 MG8D MG17D
MG4D MG24D
MG14D
MG26D
MG29D
MG27D MG30D
MG28D
MG31D
MG3RD MG5D
MG1
MG18D
1229000 MG23D MG19
MG32D
MG25D
MG13D
MG7D MG22D
MG5RD
1228000 MG2D
MG16D

MG10D MG6RD
MG9RD

1227000 MG7RD
MG8RD

1226000

1225000
459000 460000 461000 462000 463000 464000 465000 466000 467000 468000

EASTING (m)

Figure 6: Isotherms showing natural cold inflow from northwest (after Sarmiento, 2000).

Flowing downhole temperatures can also illustrate fluid phase changes caused by fluid
extraction with time. The well shown in Figure 7 was initially in the compressed liquid state,
but later turned two-phase at shallow depths due to the pressure drawdown of the field.

5.2 Pressures
Downhole pressure monitoring with time can reveal the effects of increased mass extraction
through faster reservoir pressure decline and recharge or injection returns through rebound in
downhole pressures (Figure 8). A plot of reservoir pressure with mass extraction can show
the likely time two-phase condition will set in as shown in Figure 9. The available reservoir
fluid volume and remaining volume (assuming certain rock parameters) can also be
determined from these measurements. The downhole pressure in Figure 9 did not reach two-
phase condition as expected because of the influx of injection returns that resulted to
stabilization of reservoir pressure in the well.
Malate 166 IGC2003 – Short Course
TEMPERATURE (°C)

100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
20
40
60
80
0
1800

1600 Pressure Temperature

1400 KP-20 Shut 20Jun83 KT-21 Shut 20Jun83
1200 KP-59 Shut 8Nov88 KT-55 Shut 8Nov88
1000 KP-85 Shut 19Nov92 KT-81 Shut 19Nov92
CHF 0 0 800
SCS 100 100
200 200 600
ACS 300 300
400 400 400
500 500
600 600 200
700 700
800 800 0
900 900
REDUCED DEPTH (m)

1000 1000 -200

1100 1100
1200 1200 -400
1300 1300
1400 1400 -600
PCS 1500 1500
1600 1600 -800
1700
1700
1800 -1000
1900 1800
2000 1900
2000 -1200
2100
2200 2100
2200 -1400
2300
2400 2300
2500 2400 -1600
2600 2500
2700 2600 -1800
2800 2700
2900 2800 -2000
3000 2900
3100 3000 -2200
3200 3100
3300 3200 -2400
3400 3300
TD 3500 -2600
3400
-2800
___ Main Permeable Zone ___ Minor Permeable Zone
MD VD -3000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
PRESSURE (MPag)
PN-25D TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE GRAPH
Figure 7: Downhole profile of well showing transition from compressed liquid state to boiling
(after Sarmiento, 2000).

RESERVOIR PRESSURE TREND

(Extrapolated at -1000m, MSL)
12.0

11.0

Injection Breakthrough

10.0 Shift in Injection area farther away

PRESSURE, (MPag)

9.0 Plant Full Load

8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0
1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Figure 8: Reservoir pressure with time showing effects of injection returns and increased mass
extraction (after Orizonte et al., 2000).
IGC2003 – Short Course 167 Malate

PRESSURE TREND WITH MASS EXTRACTION

(Extrapolated at -1000 mMSL)
15

TC/ML RI Line Commissioning

Negros-Panay Interconnection
14
13
12
11
Downhole Pressure, MPag

10
9
8
7
6
5
Saturation Pressure (4.6 MPag)
4 at Reservoir Temperature (260C)
3
2
1 1984 1985 1986 1988 1990 1992 1993 1993 1994 1996 1996

0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
00

12 0
13 0
00

15 0
16 0
17 0
18 0
00

20 0
21 0
00

23 0
00
00
00
00
00

00
00
00

0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0

0
00

00

00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
20
30

70
80
90
10

40
50
60

14

19
10
11

22
Cummulative Mass Extracted, tonsx1000

DMY/pn14mfpr.grf/12/08/99/

Figure 9: Plot of downhole pressure versus time (after Sarmiento, 2000).

