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NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
SIMPLIFIED
EXPLAINED IN NON-TECHNICAL TERMS

By

CHARLES QESMOND

NEW YORK

THE RUDDER PUBLISHING COMPANY

9 MURRAY STREET

. . .Oppooaite City Hall Park

 \

COPYRIGH 91-‘
BY '

THE RUDDER PUBLISHING COBil’ANY

NEVV YORK

(All Right: Reserved)

SECOND EDITION

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Introduction
_ HE study of Naval Architecture is one of the most difficult
subjects for the average man to master, especially if the rudi
mentary knowledge is not acquired under the guidance of an
instructor.
The various books on the subject while very thorough are too far
advanced for the student to grasp. ‘
Naval Architecture Simplified, by Charles Desmond, was written
for students. _
In order that the theory might be properly understood, the work is
illustrated and described in detail, and while intended primarily for
students, there is a fund of information of value to all Naval Architects.
After many years of study both from the theoretical and practical
side Mr. Desmond prepared a course of instruction, by correspondence,
and enrolled students in all parts of the world in his school.
The course required from 6 months to a year to complete according
to the student and for the complete course as given in this book the
charge was $150.00.
With the outbreak of the War Mr. Desmond offered his service to the
/.r\'
Algl
In“,
1»"_
Government. All the data he had collected during the‘ period of
30 years of practical experience he turned over to THE RUDDER to put in
book form—making it possible for a man to become a proficient Naval
Architect. The book is the result of a life’s work and presents an oppor
tunity never before offered to a student.
The explanations and descriptions are without doubt the simplest
05v”.F0 form in which the subject has been written and enable a student to
thoroughly understand what heretofore has been a hopeless maze.

/4-HY~1.
 Contents
CHAPTER PAGE

I. Explanatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5
II. Measurement Rules Explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8
III. Gravity, Center of Gravity, Moment of Weights and Center of
Buoyancy Explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
IV. Stability Explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I8
V. Stability Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
VI. Explanation of Power and Resistance Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
VII. Designing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37
VIII. Construction Details and Structural Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52
IX. Explanation of Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59
X. Rudders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
XI. \Vritten Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81

SUPPLEMENTARY

1-S. Drafting Instruments and Their Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 93

2-5. Additional Measurement Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97
3-5. Explanation of Terms Used by Naval Architects . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 104
4-5. Tables and Formulx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 108
5-5. Proof of Knowledge—Questions and Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 111

Q
 Naval Architecture Simplified
Chapter
Explanatory
Have you ever stopped to consider why a boat (or
anything) floats? To this question some will answer (I
am quoting from answers that have been given to me
many times), because she is too big to sink; others will
say because she is not heavy enough to Sink, and others
again will say because the water cannot get inside; and
while all of these answers are in a measure correct, they
only partially answer the question. So I will begin by
explaining why a boat floats.
I. EXPLAINING WHY A BOAT FLOATS
Two things must be considered when answering this
question—weight and bulk—and the two are equal parts
of the one problem. The weight being the actual weight
of the boat in tons, pounds, or other weight units; and
the bulk being the actual space in cubic feet, or other
units of volume, the weight occupies. As it is very im
portant to clearly understand the two terms—weight and
bulk—and the bearing each has to the other, I will make
use of the following easily understood explanatory
illustration :
Suppose there is before you two rectangular blocks in
size I by I by I foot (a cubic foot), one being of oak and
the other of iron. Weigh the blocks and you will find
that the wood one weighs 53 lb and the iron one 448 lb.
Therefore, while the bulk of the blocks is similar there
is a wide difference in weight, and if you place the blocks
in water you will find that the wood one will float with
a little over two inches of its bulk out of water while the
iron one will sink immediately.
Now let us assume that the metal in the iron block has
been rolled into a plate 8 feet long by 8 feet wide and that
one foot of its edge, all around, has been turned up to
form a watertight trough or box, 6 feet by 6 feet on
bottom and having a depth of side of one foot. The
weight of metal has not been changed, and if the iron
is now placed in water, with the bottom of trough down,
you will find that it will not only float, but it will carry
1,802 lb of added weight; the reason being that the cubic
foot of iron has been spread over a large surface and its
bulk (when edges are turned up) increased to 36 feet.
Therefore, it is apparent that the problem of flotation is
one that calls for consideration of both weight and bulk.
The law of flotation is, that anything will float if its
weight is less than that of an equal bulk of water.
The cubic foot of wood floats because its weight is
less than the weight of a cubic foot of water, and the
solid block of iron sinks because its weight is greater
than the weight of an equal bulk (a cubic foot) of water;
and the cubic foot rolled into a plate and formed into a
trough floats because the bulk of iron when disposed in
this shape is increased to such an extent that the weight
is less than that of an equal bulk (36 cubic feet) of water.
I
This illustration shows in a striking manner how
any known weight can be carried afloat by simply dis
posing it in such a manner that the space it occupies
is greater than the space occupied by a weight of water
equal to the known weight.
When a solid is immersed in water it is clear that it
must displace, or move aside, a quantity of water equal
in bulk to itself, because two substances cannot occupy
the same place at the same time. The solid takes the
place of a volume of water equal to the bulk of the solid
immersed. You thus can understand that a solid will
float, remain suspended, or sink, according as its weight
is less, equal to, or greater than that of an equal bulk
of water. Therefore, a boat floats because its weight is
disposed in such a manner that the space it occupies is
greater than the space occupied by a weight of water that
is exactly equal to the weight of the boat and all on board.
Having thus briefly explained why a boat floats, I will
next tell you something about water weight and pressure.
2. WATER WEIGHT, WATER PRESSURE AND BquANCY
Water, in common with all substances, possesses
weight and this weight must cause pressure upon the
sides and bottom of any vessel containing it.
Thus, if we take a watertight box, suspend it clear of
the ground and place in it a known weight, the weight
will press upon the bottom of box with a force or pres
sure equal to its weight. Now remove the weight and
pour into box an amount of water equal in weight to
the weight removed. The pressure on bottom of box will
be exactly the same as before, but in addition to this the
sides of box will have to sustain an outward pressure.
This is clear from the fact that if a hole is bored through
side of box water will flow out and the force of outward
flow will be in proportion to the distance hole is below
the surface of the water. And if this experiment is
carried one step further and another hole is bored through
bottom of box, it will be found that the force with which
water flows through that hole will also be in exact pro
portion to the depth of water above it. Therefore, we
learn that water pressure increases with depth and is in
dependent of shape, or direction in which the surface it
presses upon lies.
Water pressure on the sides or bottom of a vessel
containing it can be accurately measured by weighing
the water. This being so, it is necessary that you know
the weight of water. I give below a table of weights
and pressures generally used by naval architects.
DATA SHEET OF WATER WEIGHTS
02.5 lb of fresh water in I cubic foot.
64 lb of salt water in I cubic foot.
36 cubic feet of fresh water in I ton (long ton of 2,240 lb).
35 cubic feet of salt water in I ton.
 0 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
DATA SHEET OF WATER PRESSURE (SALT WATER)
Depth 0! Water Pressure in Pounds Pressure in Pounds
in Feet per Square Inch per Square Foot
1 . .. .. .. .. .. .. ... . . 0.44 . .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .
2 . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . 0.89 . .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.33 . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .
4 . .. .. .. .. .. ... . .. . 1.78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.22 . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .
o ... .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . 2.67 . .. .. .. .. . . .. . ... .
And so on, advancing 0.44 lb per square inch, or 64 lb per
square foot, for each 1 foot increase in depth. _
For fresh water the figures are 0.434 lb per square inch, or
62.5 lb per square foot for each foot of depth.
\Vater pressure is simply another name for water
weight. If you refer to the table you will notice that
water pressure on one square foot of surface at one foot
of depth below the surface is 64 lb (salt), which 15
exactly the weight of a column of water one square foot
and one foot high (a cubic foot). The nature of water
pressure is that it is proportional to depth and extent
of surface, but alike for all shapes and directions. Water
will flow into any vessel into which it is allowed to run
and will fit it exactly. But if in the bottom or sides of
the vessel it finds a hole it will rush out there with a
force exactly proportioned to the size of the hole and
depth it is below the surface of the water.
Let us suppose that the box mentioned above is three
feet in depth and that three holes are bored through its
side, one at each foot of depth, each being exactly one
inch in area. To stop water flowing out of the hole at
one foot depth a pressure of over 0.44 lb must be exerted
against the opening. At two feet the pressure must be
increased to over 0.89 lb, and at three feet it must be over
1.33 lb. The pressure of water trying to get out of a
vessel which confines it is in no way different from pres
sure of water that surrounds a floating boat. If an open—
ing one square inch in area is made 5 feet under water
through the side or bottom of a boat, water will flow
through the opening with a force of 2.22 lb, this being
the pressure or force on every square inch of the hull
at 5 feet depth of water.
You will notice that I said side or bottom of a boat.
I did this in order to impress upon your mind the im—
portant fact that water pressure is indifferent to direc
tion. Depth and extent of surface it presses upon are
the sole determining factors. It is this indifference to
direction that makes the calculation of buoyancy of water
so simple. ‘ thing. So you see that two separate and distinct calcula
Here is another word—Buoyanry—that needs explain
ing. The power of water to carry anything afloat on it,
such as a piece of wood, or a boat, is called buoyancy.
Buoyancy is always proportioned to bulk of the body
under water and its force is measured by the weight of
water displaced, which is called, when applied to a boat,
the Displacement.
N0 possible invention of .shape can give to anything
the power of greater or less buoyancy than is measured
exactly by the weight of water it displaces, and as water
pressure is indifferent to shape, if it is desired to carry
any known weight all that is necessary is that the surface
in the water be large enough to permit the water to exert
an aggregate pressure on it equal to the aggregate weight
carried. So you can readily understand that the three
terms, water weight, water pressure and water buoyancy,
have practically the same meaning.
As the word displacement was used above, I will next
explain its meaning.
3. DISPLACEMENT
The term displacement, when applied to a boat, means
64 the amount (or weight) of water displaced by a boat
128 when she is afloat. The weight of water displaced will
192 always equal the weight of the boat and everything on
256
320
board. Displacement is usually expressed in tons (of
384 2,240 lb), or in pounds, or in cubic feet of bulk.
In boat calculations displacement is, in the U. S. A.,
generally calculated in cubic measure and expressed in
pounds, or tons. The law of displacement is:
Ist. That a solid placed under water will displace
as much water as its bulk.
2d. That any solid will float when its bulk is greater
than that of the water it displaces.
In short, the weight of water displaced and of the
body floating on it will always be identical, and the im
mersed bulk and bulk of_water it displaces will always
be identical.
Bulk in water equals .bulk displaced. Weight of water
displaced equals weight of body floating.
The reason for this is that the down pressure due to
weight of boat is exactly the same as the up pressure of
the water on underwater bulk of boat. From this you
can readily understand the importance of correctly cal
culating the weight of everything that enters into a boat’s
construction, etc., and also of correctly measuring the
bulk of the intended underwater portion. For the pur—
pose of illustrating this, we will assume that a certain
boatbuilder has marked on a boat the water-line to which
he intends it to float. What will happen if the bulk of
the body of boat below the marked water-line is not
exactly sufficient to displace a volume of water whose
weight will be the same as the weight of the boat and all
On board?
If the weights are greater than the weight of water
that the bulk below the marked water-line will displace,
the boat will float deeper in the water than intended. On
the other hand, if the bulk of the portion of boat below
the marked water-line is greater than necessary, the boat
will not sink in the water as deep as the marked water
line. Calculating displacement is only a question of
correctly estimating weights of construction, equipment,
and everything that is on the boat, and for every 64 lb
(62.5 lb in fresh water) of weight there must be allowed
one cubic foot of immersed bulk. A boat has no power to
carry anything, or even to float; the water carries every
tions must be made before a boat’s displacement can be de—
termined; one being a bulk calculation and the other a
weight one. Measuring the bulk of a boat’s underwater
body is a very simple geometrical problem that can be
accurately worked out by anyone having a knowledge of
a few simple rules of arithmetic and mensuration. The
weight calculation calls for a knowledge of weights of
materials that enter into the construction and equipment
of the boat, and is also an easy one to make. But while
both problems are simple ones when considered separately
they become a little more complicated when considered,
as they must be, co-jointly. For you must remember that,
as every boat is designed to float to some intended water—
line, it is necessary that the portion of boat below the
intended water-line be not only correct in bulk for the
weight but that it also be distributed in such a manner
that its center is the same distance from the bow of boat
that the center of all the weight is. I will explain this
more fully by telling you how a designer calculates the
water-line position.
 NAVAIL dRCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
4. How A DESIGNER PREDETERMINES THE LOAD
WATER-LINE or A BOAT
The designer who wants a boat to float to a prede
termined, or intended, water-line, first of all calculates
the weight of everything that will enter intO the boat and
finds the exact fore—and-aft position of the center of the
weights. Next he makes the bulk of that portion of the
boat he intends shall be under water exactly sufficient to
displace a weight Of water equal to the total weight of
boat and all on board, and so shapes this bulk that the
fore—and—aft position of its center point will exactly co—
incide with the fore-and‘aft position of the center of
weights.
If the two center points (that of the weight and that
of the bulk) do not coincide in a fore-and-aft direction,
the boat will float with either her bow higher or lower
than intended, and if the bulk measured from the intended
water-line displaces more, or less, water than sufficient
to float the weights, the boat will float with her intended
water-line above, or below, the level of the water.
Thus you can readily see that the problem of prede
termining the water-line to which a boat will float calls
for consideration of four things:
Ist. The weight of the boat and all on board.
2d. The fore-and-aft location of the center of this
weight. . terms the measurements are given in.
3d. The correct proportioning of the bulk below the
intended water-line.
4th. The distribution of this bulk in such a manner
that its center point will exactly coincide, in a fore-and—
aft direction, with the center of weight.
Calculations No. I and No. 2 deal with weight, while
N0. 3 and No. 4 deal with bulk.
Having thus explained, in a preliminary manner, the
fundamental principles governing the flotation of a boat,
I will now pass to an explanation of the calculations
referred to above; but before doing this, I want to im
press upon your mind that the purpose of all boat—
7
I
designing calculations is to prove the accuracy Of the de
signer’s ideas. Calculations shorten laborand enable a
designer to systemize his ideas. They never can be utilized
as a substitute for designing ability. No matter how
complete a knowledge of calculations a boat designer has,
he cannot produce a successful and original design unless
he possess real designing ability, and this ability is some
thing that cannot be learned from books. The most that
books can do is to help the designer increase his designing
ability. ,
5. EXPLANATION OF CALCULATIONS
In order to make sure that you clearly understand the
explanations that follow, I will begin with the a, b, c of
mensuration and explain as briefly as possible, the mean
ing of such terms as lines, surfaces and volumes; and
the rules for measuring them.
A Line has one dimension only—length. The geo
metrical definition Of a line is length without breadth,
or thickness, and consequently a true geometrical line
cannot be seen. In practice, a line is indicated by means
of a mark of even width from end to end.
A Surface has two dimensions—length and breadth.
The area of a surface is the amount of surface included
within the bounding lines, and is (in U. S. A.) usually
indicated in square measure, and expressed in the same
A Volume has three dimensions—length, breadth and
thickness; therefore, volume is a measure of capacity, or
bulk, and is (in U. S. A.) usually expressed in cubic
units. When making boat calculations certain regular and
irregularly shaped lines, surfaces and volumes are met
with and have to be measured. The rules for doing this
are explained in next Chapter.
Measuring a Line—A line in any direction is easily
and quickly measured by ascertaining its length.
Measuring Surfaces—Nearly all regularly shaped
surfaces can be quickly measured by using the proper
rule for each shape.
 Chapter II
Measurement Rules Explained
6. RULEs FOR MEASURING SURFACES
On Fig. 1 is an outline of a rectangular hatch opening.
When an architect has to ascertain the area of such an
opening he does it by measuring length and breadth and
multiplying measures.
Thus, the Fig. 1 hatch opening being 2 feet wide and
3 feet long, its area is 6 square feet.
2 X 3 I 6, and as both measurements are expressed
in feet, the 6 stands for 6 square feet.
Any rectangular or square surface, or opening, can
be measured by using this rule.
It is important to remember that all measures must
be expressed in like terms. To explain this I will suppose
that measurements of hatch opening are expressed thus—
width, 24 inches; length, 3 feet.
The area cannot be ascertained by multiplying 24 by
3 because one measure is expressed in inches and the
other in feet. Therefore, before making calculation one
measure must be converted. The 3 feet can be converted
into inches, then by multiplying 24 X 36, the area will be
ascertained in square inches, or the 24 inches can be con—
verted into feet and calculation made in the manner I
made it. Or suppose the hatch opening measured 2 feet
6 inches and 3 feet 6 inches. Here both feet and inches
are used, therefore the inches must be converted into
decimal or fractional parts of a foot before the calculation
is made. Thus 2 feet 6 inches must be expressed at 2.5
feet, or as 2% feet; and 3 feet 6 inches as 3.5 feet,
or as 3% feet.
2.5 X 3.5 :8.75 square feet.
2% X 3% : 8% square feet.
Fig. 2 is an outline of a triangular—shaped sail. To
measure the area of a triangular sail, or of any triangular
surface, the following rule is used:
Multiply length of base by height and divide result
by 2.
Set down as a formula the expression is
Base X Altitude
—— : area of triangle.
2 shape is called a Trapezoid and its area is quickly ascer
Any side can be termed the base, but altitude measure
must be taken at right angles to base from base to highest
point, or apex, of the triangle. As the sail shown meas
ures 15 feet along base and 6 feet from base to apex, its
area is 45 square feet.
15 X 6
—— z 45 square feet area.
2
Fig. 3 shows a circular opening in a deck, measuring
2 feet across.
The area of circular openings, or surfaces, can be
ascertained by using this rule:
Square the diameter and multiply by 0.7854.
As the opening shown has a diameter of 2 feet, its
area is 3.1416 square feet. You, of course, know that a
circle is a plane figure all points of whose bounding line is
an equal distance from a fixed point called the center.
The bounding line is called the circumference.
A straight line drawn through center and having its
ends on circumference line is called a diameter.
A straight line drawn from center point to circum
ference is termed a radius. The radius of a circle is
always one-half diameter.
The circumference of a circle is always equal to
diameter multiplied by 3.1416.
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The diameter is always equal to circumference multi
plied by 0.3188. Knowing these things it is an easy
matter to quickly and accurately calculate the diameter,
radius, circumference, and area of any circle.
Fig. 4 shows a four-sided piece of metal and you will
notice that only two of its sides are parallel. Such a
tained by using this rule:
Multiply one-half the sum of parallel sides by the
distance between them.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
The parallel sides measure 12 and 10 feet and dis
fiance between is 5 feet; therefore the area is 55 square
eet.
11 X 5 : 55 square feet area.
Any surface of this shape can be measured by using
this rule.
While the foregoing rules can only be used for meas
uring areas of shapes named, their use does not have to
be restricted to measuring whole areas. Parts of areas
can be measured, or any irregular area that can be di
vided into rectangles, triangles and circles can be meas
ured by dividing the figure, measuring each part by the
proper rule and adding totals.
As an easily understood illustration of this I call
your attention to Fig. 4. That figure can also be ac
curately measured by dividing it into a rectangle and a
triangle, measuring area of each and adding totals. Try
measuring Fig. 4 in this manner and you will find that
result is exactly the same as that obtained by using the
trapezoid rule. Another easily understood example is
the Fig. 5.
Here is another sail of a shape (called a trapezium)
met with on a very great number of yachts. The shape
is one that cannot be accurately measured at one time by
any of the rules explained. The trapezoid rule will not
do because none of the sides of figure are parallel; but
if the figure is divided into two triangles, or into a
rectangle and a triangle, or into a trapezoid and a triangle,
and the area of the parts measured and measures added
the area of the whole can be very quickly ascertained. On
the illustration I have divided the area into two triangles.
Using the figures marked the area of triangle A is 48
square feet, and that of B 37.5 square feet. Adding
these the whole area is found to be 85.5 square feet.
You will find it excellent practice to mark out shapes
like this one (drawing them to scale) and measure area
by these three methods:
Ist. By dividing figure into two triangles.
2d. By dividing figure into rectangle and triangle.
3d. By dividing figure into trapezoid and triangle.
If the measurements and calculations are accurately
made totals will be alike. '
So we have passed from regularly-shaped to irregu
larly-shaped figures. The dividing line is hardly notice
able, but it is there all the same, and so long as the bound
ing lines of a figure are straight ones, or segments of
true circles, the area can be accurately determined by
dividing the figure into parts, measuring each. part by the
proper rule and adding totals. This method is, however,
rather cumbersome and for this reason is seldom used.
So I will explain a better way to measure the area of any
figure bounded by two straight parallel lines and two
irregular straight or very slightly curved lines. This rule
is called the Trapezoidal.
Fig. 6 shows an outline of a bulkhead of a boat. To
measure such areas proceed as follows:
Q
Divide the figure into any convenient number of parts
by drawing parallel lines equal distances apart, measure
length of each of these lines and then to one-half the
sum of length of the first and last parallel lines add the
sum of lengths of all intermediate lines and multiply by
the distance the parallel lines are apart.
The lines should be draWn parallel with the straight
bounding lines and must equally divide the distance be
tween these lines. The area of Fig. 6 is 55.50 square
feet. Calculate it for yourself.
\Nhile I am explaining this rule I will call your at
tention to a point of importance. Look at Fig. 6 and you
will see that if a line is drawn from arrowpqint at top to
arrowpoint at bottom, it will divide the figure into two
exactly similar halves.
This is a boat’s bulkhead and you know that the oppo
site sides of a boat are similar in shape or, expreSsed dif—
ferently, if a boat were cut in two through its center from
stem to stern (longitudinally) the two halves would be
shaped alike. Therefore, it is a waste of time to show
the shape of both sides of a boat on a drawing, or to
calculate the areas of more than one-half of any bulk
head, water-line or cross section; because if the figures
obtained by making a calculation in which one—half the
width measures are used are multiplied by 2 the area of
the whole (both halves) will be accurately determined
with much less labor than if the whole area figures
were used.
To prove this draw a line from arrow to arrow of
Fig. 6; measure from this line out to bounding line on
one side and make the calculation in manner explained.
You will find that the area of half the figure is 27.75
square feet, and if this is multiplied by 2 the area of
whole figure will be ascertained exactly.
The trapezoidal rule can be used to measure the area
of any figure having bounding lines that are straight, or
nearly straight. If the bounding lines of a figure have a
large amount of curve the area must be measured by
using one of the rules called "Simpson’s Rules”.
rm
Fig. 7 shows half of a cross section and Fig. 8 half of
a water plane of a boat. Areas like this can be accurately
measured by using one of Simpson’s rules.
The first of these rules I will now explain. Pay par
IO NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED

I Z
ticular attention to the explanation because this rule, and
modifications of it, is used for making a great many of
the displacement and stability calculations.
Explanation of Simpson’s First Rule
Call the long straight line of figure the base line and
divide it into any convenient even number of parts (there
must be an even number). Erect perpendiculars (called
ordinates) at each division point and number them from
1 up. These ordinate lines (perpendiculars) must be
drawn at right angles to base line.
Measure the length of each ordinate line, then add to
gether the first and last ordinate lengths, and four times
the length of all even numbered ordinates and twice the
length of all odd numbered ordinates except the first
and last ones; the sum thus obtained multiplied by one
third the interval measure between ordinates will be the
area of figure.
Of course as there is an even number of intervals
there must be an odd number of ordinates. The calcula~
tion can be simplified and figures placed in convenient
form for use when making other necessary calculations
by tabulating them in the manner set forth below.
The Figs. 7 and 8 are divided in a proper and con
venient number of parts for making calculation.
Below I have tabulated the measurements of Fig. 8
and made the calculations in detail. For the tabulation,
four columns are used. ' planation for the purpose of insuring that you clearly
In the first column is entered the identifying numbers
of ordinates.
In the second column is entered the measured lengths
of ordinates.
In the third column is entered the Simpson multipliers
1, 4, 2, etc. '
In the fourth column is placed the product of column
No. 2 measures and multipliers, called function totals.
The column N0. 4 figures are totaled and result multi
3
Again I want to call your attention to an important
detail. For this calculation the interval measure is 4 feet.
One-third of this-is 1.3333+ the last figure being a re
peating, or recurring, decimal. This being the case, it
is evident that the figures obtained by making the calcula
tion in the manner shown are less than the true total.
So in cases when interval measure is such that an exact
one-third cannot be used' as a direct multiplier it will be
more accurate and quicker to use the indirect method,
which is: To multiply the total of column No. 4 by the
full interval and then divide result by 3. '
Making the calculation for Fig. 8 in this manner the
result is:
Total of Column No. 4 is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.35
Multiply by full interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. _ 4
Divide by 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3] 153.40
Area in square feet ... .. . . .. 51.133
The Fig. 8 is half of a water plane of a boat, if the
calculation is for the purpose of ascertaining area of
the whole water plane, then the figures 51.133 must be
multiplied by 2. Thus the area of the whole water plane
(the half shown on illustration and the opposite half that
is not shown) is 102.266 square feet. I make this ex
understand the point.
I will now explain rules for measuring a few of the
principal regular and irregular-shaped volumes. As
volume is a measure of capacity, or bulk, three dimen
sions (length, breadth, and depth) must be known before
a volume calculation can be made.
I
f

plied by one-third the measured interval between ordi v, a , .’

nates. The area of Fig. 8 as tabulated is 51.120 square '3’ 15/1/6771 Q-‘p F/a 10
feet. Study the tabulation and then measure the Fig. 7.
Its area is 4.448 square feet. \1 N '\
CALCULATING AREA or F10. 8 BY SIMPsON’s FIRST RULE
Ordinate Ordinne Length Simpson‘s Funciinn
No. in Feet Muliipliers . Total,
I . .. . . . . . 0.00 . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . 0.00
2 ..... ... 1.45 ........ 4 . . . . . . .. 5.80
3 ........ 2.25 ........ 2 . .. ..... 4.50
4 . .... .. . 2.60 . .. . . ... 4 . . . . . . . . 10.40
5 . . . . . . . . 2.70 . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . 5.40
6 . .. .. .. . 2.50 . 4 . . . . . . . . 10.00
7 . . . . . . . . 2.25 . . . . . . . . I . .. . . . . . 2.25

3835
.
Interval is 4 feet. One-third of this is 1.333

Area of Fig. 8 is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51.120 square feet.

 7. Ruuzs FOR MEASURING VOLUMES
Fig. 9 shows a rectangular block. The bulk, or vol
ume of a block like this can be accurately measured by
multiplying length, breadth and depth measures.
Length X breadth X depth : volume.
As all of the measures of Fig. 9 are in feet the volume,
or bulk, is 64 cubic feet. If the measures were given
in inches the volume would be expressed in cubic inches.
This rule can be used for measuring volume of any
rectangular—shaped object.
Fig. IO shows a portion of a round column. The
volume of any body having a cross section of similar
area from end to end, regardless of shape of section,
can be measured by multiplying area of cross section by
length of body. Thus as the Fig. 10 cross section area is
2 square feet and its length is 10 feet, the bulk must be
20 cubic feet.
Fig. II shows a sphere, or ball. A sphere is a solid
bounded by a curved surface every part of which is the
same distance from the center point. To calculate the
volume of a sphere use this rule:
Cube the diameter and multiply by 0.5236.
Fig. 12 shows a cone. A cone is a solid bounded by
a curved surface tapering to a point, and having a circle
as its base.
The volume of a cone is calculated by using this rule:
Multiply area of base by the altitude of cone and divide
result by 3. Expressed as a formula:
Area of base X altitude
I volume of cone.
3
The volume of a pyramid can be ascertained by
using the same rule.
Fig. 13 shows an outline of a boat-shaped body having
cross sections rectangular in shape. The volume of
bodies like this is calculated by using Simpson’s rules.
The area of the longitudinal plane is first ascertained by
dividing it into a proper number of parts, measuring the
ordinate lengths and making a Simpson’s first rule cal—
culation in the manner I have already explained. If
this area, expressed in square feet, is multiplied by the
depth of body, expressed in feet, the volume of body
will be ascertained. ' culation the interval is the distance sections are apart
For this illustration I used the Fig. 8 water plane and
as the depth of body is 2 feet, the volume must be
102.266 cubic feet.
-Fig. 14 shows an irregularly-shaped body like the
underwater portion of one-half of a boat. To ascertain
the volume of a body like this, Simpson’s first rule can
be used.
The body must first be divided vertically and hori—
zontally into a proper number of equally spaced planes
and sections for a Simpson’s first rule calculation. It
is not necessary that the interval distance and number
of ordinates used be the same for both planes and
sections.
The area of the several planes is then ascertained by
making calculations in the manner explained (see calcula
tion Fig. 8).
The area figures obtained by making these calculations
are then used as ordinate measures for another Simp—
son’s rule calculation. The result of this second calcula
tion will give the cubical contents, or volume, of the body.
You will note that two separate and complete calcula
tions are made. The first being a series of calculations to
determine the areas of the several planes, and the second
being a single calculation to determine the volume.
For the sake of avoiding the possibility of confusing
you I use in my explanation the expression “Areas of
the several planes." The calculation can be just as ac
curately made by calculating the areas of the several
sections and using the section areas as ordinate measures
for the second calculation.
Below I have made the complete calculation to deter—
mine volume of Fig. I4 by first calculating areas of the
planes A, B, C, D, E, and then using these plane areas as
ordinate measures for the volume part of calculation.
Go over the figures carefully and then prove that you
understand the calculation by determining the volume of
Fig. 14 by first calculating the areas of the sections and
then using the section areas as ordinate measures for the
volume part of calculation. If you make the calculation
correctly the final (volume) figures will be within a few
decimal points of my volume figures.
Bear in mind that for my illustration calculations the
interval measure used for the plane area calculations is
4 feet (the distance sections are apart) and the interval
measure for the second, or volume. calculation is the
distance planes are apart (0.5 foot). For your calculation
the interval measure for section areas is the distance
planes are apart (0.5 foot) and for the volume part of cal
(4 feet).
The underwater bulk of any boat or of any irregu
larly-shaped body can be calculated by using this rule.
12 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
I J.
CALCULATION TO DETERMINE VOLUME OF FIG. 14 . i
The Area of Planes A, B, C, D, E Are First Determined PLANE D AREA .
S F. 8 1 1 PM“ A AR“ o 'N'L'l"
d. °""".'..‘iii""‘“
. ul'ifil‘iilf.
, Fififlii’"
.
6° '3-
'33 C" a "m- 1 . .. .. ... 0.00 ... .. ... 1 ........ 0.00
. 38-35 2 . .. .. ... 0.50 ..... .. . 4 ........ 2.00
Interval ‘5 - ~ - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 3 . .. .. ... 0.85 . . . . . . .. 2 . . . . . . .. 1 70
—— 4 . .. .. . .. 100 4 4.00
One-third . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3] 153.40 5 - - - - - . -- 1.00 . - - - - - -- 2 ... .. . .. 2.00
6 0.60 . . . .. .. . 4 . .. .. . . . 2 4o
. 7 . .. .... . 0.20 . .. . . .. . 1 ...... .. 0 20
Area in square feet . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51.133
12.30
PLANE B AREA Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
Ordinate Ordin_ate Length Simpson‘s Function
M' "‘ '°°‘ “"“Wl'm Tm" One-third . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3] 49.20
I --~-- '-- 0-00 - - - - - - - ~ I - -- -- -- - 0-00 Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.400 square feet

35’ 1:11:11;
4 . .. . . . . .
. . . . . . ..
2.30
2.40
..... .1: 2 1:11:11: 1158
. . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 2 . .. .... . 4.80
9.20 Ordinalc
N°~
Ordinate Length
i" k“!
Simpson‘s
“"hiPli‘"
Function
Tm"
6 _ _ _ . _ _ H 220 4 _ _ _ _ _ _ __ I . . . . . . .. 000 . . . . . . .. I . . . . . . .. 0.00
7 . . . . . . .. 160 . . . . . . .. 1 ...... .. 1.00 2 - - - - - - -- 012 - - - . - - -- 4 - - - - - - -- 0.48
3 ... ..... o 20 . .. .. .. . 2 ... .. .. . 0.40
33 20 4 0.25 . .. .. .. . 4 ... .. .. . 1.00 _
' 5 o 2' . .. .. .. . 2 ... .. .. . 0.50
Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 6 ‘ ____.._ 02; _ _‘ ‘_ '_ _ 4 _ I_ __ __ _ 1'00
7 . .. ..... 0.20 . .. .. .. . 1 ... .. .. . o 20
One-third . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3] 132.80 58
.Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 .2 “Square f eet Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3' 4

_ _ PLANE AR? _ One-third . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3] 14.32

mils?" o“‘"i“|f“clfl"““‘ amffé‘lniris FEP'L‘IFA‘IZ“ Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.773 square feet
I 0.00 . -.-. -v - I --.-- -- - 0.00 VOLUME Paar or CALCULATION
2 . . . . . . .. o 80 . . . . . . .. 4 z 20 0mm" Simpmn.’
3 . . . . . . . . 1.50 . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . 3.00 No. Areas Multipliers Products
‘ 4 . . . . . . .. 1.90 . . . . . . .. 4 . . . . . . .. 7.60 Flamx ,\ _,_ __ 51133 1 51.133
5 . . . . . . .. 1.85 . ...... . 2 . . . . . . .. 3.70 Plant» B _ _ _ ,_ 44200 4 177.064
6 1.45 . . . . . . .. 4 . . . . . . .. 5.80 Plane C __ 31,733 2 63.466
7 0.50 . . . . . . .. 1 . . . . . . .. 0.50 Plane 1) . .... 10.400 4 65-600
Plane E . . . .. 4.773 I 4773
23.80
362.036
Interval ' ' i I i i i ' ' l ' i ' ' ' i l ' I ' l ' l ' 4 Interval between planes . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5

One-third -------------------- -- a] 95-20 One-third ..................... .. 3 J 181.0180

Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31.733 square feet Volume of Fig. 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60.3393 cubic feet
 Chapter III
Gravity, Center of Gravity, Moment of Weights and Center of Buoyancy Explained
As a designer must determine the location of the
center point of a boat’s underwater bulk, and the loca
tion of the center of gravity point of the boat’s weight,
I will in this chapter briefly explain the meaning of the
terms Gravity and Center of Gravity; and the calcula
tions used by naval architects when they desire to ascer
tain the location of the center point of the underwater
body of a boat, and the center of gravity of the weights
of construction, etc.
8. GRAVITY EXPLAINED
Every particle of matter is drawn, in proportion to its
mass, towards the earth’s center, and it is to this ten—
dency to move downwards in obedience to this attraction
that is given the name weight.
The word Gravity carries a similar meaning, being
derived from the Latin Grant's, meaning weight.
If a piece of iron or wood is raised in the air and
the support that holds it there is removed it will fall to
the ground. The force which causes it to do this is
gravity.
Physically speaking, everything is made up of a multi
tude of small particles, called molecules or atoms, held
together by cohesion and so far as gravity is concerned,
each particle is drawn in proportion to its mass towards
the earth’s center; but as the force of cohesion in solids
is so great that the particles composing them cannot act
separately, the force of gravity can be likened to a num
ber of forces acting in parallel lines in the direction of the
earth’s center.
The sum of these individual forces constitutes the ag
gregate gravity of each separated mass of material, and
the center of these forces is called the center of gravity
of the mass.
The law of gravitation is: Every particle of matter
in the universe attracts every other particle with a force
directly proportioned to the mass of the attracting par
ticle, and inversely to the square of the distance between
them.
Gravity is therefore a force that acts upon every par
ticle of matter, and as the center of gravity of a body is
the point at which the forces of gravity of that body
center it is evident that if it is desired to support any
thing all that is necessaiy is to ascertain the center of
gravity point and place the support immediately under it.
If any mass of material is supported, or suspended, at its
center of gravity it will be at rest, no matter what position
it is placed in, and if suspended at any other point it will
move until the center of gravity is at the highest or
10west possible position on a vertical line drawn through
the point of suspension.
By lifting a solid at its center of gravity point the
whole mass can be lifted in the easiest possible manner.
I will now call your attention to a most important de—
tail. Whenever the separate particles composing a mass
of material are evenly distributed throughout the whole
of its bulk, as in a solid piece of iron, the center point
of the bulk and the center of gravity point will be located
at identically the same point; but if the particles are un
evenly distributed, as in the case of a mass composed
partly of iron and partly of wood, then the center point
of the bulk and the center of gravity are very likely to
be located at entirely different positions.
Another thing that must be clearly understood is:
Each separate mass of material, regardless of size, has a
center of gravity point, but when two or more separate
masses are rigidly connected they must be considered as
being one and the center of gravity point of the whole
mass is that point at which the forces of gravity of the
connected masses centers.
Structures like a boat, or a bridge, are composed of
a number of separate pieces connected together, each of
which, when considered alone, has a center of gravity
point; but the center of gravity point of the whole struc
ture is that point at which the forces of gravity of the
whole connected pieces centers. Such a point is rightly
called the point of balance.
As the hull of a boat is built of unevenly distributed
materials the designer must determine the location of
both the center of gravity of the structure and the center
of bulk of the portion of hull that will be immersed
in water.
9. CENTER OF GRAVITY EXPLAINED
The center of gravity calculation is a weight one,
made by estimating the weights of the different parts of
the structure, finding the center of gravity point of each,
and then calculating the moments and center of gravity
point. This point is called the center of gravity Point.
Written C.G. or C. of G.
IO. CENTER or BUOYANCY EXPLAINED
The center point of bulk calculation is made by
measuring the volume of the underwater body of the
boat and calculating its center point in the manner ex
plained a little further along in this chapter. This point
is called the center of buoyancy, because it is the point
at which the up buoyancy of the water pressing on the
underwater bulk of hull centers. The center of buoyancy
is usually written GB. or C. of B.
II. MOMENT OF WEIGHTs EXPLAINED
As the word moments, used above, may not be clearly
understood by the reader, I will explain its meaning.
The moment of a weight or force is the measure of
its turning efiect, and is the product of the force, or
weight, multiplied by the distance of its application from
some named point, which is usually a point of support,
or an axis, or the C.G.
The two things to be considered when calculating
moment are weight, or force, and distance; the weight
being the weight applied and the distance being the
measured distance from the CG. of the weight applied
to the selected point. The moment of a force is usually
expressed in terms of both weight and distance, the most
generally used expression being foot-Pounds.
 14 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
I will first make the calculation from A, B, by measur
ing the distance each weight is from the line, multiplying

1' w , ~\ C01 0. on 'PLKT

4o"~\lu~u1-.
l IOOO
//' '.___4 L55 2k..

‘\ 177-221
~ 1
[\ans

To explain the meaning of moment of force and mo

!l,_.
ment of weight I will make use of two illustrations, one l
M— T“! a
a common lever and the other a circle of homogeneous
material upon which is placed a number of weights.
_ The illustration N0. 15 shows a commonly used type
of lever and I will suppose that it is desired to lift the
1,000 lb of weight and that only 200 lb of force is avail each weight by its distance and adding totals. The cal—
able. To lift the weight with that amount of force culation is as follows:
directly applied is clearly impossible, but if the force is Weight Distance Moment
in Lbs. in Ft. in Ft.-Lbs.
applied at the end of a properly arranged lever of suffi Plate 40 X 6 = 240
cient strength and length the weight can be readily lifted, 10 X 4 = 40
because the moment of a force about any line or point 20 X 5 = 100
is the product measured by the force applied and the 30 X 7 = 210
40 X 8 = 320
distance of its application from the point of support or
axis. And this being so it is evident that if the 200 lb 140 weight 910 moment
of force is suitably applied at a sufiicient distance from The calculation from B, C, is
the axis to make the total moment of force greater than Weight Distance Moment
the total moment of weight to be lifted, the 1,000 lb can in Lbs. in Ft. in F1.-Lbs.

be lifted by using the 200 lb of force. The calculation is Plate 40 X 4.5 = 180
10 X 3 = 30
made in this manner. The turning axis has been placed 20 X 6 = 120
2 feet distant from the weight to be lifted, therefore the 30 X 7 = 210
moment of weight is 40 X 9 = 360

1,000 X 2 = 2,000 foot—pounds 140 weight 900 moment

The force applied to lever is 11 feet distant from the
axis, therefore the moment of force is
200 X 11 : 2,200 foot-pounds
And as the force moment is in excess the weight can
be lifted. If it is desired to ascertain the excess moment
on the force end of lever deduct the weight moment
from the force moment, or if it is desired to ascertain
the distance from axis that the force must be applied to
produce a force moment equal to the moment of weight
divide the weight moment by the force available.
2000
-__- : 10 feet
200
In this illustration I have used a single weight and a
single force, but should more than One weight, or force,
be applied to the lever at different positions the calcula
tion is made by determining the moment of eachv weight
separately and adding them. The total thus obtained will
be the moment of all the weights.
The moment of each force is then determined and
the force moments added to obtain the total moment of
force.
In the foregoing illustration the moments oppose each
other, or act in opposite directions, hence the necessity
for deducting the lesser from the greater. I will now
give an illustration of a case in which there is no oppos
ing moment:
Fig. 16 shows a circular steel plate of even thickness
throughout, weighing 40 pounds, upon which is laced
a number of weights, the location and weight 01' each
being marked. I want to determine the moment of the
weights and plate from the line marked A, B, and also
from the line marked B, C.
Now let us assume that we want to support this plate
and weights by placing a single support under it. This
support must, as I have already explained, be placed
directly under the center of gravity point of the combined
(connected) plate and weights, and as the weights are not
evenly distributed around the C.G. point of the plate, it is
evident that the C.G. point of plate and weights combined
cannot coincide with the C.G. point of the plate alone,
which, being in the form of a circle and made of homo
geneous material, has its C.G. point located at the center
point of the circle. To determine where to place the sup
port, proceed as follows: The distance that the C.G. point
of the combined weights and plate is from the line A, B,
can be ascertained by dividing the A, B moments by the
total weight.
Moment 910
z 6.5 feet from A, B.
Weight 140
And the distance it is from B, C, can be ascertained
by dividing the B, C moments by the weight:
Moment 900
—— : 6.428 feet from B, C.
l/Veight I40
The point of intersection of the two measurements is
the exact C.G. point of the plate and weights; and if the
support is placed at that point the whole mass will be
perfectly supported because when a support is placed
directly under the C.G. point of a mass of material, the
mass" will be in equilibrium, or will be balanced.
You can understand the importance of knowing how
to determine the moment of weights when I tell you that
it is by making a calculation of this kind that a designer
determines the location of the C.G. point of a boat’s con
struction and other weights. And in addition to this the
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED 15
.T S

e
0
a)
'\1
u,
1s
v

same kind of a calculation is used when he wants to 103.087

determine the center point of some irregularly distributed —— = 13.34 feet; distance C.G. of weight is aft of
7,723 line Ord. NO. 1.
area or volume, such as a L.\V.L. plane or the under— NOTE—I have named parts to enable you to more clearly
water body Of a boat. understand the calculation.
12. EXPLAINING How TO CALCULATE THE C.G. 0F CALcULAT10N TO DETERMINE THE VERT1cAL C.G. P01NT or F10. 17
WETGHT P01NT or A BOAT Distance
Above line Below line Moments
Fig. 17 will serve to illustrate how a designer calcu— N0. Weight F1. Ft. Above linc Below line