Isobars at certain elevations can establish if production is evenly distributed across the field or
concentrated in certain areas only. Significant pressure decline is usually seen in the
production sector where mass withdrawal is highest while higher pressure values are recorded
in areas where injection is located. The plot of downhole pressure (PCP) with depth for
various wells provides the pressure gradient in the reservoir (Figure 10). Pressure gradients
across the field can identify the source of natural recharge or injection. Monitoring of the
changes in pressure gradient during exploitation provides information on reservoir drawdown
and the change in water level in the wells, including the development of two-phase condition
in the reservoir.
Wellhead pressure decline with time, especially with accompanying rapid decline in
massflow, may indicate blockage in the well. In comparison, wellhead pressure rise at the
same opening accompanied by increased enthalpies would indicate a shift in production to a
much shallower depth due to development of two-phase condition in the reservoir. This trend
is usually observed in the early part of the exploitation, especially in liquid-dominated
systems.

5.2.1 Interference tests

Interference between wells is also evaluated from downhole pressure monitoring. Pressures
measured in the observation wells are usually used to establish permeability within the area
using standard welltest analysis techniques. The pressure interference data can also provide
evidence on presence of recharge or reservoir boundaries. Figure 11 illustrates the pressure
interference of a monitor well (shut condition) during injection into the neighboring wells.
The increase in downhole pressures in the monitor well would reveal the presence of
boundary in the area.
Malate 168 IGC2003 – Short Course

1200

1000 Surface Level

800 1983

Norther-Southern Areas
1994
600 1998-2000
2001

Western Area

Eastern Area
Central Area
400
2002
RELATIVE DEPTH, mSL 200
Upper boundary of
exploitable Two-phase zone
0

-200

-400

-600

-800

-1000

-1200

-1400

-1600

-1800
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
RESERVOIR PRESSURE, MPag

Figure 10: Reservoir pressure vs. elevation plot (after Orizonte et al., 2000).

Well Interference Test

380
RI WELL UTILIZATION
Well 1 1300
Well 2
Well 3
360 Well 4
Well 5 1200
Well 6

340 1100
MASS EXTRACTION / INJECTION (kg/s)
LEGEND
down @ 0900H 2/15/98

Pruett instrument pull out @ 1520H (8/5)

Well downhole pressure

320 1000
Power Plant shut

Weekly ave. mass extracted (kg/s)

Weekly ave. mass injected

900
300
PRESSURE (psig)

800
280
700
260
600
operations 3/6/98

240
Resumed FCDS

500

220 400

200 300

200
180

100
160
llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 0
10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 28 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 28
AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB

1997 1998 19 9 9
RRMD/LGPP/mg9dwkly.grf/msmb/8-7-98

Figure 11: Interference data showing increasing pressure during injection at neighboring wells
(after Sarmiento, 2000).
IGC2003 – Short Course 169 Malate

On the other hand, Figure 12 shows pressure drawdown in the monitor well that is a typical
response due to exploitation. Simple lumped parameter models can then be used to match the
pressure interference data and forecast the likely drawdown with continued extraction. The
model gave a good fit to the measured data. The initial model results are then validated with
the more detailed multi-dimensional reservoir models.

WELL INTERFERENCE PLOT

SIMULATED PRESSURE DRAWDOWN
(LUMPFIT METHOD)
11.0 1600

1500
(+) masakrot @ 20 MWe (jan '15)
1400
10.0
1300
(+) tanawon @ 60 MWe (jan '06)
1200
Downhole Pressure (MPag)

9.0
1100

Extraction Rate (kg/s)

1000
bm1 @ 110 MWe/ cn @ 20 MWe/ botong @ 20 MWe
8.0 900

800

7.0 700

600

500
6.0
400

measured pressure (-1000mRSL) 300

5.0 calculated pressure 200
mass extraction
100

4.0 0
0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192 204 216 228 240 252 264 276 288 300
1993 1997 2000 2006 2010 2015 2018

Time (months)

Figure 12: Interference data shows declining pressure due to extraction in neighboring
production wells. Plot also shows pressure match of lump parameter model with actual data
(after Sarmiento, 2000).