lates the CG. of weight position of a beat. I 250 0.5 125

On that illustration is shown the longitudinal view of 2 523 ID 523
3 1,000 2.0 2,000
a boat, and I have marked on it the several center Of 4* 1.700
gravity points of the principal items of weight. Remem— 5 2,100 0.5 1,050
ber the location of each of these points has to be deter 0* 1,800
mined before this calculation can be made. 7 300 0.5 150
8 50 1.0 50
The line Ord. No. I is drawn along the face of stem,
and the line A, A is drawn along the L.W.L. position. 7.723 Moments 3.573 325
I am going to determine the longitudinal and vertical Moments above line = 3,573 Greater
position of the CG. of the weights distributed as marked Deduct moments below = 325 Lesser
on the illustration. 3,248 Moments above line
The first part of the calculation, to determine the 3.248 _ , . _
longitudinal position of the CG. point, is made in exactly = 0.42 foot; distance the CG. pomt is above the line A, A.
the same manner that the Fig. 16 calculation is made; 7172.3
but the second part, to determine the vertical position, *These weights being on the line, there is no moment.
is somewhat different because some of the weights being Therefore, the CG. position of the construction and
above and some below the line A, A, or axis from which other weights of Fig. 17 is 13.34 feet aft Of the line
the moments are being calculated, it is necessary to de— Ord. No. I and 0.42 foot above the line A, A. I have
duct the lesser moments from the greater before the ver marked the point.
tical C.G. position calculation is made. I will now explain the center point calculatiOns.
This has to be done in every case when there are
moments that oppose, or act in opposite directions. The 13. CENTER OF AREAs
complete calculation follows. Go over it carefully and The center point of regularly shaped plane areas
make sure that you understand it. is always located in certain definite positions.
CALCULATiox To DETER.\11NE THE LONoITumNAL C.G. POINT OF The center point of a circle is always located at the
F111. 17 exact center.
Weight Distance
No. Name of, Part Lbs. Fl. Moments The center point of a rectangle or square area is al
1 Stem, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 250 2.0 500 ways located at the intersection of diagonal lines drawn
2 Fuel, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 523 4.0 2.092 from the corners. Fig. 18 illustrates this.
3 Crew, stores, etc. . . . . . . . . . .. 1,000 12.5 12,500
4 Keel, joiner . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,700 13.0 22,100
The center point of a triangular area is easily found
5 Frame, plank . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,100 13.2 27,720 by marking the center of each side and from these marks
6 Engine, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,800 16.75 30,150 drawing lines to the opposite point of triangle. The
7 Shaft, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 300 22.5 6,750 point Of intersection of these lines will be the center of
8 Rudder, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 25.5 1,275
triangle. Fig. 19 illustrates this.
Weight 7,723 Moments 103,087 The center point of an area shaped like a trapezium
 IO NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
is determined by dividing the figure into four triangles In practice the calculation can be shortened because
and ascertaining the center point of each in the manner the one-third multiplier, being common to both the divi
explained above. Lines drawn from center point to dend and divisor, can be cancelled out and the total of
center point of opposite triangles will intersect at the function column and total of moment column used for the
center point of area. Fig. 20 illustrates this. calculation; thus
The center point of any irregularly-shaped plane area 524.40
is fully determined when its position relative to two lines I 13.67 feet
of the plane is known, and these lines are usually taken 38-35
at right angles to each other.
14. CENTER POINT OF VOLUMES
' In the case of areas having two sides alike, such as
water planes of boats, it is known beforehand that the The center point of solids of regular form is always
center point must lie along a line drawn through the located at certain fixed points.
19:
center of the plane longitudinally. It therefore is only
necessary, in cases like this, to calculate the position ~\_ flag-ta /,/
longitudinally; and this is done by determining the area
and moment of the plane about some selected point
(usually an end or a middle ordinate) and dividing the
moment by the area. Simpson’s rule is used for making
this calculation, and I will illustrate the method of mak
ing it by determining the center point of water plane
Fig. 8.
The area calculation has already been made and ex
plained in Chapter II. To find the moment about a
selected ordinate all that is necessary is to multiply the The center point of a sphere is always located at its
length of each ordinate by the distance it is from the center.
selected point. These products (length X distance) put
The center point of a cylinder is always located at
through Simpson’s rule, will give the moment of the area
one-half the height from base and on a line through the
about the selected point, and the moment divided by the
center longitudinally.
area will give distance the center of area is away from
the selected point. The center point of a pyramid, or cone, is always lo—
cated at a point one—quarter of the height from base and
Below I give the complete calculation and you will on a line drawn from apex to the center point of base.
note by referring back to the Fig. 8 calculation that the The center point of any solid bounded by a curved
figures entered in columns I, 2, 3 and 4 are the Fig. 8 surface and a plane is fully determined when its position
area ones. The figures in the fifth column are the meas relative to three planes is known. The planes are gen
ured distances that each ordinate is away from the erally taken at right angles to each other. In the case of
ordinate selected for the moment calculation (No. 1
the underwater body of a boat it is only necessary to
ordinate has been selected), and the figures in No. 6 calculate the position relative to t'Zt'O planes (a vertical
column are the products of Nos. 4 and 5. The No. 6 and a longitudinal one) because the two sides of a boat
column figures are totaled and multiplied by the Simp being alike in shape the center point must lie along the
son’s rule multiplier (one—third the interval) and then middle longitudinal axis.
by dividing the final figures of column No. 6 by the col
umn No. 4 area figures the distance that the center point 15. EXPLAINING How To CALCULATE THE CENTER or
of the area' is from the selected ordinate is determined. BUOYANCY POINT OF A BOAT’s UNDERWATER Bony
This distance measured along the base line of the figure The center point of solids of this kind is determined
will be the exact center point of the whole area, of which by making a Simpson’s rule calculation in the manner the
Fig. 8 is one—half. center point of plane N0. 8 was determined; but as the
The calculation in detail: position has to be determined relative to two planes it is
CALcULATION To DETERMINE THE DISTANCE TIIAT CENTER POINT necessary to make two complete calculations, one being
01-“ FIG. N0. 8 Is FROM THE NO. 1 ORDINATE for the purpose of determining the vertical position,
Product and the other being for the purpose of determining the
No. Length Simpson‘s Function Momcn of
On]. ofOrd. Multipliers Totals Multipliers Moments longitudinal. For the vertical position the volume is
I 000 I 0.00 O 000 calculated by using the plane area figures and the m0
2 145 4 5.80 4 2320 ments are generally determined from the L.W.L. plane;
3 225 2 4.50 8 3600
4 26o 4 10.40 12 12480
and for the longitudinal position the volume is calculated
5 270 2 5.40 16 8640 by using the section areas and the moments are gener
6 250 4 .....10.00 20 20000 ally determined from an end, or other selected ordinate.
7 225 I 2.25 24 5400 Below I have made the two calculations to determine
3835 524.40
the longitudinal and vertical position of the center point
4 of the whole underwater body of the boat of which Fig.
One-third interval One-third interval 14 illustrates one-half. The plane area calculations for
multiplier 3) 153.40 multiplier 3 ) 2,097.60 determining the volume of planes are given in Chapter II.
The detailed section area calculations for determining the
Area in square feet =51.133 Moment: 699.20
Moment 699.20
volume by section areas have been omitted, it being un
= 13.67 feet that center point is aft of the necessary to reproduce them.
Area 51.133 No. 1 Ordinate. The lines from which the moment calculation meas
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED 17
urements have been taken are: For the longitudinal po using section areas, can always serve to “check” the
sition, the NO. I ordinate line; for the vertical position, accuracy Of the volume figures. If both calculations are
the L. W. L. plane A. correct the volume figures will be alike, or within a few
decimals of one another. In my illustration calculations
CALCULATION TO DETERMINE THE LONGITUDINAL CENTER P01NT
the figures are almost identically the same.
0? FIG. 14
Products
Second»——I have already mentioned that if it is de
No. Area of Simpson‘s for Moment sired to have a boat float to a certain line the longitudinal
Ordinlle Section Multipliers Volume Mulliplie Moments
position of the center of buoyancy (the center point of
Section 1 0.00 i 0.00 ‘ o 000
Section 2 1.662 4 6.648 4 26.592 the underwater bulk) and the longitudinal position Of
Section 3 2.808 2 5.616 8 44.928 the center Of the weights (the CG. point) must coincide.
Section 4 3.308 4 13.232 12 158.784 Assuming that the weight figures used for the calcula
Section 5 3.375 2 6.750 16 108.000 tion are correct the marked distribution of weights is
Section 6 2. 4 11.232 20 224.640
Section 7 1.775 I 1.775 24 42.600 such that the CG. point is located at practically the same
distance from bow that the CB. point is, therefore it
45-253 605-544 can be said that the boat will float exactly to the in
. 4 4 tended L. W. L., which is the L. \V. L. plane A.
One-third interval ——
multiplier 3) 181.012 3) 2422.176 The vertical position Of the CG. and CB. points do
not have to, and, in fact, seldom do coincide.
Volume 60.337 Moment 807.392
*605-544 . . . CALCULATION T0 DETERMINE THE VERTicAL PosrrioN or CENTER
—— = 13.38 feet; distance the center pomt is aft of the P01NT or FIG. 14
45.253 N0. 1 Ord. Products
No. Area of Simpson‘s to 1 Moan
*Here I have put into practice the cancellation of the one Ordinale Plane Multipliers Volume Multiplier Moment!
third multiplier and used the total figures. ' Plane A 51.133 1 51.133 0 51.133
Therefore, the center point of the figure N0. 14 vol Plant- B 44.206 4 177.064 0.5 88.532
“Plane C 31.733 2 63.466 1.0 63.466
ume is located 13.38 feet aft of the No. 1 ordinate, and Plane D 16.400 4 65.600 1.5 98400
0.85 foot below the water plane A. And as Fig. 14 is a Plane E 4.773 1 4.773 2.0 9.546
representation of one—half the underwater body of a boat
the center of buoyancy of that boat, when floating to the 362.036 3 i 1.077
_ 0.5 0.5
L. W. L. plane A, is located at the point named and One‘tliird Interval -—-—- —
immediately over the center line of the keel. Multiplier 3 ) 181.018 3)
As the calculations Nos. I4 and 17 are for the same
Volume as calculated by planes 60.339 Moment
boat, this is an excellent opportunity for me to call your
311.077 _
attention to these things. First—the two volume calcula —-—- = 0.85 foot; distance the center point is below Plane A.
tions, one made by using plane areas and the other by 362.036
 Chapter IV
Stability Explained
The term stability when applied to a boat, or vessel,
means the moment of force, expressed in foot-pounds,
or foot-tons, by which the boat, or vessel endeavors to
right itself when inclined to a named angle from the
upright by some external force. This moment is the
product of weight X leverage; the weight being the actual
weight of boat, or vessel, ascertained by making the
displacement and weight calculations explained in Chap
ters II and III, and leverage being the distance between
the lines of action of the upsetting and righting forces,
ascertained .by making calculations.
Before proceeding further I will call your attention
to this important fact: The weight being the weight of
boat and all on board at time of inclination remains the
same regardless of whether boat is floating upright, or
is inclined to any angle, or in any direction; but the
leverage, as it depends upon form of the underwater
body of boat, will vary because the immersed form, or
shape, changes with EACH change in inclination. The
following brief explanation of the meaning of terms used
in this Chapter will prove a help when you read my ex
planation of stability.
Statical Stability means the amount of force by which
a boat tries to regain its upright position after having
been deflected from it.
Dynamical Stability means the amount of work done
to deflect boat from the upright (its original position).
Transverse Stability means stability when inclined
transversely, or to one side.
Longitudinal Stability means stability when inclined
longitudinally, or lengthways.
Stable Equilibrium—A boat is said to be in stable
equilibrium, or stable, for a named direction and angle
of inclination if, on being inclined in that direction and
to the named angle it tends to return to the original po
sition of rest when the inclining pressure is removed.
Unstable Equilibrium—A boat is said to be in un
stable equilibrium, or unstable, for a named direction
and angle of inclination if, on being inclined in that di—
rection and to the named angle it tends to move further
than the desired angle and will not return to the original
position of rest when the inclining pressure is removed.
Neutral Equilibrium.——A boat is said to be in neutral
equilibrium for a named direction and angle of inclina
tion if, on being inclined in that direction and to the
named angle it remains there and neither moves further
away or returns to the original position of rest when the
inclining pressure is removed.
I6. EXPLANATION OF STABILITY
I will begin by reminding you that stability calcula
tions, like all other boat calculations, are made before
the boat is built and for the purpose of ascertaining these
three things:
Ist.—Whether the boat will be stable and safe under
all ordinary service conditions.
2d.—The amount of stability the boat will have at
various angles of inclination from the upright (rest) po
sition.
3d.—The range of stability, or inclinations between
which it will be absolutely safe.
Therefore, it is assumed in the following explanations
that it is desired to ascertain the three things mentioned
above and that the calculations are being made from
measurements taken from a set of boat drawings. When
calculating stability it is always assumed that boat is
afloat in still water.
Stability of a Boat on Land—A boat supported on
land is acted upon by gravity alone, the dowuward pull
of which is always equal to the total weight of boat, and
the location of the C.G. point relative to the point of
support determines whether the boat will remain upright
or topple over.
Stability of a Boat When Afloat.——But when a boat
is afloat in still water the downward pull, which I will
now call pressure, continues to act in the same manner
that it acted on land, but as the portion (bulk) of boat
immersed in water now receives support from the sur
rounding water, a new force, the upward support of the
water, has to be considered and it is the location of the
center of this upward support (called center of buoy
ancy) relative to the center of the boat’s weight (called
renter of gravity) that determines the boat’s stability
when upright and when inclined in any direction. ‘
The words any direction need some explanation. A
boat afloat can incline transversely, longitudinally, and
in any direction between these two, and while the force
necessary to incline a boat to a named angle will vary
with direction of inclination, it isan assured fact that
the greatest force is required for direct longitudinal in
clinations and the least for direct transverse. In addi
tion to this, it is also an established fact that all boats
of ordinary form are perfectly stable longitudinally for
any angle they will move to when in service. These
things being established, the designer desiring to ascer
tain the three things mentioned above need only calcu
late the force with which the boat will endeavor to right
itself when inclined in the direction of least stability—
transversely—because for inclinations in all other direc
tions the stability must be greater than the minimum, or
transverse. Therefore, it is sufficient to determine sta—
bility for several direct transverse inclinations, and for
one selected longitudinal inclination.
From the above you will understand that transverse
inclinations are the most important ones to consider. I
will, therefore, make my explanations and illustrations
for transverse inclinations, except in cases when other
wise stated.
I will now resume my remarks about stability. When
a boat is afloat in an upright position the up pressure of
water on the immersed portion of hull centers at the CB.
point, and the down pressure of the boat’s weight centers
at the C.G. point, and as the two forces (pressures) are
alike and equally proportioned each side of center line
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
UPRicHT
CIL
FIG‘ZI
C 0
i T [LXJ L—\
_ CL
of boat, they must act upwards and downwards along
the same vertical line and continue to do so just as long
as the boat is not forced out of her upright position.
Fig. 21 shows largest cross-section of a power boat and
on it I have indicated the vertical positions of the C.B.
and CG. points, and the line along which the up and
down pressures act.
Now let us assume that an external force has inclined
the boat to position shown in Fig. 22 illustration.
Just as soon as this happens a portion of boat imme—
diately above the water level, on side furthest from the
pressure, becomes immersed and an equal—sized portion
on side the pressure is exerted lifts out of (emerges
from) the water, and this movement, as you can readily
see by referring to Fig. 22, has made the form of im
mersed body different from that immersed when boat
was upright, and has caused the center of up buoyancy
pressure (C.B.) to move from its original central posi
tion towards the side furthest from the inclining pres
sure, because the C.B. point will always be at the exact
center of the bulk immersed in water. This movement
of the C.B. point has caused the up pressure of buoyancy
to act along a vertical line that is some distance out from
the center line of boat, and as no weight has been moved
by the inclination the C.G. of weight has not moved and
the CG. down pressure must continue to act along a
vertical drawn downwards through the CG. point lo
cated above the center line of keel. Under these condi
tions the up force of buoyancy and the down force of
gravity are opposing forces that act along different lines;
one trying to force the boat down and the other to buoy
it up, and if the up force of buoyancy, measured by its
weight and leverage, is greater than the down force of
gravity, measured by its weight and leverage, the boat
ST E>LE
19
will be stable and will immediately return to the upright
when the inclining pressure is removed.
The weight used for the calculation is always the ac
tual weight of boat and all on board, the buoyancy force
is always exactly the same as the weight, and the lever
age is the distance the lines of action are away from the
center line of boat; though in practice the calculations
are simplified by making the lever length the distance
the lines of action are apart. Of course you understand
that the lines of action of the two forces are always
along verticals drawn through the centers.
I said above that the calculation is simplified by mak—
ing the lever length the distance between the lines of
action; I will explain this. When calculating the moment
of opposing forces in the usual manner, the moment of
each force is calculated, then the lesser is deducted
from the greater and the remainder is the moment of
the greater force.
In cases when the weights are alike and act along
lines that are parallel and lie in the same direction from
weight, the work is greatly simplified and similar re
HEUTRAL
\
\\ I 3
EMERG€D\\ / ° [mamas L.\~'.L
wanes \\ L )
/\ \
lFLMERSED
\\ e wanes
e
f C@ B m \\\\
\\
A
D
sults are obtained by measuring the distance between the
lines of action and multiplying this measure by the
weight. The figures obtained by making this short cal
culation will be the moment in favor of the force that
acts along the line furthest out from weight.
On Fig. 22 the up force of buoyancy is furthest out
from center line and therefore that illustration shows a
condition of stability, and if the weight (displacement)
of boat is 7,723 lb and the measured distance between
verticals is 4 inches, the moment of force tending to re
turn boat to an upright position when the inclining force
is removed is 2,574 foot-pounds.
7,723 X 0.33% : 2,574 foot-pounds
You may wonder, when looking at the Fig. 22 illus
tration, how it can happen that, after the C.B. point has
moved some distance out from center line and the CG.
point does not move, a condition can arise in which the
down C.G. vertical can fall further out from the center
line than the up C.B. force vertical. I will explain this
by means of illustrations, Fig. 23 and Fig. 24.
Fig. 23 shows the same inclination and cross-section
as Fig. 22, and the weight of boat and location of C.B.
inclined position is the same; but I will suppose that,
owing to placing engine and some of the weights a
greater distance above keel, the vertical height of CG.
point is raised to the point marked C.G. on Fig. 23.
 20 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
c the lever length, measure the distance, along center line,
,mchED LXZIII\\ ,' /i UPSETTITIG
/ \‘rMLEVEKLEHGTH it“ T
r \\~ I. L
\
~‘~
)1. 5
\\
~
\\
'l
You will note that with C.G. point at that height above
keel the down pressure of weight again acts along the
same vertical that the up buoyancy pressure acts, and
under such conditions the boat is neutrally stable and
will neither move further from, or back to, upright when
the inclining pressure is removed.
Now I will complete the explanations by illustrating
a condition of instability.
Fig. 24 illustration shows a condition of instability
and if you will examine that illustration and compare it
with Fig. 23, you will see the C.G. point is raised to a
higher point than is shown on that illustration, and now
the down vertical of C.G. action falls further out from
the center line of boat than the up buoyancy pressure.
Under these conditions the moment of force is an upset
ting one equal tO the distance between the lines of action
multiplied by the weight, or 965.37 foot-pounds.
7,723 X 0.125 : 965.37 foot-pounds
And the boat will move further from the upright, or
until the moments of up and down forces again balance.
\Vhat do these illustrations teach? They teach two
things.
Ist.—That with CE. height remaining stationary the
higher the C.G. point is raised above keel of boat the
smaller the righting moment will be.
2d.—That there must be, for every inclination, a
point along the center line of every boat above which it
is unsafe to raise the C.G., and if the C.G. is kept below
this point the moment of force will be'a righting one,
and if located above it the moment will be an upsetting
one.
And it can also be said that if it were possible to
locate on the center line the height to which the C.G.
can be raised without boat becoming unstable, a de
signer would have a means for ascertaining whether a
boat is stable or unstable, and its approximate stability
or instability.
Now it happens that it is possible to determine very
accurately and quickly the location above which it is un—
safe to raise the C.G. point and having located it the
moment of stability can be ascertained, very closely, by
making a simple and short calculation.
I will explain the way to determine both of these
things.
17. DETERMINING THE POINT ON CENTER LINE ABOVE
VVHICH IT IS UNSAFE To RAISE THE C.G. POINT
This point, which is termed the metacenter, (usu
ally written M.C. or M.) can be accurately located for
small inclinations from upright by simply extending the
(LB. inclined line up to center line of boat. The point
of intersection of the two lines will be the M.C. point.
And having marked this point, if it is desired to find out
that C.G. is from the M.C. point and multiply by the
sine of the angle of inclination.
To illustrate the application of this formula I will
make use of Fig. 22 and having located the MC. point,
I will calculate the lever length and righting moment.
H a By continuing the CB. inclined line upwards to cen
ter line I find that it intersects at a point that is 11%
inches (0.979 foot) above the C.G. point (see mark M.C.
and measurement on Fig. 22). The angle of inclination
is 20°, and the sine of 20° is .3420, therefore the righting
lever length at 20° is
0.979 X .3420 : 0.3348 foot.
And knowing the lever length, the righting moment can
be ascertained by making the calculation: Weight X
Lever I Moment of force.
7,723 X 0.3348 : 2,585 foot-pounds.
These figures are very close to the ones obtained by
making the Fig. 22 calculation.
You must, however, bear in mind that this method of
calculating stability is only accurate for inclinations at
which the point of intersection of the center of inclined
and upright water-lines is at the center line of boat, or
only at small inclinations.
Here is another detail that needs explaining.
18. EXPLAINING WHY THE POINT OF INTERSECTION OF
THE INCLINED AND UPRIGHT WATER-LINES CAN
NOT ALWAYS BE AT THE CENTER or BOAT
On Fig. 22, 23, 24. illustrations I marked the inclined
water-line full and upright water—line dotted, and you
will note that the two lines cross, or intersect, at the
center line of boat. But this condition can only exist so
long as the volume of the wedge-shaped portion on im
mersed side, measured from center line out and included
within the inclined and level water-lines, and portion of
outline of hull between them, happens to be exactly the
same as the volume of the wedge-shaped portion that
is enclosed by the same lines on the emerged side. When
this condition does not exist (for boats of ordinary form
it can only exist at very slight inclinations) the point
of intersection of the wedges must be at a sufficient dis
tance from the center line of boat to equalize the volume
(1i wedges. The reason for this is:' It is absolutely im
pnssillle for the VOLUME immersed in water to alter by
inclination, therefore the immersed volume must be ex
WEDGE
EZT EKGED TKUE POINT OF [II'I‘EILSEC'FIOI‘I
CL. O WEDGES
lI‘RTiEKZ‘JED WEDGE
ASSUTKED
‘ fi lHCLmttr.) LWL
"1‘; m-rv—
"\lmv \'
..1__-
‘v mcuz-u-zo awn
'I‘QJE
Fl6.'25 J
Lwl. wnert UPIQGHT
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
actly the same when inclined as it is when boat is up
right.
Now turn to the Fig. 25 illustration. On that illus
tration is shown full width cross-sections, fore body in
full, after body in dotted lines, of a boat inclined trans
versely to an angle (20°) at which the points of the
wedges will not intersect at center line. You will note
that I have marked the upright L.WV.L. and an assumed
inclined L.W.L. that crosses the upright L.W.L. at the
center line of boat.
But if you carefully examine the wedge-shaped por—
tions enclosed by these lines and the outline of boat sec
tions between them, you will clearly perceive that with
the inclined L.W.L. at the assumed location the volume
of wedge-shaped portion immersed by the inclination is
greater than the volume enclosed by the same lines on
the opposite of boat, it, therefore, is apparent that the
boat cannot float to the assumed L.W.L. position; and
as the wedge enclosed by the lines on immersed side is
of greater volume than the wedge enclosed by the lines
on emerged side the boat must rise out of water until
wedge volumes are equalized. The angle of inclination
cannot change, therefore the boat lifts bodily out of
water and by doing this the point of intersection of
wedges is moved a distance towards the wedge of greater
volume—-the immersed wedge in this case. On the illus
tration I have drawn the true inclined L.W.L., and if
you will compare the immersed and emerged wedge v01
nmes enclosed between that line, the level L.\V.L. and
the section bounding lines, you readily see that the wedge
volumes have been equalized by the up movement of
boat
What really has taken place is a transfer of the ex—
cess volume of the larger wedge from its side to the op—
posite side of boat.
On the illustration I show the excess volume of im
mersed (the larger) wedge blank and transferred to
the opposite (emerged) wedge and you will note that
by making this transfer the point of intersection of the
two wedges moves from the center line to a point that
is 5 inches from it.
If a boat has a greatest cross-section shaped like
Fig. 22, this lifting out of water will not begin until
about 15° of inclination and will be very slight indeed
for inclinations up to about 20°; but if the greatest
cross-section is shaped like Fig. 25 the lifting out will
begin at an inclination of about 10° and will be so great
at 20° that the point of intersection of wedges will have
moved some distance from the center line of boat, as
you can note by examining Fig. 25. In the majority of
power boats of ordinary form, the lifting out will not
begin under 10° of inclination, so it is always safe to
assume that the point of intersection of the wedges in
such boats will coincide with center line up to inclina
tions of 10 or 12°.
I will now resume my remarks about stability.
So long as there is a leverage the boat, if left free to
move, will not remain at rest, or as it is termed, be in a
state of equilibrium; and the longer the lever, or greater
the distance between the lines of action, is the greater
will be the moment of force tending to either bring the
boat back to upright, or capsize her, as the case may be.
Changes in distance between CG. and M.C. points
'produce corresponding changes in the stability of a boat;
in fact, stability can be said to vary with the distance,
which is usually called metacentric height.
21
The vertical position of the C.G. always depends
upon the vertical distribution of weights—construction,
ballast, equipment, cargo, etc.—and in boats that do not
carry movable ballast, or cargo, such as power boats
used for pleasure purposes, the vertical height of the
C.G. can be said to be permanently fixed and that no al
teration in its position can be made without adding to
or taking away weight and thus reducing or increasing
displacement. So in such boats it can be said that the
metacentric height depends almost entirely upon the form
of boat in water and of that portion that will become
immersed and exposed as boat inclines, and it is here that
the designer should try to obtain the quality which makes
a boat stable and safe under all conditions. It is very
important to remember that the wedge-shaped portions
immediately above and below the level L.W.L. are in
cluded in the part of boat that has an influence upon
metacentric height. -
That this should be so is very evident, and if you
will study the Fig. 25 and 26 illustrations I am sure
you will have no difficulty in understanding that when
ever a boat inclines from the upright a certain portion
warmer: snnnn Pom-ion rLEVEL. LW l.
THAT BHE‘EIIS
.~ an a
J 1
I/
of the abovewater body becomes immersed and another
equal—sized portion on opposite side emerges from the
water, and if the shape of these portions is such that the
act of immersing the abovewater portion and lifting the
underwater portion out of the water will add to the
power of boat to resist the inclining force, the moment
of stability must increase with each increase of inclina
tion; but if, on the other hand, these portions are shaped
so that in place of adding to the resisting power they
detract from it, then the moment of stability will de—
crease with each increase of inclination and the boat
will quickly become unstable.
- 19. EXPLAINING THE WEDGES or IMMERsION AND
EMERSION
The names given to the portions of a boat that be
come immersed and emerge from the water when a boat
is inclined are the wedges of immersion and emersian;
and while the size of these wedges will vary with each
change in inclination, they can be accurately described
as the parts of a boat which being under water when
she inclines one way are lifted out of water when she
inclines in an opposite direction. Fig. 25 shows cross—
section view, and Fig. 26 longitudinal view of wedges _
of immersion and emersion of boat when inclined to 20°
from upright. To avoid confusing you I have omitted
from the Fig. 26 illustration the portion of boat that is
above the wedge of immersion and have shown each
wedge separately. The two wedges combined reach
from A to B on both sides of hull.
I will now conclude my remarks about metacentric
22 NdV/IL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
height. It does not follow that because the M.C. height have made use of Fig. 22, and for the purpose of this
is ample when a boat is upright, or inclined to a slight calculation have assumed that the volume 'Of immersed
degree, it will be ample when boat is subjected to exces wedge is 14.277 cubic feet, and that the center point of
sive inclining force; nor does it always follow that a wedge is located 1.5 foot out from center line.
boat having a small M.C. height when upright will be We know that the point of intersection of the wedges
is at the center line of boat, therefore the emerged
unsafe at greater inclinations.
For example, one boat may have an M.C. height of wedge has same volume as the immersed, and we will
2 feet when upright and ample righting lever length at assume that its center point is the same distance out
small angles Of inclination, but as it heels, owing to the from center line; and as by inclining the volume of
form of boat, the righting lever may get shorter and wedge that emerges is transferred from under water
shorter and vanish altogether before an angle to which on the emerged side to under water on the immersed side,
the boat is liable to incline under ordinary service con the distance the knOWn volume (14.277 cubic feet) is
moved is 3 feet (the distance between wedge center
ditions is reached.
Another boat may have little, or no, M.C. height points).
when upright, or righting lever at small inclinations, Therefore the figures for the calculation are:
but as the inclination increases the righting lever may Known displacement, 60.339 cubic feet (7,723 lb).
lengthen and the range of stability become greater than Known volume of wedge that is moved from one
necessary.v Therefore, don’t jump to the conclusion that side to the other, I4.277 cubic feet.
good M.C. height when upright or at slight inclinations Known distance between center points of movement,
will always produce satisfactory stability conditions. 3 feet.
A moderate M.C. height when upright, a moderate And the calculation is:
length of.righting lever at small inclinations with gradual 14277 X 3 _
increase in lever length as inclinations increase, and a —_—— : 0.7098 foot (8 Inches)
good range of stability are the most desirable conditions; 60.339
and these can best be obtained by a wise design of the And the movement will be along a line drawn parallel
underwater and wedge portions of hull combined with with a line drawn from center point of one wedge to
a proper disposition of weights vertically. ' center point of the other (the dash line on illustration),
Below I give particulars of M.C. heights at 10° in— or from C.B. point when upright to the C.B. inclined
clinations of a few power boats that have proved amply point, which is a distance of 8 inches along a line drawn
stable under all conditions of service. parallel with the dash line.
The heights given are for direct transverse inclina To determine the C.B. inclined position at inclina
tion to 10°; but please remember that just as stability tions at which the point of intersection of wedges has
varies with each change in direction and angle of in— moved out from center line, an entirely different calcula
clination so the M.C. height will change, being lowest tion must be made, because it is necessary, in cases like
when inclinations are directly transverse and highest this, to determine the distance boat will lift out of water
.when they are directly longitudinal. before the transverse movement of C.B. point can be
TABULATED LIsT or DIMENSIONS AND TRANSVERSE M.C. HEIGHTS calculated.
Br’th Depth Drl‘l C. G. Ballast
There are several ways tO calculate this transverse
Ex- Keel to of Disp't above M. C. Car- Type movement of C.B. at high angles of inclination. One is
Length treme Deck “later in Keel Height ried of
Fee! Feet Feel Feet Tons Feet Feet Lb. Boat to mark a water-line at the desired inclination and at a
30 7 4.0 2.5 3%, 1.95 1.8 none Open power point that you think will make the inclined displacement
36 9 5.0 2.9 6% 3.3 2.5 none Open power the same as the upright (remember I am referring to
40 9 6.5 3.3 9 3.0 1.65 none Open power
45 10 6.6 1 3.0 Io 3.0 2.0 2000 Power cruiser
inclination at which the point of intersection of wedges
50 II 7.0 3.6 I3 3.5 1.7 1000 Power cruiser will be away from the center line of boat); and then to
75 I3 7.0 3.6 30 4.2 1.7 none Power cruiser remeasure the entire inclined underwater body and de
85 16 10.0 6.0 70 6.0 2.5 tons 10 Power cruiser termine the center point transversely.
As the inclined C.B. position must be known before Another method is to measure the wedges separately,
it is possible to calculate a boat’s transverse stability at calculate their moment of transference and the corrected
any named inclination, it is evident that the underwater L.'W.L., and then from these figures determine the C.B.
inclined body, at the named inclination, must be measl movement in a somewhat similar manner to the one I
ured and its exact center point, transversely, determined. have explained.
In cases when the point of intersection of the two Another method, and a good one, is the mechanical
wedges is lOt'a-ted at the center line of boat it is a very one, and another is the combination method, by which the
simple matter to determine the inclined C.B. position moment of transference of wedge volumes, the inclined
when once the upright C.B. position is known; because corrected water-line, the lever length and movement Of
it is a well-known principle of mechanics that if a kn0wn stability are all calculated at one time by making a set of
portion of a known volume, whose center point is known, preliminary and combined calculations.
is shifted a known distance, the effect this shift will The last—mentioned method is not diflicult to under
have can be quickly ascertained by multiplying the vol stand, and the calculations being modifications of the
ume of portion shifted by the distance its center point Sitnflson’s and moment calculations already explained,
has shifted and dividing result by the whole volume can be made by anyone having a knowledge of those
figures. The quotient will be the distance the whole rules and the ability to do simple problems of arithmetic;
volume center point has moved and the movement will so I have selected it and I will explain the calculations
be along a line that is parallel with the line of move— fully and illustrate my explanations by working out a
ment of shifted portion. complete set of transverse stability calculations from the
To illustrate the application of this simple rule, I lines of the Fig. I4 boat.
 Chapter V
Stability Calculations
20. TRANSVERSE STABILITY
Before the transverse stability of a boat can be cal\
culated, displacement volume to upright L.W.L., and
vertical locations of both C.G. and C.B. (points must
be known.
In Chapter II the volume of Fig. 14 to upright L.W.L.
(plane A) was calculated and found to be 120.678
cubic feet*, and in Chapter III the vertical C.G. and
C.B. point calculations were made and it was ascertained
that C.G. point is located 0.42 foot above the L.W.L.
plane A, and that C.B. point is 0.85 foot below plane
A. I can, therefore, begin the actual stability calcula
tions.
First, it is necessary to draw across the scale
drawing of cross-section Outlines of boat an assumed
inclined L.W.L. This assumed L.\/V.L. is drawn at
required inclination (inclination for which transverse
stability calculation is being made) and must intersect
with upright L.W.L. at the exact center line of boat.
It does not matter whether one wedge is apparently
larger than the other, because later the. exact inclined
L.\V.L. will be determined and marked.
Fig. 27 shows Fig. I4 boat’s cross-sections with
the assumed 20° inclined and upright L.W.L. marked.
\2 I 20 4‘
i u
:i .o'.
"l
j '045g
u ' 1L
“:9 I "weal ‘0 q,
a: to / 10 5
,, Ifi-
u 6e
)0 10\L
Note this—For the purpose of making illustration
and my explanations as clear as possible I have shown
whole' cross-sections, the forebody ones being in full
and the after in dash lines.
Having marked the assumed inclined L.W.L., the
next thing to do is to divide immersed and emerged
wedges into a proper number of planes for a Simpson
rule calculation. This must be done because, instead
of remeasuring the whole of inclined underwater body,
I am going to measure wedge volumes and then
by calculating their moment of transference, or the
value of
*The half-volume ascertained by making calculations re
ferred to is 60.339 cubic feet, therefore the whole is twice that
volume.
Vol. of wedge X distance C.G. point of wedge moved,
I will determine the distance that C.B. point moves
out from center line of boat.
As the volume of wedge-shaped portions that are
immersed and emerge from water when a boat is in
clined transversely is ascertained by making a Simp
son rule calculation, the wedges must be divided into
a proper number of equally spaced sections and
radial planes for the calculation. The sections are .
correct in number for a Simpson’s first rule calcula
tion, so all that is necessary is to divide the wedges
into a correct number of radial planes. I have divided
them into two parts, thus, there are three radial plane
ordinates. .
I have already explained that to calculate the vol—
ume of any figure by Simpson’s rules it is necessary
to first'determine the area of either planes, or sections,
and then by using these area figures as ordinate
lengths for a second calculation the volume is ascer
tained. This procedure is followed when calculating
wedge volumes, but in place of using actual ordinate
length measures for the area part of calculation, the
figures used are one-half the square of the ordinate
length measures; and of course the interval measure
between radial planes is the angular interval in degrees.
In the illustration'it is 10°. The volume of wedges
can be determined by using either plane or section
areas for second part of calculation, but as trans~
verse stability calculations require that transverse
movement of C.B. point be determined it is necessary
to calculate volume by using radial plane areas.
This is an excellent point at which to make a short
a
preliminary explanation of the calculations I am about
to make.
The calculations are made by using Simpson’s rules
and are divided into two parts, called preliminary, and
combination calculations; the preliminary ones being
for the purpose of ascertaining the area and trans
verse C.G. position of assumed inclined L.W.L. plane,
area and moment figures for use in the combination
calculations; and the combination ones being for the
purpose of determining volume of wedges, the moment
of transference of wedge volume, the correct inclined
L.\V.L., the transverse movement of C.B. point, the
righting lever length, and the righting moment. To
make and complete each calculation separately would
require a repetition of many figures and duplication of
work, so instead of making separate complete calcula
tions to determine area, volume and moments, the three
calculations are combined and all needless figures are
eliminated entirely.
The complete calculations follow and immediately
above each tabulation I have explained the headings,
tabulation and calculation figures.
Explanation of Tabulation No. I
This is a preliminary calculation to determine area
of assumed inclined 20° L.W.L. plane, and to obtain
24 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
figures to use for volume and moment of transference Preliminary—20° Water Platte Immersed \Vedge
of wedge calculations. ' 011‘]. Length S Function Striuaaiic 5 Function Cube 8 Function

No. of 0111. M 0! 01d. 0! 01d. M 01 Square of 0rd. M of Cube_

You will note that immersed and emerged portions
1 0.00 I 0.00 0.00 I 0.00 0.00 I 0.00
of plane are calculated separately and afterwards the 2 1.87 4 7.48 1 .75 4 7.00 6. 53 4 26.12
area and moment of entire plane, and distance its C.G. 3 2.79 2' 5.58 3.89 2 7.78 21.71 2 43.42
point is one side of center line is determined. 4 3.17 4 12.68 5.02 4 20.08 31.85 4 127.40
5 , .25 2 6.50 5.28 2 10.56 34.32 2 68.64
In first column is entered ordinate numbers for 6 3.04 4 12.16 4.62 4 18.48 28.09 4 112.36
radial plane calculation. ' 7 2.71 1 2.71 3.67 1 3.67 19.90 I 19.90

In second column is entered measured lengths of 47-11 6757 397-84

ordinates. These measurements are taken along the 142.78
20° radial plane from center line of boat out to where
Both wedges, 540.62
plane cuts each cross—section outline. Preliminary—20° Radial Plane Area and C.G. Calculation
In third column is entered the proper Simpson’s rule Function Function
of 0111. of Sq.
multipliers. ' Immersed wedge . 47.11 Immersed wedge .. 67.57
In fourth column is entered the product of second Emerged wedge .. 33.38 limerged wedge 34.03
and third column figures. These figures are only used
_ 80.49 33.54 Excess
for area of L.W.L. plane and its C.G. point calcula X; Interval = 1.333 % interval = 1.333
tions.
Area = 107.32 Square Feet 44.72 Moment
In fifth column is entered the half-square of ordinate Excess on immersed side
lengths used for wedge volume and correction of inclined Excess moment .. 44.72
W.L. parts of calculation. = 0.416 foot C.G. is on immersed side
Area = 107.32
In sixth column is entered Simpson's multipliers for Explanation of Tabulation N0. 2
column 5. Tabulation N0. 2 shows 0° and 10° radial plane
In seventh column is entered product of columns calculations. These calculations are made in same
5 and 6. manner that the 20° calculation was made, except that
In eighth column is entered cubes of ordinate function of ordinate figures is omitted because it is
lengths used for moment of wedge part of calculation. not necessary to determine area and C.G. of these radial
planes.
In ninth column is entered the Simpson multipliers You will note that there is only one tabulation for
for column 8. the 0° radial plane which, being the upright water plane,
In tenth column is entered product of columns 8 has both sides alike, therefore one-half of plane is meas
and 9. ured and by doubling final total the function of cubes for
You will note that the one—third Simpson multi both sides is ascertained.
pliers are omitted. This is done because work is sim TABULATION No. 2
plified and shortened by using totals of columns for the Preliminary—10° Water Plane Emerged Wedge
Ord.
No. Length
MON. Halt Square
01 Length RSI Function
of Square atCube
01d. lit Function
at Cube
combined portion of calculation, and multiplying final
1 0.00 0.00 i 1 0.00 0.00 1 0.00
figures of calculation by both the longitudinal and an
gular intervals. 2 1.40 0.98 4 3.92 2.74 ,4 10.96
3 2.15 2.3 I 2 4.62 9.93 2 19.86
On the lower part of Tabulation No. I the area 4 2.48 3.07 4 12.28 15.25 4 61.00
and moment of entire assumed inclined L.W.L. and 5 2.56 3.27 2 6.54 16.77 2 33.54
distance the C.G. of whole plane is one side of center 6 2.33 2.71 4 10.84 12.64 4 50.56
7 1.95 1.90 1 1.90 7.41 1 7.41
line is ascertained. This distance must be known be
fore the correct L.W.L. can be calculated. 40.10 183-33
This part of calculation tells us that? Preliminary—10° Water Plane Immersed Wedge
1 0.00 0.00 1 0.00 0.00 1 0.00
Area of the whole 20° inclined plane is 107.32 square 2 1.66 1.37 4 5.48 4.57 18.28
feet. 3 2.54 3.22 2 6.44 16.38 2 32.76
4 2.85 4.06 4 16.24 23.15 4 92.60
The C.G. of the whole plane is 0.416 foot from 5 2.95 4.35 2 8.70 25.67 2 51.34
center line, towards immersed side. (Immersed side 6 2.79 3.89 4 15.56 21.71 4 D 86.84
7 2.44 2.97 I 2.97 14.52 1 14.52
is largest.)
TABULATION No. I 55-39 296-34
Both sides = 296.34 + 183.33 = 479.67
Preliminary—20° water Plane Emerged Wedge
Preliminary—0° W'ater Plane Both Wedges
Ord. Length "I" Square 5 Function Cubes S Function
0rd. Length 5 Function 5:11.11; 5 Function Cube 5 Function No. of 01d. 0! 01d. M 01 Squares 0| 0111. M of Cube
No. of 0111. M of 01d. 0! 01d. M 0! Square of 01d. M 0! Cube 1 0.00 0.00 1 0.00 0.00 1 0.00
I 0.00 I 0.00 0.00 I 0.00 0.00 I 0.00 2 1.45 1.05 4 4.20 3.04 4 12.16
2 1.33 4 5-32 0.88 4 3-52 2-35 4 9-40 3 2.25 2.53 2 5.06 11.39 2 22.78
3 2.00 2 4.00 2.00 2 4.00 8.00 2 16.00 4 2-60 3-38 4 13-52 17-57 4 70-28
4 2.31 4 9.24 2.67 4 10.68 12.32 4 49.28 5 2.70 3.64 2 7.28 19.68 2 39.36
5 2.33 2 4.66 2.71 2 5.42 12.64 2 25.28 6 2.50 3.12 4 12.48 15.62 4 62.48
6 2.12 4 8.48 2.25 4 9.00 9.52 4 38.08 7 2.25 2.53 1 2.53 11.39 1 11.39
7 1.68 1 1.68 1.41 1 1.41 4.74 1 4.74 _
_ 4507 218.45
33.38 34-03 142.78 Both sides = 218.45 X 2 = 436.90
 _ NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SLMPLIFIED 25
Erplanation of Tabulation No. 3 ascertained; and if from this is deducted the moment
The Combination Calculations of layer the corrected moment of wedges to actual in
The first combination calculation is for the purpose clined L.\V.L. will be ascertained.
of ascertaining thickness of layer that must be de— The corrected moment figures divided by displace
ducted in order to correct and equalize wedge volumes. ment in cubic feet gives distance that C.B. point moves
The volume of immersed and emerged wedges is de out from center line. This distance is measured along
termined, then the lesser volume is deducted from the a line drawn parallel to inclined L.\1V.L. (The point R
greater and only the difierence is put through final part marked on Fig. 28.)
of calculation. This shortens work very greatly. On Figs. 27 and 28 I have marked the corrected
In, first column is entered the angle of inclination inclined L.W.L. (See dash line drawn parallel with
of radial plane. - assumed inclined L.W.L.)
In second column is entered the function of half Point R indicates the transverse movement of C.B.,
square totals obtained by making preliminary calcula— but the point may not always be located at its exact
tions. .
vertical position because the vertical location of C.G.
In 'third column is entered the Simpson’s multipliers points of the two wedges has not been determined.
for volume. As R is always located on vertical line along which
In fourth column is entered the product of column the C.B. inclined up pressure will act it is not necessary
2 and 3 figures. to calculate vertical position of C.B. inclined.
If the excess is multiplied by one-third the longi The length of righting lever can always be accurately
tudinal interval (this was not done when making the determined without knowing the vertical position of C.B.
preliminary calculation), and also by one-third an— inclined point, because the line C.B. to R is drawn parallel
gular interval, the excess volume on largest side will be with the inclined L.W.L. and the vertical through R is
ascertained.
always at right angles to the inclined L.W.L. The angle
To find thickness of layer to take off, the excess that up vertical through R makes with line from C.B.
volume is divided by area of assumed inclined L.W.L. to R is always 90°.
plane, and then by multiplying the excess volume by On Fig. 28 I show the lines and immediately be—
distance C.G. of assumed inclined L.W.L. plane is low illustration I give a detailed explanation of each
out from center line of boat (ascertained when making line.
TABULATION N0. 3
preliminary calculation) the moment of layer is deter Combination Calculation for Transverse Stability at 20°.
mined. This moment has to be deducted from mo Calculation to Correct Inclined L.W.L. at~20° Inclination.
ment of wedges before calculating righting lever length. Immersed Wedge Emerged Wedge
The second part of tabulation is for the purpose of Angle Function Function Angle Function Function
of Hall Sq. S Hall Sq. of Half Sq. S Hall Sq.
ascertaining righting lever length and righting mo Inc. Ord. M for Vol. lnc. 0rd. M for Volt

ment. 0 45°? I 45-07 ' 0 45-07 I 45-07

In first column is entered the angle of inclination 10 55.39 4 221.56 10 40.10 4 160.40
20 67.57 I 67.57 20 34.03 1 34.03
of radial planes.
In second column is entered the functi0n of cubes Immersed = 334.20 239.50
of both wedges. Emerged = 239.50 Deduct
In third column is entered the Simpson rule multi Excess on Imm. side = 94.70
pliers. ‘ V; Ang. interval .0581
,In fourth column is entered product of column 2
and 3 figures. . . . 5-502
% Longitudinal in. I 1.333
In fifth column is entered cosine multipliers for
column 4 figures. _ , 7.336 Excess volume on Immersed side.
In sixth column is entered product of column 4 Excess vol. = 7.336
and 5 figures. —- = 0.068 foot. Layer to take off.
Area 20" plane 107.32
The cosine multipliers can be obtained from any Excess vol. = 7.336 ‘
table of cosines. They are cosines of the angle that 0.416 Dist. C.G. of plane is out from center line
each plane makes with the level of the water. This
being the case the assumed inclined L.W.L. plane is 3.051 Moment of layer to deduct from moment
of wedges
level with the water and therefore, as it has no inclina
Calculation to Determine Length of Righting Lever and Right
tion (it is the 0° plane for righting lever) it must be ing Moment at 20°
multiplied by the cosine of 0°. The 10° plane is multi Sum Function
Function Product of Cosine Cubes for
plied by the cosine of 10°, and the 0° plane, as it is 20° Angle Cubes 5 Function Angle Moment
from level of water, must be multiplied by the cosine of ch. Both “'dga. M Cube: Inc. of “'edges