5.3 Permeability
Aside from interference tests, pressure transient tests such as drawdown-buildup and
injection-falloff tests can also determine well permeability. The permeability values are then
used to build permeability distribution of the field that will establish the likely reservoir fluid
behavior during exploitation. These would include the probable source of recharge and the
path of injection returns. The permeability distribution would also serve as information for
the reservoir modeling studies of the field.

5.4 Bore output measurements

Regular monitoring of individual well outputs during exploitation can provide information on
well performance that will establish whether the well requires intervention when its discharge
parameters have declined (Figure 13). In particular, the well shown in Figure 14 shows the
rapid decline in massflow with time due to mineral (calcite) deposition. A drop in wellhead
pressure at the same wellhead opening accompanied this decline. The increase in enthalpy
Malate 170 IGC2003 – Short Course

200 MTD
180 TFT20nov97
Mass Flow (kg/s)

160 TFT3apr98
140
21May98 TFT
120
100 24JUL98TFT

80 07NOV98TFT
60 18Jan99TFT
40 29mar99tft
20
06Jun99TFT
0
1600
1500
Enthalpy (kJ/kg)

1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900

0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
WHP ( MPag)
Figure 13: Well output versus wellhead pressure at different times (after Sarmiento, 2000).
MASSFLOW (kg/s) ENTHALPY (kJ/kg) STEAMFLOW (kg/s)WATERFLOW (kg/s)

100
80
60
40
20
0
60
50
40 DECLINE RATE = 8.7 k/gs-yr

30
20
10
0
1600

1400

1200

1000
120
100 BASELINE
(1991)
80
60
40
20
0
97

97

98

98

99

99

00
n-

n-

n-

n-

n-

n-

n-
Ja

Ju

Ja

Ju

Ja

Ju

Ja

Figure 14: Output of well showing decline in flow due to deposition (after Sarmiento, 2000).
IGC2003 – Short Course 171 Malate

during its utilization is attributed to the shifting of major flow contribution from the deeper
liquid feedzone to the shallower, high enthalpy feedzone. Remedial measures may include
simple mechanical drillout of blockage and/or acid treatment of the permeable zones.
Figure 15, on the other hand, shows the changes in massflow of a well affected by
drawdown that is supported by the increase in discharge enthalpy. The steamflow however
remained constant. There was no blockage observed in the well that would confirm the
decline in massflow.
Monitoring of the individual well mass withdrawal can also determine if the well
utilization schedule implemented is optimized. High enthalpy wells with lower brine flows
are usually prioritized. This should, however, be balanced by properly distributing mass
withdrawal to a wider area in the field to prevent over-extraction in certain sectors that may
cause additional problems such as induced influx of unwanted brine (injection returns).
2200
2100
2000
1900
Enthalpy (kJ/kg)

1800
1700
1600
1500 TFT
Baseline
1400 BOM

1300
1200 BOM
1100
1000
1984 1996 1997 1998 1999

140
TFT
Baseline
BOM BOM Legend Title
120
Mass Flow
Steam Flow
100
Mass Flow (kg/s)

80

60

40

20

0
1984 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year

Figure 15: Massflow decline due to drawdown (after Sarmiento, 2000).

Changes in discharge enthalpy for individual wells can indicate reservoir changes that
affect steam availability. Declining enthalpies at the same operating wellhead pressures can
indicate reservoir cooling and usually necessitates increased mass extraction to maintain
steam supply. The cooling may also be induced by inflow of either natural recharge or
injection returns. Temperature decline normally accompanies this decline in enthalpy.
Changes in the production and/or injection strategies (e.g. shifting of production or injection
sector) is usually adopted to address the declines in temperature and enthalpy.
Increasing enthalpies would normally indicate drawdown resulting in expanding two-
phase horizons and declining water levels in the well (Figure 16). This increase could also
result in higher steamflow which could meet or even surpass the steam requirement for the
Malate 172 IGC2003 – Short Course

plant. A review of the production strategy is usually undertaken when rapid rise in well and
field enthalpies is observed which would indicate substantial depletion in the reservoir caused
by the rapid expansion of the two-phase region.
1000