20°. It is important to remember the above, because this 0 436-90 I 436-90 0397 410-55
10 479.67 4 1918.68 984 1889.51
part of calculation is for the purpose of determining the 20 540.62 1 540.62 1.0000 540.62
power the boat possesses to return to upright when the 2840.68
inclining pressure is lessened. One-third of cubes = 913.56
One—third of the function of cube for moment of One-third angular interval = .0581
wedge total is used for the final part of calculation. . . . . 53-077
One-third longitudinal interval = 1.333
If these figures are multiplied by the Simpson rule
one—third longitudinal interval (this was not done 70.769 Uncorrected moment
Moment to deduct = 3.051
when making preliminary calculations) and also by
67.718 Corrected moment
- the one-third angular interval volume multiplier, the Corrected moment 67.718
moment of wedges to assumed inclined L.W.L. will be 120.678 : 0.56 foot B.R. measure.
20 N1in L ARCHITECTURE SIJWPLIFIED
From the measure B.R. there must be deducted the C.B.X. is measure that must be deducted from C.B.
distance from center line of boat out to perpendicularX.R. before lever length is determined. This distance is
drawn down from C.G. point. This measure will always equal to measure from C.G. to C.B. points, along
always equal distance between C.G. and C.B. points, center line of boat, multiplied by sine of angle of inclina
measured along center line of boat, multiplied by the. tion.
sine of angle of inclination. M.C. is metacentric height.
The sine of 20° is .342 and the distance between The calculations and illustrations indicate that while
C.G. and C.B. points is 1.27 feet.* the Fig. 14 boat is stable at 20° transverse inclination
1.27 X .342 : .434 to deduct the righting moment, when C.G. point is located at height
.560 — .434 : .126 foot righting lever length. indicated, is not sufficient to insure a steady boat. In
And as the righting moment is Displacement X fact, a righting moment of only 973 foot-pounds Can be
Righting Lever, the righting moment is neutralized by the movement of three persons to one
side of boat, or, what is the same thing, the boat will in
7723 X .126 : 973 foot-pounds righting moment at 20°.
cline transversely to 20° if three persons sit on one side
Explanation of Fig. 28 . of boat. From this it is evident that the transverse sta
The illustration Fig. 28 shows view of the largest bility at 20° is not sufficient.
cross—section of Fig. 14 boat inclined to 20°, and on it I I selected the Fig. 14 boat sections and located the
have marked lines and points mentioned in my stability C.G. point at the named height for the purpose of having
calculation explanation. ~ an opportunity to demonstrate the great influence that
C.L. is the center line of boat. form and location of C.G. has on a boat’s stability. The
\V.L. is the assumed water-line when boat is inclined facts, while frequently stated, are seldom driven right
to 20°. home by making an actual set of stability calculations
Dash line immediately below W.L. is the correct in for a boat having a form that must have the aid of a low
clined, water-line. location of C.G. to insure ample righting lever length at
normal inclinations. The explanation of the actual value
of 973 foot-pounds righting moment is clearly under
standable to any layman when the statement is made
that three persons sitting on one side of boat will incline
boat to 20° transversely.
If it is desired to make Fig. 14 boat amply stable the
C.G. point must be lowered at least 8 inches, and this can
be done by lowering engine weight and using a small
amount of ballast placed as low as possible.
w;
So it is evident that a boat having cross-sections
shaped like the Fig. 14 boat does not have sufficient sta
bility of form at low inclinations.
On the other hand a boat having its principal cross
section shaped like Fig. 21 will have ample stability of
form, and when C.G. point is located well above the
L.W.L. righting moment will be ample. This can be seen
by examining the illustration.
L.\V.L. is water-line when boat is upright. And it can also be said that a boat having cross-sec
E.\'\". is the emerged wedge. tions like Fig. 25 will have ample stability of form with
I.W. is the immersed wedge. out ballast.
C.G. is the C.G. point ascertained by making proper The Fig. 25 boat has a righting moment at 20° trans
weight calculation. verse inclination equal to about half the displacement
C.B. is the C.B. point location when boat is upright. and this is about the minimum that a small power boat,
R is the point found by making the moment of trans like the one I am referring to, should have at 20° in
ference of wedge volume calculation and indicates the clination. A study of table of transverse M.C. heights
transverse movement of C.B. point when boat is inclined given in Chapter IV will help you to understand the trans
to indicated angle. verse stability requirements of small power craft. Note
the transverse M.C. height of the Fig. 14 boat at 20°
Line RM. is line along which the up buoyancy pres—
inclination, and also note that even with C.G. point low
sure acts. It is always drawn at right angles to line W.L. ered 8 inches the Fig. 14 boat will not have more than
Line from C.G. down is line of action of down weight 15%; inches M.C. height.
pressure. It is always drawn parallel with up buoyancy
line. Final Remarks AbOut Transverse Stability
Line C.B.X.R. is line along which lever length is A designer must know the amount of transverse sta
measured. . bility a boat has at all angles it is likely to be inclined
X.R. is lever length. to, so he calculates righting lever lengths for a few in
clinations and by using the ascertained lever lengths as.
*The C.G. calculation in Chapter III gave .42 foot as dis ordinate measures he lays out a curve of stability from
tance C.G. point of boat Fig. I4 is above plane A, and C.B. cal
culation in same part gave .85 foot as distance C.B. point is be which he can quickly ascertain not only the righting lever
low plane A, therefore length for any named inclination within the range of
.42 'i- 35 = 1.27 feet distance between the two points. curve, but also righting moments, maximum righting
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
[—z'o'
URV E or 67‘
_,__,i 0 an,»
_ /.° I to the lever lengths at inclinations above those when
=
I deck, with lower freeboard, would become immersed.
_..1"' f
(1
£752"?
0 IO 20 so 40 50 60
RAI/va: or STWS/LITY
1‘18. 29
moment and range of stability, and inclinations between
which boat is safely stable.
Fig. 29 shows a curve of stability for small power
craft. To lay out such a curve for any boat a base line
is drawn and divided off into evenly spaced intervals,
and at each dividing mark an ordinate is erected at right
angles to base. These ordinates are marked to indicate
degrees of inclination, the first one being marked 0 and
the others in succession advancing by 5 or 10°.
The 0 ordinate line is then divided into evenly spaced
intervals to represent parts of a foot, base being called 0.
Next the stability lever length is calculated for a few
inclinations taken about 10° apart, and lever lengths are
measured along the proper inclination ordinates with
same scale that 0 ordinate was divided. A curved line
drawn to cut these points will be a curve of statical sta—
bility, the point where curve rises to its greatest distance
from base is called the angle of maximum stability, and
the number of degrees the curve includes is called range
of stability.
Thus, by making a few calculations and plotting a
curve it is possible to quickly ascertain righting lever
length at any inclination, and if it is desired to ascertain
righting moment for any inclination all that is necessary
is to measure lever length for that angle and multiply
measure by displacement of boat.
The righting lever at 20° of boat to which the illus—
tration curve belongs is I foot.
2I. RANGE OF STABILITY
By range of stability is meant the number of degrees
to which a boat can be inclined from upright without
becoming unsafe. The range of stability of every boat
should be sufficient to insure a safe length of righting
lever at the greatest angle that boat is likely to be in
clined to when in the service she is designed for.
Small power boats designed for protected waters
should have a range of stability of at least 50°, and for
large cruisers the range should not be less than 70°.
The principal things that influence range of stability
and lever length are:
Ist.—Form, both below and immediately above the
L.W.L. especially the portion of hull that is included in
the wedges of immersion and emersion when boat is in
clined to angles within the desired range of stability.
2d.—The vertical position of the C.G. point. Both
range of stability and length of lever is lessened with
each rise in the C.G. position.
3d.—Increase of displacement, and draught of water,
may not add to range of stability and actual length of
lever but will generally add to righting moment; because
righting moment is the product of weight X lever.
4th.—Increase of beam (breadth) will add to both
range and lever length even in cases when displacement
and draught remain the same.
27
5th.—An increase of freeboard, especially if boat’s
deck will become immersed before reaching the limit of
range of stability, will add greatly to the range and also
22. A Few REMARKS Amour LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
7a Up to this I have considered transverse stability only,
?
but inasmuch as a boat can incline longitudinally as well
as transversely, it is necessary to know a little about
longitudinal stability and the calculations made to de
termine it.
Stability is always at a minimum for transverse in
clinations and at a maximum for longitudinal ones, and
the difference between minimum and maximum is
very great indeed; so great, in fact, that a designer
knows without making any calculations that longitudinal
stability at all inclinations is many times greater than
necessary. It is, therefore, unnecessary to make detailed
longitudinal stability calculations; all that is necessary
being to determine the longitudinal M.C. height for one
slight inclination—say, 8 or 10°.
Every boat has a longitudinal M.C. point which in
dicates the height to which the C.G. of weight can be
raised without the boat becoming unstable longitudinally,
and the position of this point is found in identically the
same manner that the transverse M.C. point location is
found, except that the longitudinal movement of the
C.B. is ascertained and the line drawn upwards from the
inclined longitudinal C.B. point to the point where it
crosses a vertical drawn upwards from the longitudinal
C.G. point.
I will now give in concise form a few definitions and
explanations:
Stiflness.—A “stiff” boat is one that is very hard to
incline and when inclined and the inclining pressure is
removed it will come back to upright very suddenly.
Excessive stiffness is not a desirable feature, because it
causes excessive strains on a hull. Stiffness is caused
by a boat having a large transverse M.C. height. The
remedy is to lower it by raising the C.G.
Tenderness.—A “tender” boat is one easily inclined.
It is due to the M.C. height being too small and the
remedy is to lower the C.G. point.
Steadiness, when applied to a boat, means a tendency
to incline slowly and return to upright without undue
shock, or strain. It is obtained by giving a boat a mod
erate and proper M.C. height.
Oscillation is a term used to express the rolling mo
tion of a boat. By oscillation is meant a complete roll
from port to starboard, and the time occupied in making
this oscillation is termed the period of oscillation. Great
stiffness creates rapid oscillations, while tenderness con
duces to slow ones.
A slow rolling motion can be obtained in three ways:
Ist.—By giving a boat a small M.C. height.
 28 NdVflL (ZRCHITECTURE SIIMPLIFIED
2d.—By placing resistance agents outside of bull,
such as bilge keels.
3d.—By stowing weights, or ballast, well out from the
center line of boat.
23. EXPLANATION or THE MECHANICAL METHOD or
CALCULATING TRANSVERSE STABILITY
Before this calculation can be made you must cut out
cross section shapes of boat at each mould position.
These must be full (not half) sections from keel to sheer.
(I have used Fig. 25 cross sections to illustrate this cal
culation.)
Take a piece of cardboard, get out four or five copies
of each mould section located between the forward and
after ends of the L.W.L. Sections ahead or aft of the
ends of L.W.L. are not required. Mark on each section
shape a center vertical line and also the L.W.L. Take
one of each of the section shapes, place them in proper
order, No. I first, then No. 2, and so on, and then paste
them together one on top of the other, taking care to get
the center lines and L.W.L. marks in exact line. After
paste is dry, cut this set of sections in two along the
L.W.L. The underwater portion of this set of sections
is used to represent the displacement of the boat when
- upright. (See Fig. 29-A.) Next paste together the re
maining sets of sections in exactly the same manner and
when paste is dry mark on each set the selected degree of
inclination to which you desire to calculate transverse
stability. A different degree of inclination must be
marked on each set. Good inclinations for a small power
boat are 10°, 20°, 30°, 40°, 50°.
1‘13. 29-3
The inclination line is marked by drawing a line at the
desired angle diagonally across the section shapes in such
a manner that it will cross the center line at its inter
section with the L.W.L.
“Then all of the sets have an inclination line marked
across them cut each set of sections in two along the in
clination line. You will now have, in addition to the
upright set, three or more sets like Fig. 29~B, each being
cut out to indicate a different inclination. The under
water portions of these inclined sections are used for
calculating transverse stability.
To make the calculation, take one of the inclined
underwater sets of sections and see if it weighs exactly
the same‘ as the upright underwater set does. If it is
heavier (it is very likely to be) you must reduce its
weight until it is exactly the same as the upright set by
cutting off the required amount along a line parallel with
the inclined water-line. (See dotted line, Fig. 29-B.)
Use a very sharp knife and cut off a very little at a time
until you get the weight exactly right. Do this with each
of the inclined sets of sections. When all of the sets are
alike in weight the tests and calculations can be made.
To make the tests:
Ist.—Find the exact point of balance of each set of
inclined underwater portions of sections and mark the
points carefully. This point will be to one side of the
center line and should be found by balancing the sections
on the point of a pencil. When found these points indi—
cate the exact center transversely and vertically of the
underwater bulk of the boat when it is inclined to the
angle indicated on the sections.
2d.—Mark on a piece of paper an upright outline,
from deck to keel, of the largest cross section of the boat
and mark on it the center line, upright L.W.L., and the
location above keel of both the center of weight (C.G.)
and the center of upright underwater bulk point. These
points are marked on the center line. (See Fig. 29-C.)
3d.—Place one of the inclined sets of sections in
proper position on upright outline, using the center and
upright L.\V.L. marks as guides, and mark the inclined
L.\V.l.., which is now represented by the top of the
sections, and the exact location of the point of balance
found by the balancing experiment. (This point can be
pricked through to the outline drawing.)
4th.—Remove the set of sections and draw a line at
exact right angles to the inclined L.W.L., beginning at
the point of balance and extending upwards until it
touches the center line of boat. If this line touches the
center line of sections above the center of weight point
(the C.G. point) it will indicate that the boat will be
stable at inclination shown; but should it be below that
point the boat will be unstable (unsafe) when inclined to
the angle.
5th.——If you now desire to ascertain the amount of
force tending to right the boat when inclined to the in
dicated angle, all that is necessary is to measure the dis
tance. at right angles to the inclined upward line, from
that line to the C.G. of weight point. This measure
multiplied by the weight of the boat (its displacement)
will give the moment of force tending to right the boat
when inclined to the angle shown. (See Fig. 29-C, line
G. G.)
66’
G-B
Fig. 294:
To illustrate this we will suppose that the measure
from line to C.G. point is 6 inches (.5 foot) and that the
displacement of boat is 7,775 lb. Therefore the moment
of force tending to right the boat when it is inclined to
the indicated angle is .5 X 7,775 lb I 3,887 lb.
This same method is followed for each of the inclina
tions selected, and thus you can determine with reasonable
accuracy the transverse stability at several inclinations.
 Chapter VI
Explanation of Power and Resistance Calculations
I will now explain Power and resistance calculations,
meaning by these expressions the Power developed by en—
gines when installed in boats and vessels, and the resist
ance offered to forward motion of a boat when being
propelled by power.
24. POWER
Work is defined as the product of force and distance
through which it acts. Time does not enter into work
calculations but it does enter into calculations involving
power.
Power, therefore, can be defined as work performed
in a stated period of time.
The unit employed in power calculations is a horse
power, which is taken as 33,000 foot-pounds of work
performed in one minute, or its equivalent. Thus, a
force of I lb acting through 33,000 feet in one minute,
or 50 lb acting through 11 feet in one second, will be
one-horse power. .
Force, distance, and period of time must enter into
all power calculations; it is important to remember this.
25. EXPLAINING I.H.P.
In calculating power of an engine the unit of time
used is one minute, the unit of distance used in number of
revolutions made by crank in that period of time, and the
- unit of force used is based upon pressure exerted on
piston, this pressure varying with pounds of steam, if
engine uses steam, or compression, if engine is an in—
ternal-combustion one.
The power of an engine is always expressed in horse
power units, written H.P., and when stating power it is
proper and usual to give diameter of cylinder, stroke of
engine, number of revolutions at which the named H.P.
is developed, and steam pressure if engine uses steam.
This power, the horsepower actually developed in the
cylinder of the engine, is termed the indicated horse
power (written I.H.P.) because it indicates the actual
power developed inside cylinder at named pressure and
number of revolutions, the term indicated being derived
from instrument known as an indicator that is used for
determining variations of pressure in cylinder during a
complete stroke (revolution of crank).
Thus, the indirated 11.1). of an engine using steam
depends upon mean steam pressure, cylinder capacity,
number of revolutions; or, what is the same thing—
Mean pressure, piston area, piston speed.
These last expressions are used when calculating
power of an internal-combustion engine.
Consequently before the I.H.P. developed in the cyl
inders of a gas engine can be determined it is necessary
to know:
Ist.—The mean effective pressure developed in cylin—
der at each impulse.
2d.—The area of piston in square inches.
3d.—The length of stroke in feet.
4th.—The number of explosions in each cylinder per
minute.
The first can be accurately determined by means of an
indicator, or it can be calculated by using a formula which
I will explain later.
The second can be accurately measured, so also can
the third.
The fourth can be determined by count by means of
a speed indicator. -
Knowing these things, the I.H.P. is determined by
using this formula:
p l a e c
—— : I.H.P.
33,000
Where p stands for mean effective pressure in one
cylinder.
1 stands for length of stroke in feet.
a stands for area of head piston in square
inches. ‘
e stands for number of explosions in one
cylinder per minute. _
c stands for number of cylinders.
For instance, if a gas engine has
A mean effective pressure in cylinder of 60 lb,
A length of stroke of 0.8 foot,
An area of piston head of 50 square inches, and runs
at 400 revolutions per minute, the number of cylinders
being 2, its I.H.P. will be 58.18, determined as follows:
6o><0.8><5o><400><2
——-_——-——— : 58.18 I.H.P.
33,000
And if 20% of this power is used up in overcoming
friction of moving parts of engine, then the H.P. avail
able for use at engine shaft will only be 46.55.
B.H.P. being a term (Brake horse-power) used to
express the H.P. available for use.
26. EXPLAINING B.H.P.
Brake horse-power is a term used to express the power
delivered by an engine to the end of a rotating shaft
(its crank shaft).
B.H.P. is always less than the I.H.P. by the amount
of power lost (used up) through friction of moving
parts of engine. This may vary from IO to 30%, de
pending upon the design, efficiency of the lubrication, and
general construction of moving parts.
The B.H.P. is measured by means of a Prony brake
applied to engine flywheel, or to a pulley attached to end
of crank shaft.
27. EXPLAINING EFFECTIVE HP.
The power available for propulsion of a boat is
called the (’flt’Cll-‘Ue horse-porter (written B.H.P.) and
expresses the HP. required to overcome the resistance
30 NdeIL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
offered by the water to progress at any named speed.
It can be better expressed as the H.P. usefully employed boat that requires 50 E.H.P. to drive her at a certain speed
and is sometimes described as the “tow-rope” H.P. and this speed is attained with engine running at its full
because it is the power that would have to be transmitted power, the propulsive coefficient will be 50, or 50%.
through a tow rope if boat was towed at named speed.
\Vhen a boat is towed, or pulled, through water at a
uniform speed by some external force which does not in
terfere with the free flow of water past hull, the strain
on tow rope is the measure of resistance to her motion,
and the product of this resistance into the distance
moved in a certain named period of time is the measure
of work done by the towing force.
The period'of time used is usually one second, and as
33,000
a H.P. represents 550 units of work per second (
6o
: 550) the effective H.P. equals
R X S
— : E.H.P.
55°
R : resistance offered to passage of hull in pounds.
S I speed in knots per hour.
Here is an example taken from towing experiments:
Example—At a speed of 16.95 feet per second the
tow-rope strain was 10,770 fb, find the E.H.P.
10,770 X 16.95
: 332 E.H.P. required.
55°
E.H.P. I The power required to overcome the actual
resistance that water offers to passage of boat through it
at named speed.
Therefore, if the E.H.P. is known and to it is added:
Ist.—The power loss in engine itself through fric
tion, etc.
2d.—The power lost in driving pumps, etc.
3d.—The power lost in transmitting from engine to
propeller.
4th.——The power lost in slippage of propeller.
5th.—The power required to overcome additional hull
resistance due to friction of propeller and disturbance of
water by propeller, the actual I.H.P. necessary for the
named speed can be ascertained.
I.H.P. 2 Maximum power developed in an engine’s
cylinders at named number of revolutions.
E.H.P. '= H.P. delivered by engine to its rotating as low as 5% and as high as 25% of the I.H.P. of engine.
crank shaft. It equals the I.H.P. minus the first and
second losses mentioned above.
E.H.P. : I.H.P. minus the five losses mentioned
above.
The I.H.P. is about twice the tow-rope H.P., or, in
other words, about one-half the actual horse-power de
veloped by a marine engine is employed in non-useful
work, the term non-useful meaning work other than that
employed in directly driving boat ahead.
I will now explain how the efficiency of engine is
estimated.
28. EXPLAINING THE PROPULSIVE COEFFICIENT
When the indicated and effective H.P. has been de
termined for a stated speed and a particular boat, the
ratio which the latter bears to the former is termed the
[Impulsive coeflicient, and is expressed in the form of a
percentage.
If an engine that develops IOO I.H.P. is installed in a
From actual tests made it has been found that pro
pulsive coefficients vary considerably.
For single-screw vessels constructed of wood and
having thick stern posts the propulsive coefficient is
between 40 and 45%.
\Vith steel-constructed vessels having fine stern posts
the coefficient is about 50, and in the case of stem lines
being particularly fine and free from obstructions the co
efficient will rise to between 55 and 60%.
For torpedo boats and high-speed craft fitted with en
gines that run at very high speed, the coefficient will be
between 55 and 65%.
The finer the lines and higher the speed the higher
the propulsive coefficient will be.
For power boats of usual form driven at moderate
speed a propulsive coefficient of 50 to 60 can be obtained.
Bear in mind that propulsive coefficient is a term used
to express ratio between I.H.P. and E.H.P. and not ratio
between B.H.P. and E.H.P,
It may surprise you to learn that in a well-designed
vessel, or boat, the I.H.P. is about twice the E.H.P. I
will, therefore, try and explain some of the causes of
this seeming waste of power by taking up each loss item
mentioned and explaining what causes the loss and the
amount of loss.
Items No. 1 and No. 2 can be considered together.
This loss, which is due to friction of moving parts of en—
gine, cannot be eliminated, but it can be reduced to a
minimum by careful construction and the use of proper
nonfriction materials.
Careful designing of valves, valve gearing, and the
use of proper sized pumps, etc., will also help to reduce
loss. No definite rule can be formulated for figuring
these losses, but experiments made with engines of
various types and sizes show that loss from items No. I
and No. 2 will vary from 5 to 10% of the I.H.P. of small
engines and from 7 to 15% of large ones when engines
are running at their full power (speed). Item No. 3,
or power lost in transmitting from engine to propeller, is
all due to friction and will vary with number of bear
ings and care with which the shaft is lined, and may be
If engine shaft is not properly lined and kept in line
the loss from N0. 3 item will be very great, especially
with small high-speed engines.
The loss, if shaft is properly lined, will be between
5 and 10% of the I.H.P. of engine.
4th.—P0wer loss due to slip of propeller. By slip of
propeller is meant the loss of driving power due to its
working in a yielding medium like water.
Briefly explained, the blades of a propeller can be
likened to portions of screw threads, and if a propeller
be turned in an unyielding substance, like wood, each
complete turn (revolution) would advance it the pitch
of its blades, or distance that one complete turn of a
screw having the same pitch would advance.
A propeller turning in a yielding fluid like water will
not advance the full pitch for each turn and the difference
between the distance one turn would advance in an un
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED 31

yielding substance and that actually advanced when it is Suppose a thin plate 5 feet long, 1 foot wide and
revolved in water is the slippage. The slip of a pro 1/16 inch thick is immersed in water and moved end on,
peller is always expressed as a percentage of the full or edgeways, at a certain speed. It will experience a
pitch. The following illustration may help you to under~ resistance from the water with which its surface comes
stand slip: in contact, this resistance being almost entirely due to
If a man stands in the stern of a boat and pushes friction. Now suppose that the plate is turned around
directly backwards against another boat, both boats and moved in a direction at right angles to its surface
being afloat and loose, the force he exerts will drive the (with the 5 X I face in the direction of movement). The
boat he is in ahead and at the same time the other boat frictional resistance on surface will be almost eliminated,
will be forced back or astern. but it will encounter in addition to this small frictional
resistance a direct, or head resistance, which will greatly
The amount of force the man exerts can be likened
exceed the friction on plate when it was moved edgeways,
to pitch of a propeller and is equal to that which drives
and this head resistance will also be proportioned to area
the boat ahead added to that which drives the other boat
back; while the force which drives the other boat back of plate and the speed at which it is moved.
can be likened to the slip or lost power. The slip of The greater the area and speed the greater resistance
propellers installed in hulls of usual form designed to be will be.
driven at moderate speed, is between 20 and 35%, the Now suppose that plate is held obliquely, or at less
slip varying with form of propeller and its adaptability than 90° angle with direction of motion, and then moved.
to hull. The resistance will be less than when plate was held at
5th.—Additi0nal resistance due to friction of pro right angles and will be partly head resistance and partly
peller and eddies. When a propeller revolves in water frictional, the head resistance varying with angle of in
it sets up eddies at stern which tend to interfere with the clination that surface of plate makes with direction of
free passage of water around hull. This augments (adds motion.
to) resistance from 1 t0 3%, the percentage varying The smaller the angle the smaller head resistance will
with area and efficiency of propeller. be.
Summarizing the foregoing remarks, it is safe to say If we assume that direct head resistance when plate
that under average conditions of operation with engine is held at right angles to direction of motion (90°) is
delivering its full I.H.P. only about 80 to 85% of that 1.00 then head resistance at oblique angles will be as
power is delivered to the propeller shaft and if from this follows: 0
is deducted the loss at propeller it becomes apparent Angle Platchakcs \Vilh Line of Motion in Degrees
that the propulsive coefficient cannot exceed 70 and may 90 so 70 so so 40 so 20 10 0
drop as low as 45. A good propulsive coefficient_t0 use Resistance 1.00 .930 .880 .820 .730 .580 .435 .325 .270 .0
for standard makes of internal-combustion engines is 60.
Rss1srAnc1-z TABLE
When an engine is run at less than its rated number H.P.
of revolutions only a proportion of the full power is Speed per Direct Head Figures Value of Skin Friction.
Hour in Resistance per One Resistance for
delivered and under these conditions the relative pro Knots Miles . Ft. Sq. F1. H.P. 20 F1. 40 Ft
portional value of items Nos. 1, 2, 3, will increase. 1 1.15 2.85 0.008
For instance, at trials of a certain vessel the engine, 2 2.30 11.40 0.07 ....
3 346 25.67 0.24 107.0
when running at its full rated number of revolutions, 4 4.61 45.64 0.56 81.5
delivered 700 I.H.P. and about 7% of this power (49 5 5.76 71.31 1.09 65.0 . . .. ....
I.H.P.) was used up, overcoming the dead loss friction, 0 6.91 102.68 1.89 54.1 0.27 0.25
but when engine was running at much less than its full 7 8.07 139.76 300 46.5 0.38 0.35
8 9.22 182.55 4.48 40.6 0.49 0,46
number of revolutions and delivering only 100 I.H.P. 9 10.37 231.04 6.38 37.7 0.61 0.58
something like 30% of this power (about 30 I.H.P.) was 10 11.52 285.23 8, 76 32.5 0.73 0.70
absorbed in overcoming dead load friction. 11 12.68 345.13 11.66 29.4 0.87 0.83
12 13.83 410.74 15.13 27.2 1.01 0,98
13 14.98 482.05 19.24 25.1 1.20 1.10
29. RESISTANCE 14 16.14 559.05 24.03 23.2 1.42 1,25
I will now explain the various resistances which go to 15 17.29 641.72 29.56 21.7 1.65 1.51
16 18.44 730.20 36.34 20.1 1.90 148
make up total resistance which a boat must overcome 17 19.59 - 824.33 43.03 19.1 2.16 1 1.68
when being towed, or forced, through still water. Note—*Resistance in pounds per square foot 0 surface,
The principal resistances are: the length of which is specified.
Ist.—Resistance due to form of hull and friction of See skin friction paragraphs for further explanation.
water on it. By dividing direct head resistance figures by the HP. figures
the value of one H.P. at each speed is ascertained.
2d.—Resistance due to the formation of eddies. After this the words head resistance and direct head resist
3d.—Resistance due to the formation of waves. ance \v1ll refer to resistance when plates are held at 90°;
Ist.—Resistance Due to Form of Body and Friction for angles less than 90° the term oblique head resistance will be
used.
of Water.—When a solid body is moved in water particles
of water are pushed aside, and in moving they exercise Experiments made for the purpose of finding the
a certain amount of friction both on one another and on amount of head resistance per square foot of surface for
the immersed surface of the body, the resistance vary plates towed at right angles to surface of water (90°)
ing with area of surface, with form, with length, with have established these things:
nature and roughness of surface, and with the velocity Ist.—Resistance is nearly constant for all depths at
with which the particles of water glide over the surface any named speed. In other words depth of immersion
(speed). does not seem to change resistance.