800 SECTOR 1 SECTOR 2 SECTOR 3

600 407 410 209 213 303

401 215 214 5R1D
400

200
REDUCED DEPTH (mASL)

se
pha
-200
on of 2
i
ans 96
Exp ion 19
-400 reg
Original 2 Phase
region
-600

-800 Extension of shallow

2 phase region w/c
ase reverted back to
-1000 2 ph
of single phase in 1998
n s ion 1998
a n
-1200 Exp regio

-1400

-1600

-1800

-2000

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

DISTANCE (m)

Figure 16: Expansion of two-phase region with depth (after Sarmiento, 2000).

5.5 Mass extraction

Periodic monitoring of the mass extraction and injection during exploitation provides
information on the response of the field and power plant performance and verifies the
suitability of the well utilization schedule implemented. Measurements of steam and brine
flows and condensate flows are also collected and collated into an energy balance or audit.
Figure 17 shows a typical fluid extraction and injection monitoring. These measurements
together with field enthalpy trends can establish the performance of the reservoir in terms of
the total steam produced and the amount of brine lost due to drawdown or gained due to
recharge. A gain in field mass injection at relatively constant steam supply would indicate
natural recharge or injection returns. This increase may also be accompanied by a decline in
field enthalpies. Conversely, a rapid decline in mass extraction accompanied by an increase
in enthalpies would show depletion of the reservoir. Regular review of the production well
utilization schedule is then made, which would require changes in production and injection
strategies. Corrective measures are then undertaken such as relocation of the production and
injection loads to maintain steam availability.
In some cases, plant load monitoring is conducted to check the steam availability against
power plant performance (steam consumption vis a vis power generated). This monitoring
activity is essential in cases where the plant operators are different from the steam field
operators, and contractual obligations to maintain a certain standard in power plant operation
is required. Parameters monitored in the plant include the steamflow, pressures, turbine steam
rates, condensation, plant parasitic load, noncondensible gases, and ambient temperatures.
IGC2003 – Short Course 173 Malate

2800
AVERAGE ENTHALPY
2600

AVERAGE ENTHALPY
2400

(kJ/kg)
2200

2000

1800

1600

MASS REINJECTION
800000
MASS REINJECTION

600000
(TONNES)

400000

200000

0
1600000
MASS EXTRACTION
1400000
MASS EXTRACTION

STEAM EXTRACTION
1200000
(TONNES)

1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Figure 17: Mass extraction and injection monitoring and field enthalpy trend (after Sarmiento,
2000).

5.6 Injection capacity

Regular measurements of well injection capacities with time are also undertaken to monitor
possible decline in injection capacity due to mineral (silica) deposition. Well workover is
usually undertaken to regain injection capacity depending on the magnitude and trend of the
decline. The workover operation may include plain mechanical drillout of mineral blockages
or acid treatment to dissolve the mineral deposits around the wellbore and the immediate
vicinity of the formation (Malate et al., 1997).

5.7 Tracer injection tests

Tracer tests in the Philippines have traditionally been conducted before full scale exploitation
of the field to evaluate the likely behavior of the injection system. Correctly designed and
performed, these tests can provide information on the speed (transit times) and volume of the
injected brine returning to the production wells. Tracers usually employed are chemical dyes
or radioactive materials. Chemical dyes such as fluoroscein or rhodamine WT are used due to
their recognizable colors and fluoresence. These chemicals however, normally degrade at
high temperatures and could produce interference with reservoir formation, which may give
suspect results. Radioactive tracers on the other hand are thermally stable and decay at
known rates. Their detection is relatively simple but can be difficult to handle and relatively
Malate 174 IGC2003 – Short Course

more expensive than chemical dyes. Organic tracers such as benzoic acid can be used but
they are also subject to thermal degradation. Chemicals monitored in the discharged and
injected fluids (e.g. chloride) can also serve as “natural” tracers. Moreover, natural stable
isotopes of oxygen (δO18) and deuterium are used to establish the source of recharge fluid.
The quantity of tracer must be sufficient to be recognizable above any background in the
reservoir in designing a tracer test. The concentration of tracer at production sampling points
also needs to be sufficiently high for it to be accurately measured, but low enough to avoid
any hazards. The minimum volume of the tracer is normally estimated based on the swept
volume of the injected fluid to the observation well over a circular porous medium. The
tracer concentration will be higher for flows along fractures or faults.
Figure 18 below shows the results of one of the recent tracer injection tests conducted by
PNOC-EDC using radioactive iodine (I125). The tracer was injected in one of the injection
wells about 1.5 km aerial distance from the production wells. Positive tracer returns were
monitored in three production wells with the fastest breakthrough of 20 days (Well A) from
injection and mean residence time of 108 days. A percentage recovery of around 11% was
calculated from the tracer breakthrough curve obtained (Delfin et al., 2000).

750
Well A
550

350

150

-50

250 Well B

Activity 150
(cpm)
50

-50
200
Well C
100

-100

-200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300

Days from Injection

Figure 18: Radioactive tracer (I125) breakthrough curves (Delfin et al., 2000).

In some cases, monitoring of the changes in the discharge chemistry of neighboring wells
while a production well is being acidized can establish fluid movement in the reservoir.
Increases in magnesium and fluoride content in the discharge fluid are usually seen due to the
effect of acid injection.

5.8 Chemistry
Monitoring of the changes in chemical parameters of the discharge fluid can also provide
information on the changes in thermodynamic processes in the wellbore and reservoir system.
Figure 19 shows changes in reservoir chemistry (chloride and sulfate) for a well due to
blockage. The chemistry trend obtained shows the distinct contribution of the upper feedzone
IGC2003 – Short Course 175 Malate

after the development of blockage inside the wellbore. A decline in fluid temperature
(Tquatz) and chloride content was observed but with higher discharge enthalpy due to the
two-phase condition of the top zone.

300 240
T(quartz) Cl/Ca Blockage tagged
T (quartz), oC

280 in well
180

Cl/Ca
260
120
240

220 60
Cl (r) SO4 (r)

SO4 (r), mg/kg

Cl (r), mg/kg

2800 40

2600 20

2400 0
WHP Enthalpy

Enthalpy, kJ/kg
4.0
WHP, MPa

1400

2.0
1100

0.0 800

May-97 Sep-97 Jan-98 May-98 Sep-98 Jan-99

Figure 19: Chemistry change in well due to blockage (after Herras and Siega, 2003).

Chemical geothermometry can also be employed in establishing reservoir changes during

exploitation in the absence of downhole temperature measurements. Declining temperatures
from geothermometers may indicate several reservoir processes that include boiling, cooling
due to influx of injection returns or development of blockage.
Figure 20 shows the trend of reservoir chloride with time that illustrates the effect of
increased recharge in the production area due to injection returns. This immediate increase in
recharge (chloride) occurred when injection was sited very near the production area.
However, shifting of injection load much farther away from the production field caused the
reservoir chloride to decline and stabilize with time. Conversely, an increase in production
chloride with increase in discharge enthalpies would indicate boiling caused by pressure
drawdown.
Noncondensible gases, mainly CO2 in the steam phase, are also monitored as these could
affect the performance of plant turbines. In most cases, noncondensible gas levels increase
with time due to the increased boiling or expanding two-phase condition within the reservoir.
The CO2 gas levels would continue to increase with exploitation unless mixing of low gas
injection fluids occurs in the reservoir. The gas levels may also decline with further depletion
if natural recharge is not significant to offset the extraction of the gas-rich reservoir fluid.
Figure 21 illustrates the initial increase in CO2 levels with extraction that eventually declined
due to depletion of gas in the reservoir. A plot of CO2 distribution in the field can also
indicate the likely source of the high NCG reservoir fluid.
Malate 176 IGC2003 – Short Course

16000
15000 Legend:
Well 1
14000 Well 2

13000
12000
Reservoir Cholride, ppm

11000
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000 RI Sector Transfer

3000
2000
1000
31-Jul-82 30-Jul-86 29-Jul-90 28-Jul-94 27-Jul-98

Figure 20: Reservoir chloride trends with time showing effects of injection returns (after
Sarmiento, 2000).