32 N.4V.4L leCHITECTURE ,SIMPLIFIED
2d.—That direct head resistance at a speed of 6 knots
is about 110 lb per square foot of surface, and for speeds
above 6 knots resistance varies about as the square of
speed.
'For plates towed with their faces held at angles less
than 90° with surface of water it has been established:
Ist.—That resistance varies with angle. The smaller
the angle the less resistance will be.
2d.—That while variation in resistance is not in exact
ratios it approximates to the sine of angle at which sur—
face of plate is held. _ understand the earlier theory of resistance which, though
3d.—That resistance varies with speed, the ratio Of
variation being between 1.85 and the square of speed.
4th.——That while resistance varies with area it is not
greatly affected by increase of breadth of plate.
On page 31 1 give a table Of direct head resistance per
square foot of surface for speeds from I to 17 knots, and
against each speed I have also entered the power (H.P.)
required to overcome direct head resistance and the force
value Of one H.P. .
To make the table complete I have added a column
in which is entered the force required to overcome fric
tion of water on one square foot of smooth-painted
surface. , method used for calculating H.P. required to drive boats
3o. RESISTANCE DUE To FRICTION or WATER ON SKIN
(Immersed Surface)
This varies with:
Ist.——Area of immersed surface.
2d.—Roughness of surface.
3d.—-Length of surface.
. 4th.—The velocity at which particles Of water pass
over the surface.
Each square foot of immersed surface requires a
certain amount of power to overcome frictional resist
ance due to the water particles moving past it. There
fore the larger the surface is the greater the power re
quired to overcome friction.
\Vater particles when set in motion do not move with
absolute freedom but rub against each other and also
against the surface of any solid body past which they
move. It, therefore stands to reason that friction against
a rough surface will be greater than that against a smooth
one.
From experience made with boards in various de—
grees of roughness it has been learnt that if it requires
one pound of force to overcome friction of water against
a very rough surface (about equal to a rough sawed
board) only about one—half a pound will be required if
board is planed smooth, and still less if board is smoothed
and well painted, or finished.
Length of surface has some influence on water fric
tion. This is no doubt due to the fact that just as soon
as a body immersed in water moves forward the water
in contact with its surface also moves in same direction
as body, therefore that portion Of immersed surface
that goes first in line of motion encounters resistance
from water that is not in motion and as this resistance
is overcome some motion is imparted to the particles of
water moved aside, and thus the following parts of
advancing surface encounters resistance from water that
is in motion in the direction in which the body is advanc
ing and cannot encounter as much resistance as the for
ward part of surface does.
F‘q
When calculating friction of this kind it is usual to
use figures which represent mean frictional resistance
for the whole length of surface and on table the friction
figures indicate mean resistance for lengths and speeds
given.
Friction of water varies, approximately, as the square
of the velocity when area, length, and condition of sur
face remains unaltered.
The foregoing remarks upon resistance experienced
by plane surfaces moving through water will help you to
now supplanted by the more accurate stream line theory,
is sufficiently accurate for use when no reliable speed
and power data is available.* It has also this additional
great advantage: It can be used when Only a very few
particulars of a design are knoum, as, for instance, pre
liminary particulars “and dimensions.
31. ExPLAININc A SIMPLE METHOD OF CALCULATING
POWER REQUIRED To DRIVE A BOAT AT NAMED
SPEED
I will, before explaining the newer stream line theory
and calculations, briefly explain the Older and simpler
of usual form.
The old theory of resistance was based upon the
following assumption:
Ist.—That area of midship section furnished the chief
measure Of resistance, each square foot of greatest cross
section requiring a given force to drive it through the
water, this force varying with angle and length of en—
trance and run, and speed.
2d.—That area of immersed surface furnished another
measure of resistance each square foot of it requiring a
certain amount of power to offset friction of water on
it, this resistance varying with length Of surface and its
smoothness, and also with speed. ' .
3d.——That direct head resistance and frictional resist—
ance varied about as the square Of speed, and that oblique
resistance varied about as the sine of angle of entrance
lines and also with speed.
4th.—That if figures which correctly represented
direct head resistance and skin friction per square foot
for a named speed were used as the base figures for a
calculation and from result was deducted the proper re
duction in head resistance due to improvement in form
which angle Of entrance gave, the H.P. required to drive
hull would be ascertained. And if to this was added a
proper % to cover engine and propeller frictional losses
and propeller slippage the total I.H.P. required tO drive
a boat at named speed would be ascertained.
\Nave resistance was ignored, it being assumed that
the figures obtained by making this calculation would
cover power required to overcome resistance due to
waves.
The figures given on resistance table are the ones used
when_calculating H.P. required by using the old method.
By using figures taken from that table in the manner
explained below H.P. required to drive boat at any named
speed can be calculated.
fThe new theory requires that the designer have complete
particulars and data of similar boats at his'disposal, as well as
the particulars of the design he is working on.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
For a square-fronted body, like a box, or barge, the
formula is:
H X A : Power required to overcome direct head
resistance.
1H being the H.P. figures, for speed named, taken from
tab e.
A being the area of cross section in square feet.
For skin friction of square—fronted body the formula
is:
R . . tional losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
X H : Power
tion necessary to overcome skin fric
at speed named.
I X F
I being immersed surface in square feet.
F being frictional resistance per square foot for length
of body.
H being H.P. figures for speed named.
R being direct head resistance per square foot.
For a boat having a properly shaped bow and stem the
same formula is used, but to it is added a fractional
multiplier (coefficient) that represents the reduction in
resistance due to angle of bow lines. This coefficient is
obtained by dividing extreme breadth on L.W.L. by length
of entrance and squaring result.
The formula \for a vessel having a properly shaped
bow and stern lines being:
H X C0 X A : Power required to overcome oblique
resistance.
H standing for H.P. figures for speed named (taken
from table).
Co standing for a coefficient obtained in manner ex
plained above.
A standing for area of midship section in square feet.
For skin friction the formula is the same as used for
a square-fronted body:
I X F
X H : Power required to overcome friction.
R portance.
In both cases figures obtained are added, and to total
is added a percentage to cover loss of power due to fric—
tion of moving parts of engine, propeller, shaft, etc.; and
another percentage to cover loss by propeller slippage,
eddies, etc.
The final figures (the total of the four items named—
hull resistance, skin friction, loss of power in engine, and
propeller losses) will be the I.H.P. required to propel
boat, at named speed.
To illustrate the application of formula: for properly
shaped hulls I will make use of dimensions and particu
lars taken from power boat and by using the formulae I
will calculate I.H.P. required to drive at stated speed.
Power Cruiser of these dimensions:
Length 80 feet, breadth 14 feet, mean draught 4.5 feet.
Length of entrance 46 feet, area midship section 40
square feet. a“
Immersed skin 1,500 square feet. Speed desired 12.5
miles an hour.
H.P. to overcome head resistance is:
14
Coefficient is —— : 0.304 0. 3042 : 0.092
46
33
11.66 X 0.092 X 40 : 42.90 H.P.
For skin friction the figures are:
1.245
1,500 X 0.83 : 1,245. X 11.6.6 : 42.07 H.P.
345
Therefore the H.P. required is:
To overcome oblique head resistance .. 42.90
To overcome skin friction . . . . . . . . . . .. 42.07
84-97
Add 10% for engine and shaft fric
8.49
Add 25% for propeller losses . . . . . . 21.24
Required I.H.P. : . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 114.70
Nata—The actual I.H.P. required was 106.
The figures for 12.5 miles are (taken from Table) :
Direct head resistance . . . . . . . . . . .. 345
' Skin friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .83
H.P. figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.66
This illustration serves to explain the formulas and
indicates that accurate results can be obtained when boat
is of usual form and speed is moderate.
Having explained the old theories of resistance and
methods used for calculating H.P. required for a named
speed I will now explain the stream line theory of re
sistance and modern methods used for calculating power
required to drive a boat at a named speed.
32. EXPLAINING THE STREAM LINE THEORY OF
RESISTANCE
In modern resistance calculations the immersed body
is not subdivided as in the old theory, but is considered as
a whole and the total resistance is supposed to be made
up of two principal and one minor parts.
Ist.—Frictional resistance due to the sliding of parti
cles of water over the immersed surface.
2d.—Wave resistance due to the formation of waves
by the boat, or vessel.
3d.—Eddy resistance at stern. This is of minor im
It is assumed that frictional resistance is not sen
sibly affected by form and proportions unless some un
usual, or unfair, form is used but is dependent upon im
mersed surface, its area, its degree of roughness, its
length, and speed.
It is also assumed that wave-making resistance is
almost entirely influenced by form and proportions,
especially upon the shape and length of entrance and
run, and their proportions relative to speed at which the
boat is to be driven at.
For every boat there is a limit of speed beyond which
resistance increases in a disproportionate manner, and
this limit seems to be fixed by the length of entrance
and run—the wave-making features. Eddy-making re
sistance is usually small and is largely due to abrupt
termination of after ends of water-lines, to action of
propeller and rudder, and to the addition to hull of pro
jecting appendages such as struts. This form of resist
ance can be almost eliminated by fineing stern—post and
correctly placing struts, propellers and rudder. It is
usual to take care of eddy-making resistance by making
a small addition to frictional resistance figures. For
fine lines and no large appendages the addition should be
about 5% of frictional resistance figures, but if stern
34 NdVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
lines are full and appendages large the percentage should
be nearly 10%.
The sum of these three elements is supposed to
constitute the total resistance offered by water to the
motion of a boat; being towed through it, when water is
sufficiently deep. In shallow water an additional re
sistance is encountered but this need not be considered
at this time.
For the purpose of explaining the stream line theory of
resistance, let us assume that we have before us a stream
of water flowing rapidly in one direction, the stream
being sufficiently large that the steady flowing of water
is not influenced, or changed, by bottom and sides en—
closing it.
Under these conditions the water will flow steadily,
at one speed, and if it were possible to separate the water
into particles and trace the lines followed by each particle
it would be seen that every particle of water travels in
a straight line at uniform speed. This is illustrated by
means of Fig. 29-D.
I‘ll. 29-E
Now let us assume that a ship-shaped body is en
tirely immersed in water, with its bow facing the direc
tion from which water flows, and fastened in such a
manner that it cannot move.
If it were now possible to trace the lines each particle
of water travels along it would be found that as soon
as a certain particle reaches the bow of shaped body it
will change its direction of travel and in place of mov—
ing along a straight line it will move along the line of
least resistance to its passage around the obstructing
body. \Vhile in practice each particle of water will
flow past the obstructing body along lines of least re—
sistance which, of Course, will be around, over and under,
we will assume for the purpose of this illustration that
the particles maintain their horizontal motion and are
only divided laterally; then as they approach bow of
body, they will move out sideways and this movement
will cause a perceptible slackening in speed which will
gradually decrease until the broadest part of body is
reached, when they will have resumed their original
speed, only to lose it again in a gradually increasing
amount as they close in around the stern. Finally
after flowing past the body and reaching a distance astern
that places them beyond the disturbing influence of body,
they will regain their original direction of flow and speed
of travel. (See Fig. 29—E.)
It must be kept in mind that the influence of im
mersed body on speed and direction of flow of water
particles may extend some distance ahead and astern,
the distance varying with form, and outside of this
sphere of influence all particles of water will flow along
straight lines at a steady speed.
Fig. 29-E illustrates path of flow of water particles
when passing in horizontal lines around a shaped body.
On illustration the body is shown by means of black
section and path of travel of water particles by individual
lines. The blank unlined space ahead and aft of body
indicate sphere of influence of body on lines of travel.
Now let us assume that‘ the shaped body is only
partly immersed. A new condition now arises, due to
the possibility of waves being formed on surface of
water by the change in direction and speed of particles
of water as they flow past the obstructing body. At bow
where the check in speed is greatest the pressure of one
particle on the next one will be increased and this in
creased pressure must produce an elevation of water
above normal position, and thus a bow wave is formed.
\Vith the advance of the particles towards amidships
their speed increases and pressure diminishes, thus allow—
ing the water to return to its normal level; but amid
ships the speed of particles is increased to slightly above
normal, which results in such a decrease of pressure that
water will sink below its normal level only to rise again
when the midship section is past and speed of particles
again reduced. At the stern there is again the increase
of pressure and heaping up of water above normal.
On illustration Fig. 29-F I show the character of
wave crest formed by this increase and decrease of speed
and pressure.
Force is expended in the formation of these waves
but when once formed they travel away into the sur
rounding water.
Thus in the case of a boat partly submerged and
moving at uniform speed, a series of waves will be
formed on the surface of water and particles compos—
ing them will have a motion in a direction other than
that followed by the undisturbed particles.
Wherever a wave crest is the particles forming it will
travel obliquely in the direction of advance of boat, and
where a hollow is formed the particles will travel ob
liquely in the opposite direction.
Observation shows that two distinct series of waves
are formed by the movement of a boat through stillwater
——those formed by how, and those formed by stern.
Each series consists Of both diverging and transverse
waves. '
The diverging waves caused by bow are due to the
widening form Of entrance which, as I have already ex—
plained, retards the particles Of water and thus increases
pressure sufficiently to cause the water to rise above its
normal level. These waves are thrown off on each side
of entrance in an oblique direction, their size varying
with speed, with obtuseness of entrance, and with form
of bow lines Of boat.
It is noticeable that waves thus formed at bow become
larger as speed increases and consequently Offer a greater
amount of resistance, but as they pass quickly away
into distant wate. their total resistance is entirely due to
the force expended in their formation.
Besides these diverging bow waves there is also pro
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED 35
duced by forward motion a series of transverse waves as important as the distribution of bulk in a fore-and-aft
which carry their crests transversely to line of motion. direction.
These transverse waves show themselves along the There is no doubt that ratios of length to speed have
sides of boat and offer considerable resistance to prog a very important bearing on wave-making resistance, and
ress, especially when sPeed is pushed beyond that which that the ratio (6—4) proposed by Mr. Scott Russell is
is proper for the design. a good one, even though modern investigation has proved
The length of these waves always bear a definite re that it is not necessary to adhere to it.
lation to speed, the variation being as the square of The general form of a vessel’s underwater body must
speed. have a more important bearing on wave-making than
Waves formed by the stern while similar in character mere shape of the fore-and-aft lines, because each particle
do not offer very much resistance to passage, therefore, of water passes along lines of least resistance which are
their importance with regards to resistance is very small in the majority of cases diagonal and not horizontal or
indeed. _ ,_ vertical lines.
From data obtained by making many experiments
33. EXPLAINING THE MODERN METHOD OF COMPUTING
with models and with full-sized vessels, it is clear that
it is not possible to construct a formula which will give I.H.P. REQUIRED TO DRIVE A VESSEL AT A
accurate wave-making resistance of boats and vessels NAMED SPEED
being driven at speeds when wave-making resistance be The modern method of determining I.H.P..required to
comes of first importance. drive a boat at a named speed is by comparison.
At low speeds wave-making resistance is of minor The length, breadth, depth, displacement, area of
importance, but just as soon as speed is increased to, or midship section, and coefficients of fineness of the new de
beyond, a certain point the wave—making resistance as— sign having been selected and speed determined upon, the
sumes a place of great importance and often becomes designer selects a midship performance and a displace
greater than skin-friction resistance. ment performance coefficient from a list of data of
The speed at which wave-making assumes such im-~ actual trials, a boat of similar type, dimensions, and speed
portance seems to depend very largely upon angle and to that of the new design, then by using these coefficients
shape of entering and closing lines (the bow and stem in the manner explained below the I.H.P. necessary to
lines). drive new boat is ascertained.
In general the greater the length in proportion to It is important to bear in mind that the coefficient
breadth the higher speed can be before wave-making be must be selected from performance of a boat of similar
comes- Of first importance. The shape of lines also has type and corresponding speed.
some bearing upon wave-making, and it was with a view By similar type I mean having similar proportions and
to formulating rules for constructing a force of least re displacement, and by corresponding speed is meant the
sistance that Mr. Scott Russell conducted a series of ex same speed as the new boat is to be driven at.
periments which resulted in the formulation of his wave— Before a designer can use the modern method it is
line theory of form. absolutely necessary that he have at his disposal accurate
This theory was based upon the assumption that tables of dimensions, performance and coefficients of
during each interval occupied by a vessel in advancing a boats of the type he is designing, or at least know the
distance equal to the length of her entrance lines a cer proper coefficients to use.
tain number of particles of water are moved into a posi Below I give a number of coefficients in tabulated
tion which will cause them to be formed into a wave form.
wholly situated above the water level and traveling at a
natural speed equal to the maximum speed proposed for TABLE OF SINGLE-SCREW POWER-BOAT PERFORMANCE COEFFICIENTS
Displm‘l Length Breadth Mean Block D.P.'
the vessel. N0. Tons 11 F1 in Ft. Draught Coefl. Cocfl. Knotl l.H.P
Thus a series of waves would follow one another at 1 3.42 27 6.81 2.25 .29 66.5 6.95 11.5
2 3.8 82 5.66 1.5 .485 69 8.66 28
regular intervals, the interval as well as the height vary 8 4.5 40 6.18 1.5 .426 115 18.00 188
ing with length of entrance and speed. 4 1.8 89.9 5.00 0 7 .500 127 18.88 78
5 2.26 89.9 5.00 1.1 .862 230 29.68 195
In this theory it was formulated that the length of 6 28.8 54.8 11.88 8.15 .899 127 8.5 89.8
7 15.0 60.0 9.5 2.97 .310 154 19.0 1 270
entrance for any length of vessel should equal the 75 58.0 65.0 14.5 5 00 .400 190 11.0 122
length of a solitary wave traveling at a natural speed 11.22
8 190 92.5 20.95 7.92 .488 181 15.00 856
equal to the maximum speed proposed for vessel, and 9 176 92.5 20.95 7.60 .419 180 11.68 878
that the length of run should be two-thirds the length of 10 120 96.5 16.25 7.00 .885 167 14.00 400
11 42.9 96.0 18.60 2.48 .468 126 9.58 84.5
entrance. 12 88.4 91.0 11.75 8.28 .889 178 18.00 142
More modern experiments along these lines have 13 184 108 18.66 7.00 .882 174 18.00 880
shown that the wave-form theory as applied to the shape *Displacement performance coefficient obtained by making
of fore-and-aft lines does not always produce a form of calculation explained. _
The block coefficient gives a more accurate indication of
least wave-making resistance, but that some improvement fineness than the prismatic coefficient.
can be obtained by making the fore-and-aft form of hull Knowing the coefficients to use the calculations can
conform to the rule. be made in this manner:
In other words if the form of underwater body is Speeda X Area immersed midship section I.H.P. re
made to conform to the true wave form, resistance will
be less than if only the lines parallel with L.W.L. are : quired for
Midship performance coefficient speed.*
so shaped.
The shape of water-line planes does not seem to be *This is the calculation chiefly used in France.
30 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
Or the following calculation can be made:
a ______—_
Speed3 X \/ Displacement2 _ I.H.R for named
speed.*
Displacement performance coefficient
Either calculation can be used, but‘if greatest ac
curacy is desired make both calculations and take the
mean of results as being I.H.P. required.
The first calculation is a simple one, but the second is
complicated by having to find the cube root of displace—
ment squared; This is sometimes called the twosthird
power of a number. In this calculation it means the two—
third power of displacement.
The midship and displacement performance coeffi
cients are ascertained from actual results of trials, in this
manner:
At trials the I.H.P. developed by engine and speed
obtained with the power is ascertained and by using these
figures and the known midship section area, or displace—
ment figures, in manner explained below, the performance
coefficients are found.
For midship performance coefficient the formula is:
Speed a X Area midship
. . section
. __ Midship performance
_ coeflicient.
I.H.P.
. For displacement performance coefficient the formula
is:
8 ——
Speed3 X \/ Displacement2 __ Displacement performance
I H P coefficient.
In all cases the displacement figures must be in tons,
or parts of a ton.
If the I.H.P. is known the probable speed can be cal
culated by using the following formulze:
8
V I.H.P. X Midship performance coefficient
I Speed.
Area Midship section
Or,
\/ I.H.P. X Displacement performance coeff.
: Speed.
3 —
\/ Displacenuent2
In-these formulze it is assumed:
Ist.—That resistance varies as the square of speed,
and work to be done as the cube. SO long as speed does
not exceed the limit where wave-making resistance be
comes of more importance than frictional resistance, the
assumption that total resistance varies as the square of
speed holds goods, but just as soon as wave-making re—
sistance becomes Of first importance the variation will be
greater than square of speed.
2d.—That the coeflicient Of performance of machinery
is the same in both vessels. This also holds good when
engines are of similar types and methods of propulsion
the same. Accuracy cannot be obtained by comparing
performance of steam engines with that of an internal
combustion engine, and results Obtained by use of a screw
propeller with paddle-wheel results.
*This calculation is universally used in English and U. S.
ship yards.
The calculations are equally accurate providing proper per
formance coefficients are used,
3d.—That resistance varies as the area of midship sec—
tion, or as the two-third power of displacement. The
greater the similarity of hull, engine, and propeller the
greater will be the accuracy of this method of estimation.
\lVithin limits mentioned the coefficients of perform
ance furnish an excellent means of estimating probable
power required to drive a new boat at a named speed.
I will now, by using performance coefficients, esti—
mate the power required to drive the power boat selected
for the old method calculation and thus you can compare
accuracy of results Obtained by both old and new method
calculations.
Power cruiser, 80 X I4 X 4.5 feet. Displacement 57
tons. Block coefficient 0.400. Speed desired 11 knots.
N0. 7a Of table is a similar boat and as the speed is
the same as that for new boat, the performance coeffi
cient is likely to be suitable.
8—
113 X V 572
Probable I.H.P. I —-——— I 103 I.H.P.
I90
The actual I.H.P. used when 11 knots was attained
was 106.
The modern method of estimating I.H.P. required is
very accurate, but requires that the designer have at his
disposal reliable data of performance of ships and boats
of the type being designed.
Data Of this kind is seldom published, therefore each
architect compiles his own. -
\Nithout data for comparison the selection of suitable
performance coefficients becomes a matter of guesswork
and under these conditions the formulae are useless.
The most difficult part of the work, for a young de
signer, lies in the selection of correct performance co
efficients.
In making the selection be guided by these rules:
Ist.—Compare coefficients of fineness of new design
with that of vessel selected. They should be alike, or
nearly so.
2d.—Compare dimensions and displacement. They
should be very similar.
3d.—C0mpare lengths especially of entrance lines.
4th.—Compare speeds. The speeds should be similar.
If these particulars are similar a similar performance
coefficient can be used and accurate results obtained; but
if speed, dimensions, and fineness of form are not alike
in both vessels some allowance must be made and a dif
ferent performance coefficient used.
In addition tO this, it is important to bear in mind that
performance coefficients do not remain constant for all
speeds of a certain boat, but will vary with Change Of
speed, or of power used.
It is evident that the modern method is of very little
value to an inexperienced designer. I therefore suggest
that, until you have progressed sufficiently with old de
signing to have reliable data tables Of your own, you use
the Old method for calculating H.P. required to drive a
boat. When once you have ascertained the proper per
centages to add for frictional and propeller losses (these
vary with each type of hull and engine, and with speed)
you will find the old method very accurate, and as you
can use it without a large amount of data to refer to,
its advantages are apparent.
 _--- .__-_

Chapter VII
Designing

34. PRELIMINARY CALCULATIONS ideas. The designer places his ideas on paper, because
My explanations up to this have been for the pur— by doing this he is able to check them carefully and record
pose of explaining a few of the fundamental laws the complete data in such a manner that anyone can
of flotation and methods of making calculations. I understand it and produce a finished article, if he has
will now pass to actual designing work and explain how the ability to read plans and do the work. It is a
the shape for a hull is determined, and the reasons for mistake to imagine that designing is a substitute for any
shaping it in the selected manner; and having done this part of the production work, because it is not. It is
I will try and help you to acquire designing ability, or to merely a help, and it is wonderful how great a help real
improve the designing ability you possess. For you must designing is.
always bear in mind that designing is an art and being The designing of boats is something that all boat
such the successful designer must possess the ability to builders should strive to learn; and it is something that
originate and to actually picture in his mind the form can be learned quickly and accurately by anyone able to
and details of the boat he intends to design. build boats. The art of building boats properly is a
Before‘ a designer can begin to prepare a design, great deal more difficult to learn than the art of design
he must have some‘definite particulars to guide him. ing them. \
These particulars he either selects or they are supplied During the whole time you are designing a boat, keep
by the man.for whom the design is being prepared. the general plan of the boat in your mind and strive
In this particular case, I will assume that an order for continually to make the design illustrate your real ideas.
plans of a 36-foot cabin power boat has been placed and Design for a purpose and do all that lies in your power
requirements have been stated in a letter, a copy of which to make each design the best you can produce.
I give below: Begin immediately to collect data for reference pur
Dear Sir: poses. No designer can work without having at hand
I want you to furnish me with plans and data of things that are used every day in boats and
specifications frOm which a boatbuilder can build vessels. Get catalogs of marine engines, fittings and
a satisfactory cabin cruiser. I desire an able, hardware, and look them over. Study the articles listed
and learn to select the proper article and size for each
safe and seaworthy boat about 36 feet in length
by 9 feet breadth to use on Long Island Sound. boat you design and begin to prepare a book of data.
I would like the boat to have accommodations Such data as this will be found valuable for referring
in cabin for four persons and sufficient power to t0:
drive her at a cruising speed of not less than 10 Particulars of any boat you read about. As, for
miles an hour. The enclosed outline plan and instance, the displacement, the power, the speed, costs,
some data of a very successful boat owned by a selling price; particulars of sizes of anchors, cables and
friend of mine will help to explain my ideas, but fittings; data of propellers, particularly the diameter,
please remember that I want a full 6 feet headroom pitch, slip, blade areas, etc. ; and whenever you see any
in cabin (the boat shown on drawing has only 5 published data that might be valuable for reference pur
feet 6 inches), and I do not want to have trunk poses, cut the article out and paste it in a proper book.
cabin higher than one shown on drawing. The man that will do these things will find it much
Yours truly, easier to design than the one who thinks that he can do
without such aids.
The work of preparing a design can be said to con—
The data referred to in letter is given in Table No. I sist of two distinct parts:
(p. 39), and I herewith reproduce the drawing. (Fig.
Ist.——The preliminary work. Done for the purpose
29-6, p- 38-) of obtaining data and shortening actual designing labor.
This is a clearly stated designing problem and as
the drawing and data are taken from a successful boat, _ 2d.—The actual designing work, calculations, prepara
you cannot do better than use it as a starting point and tion of drawings, specifications, etc.
guide. Explaining Preliminary Work
Before any designer can begin to prepare a design, This is solely for the purpose of shortening the final
it is absolutely necessary that he formulate in his mind designing labor and it is really wonderful how much of
ideas of form, size and general dimensions of the craft a help, in this respect, a little preliminary work is.
he intends to design. While it is proper and right to In this particular instance the particulars given by
make use of data obtained from and observation of client are sufficient to enable a designer to begin work,
similar craft, it is very necessary that the real idea be but in cases where such details as breadth, draught,
original. To merely copy an existing design is not de speed, etc., are left entirely to the designer’s judgment
signing and can, at best, only result in producing a poor it becomes necessary to decide these details, and in fact
copy of some existing design. the selection of dimensions can be called the first pre—
Designing is really a recording of the designer’s liminary work.
38 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
1‘18. 29-G
No fixed rules can be laid down to guide a designer
when he has to decide details of this kind. Knowledge
acquired through observation of similar boats designed
by well-known _men is perhaps the best guide, it being
generally safe to accept dimensions used by experienced
designers as being good practice, or at least sufficiently
accurate to use when making preliminary calculations.
Preliminary calculations are for the purpose of ap
proximately determining these things:
Ist.—Dimensions and kinds of materials to use and
displacement necessary.
2d.—Area, shape, and location of Midship section.
3d.—Area, shape and location of L.W.L.
4th.——The M.I. of L.W.L. and probable transverse
M.C. height.
5th.--The freeboard necessary. >
6th.——The H.P. necessary for speed named.
7th.——The following coefficients: Prismatic, Displace
ment, M idship section, L.W.L. plane.
Ist.—Dimensions of Material to Use and Displace
ment Necessary—To calculate dimensions of materials
necessary for parts of a hull is unnecessary because
strength of materials of kinds used in boat construction
has been calculated many times and in addition to this a
number of tables of standardized material dimensions to
use for various sized power-boat hulls have been com
piled, and from such tables a designer can quickly select
the proper dimensions and kinds of materials to use.
Table No. 2 is a copy of one of these timber tables,
and Table No. 3 gives fastening dimensions.
35. EXPLANATION or TABLE N0. 2
This table is for the purpose of helping you determine
dimensions of material to use for the principal parts of
a wood-constructed power boat.
The table gives two dimensions of each principal part
of construction for boats of named dimensions, the named
dimensions being:
L—Standing for length on deck.
B—Standing for extreme breadth.
D—Standing for depth inside from top of keel to
sheer at midship section position.
If boat is a raised cabin cruiser the point of measure—
ment is top of hull sheer without the raised cabin, and to
this measure must be added the proportion of raised cabin
height mentioned below, via: If raised cabin extends
over less than one-half the length of boat add to depth
measured as above {/4 the raised cabin depth. If raised
cabin length is over one—half and less than three-fourths
of boat’s length add ,I/z of its depth, and if length is over
three-fourths of the boat’s length add % of the raised
cabin depth.
At the beginning of each line the name of part is en
tered, and at the head of each column is entered dimen- ,
sions as explained above. Immediately below the di
mensions heading you will find the letters, S. M.; these
stand for sided and moulded, and indicate the way the ‘
material is to be placed in boat.
As it is most important to fully understand this I will
explain it in detail. The letters S and M indicate to
builder the way each piece of material is placed in boat.
S means sided and indicates that size, or dimension, en
tered under this letter must stand in a position contrari
ways to the moulded position. M means maulded and
tells builder that dimensions entered under this heading
must be placed the way mould, or pattern, is laid on tim
ber when marking the shape out. For instance, the keel
and stem patterns, or moulds, are always made to lie on
the side of keel and stem as set up in boat, therefore the
M dimension of keel and stem is depth of keel from top
#444.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED . 39
to bottom, and depth of stem from front to back. When TABLE NO- 3
referring to a rib, or frame, M dimension indicates meas- SIZES or FASTENINGS Fox CRUISERS
ure from inside of planking to inside rib as it sets in
boat, or the way mould would lay on bent, or sawed out, Dimensions 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90
I'll) or frame. x6 x7 x8 x9 x10x11x12x14x15 x16 x18x20
h A study off ttllije parts 0% a bozitiwdl enable you to grasp Keel_stem_5te.m'
t emeaningo eterms _ and ’. _ . BoltsorRiveted“ % 94; % % M % % gé % % pg 3'4
If, however, you desire to calculate dimensions of Deadwood,etc.,
DrivenatAngle.. ifi % ié i4 % ié is is % % is if
TABLE No.1 ghéiftFLog.... . . . . . .. a 2% sift % 5% é if as a a g3 gig
I e astemngs..... I /6 6 is ‘1 ‘1 ‘1
PRELIMINARY DATA SHEET EngineBed . . . . . . .. 3/2 £8 94 % % % §’§ % M i4 % 7/§
. ' I I
TYPE or BOAT—CABIN CRUISER % It yé % 94 A A w % % % %

(Lengthoverall...86.00%. OnL.\V.L....34.00ft' Flagngei-nagér-s-m~ X X X X % 94 % at M 94 it A

. Breadth extreme.
Draughtextreme.. 9.16 t. On L.W.L.. .. 8.25 ft'
3.08ft.To Rabbet... 1.83 ft. .
Dr‘ven'" . '
Kee'--- % % ‘4‘ ii 94 ’46 % >4 % % 9g %
DIMENSIOAS Mean
, Draught. . . . 1.185 ft. Clam. p s ' Bolts or I 5 5 , 7 I ,
LeastFreeboard... 2.33 ft.Greatest de. 5.62 ft. R'vets - - - - - - - - ' H A ’{6 46 24 23 "f6 54 A A §’§ % %
Ovcrhang Bow. . . . 0.79 ft. Overhang aft.. 1.29 ft .
DATA materials to use for the construction of any sized power
boat, use the formulas given at end of supplementary
P t- I r \Veight Volume Area in Distance C ff Chapters'
2" m a 5 Lbs. Cu. Ft. Sq. Ft. in Feet 0‘3 ' 36. KINDS OF MATERIALs TO USE
_ . .
, 4'_Th15 .
Displacement required... 12526 195.72 ..... ... .. . . . .. . E'Iplanatwn of Tabic Ao' table. gives rela _
mock Codi of Displace- t1v_e value of various kinds of woods used in boat and
rnent._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ..... . . . .. 0.589 ship-building. The list is compiled from tables used by
' -- I- I- I~ I- I~
Nlidshig sec. coefficient-CI
----- "9‘
..
44. -- 0-609 insurance companies and boatbuilders, andUnder
With present—day praCtiCe in U‘ S' A‘
in accordance
heading

L.W.L.plane area . . . . . . ... .. . . . .. 194.50 ... .. . . . .. name of timber the names of principal kinds of woods
L.W.L. plane coefficient. ... .. ... .. . .. . . ... . . 0.739 are entered_
Mlldsh'p secuonfrom No' 19 00 Above the other columns are entered, in succession,
Mbiiiéi LIWILI 51.1.33. .. IIIII IIIII .. afa's'o the name of PTiIICiPfll Parts of boats and vessels, and un
C.B. from No. lordinate . . . . . . . . .. 18.71 der each heading you will find numerals entered. These
if’lf’g‘r’rlwlégl’Y-(hali’ggg - ' - - - --- -- - - ~ -- 1g??? numerals indicate relative value of each kind of wood
CIGIal10\'etheL.\V.L... IIIII III II III II iIoi III II for Part named at head of column- The figure I standng
06. of L.W.L. plane for first choice, or best wood for the purpose, 1% stand
C to]? 1:10- 1N---1- - ~ - - - ' - - - - ----- - - - -~ ~- ing for next best, and so on. Thus if you desire to se
M'_C‘_ ébggg‘c‘gi _' ' ' ' "_ :'_' I: H :I: " 4:1 lect best kinds of materials the selection should be made
M.C.heightabovtiCbI. ...II 2.558 IIIII from those having I entered against them- Pay Par
Speed 10 miles.‘ ticular attention to the reference, etc, entered in some
" Nautical miles. of the columns.