Carbon Dioxide Level versus Time

12.0

11.0
Well 1

10.0
Well 2
% Weight CO2 in Total Discharge

Well 3
9.0
Well 4
8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
Jan-93

Jun-93

Jan-94

Jun-94

Jan-95

Jun-95

Jan-96

Jun-96

Jan-97

Jun-97

Dec-97

Time (months)
WELL 1
WELL 2
WELL 3
WELL 4

Figure 21: CO2 trends with time in some production wells (after Sarmiento, 2000).
IGC2003 – Short Course 177 Malate

Regular monitoring of calcium, CO2 and sulfate levels in the discharge fluid, including calcite
and anhydrite saturation indices in production wells, and silica saturation index in injection
wells can provide information on the potential for mineral deposition in the wellbore.
Determining the magnitude and frequency of mineral deposition with time can provide
management information on the timing of well interventions.
Other chemical components in geothermal discharges are also closely monitored to
determine whether the chemical effluent meet the environmental standards. These chemical
elements monitored are usually boron, mercury and arsenic in water discharges and H2S and
CO2 in steam. Monitoring of these chemical parameters is important, especially if the waste
effluent will affect the local streams and the atmosphere, which may harm nearby
communities. Philippine government regulations stipulate zero disposal of geothermal brine
including power plant condensates, and therefore requires that injection wells be designated
for the disposal of these waste fluids.

5.9 Reservoir simulation

Reservoir simulation is a very useful reservoir evaluation tool to evaluate the performance of
the reservoir once production of the field commences. The production history gathered
provides valuable input to the reservoir modeling studies to be used in predicting the reservoir
behavior at different exploitation scenarios. Drilling of maintenance and replacement wells
can then be scheduled based on the forecast obtained from reservoir simulation.
The numerical model employed is usually based on the conceptual (natural state) model
developed for the field that would include salient features observed in the reservoir (i.e. hot
recharge and outflows). Temperature, pressure and permeability distributions across the field
derived from downhole measurements are incorporated in the model. In some cases, other
parameters such as noncondensible gas (CO2) and salts are included in the model if they are
significantly high to affect the thermodynamic properties of the fluid (water).
The computer model is then validated against the production and injection history data
obtained during exploitation. Control parameters (e.g. rock and fluid properties,
permeabilities) are then adjusted to match the measured temperature, pressure and production
data. Figure 22 shows the result of a good match of simulated pressure and enthalpy to the
actual data of a production well. The model results can also be used in forecasting the well
(reservoir) behavior at different development strategies. Figure 23 shows the forecasted
output (total steam flow) of a reservoir based on a planned extraction rate. The schedule of
make-up wells for drilling to meet the programmed development is also shown in the figure.

5.10 Power optimization

The performance of Tongonan 1 wells in Leyte, after more than 10 years of operation, has
shown that the field can still sustain higher mass withdrawal based on minimal pressure
drawdown. Moreover, the bore output characteristics of the wells showed a relatively stable
output over a wide range of operating wellhead pressures. The forecasted reservoir
performance of Tongonan 1 at higher extraction rates using reservoir simulation supported the
possibility of increasing its plant generation (Sarmiento et al., 1992, 1993). It would then
appear that the operation of Tongonan 1 at higher pressure operating conditions could be
optimized from the results of the intensive monitoring and numerical simulation studies.
Higher pressure turbine operating conditions results in improved thermodynamic and
generation efficiencies (lower steam rate). For the turbine inlet pressure of 6 Bars in
Tongonan 1, a reduction of around 20% in steam flow requirement (at constant power load),
or an increase of about 30% in generation potential (at constant steam rate), can be realized at
higher operating turbine conditions (Sarmiento et al., 1993). These results also became the
basis of optimizing the turbine inlet pressure of the other plants in the Upper Mahiao and
Malitbog production sectors in Tongonan and the Mahanagdong area (Figure 24).
Malate 178 IGC2003 – Short Course

Actual vs. Simulated Pressure and Enthalpy

3000
2800 Simulated
2600
Enthalpy, kJ/kg Actual
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Year
12

10
Pressure, MPa

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Year
Figure 22: Enthalpy and pressure history match of simulated and actual data (after Sarmiento,
2000).