TABLE No. 2

DIMENSIONS or TIMBER roR CRL‘ISERS

Dimensions 20' x 6' 25' x 7' 30’ x 8' 35' x 9' 40’x 10’ 45’ x 11’ 50'x 12' 55' x14' 60' x15' 70’): 16' 80' x18' 90' x 20'
LxBxD x 3' x 4’ x 5.5' x 6’ x 6.5’ x 6.5' x 6.75' x 7' x 7.5' x 8’ x 9’ _x10'.
Sided and Moulded... S. M. S. M. S. M. S. M. S. M. S. M. S. M. S. M. S. M. S. M. S. M. S. M.
Keel . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34-4 2%—6 2%? sim 3%—8 m-s m-o 4%41 194-9 s%-9 34-10 s;4-12
Keelson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O O O 0 2—4 2—6 2—8 3—6 3—6 3—6 3—8 3—9
Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2%—8 2%49 2%—9 3%—9 3%—1O 3%—11 3%—12 3%-—13 4%—15 S%—12 5%—14 5%—15
Stern Post—Log . . . . .. 3% 3% 3% ~ 3% 4 5% 5% 6% 7% 8% 8% 8%
Deadwood . . . . . . . . . .. 2% 2% 2% 3% I 3% 3% i f 3% 4% 5% ,1 5%
Ribs (Bent) . . . . . . . . .. ifi—ifi ié—lifi 1%—1% 1%—1§8 1%—1% 1%—1i€ lid—2 lit—2% 2%—2% 2%—3 2%—3 226—3
Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 8 9 9 10 11 12 12 12 12 12 12
Floor Timbers . . . . . . . . 3 7 3 1%—3 1i§—4 1%—4 Iii—4 1%‘6 1i§~6 lie—6 2ié—6 Zia—6 Zia—6
Deck Beams . . . . . . . .. " —1% i§—1% ié—1% 1%—-2 196—2 1ié—2% 1%—3 1%-—4 1%—5 1i§—5 1iQ—6 lifi—G
Clamps—Deck . . . . . . . ié—3 iii—3 lia—4 11A—4 1 ié—4 lifi—S Iii—6 2%—6 2%-6 3%—6 3 %—7 3%—8
Planking. % ié is is is lié lié 1% 1% 1% 1% lié
Covering Board . . . . . . . % % is is is 1% lié 1% 1% 1% 1% 1i§
Decking . . . . . . . . . . . .. . % % is is is 1% lié 1% 1% 15A 1% lifi
Floorin . . . . . . . . . . . . . % % % % i6 is is is is 1,14 lit 1%
Bulkhead (\Vt.) . . . . .. ii if; is is 1% , 1% 1% 1% lifi 1ifi 2% 2%
Engine Bed . . . . . . . . .. 2% 2%—12 2%—-12 3%-12 3%—12 3%—12 3%—12 4%-—12 4%—12 5%—12 5%—~12 5%—12
Length . . . . . . . . . . . . , 10 12—5 14 15 16 18 20 22 25 28 30 35
Clamps (Bilge) . . . . . . . O i§~3 lié—S lié—3 lié—3 1§a—4 lié—4 2%—4 2%—4 3%—5 3%—6 3%—6
Bilge Clamps No. of
Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 _ 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
40 NdeIL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
If it is desired to use the best kinds of materials for‘
construction the selection must be as follows:
For keel, stem, floor timbers, ribs, deck beams.White Oak
For deadwood and clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Yellow pine
For engine foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Oak
For knees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lIackmatack
For planking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..White cedar
For decking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mahogany
For covering boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Mahogany
For joinerwork and coaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mahogany
Fastenings, copper riveted and brass screws.
All the above are 1 class materials.
When two or more different kinds of wood have-the
same value for a part, the selection is usually governed
by the commercial value, or cost of woods named. It is
usual to select the least expensive, providing other things
are equal.
Study the table and use it to help you select kinds of
material to use for construction of boats you design.
37. DISPLACEMENT NECESSARY
Select dimensions of materials and kinds to use, then
calculate the displacement necessary by making short
calculations in the manner explained below.
Divide the construction, etc., into a few principal
parts, calculate the weights of each and add totals. For
a small cabin cruiser of type I will design the following
is a convenient division:
Part No. I.—Materials in keel, stem, deadwood, en
gine foundation, etc.
Part No. 2. Materials in frame, planking, decking,
flooring, roofing. ~ width of material necessary for one side, by doubling
Part No. 3.—]oinerwork materials.
Part No. 4.—Engine and its equipment.
Part No. 5.——Fuel and tanks. Also water and tanks.
Part No. 6.—Fittings and furnishings.
Part No. 7.—Passengers and crew.
Part No. 8.—St0res.
If the weight of each part is calculated and figures are
totaled the total will be the approximate weight of boat
and all on board when in sailing trim. This weight can
be considered to be the displacement necessary.
The simplest way to calculate Mcights of materials
(wood) is to ascertain number of feet, surface measure,
in a piece and multiply by the weight per square foot for
material of thickness and kind selected. On the accom—
panying table weights are figured for thickness of material
most often used by boat-builders. You will note that
thicknesses selected are finished thicknesses.
It has been ascertained that a close approximation to
actual weights can be made by using short methods of
calculating. These I will now explain.
Rule No. 1.—In boats having outside deadwood, 10g,
etc., to ascertain weight of keel, stem, deadwood, log,
etc., proceed as follows:
Consider length over all of boat as length of material.
Consider width of material as being twice the moulded
depth of keel amidships.
Consider thickness as being actual sided thickness of
keel.
Now multiply length by width to ascertain number of
square feet of material, surface measure; and by multi
plying this by weight of material for thickness used the
actual weight of material in parts named will be ascer
tained. This weight will be sufficiently high to include
fastenings.
If keelsons are used treat them as a separate item.
For engine foundation take actual length as length of
material required. Take width at widest part as being
this you will get width required for the whole bed. Now
proceed as for keel material.
For planking materials consider length of material re
quired as being equal to length of boat on L.W.L. and
width of material as being equal to extreme breadth of
boat added to depth from rabbet to sheer amidships.

TABLE No. 4—K1x'ns or MATERIALs

Ti A ‘A m :n ' w

- a,
eo o P
"go g I:a a:
g
.:
Name of Timbe : “g 'g ‘5 L; E 1: IO '8 (a g 5 E
and Fastening g a ‘g :3 \J v, i g E” (*3 go 2’ 2 i 2,9 U 3 ,1; Remarks
_5y E gQ
g
g
,2
a
:9
15’
E
E :50
_s
§= 2‘5 i_e a E8
_g
a5 i?8 .s2" a
8
1%
6
B a><
E
.e m a 1.. :4 ti. o a m o a. m a o :4 m o m i i;
Best \\’hite'0_ak.. _. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ‘1 '1 1 1% 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 " For over 1%".
CommonWhiteOak 2 2 2 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1 *1% *1% 1% 1% l 1 1 1 1% 0 1% TForunderl%”.
Red Oak . . . . . . . . . . 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 ‘3 ‘3 2 1% 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 IFor over Z15”.
White Cedar . . . . . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T1 1‘1 1% 0 4 O 0 0 0 0 X1 R—Riveted.
Chestnut . . . . . . . . . 0 3 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 2 2 X For under 1%".
Hackmatack(knees) 0 1 0 1 2 1% 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Yellow Pine (Long ‘
Leaf) . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3 1 2 0 0 1 3 0 11 11 1 1 2 1 1 14 0 1 2 1%
Red Pine . . . . . . . .. 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 3 0 12 12 2 2 2 2 2 0 1% 2 1%
Pine (Oregon)... . . 3 3 1 0 0 0 l 3 0 12 12 2 1% 2 2 2 0 1% 2 1%
Pine (White) . . . . . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 T1 t1 1% 1 3 3 3 0 1% 1 X1
Spruce First Quality 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 3 0 1% 2 1%
Common Spruce. . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2
Rock Elm _ . . . . . . . . 1 2 2 2 1 2 0 2 O 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0
Cypress (Red) .... 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 1‘1 1'1 1% 1% 2 0 0 0 2 2 X1
Cypress (Yellow). . O 0 0 0 0 0 O O 0 0 O 0 0 O O O O O 0 0
hiahogany........ 0 O O 0 0 0 0 0 O 2 T1 11 1 1 O 0 *1 *1 1 1
Copper . . . . . . . . . .. 1R 1R 1R 1R 1R 1R 1R 1R 1R 1R 1R 1R 0 0 1R 1R 0 0 O 0
Bronze . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Gal. Iron . . . . . . . . . 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 NAVdL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
Multiply together to ascertain square feet of material
required and multiply by weight for thickness selected.
For-decking and cockpit floor materials (cabin roof
materials used in cabin cruisers can also be included)
consider length of material required as being equal to
the length over all of boat and width of material as being
equal to the extreme breadth of boat. Multiply together
to ascertain square feet of material then multiply by
weight for thickness selected.
The clamps can be considered as being straight pieces
of material of length equal to length of boat over all,
width as being equal to total width of all clamps.
Multiply together and then by a weight of material of
thickness selected. . The short method explained here takes no notice of
Ribs and floor timbers considered as one item. As
certain number of ribs used in boat. This can be done
by dividing length of boat over all by spacing of ribs.
For length of material consider each rib as being a length
equal to extreme breadth of boat. For width of material
required multiply width of one rib by number of ribs
used.
By multiplying length by width you will ascertain
square feet of material required for one side of boat.
Double this and multiply by weight of material per square
foot of thickness selected. This will give a surplus suffi
cient to cover material used for floor timbers, therefore
weight as ascertained will include floor timbers.
Deck, cabin roof and cockpit beams—These items can
be considered at one time and weight calculated in same
manner that rib weight is calculated. Make length of
beams equal to extreme breadth of boat. Ascertain width
of each beam and number of beams, then calculate 'width
of material required. Multiply together (you do not
have to double this item), and then by weight of ma
terial of thickness used.
Materials used for joiner work are several different
thicknesses and for this reason it will be shorter to con—
sider all joiner work as being a single item and estimate
its weight as being a certain weight per foot length of
boat.
Use these figures: Runabouts having ceiling and cross
seats, 8 to IO lb a foot of length; open power boats hav
ing side seats, 12 to 16 lb; small raised deck cruisers, 20
to 35 lb; moderate sized cruisers, 40 to 60 lb.
Select weight per foot according to amount and weight
of material to be used and multiply by length of boat.
For engine weight, as installed, add 50% to weight
of complete engine. This will cover weight of pipes,
shafting, propeller, etc.
For gasolene (fuel and tanks) estimate number of
gallons carried and multiply by weight per gallon. This
will give weight of fuel. For weight of tank use maker’s
weights, or you can consider tank weight as being equal
to a certain weight per gallon of fuel and add to weight
of fuel. Cylindrical tanks as installed will weigh from
1% to 2% lb per gallon.
For deck and other fittings multiply length of boat by
weight taken from this table.
Open Boats—Deck fittings and equipment, 8 to 10 lb;
cockpit and other furnishings, 4 to 6 lb. ‘ using the selected figures and a suitable coefficient multi
Small Cabin Cruisers—Deck and other permanent
fittings, 13 to 15 lb; furnishings, etc., 10 to I4 lb.
Raised Cabin Cruisers—Deck and other permanent
fittings, 16 to 25 lb; furnishings, etc., 15 to 25 lb.
41
These figures will cover toilet, etc.
“'ater carried in cabin cruisers should be estimated
as being 10 lb per gallon. This will cover tankage.
' Stores carried in cruisers can be estimated by simply
squaring the length of boat over all. (Multiplying length
by itself.)
Passengers and crew can be estimated as being a
certain weight per man. This weight should be suffi
ciently high to cover weight of clothes and things of like
nature.
In open boats use 180 lb.
In cabin boats use 250 to 275 lb.
many pieces of material used, but the calculations will
give figures that are sufficiently high to cover all of these
pieces and all fastenings.
2d Preliminary Calculation. Area, etc., of Midship
Section—Midship section is the name given to largest
underwater cross-section of boat. It is not necessary
that this section be located midway between bow and
stem, and as a matter of fact it is usually located some
distance aft of the middle point. The location of mid
ship section determines the relative lengths of fore-and
after body because portion of boat ahead of it is the fore
body and portion aft the after body.
The area of midship section also furnishes one meas
ure for determining resistance of a boat to passageway
through water.
Before area of midship section can be selected it is
necessary to decide the following:
The length of boat on L.W.L.
The breadth on L.W.L.
The draught of water from L.W.L. to rabbet at mid
ship section.
Length on L.W.L. can generally be determined with
out making any calculation. The shape of ends of boat
usually determines how much shorter the boat will be
on L.W.L. than over all.
The breadth on L.VV.L.—The extreme width of boat
is usually on deck, or near to it, therefore, unless boat is
one of abnormal shape, the width on L.W.L. is usually
less than the deck width. It is important to keep in mind
the fact that breadth has an important bearing on sta
bility and any increase in breadth at, or near to, L.W.L.
increases a boat’s transverse stability.
Draught of water to rabbet at midship section. The
draught of water to rabbet at midship section of boats
having outside keel and deadwood that is carried aft to
stern post is nearly always less than the extreme draught,
the proportion being between .7 and .8 of extreme
draught. The designer must select the most suitable
draught for the displacement niacessary and the shape of
midship section he intends to use.
38. THE AREA or Mmsuir SECTION Nacsssmzv
Having selected width on L.\V.L. and depth to rabbet
at midship section you can determine area necessary by
plier because
Breadth at midship section X Depth of sec—
tion to rabbet X Coefficient will equal re
quired area of midship section.
42 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
The coefficient used when making this calculation is of the water as the boat heels transversely) tends to over
termed the midship section coeflicient 0f fineness. come the upsetting force of the bottom.
The midship section coefficient of fineness expresses 2d.—That midship section shape largely influences the
the ratio that underwater portion of midship section bears shapes of all cross-sections ahead and aft because it be
to a rectangle having a width equal to the width of mid ing the section of greatest area all smaller sections must
ship section at L.W.L. and a depth equal to depth of conform to its shape and merge into it.
midship section measured from L.W.L. to rabbet of keel. 3d.—That the abovewater portion must be propor
For instance, the first boat on Table No. 5 has a mid tioned to underwater portion in both shape and area.
ship section breadth on L.W.L. of 6.13 feet, and a depth The abovewater portion of a boat must have suflicient
at midship, to rabbet from L.\V.L., of 1.25 foot; there— buoyancy to make a boat safe in a seaway, and in addi
fore the midship rectangle is 7.66 square feet, and as the tion to this it must be shaped in such a manner that this
midship section area is 4.7 square feet the midship sec— surplus buoyancy is properly distributed fore-and-aft and
tion coeflicient of fineness must be 0.613. also vertically.
4-7 The influence of midship section shape on shape of
— : 0.613 Midship coefficient. fore-and—aft sections extends from keel to sheer of boat.
7.66 4th.——It is always a good plan, especially in boats de
Below I give table of midship section coeflicient of pending on shape for stability, to give the midship sec
fineness compiled from data of designs prepared in our tion ample breadth of shoulder and to make bottom area
office. as small as consistent with getting the area and depth of
TABLE N0. 5 section needed.
Minsnir SECTION COEFFICIENT or Fixexrss
“ Displace- “.‘ '
"'_"i
Type ot Dimemions ment L.W.L. Midship Midship Midship
80:! over all in Lbs. Breadth Depth Area Coed.
Open . . . . .. 25 x 7 4540 6.13 1.25 4.7 0.61
Open . . . . . . 25 x 7 4660 6.50 1.00 4.8 0.75
Cabin . . . . . 30 x 7 6300 6.25 1.40 5.4 0.82
Cabin . . . .. 30 x 8 7600 7.00 1.33 5.8 0.64
Cruiser . . .. 32 x 8.5 9100 8.00 1.75 8.4 0.60
Cruiser . ... 36 x 9 12526 825 1.83 9.4 0.62
Cruiser . .. . 42 x 9.3 18700 8.56 2.30 13.0 0.65 _
Cruiser . .. . 50 x 11 27560 10.40 2.10 14.42 066
Cruiser . . . . 52 x 12 30464 ..... . . . .. 14.83 0.66
*Midship depth is measured from L.W.L. to Rabbet. There—
fore area of midship section must also be measured from L.W.L.
t0 Rabbet only. 625 ,_g l_] _ i .12;
- 5

“The dimensions are over all length and breadth. SQ-€FFICJENT.§2

***The L.\/V.L. breadth is given in feet and decimal parts of . 5 9i .0 .Pi'.
a foot. In fact, all measures are expressed in this manner.
Fig. 30
Fig. 30 illustrates the way midship section coefficient
is calculated.
Fig. 31 illustration shows three different shapes of
39. SHAPE or Minsmp SECTION midship section suitable for a small power cruiser. The
The midship section must not only be correct in area solid lined section indicated by No. 1 shows shape
but its shape must be such that boat will prove stable, selected for the one I will design, the underwater por
that displacement will be properly distributed, and resist tion of section being marked by full lines and abovewa—
ance to propulsion at a minimum. ter portion by broken 0nes.*
The shape of midship section has an important in
fluence upon the things mentioned. On stability, because
R l
of the influence shape has in the vertical position of C.B.
point when boat is upright and when inclined trans i\ t L. -
versely. On resistance, because of the influence that a- ee————+—“#-
BOVE . .f
,
immersed surface and distribution of displacement has \\ j l
on resistance to propulsion, and on proper distribution,
because of the influence that midship section shape and \‘ owl L. j'
area has on all longitudinal and vertical lines of a boat.
The most desirable shape for midship section of cabin ; 9
cruisers is one having a maximum width and area at or
near to the L.\V.L., and having a well-rounded bilge con
M
nected to keel by straight lines. Rounding connecting
lines from bilge to rabbet tend to increase rolling. And
as area of immersed surface should be kept low straight 1‘13. 81
lines keep area as low as possible without any offsetting
*The abovewater portion of sections is shown for the
detriment. purpose of illustrating how the shape of underwater body
When selecting the form of midship section to use affects abovewater shape. The lines bounding cross-sections
keep in mind these important points: of a boat must be fair ones from keel to deck, therefore any
Ist.—That the bottom (that portion of the section change in underwater shape will also affect the abovewater shape.
Then you must always bear in mind that the wedges of immersion
below the wedges of immersion and emersion) tends to gng emersion form portions of both the under and abovewater
overset, and the shoulders (the portion that is in and out o y.
 NdVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED 43
Q

The dot—and-dash-lined section marked No. 2 shows dinal lines in exactly the same manner that midship sec
shape having connecting line from bilge to rabbet slightly tion shape influences the shape of all sections ahead and
reversed. This section has same underwater area, breadth aft of it. The designer, when he prepares the preliminary
at L.W.L. and depth to rabbet as the No. I, but a portion drawing, selects a desirable draught of water and marks
of area is transferred from near keel to bilge, thus in the L.W.L. at that point. He now assumes that the
creasing stability transversely, because the nearer the marked L.W.L. is correctly placed and proceeds to se
bulk of the area is to L.W.L. the greater will be the re lect the most suitable shape and area. The designer who
sistance to inclination. has data to help him can quickly select the required area
The dash—lined section marked NO. 3 shows a shape by using a suitable coefficient and making a short cal
having rounded lines. The area is the same as that of No. culation.
1, 2 sections but as the bulk of displacement is moved Length L.W.L. X Breadth L.W.L. X Coefficient I
towards keel and the lines bounding section are rounded Required area.
ones from keel to bilge the section shape is a most un The length and breadth measures being the measures
desirable one. A boat having a section shaped like NO. determined upon as being most suitable and the coef
3 will roll very easily and be exceedingly uncomfortable ficient multiplier being the figures which will express the
when there is the least motion transversely. ratio that the area of the L.W.L. plane bears to the area
Avoid rounding lines without any pronounced bilge of a rectangular plane having a length equal to the length
if you want to have a boat that is steady and comfortable. of the L.W.L. and a width equal to the greatest breadth
40. LOCATION OF MIDSHIP SECTION of L.W.L.
It is usual to locate the greatest cross-section some Fig. 32 illustrates the meaning of coefficient of fine
distance aft Of centervof fore—and-aft length of water— ness Of L.W.L. plane. On that illustration the shaded
line because by doing this the length of lines that open portion of rectangle shows portion of plane that is cut
water is increased and thus resistance to propulsion is away in shaping L.W.L., and blank portion the area of
decreased. In addition to this in the majority of boats a L.W.L. plane. .
proper balance of fore—and-aft bodies, which is of the Coefficients of L.W.L. planes of power cruisers vary
utmost importance, can best be obtained when fore body from .6 for boats having fine ends up to .8 for those
is longer than after. The proportion of length of fore having full ends.
body to that of after body most desirable for power In selecting a coefficient the designer usually relies
cruisers is about 55 and 45. Or in other words the upon data obtained from boats he has designed.
length of fore body should be about 55% of I..\/V.L. Remember one thing; the area of L.\V.L. plane should
length and after body length about 45%. be proportioned to area of midship section, and to dis
3d Preliminary Calculation. Area and Shafle of placement.
L.W.L.—The L.\V.L. (load water—line) is the principal The successful boat is always one in which propor
water-line of a boat and is the line to which the boat tions balance and the centers are properly located.
floats when she is in sailing trim. This line has the If one detail is out of proportion, or if one center is
greatest area of all longitudinal water-lines and its shape improperly located, a correct balance cannot be obtained
influences the shape of all below and above water longitu and the strains and stresses that result from the erort
\

TABLE OF MATERIAL WEIGHTS

5:5 WEIGHT PER SQUARE FOOT 0F TuiCKNEss NAMED
e in:
.5 fig .
NAME OF 6 5.5 _ _ _ _
TIMBER g 53 5 .E E. .E .5 .5 .S 5 E 5. .E .E .E E. .E
5
to
>3 >5 8c z s 2‘ =5 -’
i H‘
8H e”H 5 E W =5 X

Ash . . . . . . . . . . .. .720 45 22.03 17.84 14.08 10.33 7.05 6.58 6.07 5.60 5.16 4.22 3.29 2.80 2.35 1.40 ,47
Bird] . . . . . . . . .. .720 45 \Veiglit same as Ash
Butternut . . . . .. .460 30 Weight same as Spruce
Chestnut . . . . . .. .590 37 17.68 14.60 11.52 8.44 5.76 536 5.00 4.60 4.23 3.46 2-68 2.30 I92 115 38
Cypress (R) 510 32 \Veight same as Oregon Pine
Cedar (W) . 430 27 Weight same as White Pine
Cherry . . . . . . . . . _.670 42 5.58 6.14 5.70 5.28 4.84 3.96 3.08 2.64 2.20 1.32 _44
Elm Rock . . . . .. .610 38 18.59 15.14 12.24 9.07 5.90 5.51 5.16 4.68 4.29 3.51 2.73 2.34 1.95 1.07 _39
Locust . . . . . . . .. ,720 45 W'eight same as Ash
Mahogany (W.I.) .850 53 Weight same as Teak
Mahogany.(Mcx.) .590 37 Weight same as Chestnut
Oak (White) .. .850 53 Weight same as Teak
O‘ak (Red) .720 45 22.03 1784 14.08 10.33 7.05 6.58 6.07 5.60 5.16 422 3.29 2.80 2.35 1.40 .47
Pine (White) .430 27 12.93 10.68 8.43 6.18 4.21 3.93 3.65 3.36 3.08 2.52 1.96 1.68 1.40 .74 _28
Pine (Yellow) .720 45 Weight same as Ash
Pine (N, C.) .. .590 37 Weight same as Chestnut
Pine (Oregon) . .510 32 15.59 12.94 10.29 7.64 4.96 4.63 4.30 3.96 3.63 2,97 2.21 1.98 1.65 .99 .33
Spruce . . . . . . . .. .460 30 1436 11.86 9.36 6.86 4.70 4.38 4.06 3.74 3.43 2.81 2.18 1.87 1.56 .94 ,32
Teak . . . . . . . . . .. .850 53 23.00 17.96 14.64 11.32 8.00 7.46 6.92 6.48 5.94 4,86 3.78 3.24 2.70 1.62 .54
\Valnut . . . . . ..'. .610 38 \iVeight same as Elm Rock
White Wood .460 30 5.58 614 5.70 3.74 3.43 2.81 2.19 1.87 1.56 .94 _32
Weights are given in Pounds and Decimals of the Pound.
44 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
O
1
g‘l) )f9:51-— know what area of L.W.L. plane and midship section is
t,
.l/ "7
-r necessary. By turning to the coefficient tables and se—
A lecting from them what seems to be the most suitable
coefficients the necessary areas can be ascertained with
t. reasonable certainty.
:ct‘\‘s_- -_
42. BLOCK COEFFICIENT or FINENEss
The block coeflicient of fineness expresses the ratio
Fig. 82
that a boat’s displacement bears to that of a rectangular
block having a length equal to L.W.L. length of boat, a
made to overcome the defects of this improper balance breadth equal to L.\V.L. breadth of boat at widest part,
will be plainly apparent and result in an increase of re and a depth equal to mean draught of water without
sxstance, a decrease of stability, or unseaworthiness. outside keel.
Every detail of both under and above water por The mean draught of a boat is the average draught
tions of a boat must be correctly proportioned to each taken from bow to stern. If the boat draws the same
other. amount of water forward and aft (as in the case of No.
For instance, to give a boat a moderate displacement 14 boat) the mean draught and extreme draught are the
and a full midship section and then finding that displace same.
ment is too large to try to correct the mistake by making If it is desired to find out, before designing a boat,
fore-and-aft lines extremely fine at ends will not prove what the displacement is likely to be to the draught of
successful and may result in making the boat a failure. water selected, by using the selected length, breadth and
The proper thing to do in such a case is to reduce area draught of water dimensions and a suitable coefficient
of midship section in proportion to reduction in fullness multiplier in the manner explained below, the displace—
of the fore-and-aft lines. ment can be ascertained very accurately.
Bear in mind that while a boat is designed on lines The length measure used is length boat will be on
that are taken at right angles to each other the water L.W.L.
does not follow along these lines but along paths of least
resistance, and these paths are nearly always along lines The breadth measure used is extreme breadth on
that are located at varying angles with the vertical and L.W.L.
horizontal. The depth measure used is mean draught of water
without outside keel.
TABLE N0. 6
The coefficient multiplier used must accurately repre
TABLE OF COEFFICIENTS or FINENEss 0F L.W.L. PLANEs sent the ratio that displacement of boat bears to displace
Dis
Type Dimen- place— Coefl.
ment of a rectangular block of same length, breadth, and
of sions ment Length Breadth of depth as the selected dimensions of boat.
Boat over all in Lb!. L.\V.L. L.W'L. Fineness
Open . . . . .. 25 x 7 4540 22.5 6.15 0.68 The bulk and displacement of a rectangular shaped
Open . . . . . . 25 x 7 4660 24.0 650 0.70 boat can be accurately found in the following manner:
*Cabin T. .. 30 x 7 6177 27.75 6.25 0,67
Cabin T. . . . 30 x 7 6300 26.50 6.25 0.64
Length X Breadth X Depth : Volume in cubic feet.
Cabin T
Cabin T
30 x 8
32 x 8.5
6700
9100
28.00
30.00
7.00
8.00
0.68
0.64 -_ _ _ _ .\__s'\_
v ._ _
\ 'K.
._ _.Q 4
**Cabin R 36 x 9 12526 34,00 8.25 0.74 \
_\.
Cabin R. . 40 x 9 17662 36.30 8.12 0.71
\
Cabin R. . 42 x 9.3 18700 38.00 8.56 0.68
Cabin R. .. 50 x 11 27560 48.00 9.75 067
| l l | | | ll l __'>. _ ._ ._ .- _ \
|| I l. v—
Cabin
Cabin
R.
R.
.. 50 x II
50 x 11
*T Indicates Trunk cabin.
MR Indicates Raised cabin.
28050
28464
46.80
47.00
9.50
9.60
0.66
0.71 ,1 _. _

i
I
-_t. _

41. COEFFICIENTS
Coefficients place at the disposal of an architect a
valuable means for comparing the elements of one de
sign with that of another, and in addition to this the
architect who has tables of coefficients can with great
accuracy and without the necessity of making preliminary
calculations, determine the required area of midship sec—
tion, area of L.\V.L. plane, and displacement, by simply
selecting the proper coefficients and using them to make
the short calculations explained.
As an illustration of value in shortening the work
we will suppose a design has to be prepared.
The displacement found necessary, by making the
preliminary calculations, is 4,200 lb, and the dimensions
of boat are to be 24 by 5 feet 10 inches, but we do not
I‘lg. 32-A
If the corners, or any part of the rectangular boat be
cut away the bulk and displacement can still be accurately
ascertained by adding to the above formula a multiplier
to accurately express the ratio that the new shape bears
to that of the original rectangular block.
The calculation becomes:
Length X Breadth X Depth X Coefficient :
Volume in cubic feet.
The coeflicient multiplier varies with each change in
shape of boat. This method of calculating displace—
ment is called finding the probable displacement by using
a block coefficient of fineness multiplier. In order to
make use of this rule the designer must know through
experience the correct coefficient to select.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED 45
To ascertain the block coefficient of fineness of any Ist.—The shape of the L.\V.L. plane really determines
boat divide volume of displacement in cubic feet by vol the shape of all the water planes below it, and greatly in
ume of the rectangular block in cubic feet. fluences the shape of the fore-and-aft lines above it.
Or if the block coefficient is known and it is desired 2d.—All water planes must be fair curves from end
to ascertain what the displacement will be when selected to end, any abrupt alteration in shape of curved outline
coefficient is used, the calculation is made by multiplying is detrimental to speed because it will increase resistance.
the volume of block in cubic feet by the selected coef 3d.—The area enclosed by L.\V.L. must be sufficient
ficient. to insure stability.
43. PRISMATIC COEFFICIENT 0F FINENEss 4th.—The C.G. of the L.W.L. plane will, in a great
The prismatic coefficient of fineness expresses the measure, determine the location, in a fore—and-aft direc—
ratio that volume of displacement bears to volume of a tion, of the C.B.
prismatic solid having a constant cross—section area equal If midship section is located correctly the logical and
to the midship—section area of boat, and having a length best position for the C.G. of L.W.L. plane is at, or near,
equal to length of boat on L.W.L. the midship section, and then if the underwater bulk of
In other words, if the length of boat on L.W.L. is boat is shaped so that its center point (the C.B.) will
multiplied by the area of immersed cross-section the vol— come near the midship section and the C.G. 0f L.\V.L.
ume of the prismatic solid will be ascertained. Then if plane, an ideal condition of balance is obtained.
this volume is multiplied by the proper coefficient the In other words the center point (C.G.) of the L.W.L.
volume of displacement of boat can be ascertained. plane should be located near to midship section.
To ascertain the prismatic coefficient of any boat the
volume of displacement is divided by the volume of From these remarks you will understand the impor—
tance attached to shaping the L.\V.L. correctly and in
prism.
For a certain boat the prismatic coefficient calculation such a manner that the displacement can be properly dis
tributed in a fore-and-aft direction, and in addition to
figures are as follows:
this the L.\V.L. plane area must be sufficient to insure
22.5* X 4.7T : 105.75 Volume of Prism. ample stability.
If the volume of displacement is 69.9 cubic feet, the
prismatic coefficient is TABLE N0, 7
69-9 TABLE OF PRISMATIC COEFFICIENT AND TRANSVERSE M.C. HEIGHTS
I .66 _ Dis- Pris~
105.75 Dimen place- Area M. l. mltic
Type of sion! menl of of M. C.” Co
Or, if the prismatic coefficient has been selected and vol Boai over all in C.FI. L.W.L. L.W.L.‘ Height eff.
ume of prism is known the desired displacement can be Open .. . .. 25 x 7 71”" 94 215 1.85 068*“
ascertained by making this calculation: Open .. 25 x 7 73 109 270 1.90 0.64
Cabin T. ._ 30x7 96 116 269 1.90 0.59
105.75 X .66 = 69.79 cubic feet displacement required. Cabin T... 30 x 7 98 105 265 1.75 0.69
To explain the meaning of prismatic solid and this Cabin T... 30x 8 106 133 300 1.55 0.65
coefficient calculation I have made Fig. 33. The heavy Cabin T.. . 32 x 8.5 142 154 450 1.65 0.57
lines show a solid having a constant cross-section of the Cabin R. ._ 36 x 9 195 195 816 2.55 0.61
area of midship section immersed portion. The lines Cabin R. .. 40 x 9 278 211 832 1.33 0.61
therefore show a square—fronted and ended boat having Cabin R. .. 42 x 9.3 292 220 870 1.50 0.59
Cabin R... 50x 11 430 313 1750 2.20 0.63
the same cross-section from end to end. The broken lines Cabin R. ._ 50x 11 439 295 1519 1.67 0.61
indicate shape of boat after ends have been cut away, Cabin R. .. 50 x 11 444 320 1700 2.00 0.63
therefore the portion of ends between the broken and I *M.L of L.W.L. around a longitudinal axis through C.G. of
full lines is the portion cut away from prism when shap p ane.
ing the fore-and—aft lines. "The height that the Transverse M.C. point is above the C.G.
,..E1:1.Itiamaftsifui.X ***The nearest two places of decimals.
/ ,,/‘1/ “I,” I u ______x )5 ****Decimals omitted.

l 5'” If " i lI f' r I 45. EXPLANATION OF THE WAVE-LINE THEORY OF

1 q- I /-‘- ,4—— —— /l/ '—- I, - I SHAPING WATER-LINES
I I \klkl “%§__‘ ljl
_,til_. .gfL all ,.
w I mix ”__ \if.
This theory, and the many modifications of it now in
use, is based upon results of tests made, in the first place,
22-5' .0- ,
by Mr. Scott Russell, a celebrated English naval archi
tect and engineer.
mg. as
The theory is based upon the assumption that sea
Do not confuse this calculation with the one explained waves assume definite shapes, depending upon their ve
under the heading block coeflicient of fineness. locity, length and height.
These shapes, geometrically considered, are supposed
44. SHAPE OF L.W.L. FOR POWER BOATS
to be curves of sines of definite shape but differing in
In selecting a shape for the L.W.L. the designer has length with each change in velocity of wave.
great freedom of choice. It is, however, necessary to
Experiments carried out seemed to prove that the as
keep these things in mind: sumption is correct so far as sea waves is concerned;
*Length of_prism. _ and it was, from this, assumed that if the lines of a boat
lCross-section area of prism. were formed to conform to a correct wave form for the
 40 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
speed desired the resistance to the passage of the boat cycloidal 0r trochidal curve and the completed water-line
through water would be reduced to a minimum. is a curve of versed sines. In all cases the points should
From the experiments made with waves and models be marked and the bow and stem portions of line marked
these things were ascertained: at one time. Study the illustration.
Ist.—That the length of fore body (entrance) of a
F'— ALTUEUNJL — if Font 500v he 70 i_ s___~_
boat designed for a certain speed should be the same as ‘—“—-—;
_ in ,f' z I I
the length of a wave of the first order moving at that Mn 10;; 552:8 / 1

speed.* .-/”‘ ‘ w - rs
(~11 :10ng 4;: /, \_
\I
// :qupu‘gs ran Pans/vi.
l .
2d.—That the length of a boat’s after body should be
the same as the length of the front face of a wave of the \
,'_' _. ._.

Br ' t“ r if; ti" " r“ r “\l

'
‘ ._.
,1:
._._1 . _._.s>.
\ 1
second order moving at the named velocity. ' o I 2 s 4 , f 5 a 1 .1
- The experiments referred to resulted in definite rules
being formulated for shaping water-line planes in accor
dance with the wave theory of form. These rules are
given below.
To Shape a Water Plane in Accordance With the //
QAN litixsig [5
Wave Form Theory—Lay off a straight line the length WIY~QMY DfTflIHfIdT

of the water plane and divide it into two parts by means

of a line drawn at right angles to it and placed 60% of
the length from one end. This line is called the base line. _ WAVE gal/4 séégvg' or Aksai _

The dividing line is the position at which the midship

section must be placed, therefore, the 60% end of the
base line is length of bow and the 40% end is length of
stern.
On the dividing line describe a semi—circle having a
radius equal to one-fourth the extreme breadth of boat
on L.W.L. and divide its circumference line into any
convenient number of equal divisions, then number the
dividing points from No. I, at base, up.
Now divide the bow portion of base line into the same
number of parts that you divided the circumference line
of semi-circle into, then draw from each dividing point
right—angled lines and number them from No. I, at for
ward end of base line up.
Next draw lines through each dividing point of semi
circular circumference line and parallel with base line.
These lines will cross each of the right-angled lines and
if the points of intersection of each parallel line with the
same numbered right angle line are used as points for the
drawing of a curved line, a correct wave form line for
bow can be marked. To lay out the shape of stem por
tion of the line proceed as follows:
Divide the stern portion of base line into the same
number of parts used for the bow and draw right-angled
dividing and parallel lines in the same manner you drew
them for bow.
Next measure along each parallel line the distance the
semi-circular line is away from the midship section right
angled line and transfer the measurements aft of the cor
respondingly numbered right-angled line, for after body,
by measuring from the right-angled lines the required
distance along the proper numbered parallel line.
Thus all the points are moved aft a greater or lesser
distance.
If now you use these moved points as points for the
drawing of a curved line you will be able to mark the
shape of the stern portion of the wave form curve.
If you will refer to the upper portion of the N0. 34
illustration you will see how the points are moved aft
and the curve laid out.
Technically speaking, the after water-line curve is a
*The lengths of waves increase with each increase in
speed.
1‘18. 84
The contention of advocates of this form of water
line is that water-lines formed in this manner offer least
possible resistance to propulsion, and while this may
be true when shape alone is considered, it is not entirely
true when every element of a design is considered as a
unit. Resistance to propulsion, seaworthiness, stability,
capacity, have all to be considered when designing a boat
and the designer should always consider these as a unit
without unduly magnifying the importance of any one
feature or part.
The extreme forward ends of water-lines laid out in
the manner explained will sometimes be so fine that it
would be impossible to obtain the requisite strength of
construction at stem. To overcome this a slight modi
fication of the rule is often necessary. This modifica—
tion is made in the following manner:
The bow portion of the base line is drawn longer
than it is intended that the bow of water-line shall be
and after the water-line is marked out, as already ex
plained, the surplus length is marked 011? at extreme for
ward end and forward end of the water-line curve re
marked to terminate at the proper point. The requisite
length is thus obtained and the extreme fineness at bow
is done away with without materially altering the shape.
I have explained this method of shaping water-lines
because it is a scientific method of acknowledged merit.
‘ Displacement should always be considered when shap
Ing water-lines. If a boat is to have a comparatively
large displacement it is not advisable to shape water-lines
in exact accordance with the wave-line theory because
the capacity of a boat having wave lines is not so great
as when the water-lines are convex, or parabolic.
In other words on the same water-line length. area
of midship section and L.\V.L. plane, the displacement
of a wave form L.W.L. boat will be less than that of a
boat having convex water-lines.
An advantage of the wave-line form that should not
be overlooked is the capacity, and weights are carried in
a better position, nearer the middle of the boat, which
is of great importance.
In the parabolic convex form the center of weight
will lie about 0.37 from the middle; in the straight-line
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
HIP~
wr
I /~
/
FULL L/Nl 1s Yka! WAvf FOR/‘1 CuRVE
0‘ N Amu- tonwnna '0”st L1. 15"
POINT: A‘L Movra It‘r Dar/:4! Tn! 1-2 3
‘ ," .1 ._ _.. . —.'__
I,
/ . .___. . /,._.___.__._._.
"MW/.arc
figgwnug ~ow 1'1: (1") I'lY'I'Ivolaci/nvr Ii Ital/CID I ~ Ll~gld :1
r! ITIIII | u Rlanlfilhrc
H3. 85
form this center is at 0.35 and in the wave form at 0.29
from the middle.
Fig. 34 ShOWS trial wave-form curves laid out.
Fig. 35 shows methods used for correcting a wave
form curve.
4th Preliminary Calculation.
Calculation—Having marked out the proposed shape of
L.W.L. it is advisable to ascertain whether a boat having
the selected dimensions, shape, and area of L.W.L. plane,
will be stable. This calculation is made in this manner:
Ist.—The proposed L.W.L. plane is divided into a
sufficient number of intervals for a Simpson’s rule cal
culation and the area and location of the C.G. point of
plane is determined.
2d.—The M.I. of the L.W.L. plane around a longi
tudinal axis drawn through its center is calculated.
3d.—The approximate vertical position of the C.B.
point is ascertained by making this calculation:
l (d_+ V Distance C.B. point is likely to be be
3 2 X): low the L.W.L.
d—Standing for draught at midship section.
V—Standing for volume of displacement in cubic feet.
A—Standing for area of L.W.L. plane in square feet.
4th.—Find the probable location of the C.G. of
weights vertically by making this short calculation.
In boats having no inside ballast the vertical position
of C.G. of weights will be found to be located at a pomt
that is (approximately) one-half of the depth of midship
section above rabbet.
The depth of midship section being measured from
rabbet to sheer amidships.*
For a certain design the measured depth of midship
section from rabbet is 3.33 feet. Therefore, the C.G. of
gravity of weights is located at a point that is (approxi—
mately) 1.66 foot above rabbet.
Knowing the draught of water amidships (it is 1.25
foot) from L.W.L. to rabbet, the distance that the C.G.
*This rule for measuring cannot be applied to boats hav
ing raised cabins, cabinhouses, or tops that extend above the
sheer. In such cases some addition must be made to the depth
measure to cover the leverage of the additional height.
47
point is away from L.W.L. can be ascertained by sub
tracting the draught of water from the half—depth meas
~
fillsa/Rti ure. In this case the calculation is:
_ _ 0.4I foot. Distance the C.G. is above
‘
£1" arr/“43 [fl
wm~gu~r arr-:1»: r
1'66 1'25 * the L.W.L.?
/ 46. MOMENT or INERTIA EXPLAINED
The moment of any physical agency is the product of
r ~0i~ IOIWIIBI'ND Z '7 force and distance of the point of application from the
ITINDIN nw‘n I?
fulcrum, the distance being the least distance between
the center of force applied and center of the fulcrum,
or axis.
Inertia is a measure of massiveness, or mass, and is a
term expressive of that indifierence to a state of rest, or
motion, which is the universal property of matter and
may be expressed by saying that a body in motion will
continue in motion, and a body at rest will remain at
rest unless acted upon by some external force.
O! (.v»?v The sum of the force required to overcome the in
ertia of a body, whether to stop or to move it, is called
the moment of inertia. _
Moment of inertia deals with the rotation of bodies
around an axis. The axis can be either within or with
out the body and it is of great importance to keep the lo
cation of the axis in mind when calculating the moment
of inertia of any body, because it naturally stands to rea
son that the further the mass is away from the axis
Preliminary Stability around which it is supposed to revolve the greater the
force necessary to stop the momentum, or to start the
mass revolving if it is stationary.
The moment of inertia of any area can be ascertained
by dividing the area into a large number of equal sized
smaller areas and multiplying each small area by the
square of the distance its C.G. point is from the axis
around which the whole area is supposed to revolve. The
sum of all these will be the moment of inertia of the
whole area around the named axis. To explain this more
fully I have drawn Fig. 36.
<——-xX
mL___L___.C-‘L___ ____
m. a? m. as
Fig. 36 shows an irregular-shaped area and above it
(— -— — —-) is marked the axis around which it is to
revolve.
Let us suppose that the area enclosed by the RR. line
is divided into equal sized small areas, like SR, and the
distances their C.G. points are from the named axis is
measured. Then the sum of all such products as S.R.
multiplied by the square of distance the C.G. is from
named axis will be the moment of inertia of whole area
around the named axis.
It is usual and proper to use the letters Ml. or the
single letter I, in place of the words moment of inertia
:l‘This coincides very nearly with actual location found by
making the detailed calculation.
48 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
and I will, hereafter, use these letters to indicate, or ex— ;_5 .r-“r. um u
press, moment of inertia.
If the area of a figure is known, the M.I. around an
axis within the figure can be found by using this formula: \ \
Co X Area X Depth squared : M.I.
Co being a coefficient varying with shape of figure \
and position of axis.
Area being the area of the whole figure.
\
Depth squared being the depth, measured perpen
dicular to axis and squared.
The following are coefficients 'to use for regular
shaped figures.
TABLE OF COEFFICIENTS To Use WHEN AXIS Is THROUGH C.G. 01‘
FIGURE
For a circle CO 1-I6 0r M.I. = 1-16 X A X F squared.
For a rectangle C0
ll
II I-12 0r M.I. = 1-12 X A X F squared.
1]
/
For a triangle CO 1-18 or M.I. = 1-18 X A X F squared.
0RD! / oxo l2 Oknl’a
These coefficients can only be used when the axis lies ' 4'-G '—————>l<— ~~ 4-‘-6——-1'
within the figure. :— 910 ————-‘>
When the axis around which the figure, or mass, re—
volves is parallel to and a given distance from an axis rig. as
drawn through C.G. of figure the M.I. of known areas
is determined by first calculating the M.I. of the figure them and measure their lengths from the longitudinal
around an axis drawn through its C.G. parallel with the axis out.*
axis around which the figure revolves, and then adding Next cube each measurement and enter the cubes of
to the M.I. figures the product of the area into the square measurements as ordinate lengths for the rule. Put the
of the distance between the two axes. (See Fig. 37.) cubed ordinate lengths through Simpson’s multipliers in
From this you can readily see that: the ordinary way and total the function, of cubes. The
sum of the function of cubed lengths is then treated in
Ist.—The M.I. of a figure about an axis through its this way: One-third of the total multiplied by the proper
own C.G. must always be less than about an axis parallel interval multiplier (V3 or 3%; common interval) will give
to it and some distance away. M.I. of one-half the plane. By multiplying this total by
2d.—If an area is distributed away from its C.G. the 2 the M.I. 0f the whole plane is ascertained.
M.I. is very much greater than if it is massed near to
the C.G. CALCULATION To FIND M.I. 0F FIG. 38 AROUND ITs LONCI
In boat and vessel calculations the M.I. is almost al— TUDINAL AXIs
ways calculated around an axis within the figure. 0111. Length of Cube of S Function of
Now refer to the Fig. 38 illustration and the calcula— Number Halt-01d. Half-01d. M Cohen
tions I have made to determine its M.I. relative to the I 3.00 27.00 I 27.00
fore-and—aft axis marked, which you will note passes 2 3.00 27.00 4 108.00
3 3.00 27.00 I 27.00
through the C.G. of the figure.
The figure being a rectangle its area can be determined 162.00
and then the M.I. can be calculated by using the formula One-third total is =54.00
and coeflicient multiplier for a rectangle. . One-third interval= 1.5
The calculation works as follows:'
Area :- 9 X 6 : 54 square feet. 81.00 M.I. of one-half plane.
Perpendicular depth is 6 feet. 62 I 36. Multiplier ' 2

Coefficient for rectangle is 1-12. 162.00 M.I. for whole plane.

Therefore: I will now make a complete calculation to determine
54 X s6 the M.I. of Fig. 39 water plane around its longitudinal
———— : I62 axis drawn through C.G. of plane.
12
6 The M.I. of E. around the marked axis is, therefore, _ *A longitudinal axis drawn through C.G. of a water plane
I 2. Wlll run from stem to stem through center of plane, and as
both sides of plane are alike one-half of plane is each side
of line, or axis. When calculating M.I. of a water plane
47. RULE FOR CALCULATING M.I. OF A BOAT’s WATER around a longitudinal axis through C.G. all measurements
PLANE AROUND A LONCITUDINAL AXIS must be made from axis out, and not from outside to outside
of plane. Thus one-half of plane is measured and to ascer
DRAWN THROUGH ITs C.G. tain the M.I. of whole plane the multiplier 2 is used. If the
Divide the longitudinal axis into a number Of equal whole width of plane measurements were used the final fig
ures would indicate the M.I. of plane around a longitudinal
intervals suitable for the application of one of Simpson’s axis drawn along one side of plane. 1! is important to keep
rules. Mark ordinate lines at points of division, number this in mind.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED 49
While it is always necessary to make complete cal
HALF PLAN 5 culation in the manner shown, a knowledge of the proper
coefficients to use will enable you to quickly determine,
during the preliminary stages of work, the moment of
inertia of intended L.W.L. plane.
k.— a_ 0‘_.1
INTI-VAL
For this reason the designer should make it a practice
I
\l to determine the M.I. coefficient for every design and for
every shape of L.W.L. plane. If this data is properly
tabulated the designer will always have the data in con
mm TURIPJA! Ana
venient form for reference.
l\m_ VIA 22799 Below I give headings for tabulated data of this kind.
Mm“.
’ “- T.Ah|5_\l2. v IIQLQ M.I. 0F L.W.L. PLANE DATA AND PARTICULARS
I‘ll. 39 Length Breadth Area L.W.L. M.I.
0t 0! of Coefi. 0! Around M.I.
L.W.L. L.W.L. plane Fineness Long Axis Coefl.
CALCULATION TO DETERMINE THE M.I. or THE L.W.L. PLANE OF A 18.0 ft. 6.4 ft. 87.9 0.7 227.9 0.048
BOAT AROUND A L0N01Tun1NAL Ax15 DRAWN THROUGH ITs CENTER
PAthcutAks.—'l‘he length of plane is 18 ft., therefore, it can Knowing the M.I. of a boat’s L.W.L. plane around
be divided into six intervals (for seven ordinates) and Simpson’s a longitudinal axis drawn through its center, the displace
first rule can be used. Interval between ordinates is 3 ft. Lengths ment in cubic feet, and location of C.B. point above the
of ordinates, from center line out, are as entered below: bottom of boat, the distance the transverse M.C. point is
0rd Length of Cube 0! as” Function of above the C.B. point can be quickly located by making
Number Half-Ord. Length . Cubes of Length
the following short calculation:
1 0.00 0.00 1 0.00
2 1.50 3.37 4 13.48 M.I. of the LNVL. plane _ Height of MIC. (wimp
3 2.50 15.02 2 31.24 _ verse) above C.B.
4 3.00 27.00 4 108,00 Displacement in cubic feet
5 3.20 32.76 2 65.52 A knowledge of this is valuable because it indicates
6 3.00 27.00 4 108.00
7 2.50 15.62 1 1562 the approximate initial stability.
The above formula willgive figures that will indicate
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341.86 whether, or not, the boat is stable when upright.
One-third of total is used. It is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 113.95 The amount of stability a boat possesses depends
One-third interval multiplier is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. t
upon:
M.I. of one-half the plane is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 113.95 Ist.—Her underwater shape.
Multiplier for whole plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 2d.—The distribution of this shape, or bulk.
3d.——The distribution of weight of boat and all on
M.I. of the whole plane around a longitudinal axis . . . . .. 22790
board.
When the area of plane is not known, or is known If the vertical positon of the center of a boat’s un
approximately as when making preliminary calculations derwater bulk is known we have an accurate knowledge
for a design, the M.I. of the plane around its longitudinal of the distribution of bulk vertically, and if we also
axis can be very closely calculated by using this formula: know the M.I. of the boat’s immersed plane of greatest
Co X L X B3 : M.I. width and area we have a correct measure of the inertia
\Vhere C0 is a coeflicient varying with each change of the mass immersed, because inertia varies with dis
of shape. tance that the mass is distributed away from the axis
L is length of the plane. of rotation, or axis around which the mass is supposed
to revolve, and the plane of greatest width and area indi
B3 is breadth, extreme, (from outside to outside of
cates the greatest transverse distance that the mass can
plane) cubed. _ be away from the axis.
For a L.W.L. plane in the form of a rectangle the
C0 is 0.083. Therefore by using the M.I. and mass figures in a
For a L.W.L. plane in the form of two triangles the proper manner the amount of force necessary to start
Co is 0.02. boat revolving (inclining) around an axis drawn through
Therefore the coefficients for ordinary shaped water C.G. longitudinally can be ascertained. This force ex—
planes of boats must lie between the above figures. pressed in pounds, or tons, will indicate the moment of
Using this formula the M.I. of Fig. 38 works out as force required to incline the boat to a named angle, or
follows: the figures can be used to indicate a measure of com—
0.083 X 9 X 63 : 161.35 M.I. parison between the boat’s actual stability and that of
This is very near to the figures obtained by calculat the boat when in a state of neutral equilibrium,
ing the M.I. in the manner explained. Shape is permanent, therefore, whatever "shape sta—
For the water plane whose M.I. is calculated above bility” a boat possesses is fixed for each draught of
the formula gives: water and inclination.
0.048 X 18 X 6.4 cubed : 226.492. Weight stability, or stability due to distribution of
The coefficient for the L.\/V.L. whose moment of in weight, is a quantity varying with each change of weight
ertia I calculated is 0.048. and location of the C.G. point.
50 NAVdL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
You already know that for every body there is a
point below which the C.G. of the body must be kept
if it is desired to have the body rest in a state of stable
equilibrium. In a boat this point is termed the M.C.
point and its position depends upon shape and distribu
tion of underwater bulk. Knowing the bulk immersed
and its distribution it is possible to locate the M.C. point,
and knowing the location of the M.C. point we can learn
whether the boat is stable or not by locating the C.G.
point and noting whether it is below the M.C., and the
distance that the C.G. point is below the M.C. gives
some indication of the amount of initial stability pos
sessed by the boat.
Fifth Preliminary Calculation. Freeboard Necessary
The freeboard of small power boats should be such
that edge of deck does not become immersed at less than
a 25° inclination. In cabin cruisers and larger boats the
angle should be greater. I give on Table No. 8 a list
to it to represent the center line Of boat at midship sec
tion. Next from the point of intersection of these two
lines draw a diagonal line upwards at the inclination
selected for boat at midship section.
The point where this diagonal line cuts a vertical line
drawn upwards from the horizontal line at a distance
equal to one-half the extreme width of boat will be the
top of sheer at midship section, and if the distance this
point is above the L.W.L. horizontal line is measured
along a vertical line the height of freeboard at midship
section will be ascertained.
Fig, 40 illustrates the method of laying out these lines
for a boat having 7 feet extreme breadth of beam.
NIL r QIIIDTN—v-J
/
Fae/"a
Lnuf
m
275
o ne“
\

of angles suitable for various types and sizes of power /-/

boats that are to be used in protected waters. Freeboard e—/—->
at bow and stern must be increased a sufficient height
to make boat dry and easy in a sea but you must bear / \\
in mind that height of freeboard alone will not make ‘/ I

a boat dry and safe. The height must be there but, in

addition, the shape and proportion must be correct and in
keeping with the underwater body.
J
Fig. 40
.i