180

160 Wells E, F
Wells B, C, D
Well A
TOTAL STEAM FLOW, kg/s

140

120

100

80 Measured Data
Simulated Data

60

40

20

0
97 98 99 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
YEAR

Figure 23: Forecasted reservoir output based on simulation vs. actual data (after Esberto,
2002).
IGC2003 – Short Course 179 Malate

GREATER TONGONAN GEOTHERMAL FIELD

1239000
1238000
1237000

UPPER MAHIAO
1236000
1235000

TONGONAN I
1234000

SOUTH
SAMBALORAN
1233000

MALITBOG
1232000
1231000

MAHANAGDONG
1230000
1229000
1228000
1227000
1226000

456000 457000 458000 459000 460000 461000 462000 463000 464000 465000 466000 467000 468000
Updated by ORZ 02/06/97

Figure 24: Location map of Greater Tongonan Geothermal field (after Sarmiento, 2000).

The likely generation capacity for each of the sectors were then determined based on process
optimization of high pressure or intermediate and low pressure plants. Different plant model
operation scenarios were evaluated using reservoir simulation to determine the optimum
capacities of the plants the field can support. This also includes the likely number of
maintenance and replacement wells to be drilled during the expected plant life.
A power plant using high pressure upstream back pressure turbines and an intermediate
condensing pressure plant downstream was installed in Mahanagdong with an intermediate
pressure turbine as the main plant. A plant set-up with a separate high pressure turbine (using
high pressure steam), and a separate intermediate pressure condensing turbine utilizing steam
from secondary flash of separated brine was installed at Malitbog/South Sambaloran with a
high pressure turbine as the main plant. In Tongonan 1, a high pressure topping plant (back
pressure turbine) was installed upstream of the plant to further optimize the output of the
Malate 180 IGC2003 – Short Course

Mahiao/Sambaloran wells. In Upper Mahiao, the plant system installed was a combined high
pressure and intermediate pressure turbine where the steam from the high pressure turbine is
used in a series of binary OEC units (Ormat Energy Converter) to provide additional
generation. In addition, a brine OEC was installed in Upper Mahiao utilizing the separated
water of the Upper Mahiao and South Sambaloran wells. Table 2 summarizes the plant
generation of the Greater Tongonan Field with a total power capacity of around 708 MWe.
The new plants were commissioned in 1996 and 1997 and have supplied power to the Luzon
and Visayas grids via submarine cables.

Table 2: Interface pressures and installed capacities of Tongonan plants (after Sarmiento, 2000).

Field/Sector/Plant Plant Cap. Interface Pressure, ksca

MWe Low Intermediate High

Greater Tongonan
Tongonan I
Main 3 x 37.5 6 to 7
Topping plant 3 x 5.75 10 to 11
Upper Mahiao
Main (Combined cycle) 4 x 31.815 10 to 11
Brine OEC (Binary) 4.6 10 to 11
Malitbog/S.Sambaloran
Main 3 x 77.5 10 to 11
Bottoming Plant 14.56 6 to 7
Mahanagdong
Main Plant A 120 6 to 7
Main Plant B 60 6 to 7
Topping Plant A 2 x 6.35 10 to 11
Topping Plant B 6.38 10 to 11

5.11 Steam line interconnection

The early stages of production at Mahanagdong production sector in 1997 have been marked
by rapid decline in available steam that has resulted in a significant reduction in output of the
Mahanagdong plants. The decline in steam output of the production wells has been attributed
to a) pressure drawdown leading to decline in massflow rates of production wells; b) enthalpy
declines caused by incursion of cool waters; and c) calcite deposition in a number of wells
that has adversely affected their productivity. The reservoir pressures have declined by as
much as 3 MPa in the central part of the reservoir and 1-2 MPa in the rest of the field. The
steam shortfall at Mahanagdong is most acute in the Mahanagdong A production wells
(southern part) where the plant output is approximately 45 MWe below the installed capacity
of 132 MWe. The production wells in Mahanagdong B (northern part) sector have maintained
a level of steam production only marginally below (7 MWe) the plant requirement of 66 MWe
at the start of operation. These wells have shown less susceptibility to calcite scaling.
PNOC-EDC has programmed the workovers of the wells affected by mineral deposition
and/or intrusion of cold water to address the steam shortfall. In addition to well workovers,
new wells were programmed to be drilled in the existing cellars in the Mahanagdong A area.
Although the well workovers and makeup drilling will improve the steam supply situation, it
is likely that the problems of calcite scaling and pressure drawdown will continue and
IGC2003 – Short Course 181 Malate

available steam will again decline. Regular workovers or calcite inhibition and makeup
drilling will therefore be required to maintain steam supply to the plants. In the long-term, the
steam supply will be constrained by the limited availability of cellars on existing wellpads and
additional production from other locations will be required.
To augment the steam supply in the medium term, the company has programmed to
construct a “steam highway” that will allow all production sectors of the Tongonan and
Mahanagdong fields to be interconnected. With the progressive commissioning of about 600
MWe field expansion in greater Tongonan between 1996 and 1997, reservoir pressure
drawdown increased further. The drawdown has reached over 4 MPa over the central part of
the reservoir from the Upper Mahiao area through to Malitbog. Despite the fact that
significant drawdown occurred in the greater Tongonan, steam production rates have
remained at or above the rates required by all of the power plants. The increase in steam flow
from all sectors is essentially due to the increase in field enthalpies as a consequence of
pressure drawdown and the subsequent formation of two-phase conditions in the production
zones. The average enthalpies have risen to above 2000 kJ/kg with most wells in Tongonan
field producing at close to dry steam conditions. An excess capacity of at least 100 MWe
within the production sectors of the Tongonan field was evaluated.
The excess steam from Tongonan will be transported to Mahanagdong through a 14 km
long 36″ main steam line called the Steam Line Interconnection (SLI), which connected the
existing FCDS of both fields (Figure 25). The SLI was then commissioned in late 2001 and
delivered 40 MWe of steam to the Mahanagdong A and B plants, maintaining their full load

0 1 2 km
STEAM HIWAY INTERCONNECTION
4RC4 BRINE LINE INTERCONNECTION

405
127 MWe
408
UPPER MAHIAO Upper Mahiao
POWER PLANT 410
TONGONAN
231 MWe MB/SS
1R5 300B
POWER PLANT
1R8
Tongonan-I Malitbog-South Sambaloran
112.5 MWe
TONGONAN-I
POWER PLANT

60 MWe MG-B MGB3

POWER PLANT
MGDL
Mahanagdong-B
MG5D
MAHANAGDONG
MG2D
120 MWe MG-A Mahanagdong-A
POWER PLANT LEGEND
MG-RD1
Production Pad
Injection Pad

Figure 25: Trace of the steam line interconnection (SLI) connecting the FCDS of Tongonan and
Mahanagdong fields (after Herras and Siega, 2003).
Malate 182 IGC2003 – Short Course

capacities of 132 and 66 MWe respectively. The operation of the “steam highway” will help
reduce the stress on the Mahanagdong steamfield by increasing the production requirements
of the larger Tongonan reservoir that translated to the use of the excess steam capacity in
Tongonan. It has also enabled an integrated approach to steamfield management in both
reservoirs (Recio and Habacon, 2002).
The long-term goal of sustaining the steam supply at Mahanagdong involves the
development of the potential resource further east of the present area. Wellbore data indicates
increasing temperatures and pressures towards the potential resource that was also delineated
by magnetotellurics survey. Production well drilling will commence in 2004 to probe the area
and possibly delineate the eastern boundary of the Mahanagdong resource.

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