When a boat rises in a seaway the stern is depressed

and line of flotation and position of C.B. point changes The height of freeboard at bow and stem must next be
longitudinally. With each up movement of bow the selected. Experience and data obtained from boats built
C.B. point moves aft and with each down movement it are the most satisfactory guides. On Table NO. 9 I give
moves forward of its original position, and thus the fore freeboard measures _that can be used as guides for in—
and-aft movement is like the swing of a pendulum, and crease Of height of freeboard at bow and stem over
upon the regularity of swing fore-and—aft of the original that selected for midship section. These measures are
C.B. position depends the steadiness Of boat longitudi for boats of ordinary form having concave sheer line.
nally. It is most desirable that the fore-and—aft move The measures cannot be used for straight or convex
ment be regular, equal and limited in extent. sheer-lined boats.
The motion of a boat up and down should be less than TABLE NO. 9
that of the lifting wave, and if the abovewater portion '— Open Buatsi——‘ ,--_ Cabin Boats _—

of the boat is properly proportioned and its bulk prop Approximate

Length
Increlse
A! Bow
Increase
At Stern
Increase
Ar Bow
Increase
AlSzern
erly distributed vertically and longitudinally this desirable Feet Feet Inches Feet Inches
condition can be obtained. 20—24 1_ 0—1.2 2—3 1.2—1.5 55— 4
The bulk above water should be proportioned to bulk 25—29 1. 2—I.5 3—4 I.4—I.6 3— 4
30—39 I. 3—1.0 3—4 1.6—19 3— 4
immersed, and ends should be shaped in such a manner 35—39 1- 6—1-9 4—5 1-9—2.o 4— 5
that the moment of lifting force due to action of a wave 40—49 I. 8—2.o 4—6 2.0—2.3 4— 6
on bow will be counteracted by the moment of resistance 50—59 1 iO—2.3 4—6 2.3—2.6 4— 6
to depression of stern due to the stern resisting immer 60—69 . .. .. . . . . .. . 2.6—2.9 6— 8
70—79 . . . . . . .. 2.9—3.0 6— 8
sron in water. 80—89 . .. .. .. . 3.0—3.3 6— 9
A boat that pitches violently over every wave is not 90—99 . . . . . . .. 3.0—3.6 6—ro
making headway since a large part of the propelling force
is exerted in driving her up and down instead of in a 49. SIXTH PRELIMINARY CALCULATION. H.P. NECESSARY
direct line ahead. FOR SPEED
_ TABLE No. 8 By using old method formula, figures taken from
POWER BOAT FREEBOARD Resistance table and data given on preliminary data sheet
Approximate F‘- Runabou! —‘ /—-——Open Cabin
Lengths Breadth Angle Breadth Angle Breadth Angle Table No. I the H.P. required to drive that boat at de
Feel Fr. Ft. Fl. sired speed can be ascertained with reasonable accuracy.
20—24 4 35° 5 28° 7 32°
25—29 4-6 35° 7 27° 8 30° It is possible to make use Of this formula because all
30—34 5 34° 8 27° 9 30° the necessary particulars are given on preliminary data
35—30 6 33: 0 27° 10 30° sheet Table No. I.
40—49 7 32 IO ° 12 30° The figures for this calculation are:
50—59 8 30° 11' 26° 14 30°
. ... 12 25° \ I5 29" Area of Midship section is
70—79 . ... .. . .. :6 28° to be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9.44 square feet.
80—89 . . .. .. . .. 18 26° Speed desired is . . . . . . . . .. 10 nautical miles (knots)
90—99 . . 20 25°
Length of entrance is . . . . . . 19 feet.
48. To DETERMINE FREEBOARD NECESSARY Breadth at midship section
Draw a horizontal line to represent the LNVL. of on L.W.L. is . . . . . . . . . 8.25 feet.
boat at midship section, and another line at right angles Area of immersed surface is 233.5 square feet.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED 51
Note. The area of immersed surface is ascertained Width of midship section 8.25
by making use of this formula: : .434 and .4342 = .188.
V Length of entrance 19
L X D X 1.7 + — : Immersed surface. Therefore Head resistance H.P. = 8.76 X .188 X
D 9.44 = 15.546 _ _ _
L standing for length on L.\V.L'. (given on prelimi~ ' And H.P. required to overcome frictional resistance
nary data). is:
D standing for mean draught of water (given on pre 233.5 X .71
liminary data). —— I .58 and .58 X 8.76 = 5.08 H.P.
V standing for volume of displacement (given on 285-33
preliminary data). 15. 546 Needed to overcome head resistance.
195.72 5.080 Needed to overcome frictional resist
34 X 1-185 X 1-7 + : 233.49 Square feet im ance.
1.185 20.626
mersed area. Add 30% 6.187 For propeller slip allowance.
The figures on Resistance table for 10 knots are: Add 10% 2.062 For frictional loss between engine
Direct head resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 285.23 and propeller.
H.P. figures . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.76 28.875 H.P. required.
Skin friction figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.7! ' 7th Preliminary Cale ulatio n—Coeflicients: The\
And coefficient for improvement in form is .188 ob methods used for determining coefficients have been ex
tained in this manner: plained in paragraph headed coefiicients.
 Chapter VIII
Construction Details and Structural Strains
Before proceeding further I will briefly explain a few
things that must be considered when planning construc
tion details of small power boats.
Ist. The materials selected must have sufficient
strength to withstand all stresses and strains the boats
will encounter.
2d. The materials must be durable and not liable to
rot when partially or fully immersed in water. . mined by its weight and the up pressure of buoyancy
3d. The pieces must be shaped and fastened to
gether in such a manner that the structure as a whole
will have a maximum of strength without unnecessary
weight.
Unnecessary weight is a detriment and detracts from
the strength of any structure.
Always remember that strength of a structure is never
greater than the strength of its weakest part.
If, when designing the structure of a hull, you make
one part unduly weak, the whole structure will be weak
and no amount of strength added to other parts’will
make up for the weakness of the one weak piece.
As I have in a previous chapter given tabulated
dimensions of material and relative value of material
lists, it will be unnecessary to do more than refer you
to those lists for data about suitable sizes and kinds
of materials to use.
Therefore I will pass to the third item.
The strains to which boats and vessels are subject
can be divided into two classes.
Ist. Structural strains, or strains that affect the
structure as a whole.
2d. Local strains that affect some particular portion
of the structure.
50. STRUCTURAL STRAINS .
These are almost entirely due to the action of ele—
ments (weather and sea) or to propulsion (sail, steam,
power).
Longitudinally a power-boat hull may be likened to
a trussed girder, subject to bending in a fore-and-aft
direction, but as the distribution of weight and amount
of material used in the structure varies considerably
along the length, and in addition to this the water sup
port, or buoyancy due to the up pressure Of water, is
not evenly distributed along the length and does not
coincide with weight distribution, the strains are very
unevenly distributed.
Imagine that a boat has been cut transversely into
four pieces, and that tight bulkheads have been fitted
at the ends of the pieces; the pieces being joined to
gether again in such a manner that they will be free
to move up and down, but in no other direction. Also
suppose that weight of boat has not been increased. If,
after cutting, the boat is replaced in water, it will be
found that each section will now float at a level deter
on that Particular section. Or, in other words, weight
and buoyancy will determine the level of flotation of each
section independently. Thus the sections will now float
somewhat in this manner:
Bow section has least buoyancy (bulk) and the
materials used for stem, etc., are in excess of buoyancy
requirements. therefore, this section will float deeper
than the original water-line.
Next to bow section has a large amount of buoyancy
and no excessively heavy weight to carry, therefore,
this section will float above the designed water-line.
Midship section has great buoyancy, but also carries
a large amount of weight due to machinery, etc., there
fore, this section will float deeper than the L.W.L.
Stern section has no excessive weights to carry and
its buoyancy is greater than is required to float weight,
therefore, this section will float higher than the original
water-line.
Thus we have two sections striving to float higher,
when boat is rigidly connected as a single structure, and
two striving to sink deeper, and these opposing forces
will cause structural strains that must be considered
and be taken care of by the designer when he designs
the structure.
To equalize structural strains of hull and buoyancy
of water along the length of a boat is an impossibility,
therefore, the strains must be carefully calculated for
both the level water—line, as shown, and also for the
extremes of fore-and-aft pitching likely to occur when
boat is in a sea. This brings me to a point where it is
necessary to consider the abovewater portion of hull.
The Aboa'ewater Portion of Hull.—The shape of this
has a great deal to do with the action, or behavior. of a
boat in a sea. Its shape can either increase or de
crease structural strains.
The ideal shape for the abovewater portion of a hull
is one that will permit the bow to settle easily up to the
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED 53
proper (calculated) point, and will prevent the stern be greater than thickness and deep face should be laid
from settling when bow is lifted out of water. against inside of ribs.
These conditions are obtained in a power-boat hull by Deck Frame should be designed with a view to offer—
giving the extreme bow sections above L.W.L. a gradu— ing greatest resistance to transverse strains. The ends
ally increasing flare and by making the extreme after should be securely kneed and fastened to both clamps
sections above L.\V.L. relatively full. and ribs.
The strains that affect the frame of a boat are partly Planking.—The side and top planks help to resist
transverse and partly longitudinal and for the purpose longitudinal strains and the bottom ones transverse
of helping you undertstand this I tabulate below the names strains. The strength of planking should be ample to
of a few principal parts of a boat’s frame and have resist the hull and structural strains, and, in addition to
entered against each the kind of strain that it must be these, the strains due to action of sea and pressure of
designed to resist. To offer greatest resistance to longi .water due to depth of immersion (see table of water
tudinal strains the pieces affected must have their great— pressures). The planking must also be thick enough
est strength longitudinally and vertically, while to offer to hold the caulking in seams, and the caulking must
greatest resistance to transverse strains the strength must also resist the water pressure strains. Remember that
be transversely and vertically. at, and near keel, the pressure is considerable and this
I say pieces, but in reality both the pieces and the extreme water pressure must be considered when design
structure as a whole have to be considered, because it ing planking construction details.
stands to reason that the shape of the whole structure Bulkheads.—These can be considered as solid ribs
must greatly influence its power to resist strains, and and, therefore help to resist transverse strains. Water
consequently the amount of strain that each piece has tight bulkheads must always be strong enough to resist
to bear. For instance, if a hull is shallow, that is, if pressure of water that will come against them if com—
its depth from keel to sheer is slight in proportion to partment ahead of them is full of water and open to the
length, the structure as a whole cannot offer very great sea.
resistance to longitudinal strains and, therefore, in such Remarks About Local Strains.——Strains of this nature
hulls the pieces which have to resist longitudinal strains are mostly due to the placing of some heavy weight, such
must be much stronger vertically than in hulls of the as engine, boiler, mast, etc., in the vessel or boat; or to
same length but having a greater depth. the action of engine when operating, or to the action of
The same rule applies to transverse strains, though propeller, or to strains due to force of wind on sails, or
in this case width must be considered instead of length. to strains caused by rigging attachment.
Longitudinal Transverse
All such local strains must be carefully considered by
Part of Frame Strains Strains Both Equal the designer and taken care of by adding strength to
Keel stem, etc. Greatest. Least. the structure at the points affected.
Deadwood log, etc. Greatest. Least.
Bilge clamps, Greatest. Least. Thus, local strains due to weight of machinery and
Deck clamps. Greatest. Least. to its operation must be taken care of by adding proper
Ribs and floors. Least. Greatest. foundation structure and strengthening the parts of
Deck frame. Least. Greatest. structure at and near to the machinery. It is necessary
Shelf and knees. Least. Greatest.
Bulkheads. Least. Greatest. to bear in mind that any strengthening of structure
Planking, decking. ..... . . . . . .. ' Both equal. should be made in such a manner that the strain is
transferred to the main portions of hull structure and
The Keel.—Longitudinal strains are greatest, there sPread over as large an area as possible.
fore, the most effective form of keel is one having depth
greater than thickness (width). , The action of a propeller will cause strains that can
best be taken care of by adding strength to deadwood
Stem and Stem-Knee.—These can be considered as and sternpost. Always bear in mind that provision must
part of the keel and should be designed to resist longi be made for taking care of the thrust of propeller.
tudinal strains.
In sailing craft, local strains due to weight of mast,
Deadwood and Shaft-Log.—These can also be con etc., must be taken care of by strengthening the keel
sidered as parts of keel and should be designed to resist where mast is located and by adding foundation timbers
longitudinal strains. The log must also be made suffi— for mast to step into. The deck where mast goes must
ciently large to permit shaft hole to be bored through also be properly strengthened and all places where rig
it and fastenings placed correctly. ging is fastened to hull must be properly strengthened to
Ribs should be designed to resist transverse strains. resist the greatest strain that will be put on the sails and
A rib having greater depth than width and placed with rigging. The details of hull strengthening for rigging
narrow face against inside of planking is the most attachments must be carefully worked out for the ex
effective. press purpose of transferring strains over the greatest
Floor Timbers.——\Vhile these aid in resisting both possible surface of hull. ‘
transverse and longitudinal strains, they should be de— It is most important to bear in mind that it is waste- '
signed to offer greatest resistance to transverse strains. ful and unwise to attempt to obtain necessary strength by
Depth above keel helps to resist longitudinal strains and simply adding weight of material. The strongest and
length of arms each side of keel is necessary for trans most durable structure is always the one in which
verse strain resistance. The correct shape of floor tim— weight, distribution and fastening of the materials have
ber is one having good depth above keel and good length been considered as one connected whole—A sufficient
of arms each side of keel. weight of material must be used and this material must
Clamps—Longitudinal strains affect these most, be properly placed, distributed and fastened; but any
therefore, clamps should bev placed with a view to re excess of weight over and above what is absolutely neces
sisting longitudinal strains. Their depth should always sary generally detracts from the efficiency of the struc
54 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
Mann/Ml,‘
- ‘4 511a; .a m. ‘8
ture as a whole. No structure is stronger than its weak
est piece is a most important maxim to remember.
It is especially important to remember that fastenings
are just as important details as the largest member of a
structure, and, in fact, it can be said with truth that
fastening details are more important than many that
receive more attention.
I will now explain how the pieces of a boat hull
structure are shaped and fastened.
Keel, stem, deadwood and shaft-log form the center
longitudinal member of hull and are the pieces upon
which the whole structure is erected. Examine Fig. 43.
On that drawing these pieces are shown put together and
fastened in their proper positions.
Each piece of\material is shaped in such a manner
that when it is assembled in position, the outside shape of
assembled pieces is exactly as shown on lines drawing,
and inside shape is such that rabbet can be properly
cut and required strength Obtained, that the several pieces
can be properly fastened together and ribs, floors and
planking, can be fitted and fastened in position.
It is, therefore, apparent that these things must be
considered when designing construction details of this
kind:
Ist.—Shape of the outline of assembled pieces.
2d.—Location and shape of rabbet.
3d.——Width and length of material available.
4th.—-Strength necessary.
I will take up each of these points in order and ex
plain the way a designer works when designing keel
construction details.
He first gets ready a piece of drawing paper of
proper size and marks on it Base—L.W.L—Mould
(ordinate) Positions—The Outline of Stem, Keel—The
Rabbet—The Shaft Line—and Sheer Line—taking
measurements for these from profile view of lines
drawing.
He next considers width of material available and
thickness necessary.
The thickness has been decided upon (taken from Ta
ble No. 2), but as width and length available are seldom
known exactly, the designer usually shapes pieces and
arranges scarphs so that stock sizes of material can be
used.
51. THE KEEL
This is the name of piece of material extending from
after end of stem to sternpost. Stem and stem-knee is
fastened to its forward end and deadwood and shaft
log to its after end.
From table, I learn that Minimum Depth of keel for
+
a boat like the one being designed is 6 inches, and that
its thickness should be 3% inches.
I, therefore, measure 6 inches up from bottom of
keel line at point on keel where rabbet line is nearest to
bottom of keel, and find out the distance this point comes
above rabbet line. The measurement is, in this instance,
2 inches. It is next necessary to ascertain whether this
measure is sufficient for cutting rabbet for planking and
foothold for ribs. To ascertain required measure for
these, proceed as follows:
To find space required for rabbet add to thickness of
plank %; inch for each inch.
To find space required for end Of rib:
If rib is mortised into keel, double the moulded
depth of rib will be the measure.
If rib is to butt against keel, by adding one-eighth to
moulded depth of rib, measure will be ascertained.
If rib partly butts against and partly rests on top of
keel, one-half moulded depth of rib will be measure
required.
By adding measure required for plank and rib, total
measure required will be ascertained.
For the design, measures are:
Thickness of plank is ,7/8 inch; V3 inch added to this
gives I inch as measure required for rabbet.
Ribs have a moulde'd depth of 1% inches. Half this
measure is % inch, measure required for ribs.
I inch plus % inch is distance (minimum) keel must
extend above the rabbet line. (We have 2 inches.)
The line that represents top of keel can now be
drawn. In the design this line is located 2 inches above
rabbet and is drawn parallel with rabbet and the named
distance above it.
When top of keel line is marked, you will see that
while forward part of keel is sufficiently narrow to per
mit it being got out of one piece of material, the after
part is far too wide and will, therefore, have to be made
out Of three or four piecesof material fastened together.
Fig. 44 shows various methods of fastening keel
pieces together.
Illustration “A.” shows what is called a "flat—footed"
joint. Y0u will note that pieces are simply laid on top
of each other. A joint of this kind should not be used
when there is no supporting timber above and below.
“B” illustration shows a notched joint. This is the
kind of joint usually made when fastening pieces of
keel and deadwood together.
“C” illustration shows a more complicated method.
called a "hooked scarph,” much used in ship-building
and when building large cruisers.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
“D” illustration shows how any of the above scarphs
can be strengthened.
A square hole is cut albng joint in such a manner
that one-half of hole will be in each piece of timber.
Into this hole there is driven, after pieces are joined
together and fastened, a well-seasoned piece of wood.
This strengthens the scarph regardless of whether it is
like A, like B, or like C. This is called keying. It is
usual to cut hole midway between ends of joint when
joint is like B. When joint is like C, two holes are cut,
one at center of each step. D addition is seldom used in
small power-boat construction. ' end of shaft line, and a straight line drawn from this
Length of Keel Searphs.—~The length of a keel scarph
should never be less than six times moulded measure.
Thus, if a keel is 6 inches, length of scarph must be 36
inches.
1‘13. 44
Fastenings of Searphs.—Keel scarph fastenings should
never be less than %; inch diameter for each inch thick
ness of material.
The fastenings should be placed alternately right and
left of a center line, and should be spaced not over 9
inches apart, the end fastenings being located near to
ends.
All scarph fastenings should have washers placed
under heads of bolts, under both ends of rivets and under
nuts. Bolted fastenings are stronger than riveted ones.
The several pieces that make up after end of keel
and deadwood can now be laid out. To do this proceed
as follows: ' The shaft-log is the piece of material through which
First, if it has not already been marked, mark the
shaft line in its proper position and at correct angle.
This line represents center of shaft. To get correct
angle and position for shaft center line, ascertain diameter
of propeller that will be used and mark a point on stern
post at a sufficient distance below horntimber to permit
propeller to revolve and clear horntimber by at least
55
1 inch (more, if possible to have more without making
angle of shaft line too great) and be fully immersed.
This point will indicate location of after end of shaft
center line.
To find position of center of forward end of line,
ascertain diameter of flywheel of engine and its loca
tion when in place in boat. Then measure up from top
of keel at this point a distance equal to one-half diameter
of flywheel plus intended depth of floor timbers above
keel and not less than I inch for clearance. The total
of these measures will give vertical location of forward
point to after one will be the shaft line.
It is important to get this line accurately laid out.
In the design the diameter of propeller is 24 inches,
therefore, the measure below bottom of horntimber at
sternpost is 13 inches. The diameter of flywheel on a
30—h.p. engine is usually about 22 inches. Half of this
diameter is 11 inches. Add I inch for clearance and 4
inches for depth of floors above top of keel and we get
16 inches as measure that front end of shaft line is
above top of keel. The location of front of flywheel of
engine is obtained from lines drawing.
After shaft center line is marked, lines to indicate
top and bottom of shaft-log can be marked.
HI. ‘5
52. SHAFT—LOG
shaft passes. It is usually necessary to make shaft-log
out of heavier (thicker) material than keel, because there
must be sufficient thickness of material to leave ample
wood for fastenings each side of shaft hole.
The hole in shaft-log through which propeller shaft
passes must be larger than shaft, because propeller shaft
must not touch wood at any point, bearings (stern bear
5o NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
ing and stuffing—box) placed at each end of log being between keel and shaft-log; it is, in fact, a portion of
used to carry shaft and keep it in line. keel and sometimes is made of the same piece of wood
In a boat of the type being designed, it is usual to as keel. When distance from top of keel to bottom of
make diameter of shaft hole not less than %; inch larger shaft-log is too great to fill with keel plank, the space is
than diameter of propeller shaft. In larger boats % inch filled by using two or more separate pieces of material.
should be allowed. __ The deadwood material is usually same thickness as
On illustration Fig. 45 I show methods of shaft-log keel, and is laid out to fill space between top of keel
construction. and log. It is generally fastened in place with drifts
“A” on illustration Fig. 45 shows details of shaft-log placed at varying angles.
construction Suitable for any sized power boat having 54. STERNPOST
outside deadwood. This illustration shows a shaft-log
This is the piece of material fastened to end of keel,
made out of two pieces of material, one-half of the shaft
deadwood, shaft-log, etc., for the purpose Of tying pieces
hole being taken out of each. You will note that log together and fastening shaft bearing to.
is made out of thicker material than deadwood and
The sternpost is set up on keel and extends up to
horntimber and has its outside surfaces rounded. When horntimber tying ends of deadwood and log together.
a log is constructed in this manner, the lower piece is It is usually fastened in place by tenoning or scarphing
first of all fastened to keel or deadwood by means of to keel and horntimber in one of the ways illustrated.
drift—bolts driven through its center down into keel. The Drifts are used to secure ends Of wood to sternpost.
edges of log are then grooved out for the full length,
On illustration Fig. 45, A, B, E, is shown a sternpost
the grooves being placed close to the outer edges.
in position. On the A illustration it is simply dovetailed
Into these grooves are placed pieces of soft wood, into place, the ends of logs and deadwood butting against
(called stop-waters) for the purpose Of preventing water post and being fastened to it with drifts driven into wood
leaking through joint of log. diagonally.
The top of piece of log is placed in position and Illustration B shows method of tenoning post to keel
fastened to both lower piece and keel by driving drift— and horntimber.
bolts diagonally through both pieces into keel in manner Illustration B shows same as A, but having log let
shown on illustration “A.” into sternpost. The E method is best.
You will note that horntimber is the same thickness
as keel and, therefore, top and bottom edges of log have
to be rounded to meet edges of keel and horntimber
material.
Illustration “B” shows construction of log when
horntimber is made of the same thickness material that
log is made of, therefore, only the lower edges of log
have to be rounded, and method of fastening top piece
of logis changed to permit drifts being driven through
horntimber, both pieces of log and into keel.
Illustration “C” shows construction and methods of
fastening a shaft-log when it is made out of one piece
of material.
Illustration "D" shows a method of constructing a
shaft opening through deadwood of a boat without the
use of a shaft-log. This construction has the defect of
preventing use of through fastenings to connect dead—
wood with horntimber, and for this reason is less de
sirable than the methods shown by means of illustrations
(IAJJ) (KB!) ((C-)I

It is well to bear in mind that when heavy pieces,

such as log, keel, deadwood, etc., are fastened together
with drift-bolts, (these are simply straight pieces of
round iron) the drifts should be driven at varying angles
(inclining forward, or aft) because, when placed in this
position, they will prevent the pieces pulling apart and
hold much better than if driven straight or all at one
angle. Note inclinations of fastenings shown on illus
trations by means of dotted lines.
Depth of shaft-log can be made to suit, but front
end of log must extend inside rabbet and top of keel a
sufficient distance to permit stufling-box for shaft tO be
1‘15. 46
fitted against it. Of course, the front end of log must
be absolutely square and cut at right angles to shaft line. 55. HORNTIMBER
The outer end of log is fitted against sternpost in one This is the name of piece Of material that fastens to
Of the ways shown on illustrations. top of deadwood and shaft-log and extends aft to end
of boat. It can be the same thickness as keel or thick
53. THE DEADWOOD AFT ness of log, and is laid out in the manner that keel is
This is the name given to portion of boat that lies laid out.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
Horntimber is fastened to log and deadwood with
drifts, and, when fastening it in position, care must be
taken to see that drifts are kept clear of shaft hole.
Transom post and knee, or the stern piece and knee,
are fastened to horntimber“
56. STEM AND STEM-KNEE
These fasten to extreme forward end of keel and
can be constructed out of a single piece of curved wood,
called a knee, or from two or more pieces fastened
together.
On the accompanying illustration Fig. 46 various
methods of constructing stem and stem—knee are shown.
A shows a stem and knee in one piece, got out of a
curved piece of wood, or a natural knee. Note how
grain follows curve of knee, thus giving maximum
strength without undue weight. Also note how keel is
let into knee at its forward end. This prevents end of
keel being damaged should it strike any obstruction, and
also adds to strength of joint and fastenings.
B shows a stem made out of straight material and a
stein-knee out of a curved piece of wood, or a knee.
Note direction of grain in both pieces and how the upper
end of knee is let into stem. _ Floor timbers strengthen boat along keel and tie ribs
C shows both stem and knee made out of straight
grained material. Note direction of grain and method
of letting upper end of knee into stem.
D illustrates how any method of construction can be
57
When selecting dimensions for ribs that have to be
bent to shape consider amount of bend, or shape, to
which the ribs have to be bent and make relative pro—
portions of depth and width such that the material will
bend naturally and properly.
It is not a difficult matter to bend pieces of wood to
a desired shape, providing the wood used is of a kind
that has sufficient strength of fibres to withstand bend
ing strains, is straight-grained and has been well softened
with hot water or steam.
For ribs such as are used for the construction of
small cruisers white oak or elm are excellent materials.
The material is selected for straightness of grain and
need not be seasoned, or dry. It is then cut into strips
of desired dimensions and length. These strips are then
placed in a tight box into which steam is admitted, and
after about 20 minutes of steaming are removed one by
one and while hot are bent to desired shapes over forms.
The ribs must be fastened on forms until cold and can
then be removed and fitted in place in the boat.
Ribs are fastened to keel and floor timbers.
58. FLOOR TIMBERS
together. A floor timber is fitted to each pair of ribs,
being fastened to ribs with rivets and to keel with drifts
or spikes.
R HLQNI I IP18

strengthened and improved by simply letting after end

of knee into keel.
Look at the A, B, C construction and you will note
that if a stem and knee is constructed as shown on these
illustrations, the entire force of any blow or pressure on
front of stem will be transferred to joint marked “X”
and to fastenings, the tendency being to open joint “X”
and loosen fastenings through keel.
With after end of stem-knee let into keel as shown
on D, the joint “X” is not liable to open because of addi
tional strength given to it by notch "XX”.
In addition to this, all stem fastenings into keel are
strengthened and any blow or pressure exerted on face
of stem will be transferred to stem-knee and distributed
along foot of knee and against point “X” and “XX”.
When a joint of stem, knee or keel is made in mans
ner shown by bottom of knee A, B, C construction, the
joint is said to be “flat-footed”, and if made like D it
is said to be “notched”. When possible to do so,
“notched” joints should be made.
Of the stem and knee construction methods, A is
best, B is next best, then C.
57. RIBS
In small cruisers the ribs are steam-bent to shape.
Two very satisfactory methods of fastening ribs to keel
are shown on illustration Fig. 47.
The method shown by A can be used when depth of
keel above rabbet is slightly less than depth of rib. The
end of rib is cut to fit partly on top of keel and partly 1‘13. 47
against side of keel. The depth of floor timbers above top of keel should
Illustration B shows method that can be used when never be less than the sided measure of keel and the
rabbet is cut close to top edge of keel. You will note floor timbers ahead of midship section must be placed
that almost all of rib rests upon keel. altifad of ribs, and those aft of midship section aft of
Ribs hold planking in place and as the strains they n 5.
have to resist are mostly transverse, the most efficient On illustration Fig. 47 is shown methods for fitting
shape for a rib is one having depth, or moulded measure, and fastening floor timbers in small boats and cruisers.
greater than width, or sided measure. The most generally used method is shown on top of
58 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
illustration. The center illustration shows method of
fitting floor timbers on top of ribs. This method is not
good unless natural knee floor timbers are used. Z£~‘w
The lowest drawing shows method of fastening bent gen-raft l,
to shape floor timbers on top of ribs. This is an ex
cellent method to use for small boats, but is not good for
a cruiser size.
59. ENGINE FOUNDATION
An engine foundation is liable to both transverse
and longitudinal strains and the best way to resist them
is to give ample width to the floors and maximum length
to fore-and-aft bearers. In addition to this, the founda
tions as a whole must be sufficiently strong to resist
“panting” strains, or strains causing in and out vibra—
tions, at or near engine. Strains of this kind are prin—
cipally due to engine and hull vibrations not being in
unison, or uniform with each other, and can best be
overcome by strengthening hull structure at, or near to
the engine. 1‘13. 48
Fig. 48 shows details of two engine foundation con
struction methods. Pieces are scarphcd together, the end being notched.
The B details is an excellent method to use for heavy The L0g.—Of two pieces constructed in manner
engines when it is not possible to get a sufficient width shown by illustration B. The shaft hole through log
of material to make cross floors in one piece. will have to be about 1% inches, and as about 1% inches
The C details show how an engine foundation can of clear wood is required, for fastenings, on each side of
be strengthened in boats having keelsons, or when the hole the thickness of material must be at least 4 inches.
shape of engine flywheel is such that it becomes necessary Lower piece of log fastened with drifts placed through
to stop fore—and—aft bearers, or stringers, back of the its center and countersunk below shaft hole, and upper
flywheel. piece fastened with drifts placed on each side of hole.
With small engines this is not a detriment, but in The SternPOst.——Constructed like A.
cases when heavy-duty engines are used, vibrations are The Horntimber.—Of same dimension material as log
likely to occur unless fore-and-aft stringers extend ahead and its inner end notched into log. The ,outer end
of flywheel. notched to receive transom-post knee.
For the design being prepared, this construction is The Stem and Knee—Of two pieces, the grain run
advisable: ning in a direction that will enable full strength of
The Keel and Deadwood.—Of two pieces of material, material to be utilized.
the lower piece being 30 feet long and upper piece (dead Transom-Post and Knee—Of material of same
wood) being sufficiently wide to extend from keel to dimensions as keel. The knee of curved material and
under side of shaft-log. fastened securely to horntimber with bolts.
 Chapter IX
Explanation of Drawings
In designing boats it is usual and customary to pre
pare the plans and specifications in certain standardized
ways. The reason for this being that the plans and
specifications can then be read by anyone having a
knowledge of designing rules. Therefore, always pre
Pare your drawings in the accepted manner. Stick to
standardized methods.
To make sure that you clearly understand, I will here
outline a few important rules.
The set of drawings should consist of these plans:
(A) The lines drawing. Show on it the profile,
the water-lines, the buttock and diagonal lines and the
cross-sections. The offset table can be on this drawing
or on a separate sheet of paper.
(B) Show'on your second sheet of drawing the
keel construction details, framing and engine founda—
tion details.
(C) Show on the third sheet of drawing deck fram—
ing, the flooring of boat, engine installation details and
the general framing details of such things as seats, bulk—
heads, etc.
(D) Show on this drawing the interior and cross
section views.
(E) Show on this drawing the general views of the
finished boat. If advisable to do so, have a separate
drawing for rudder and steering gear details.
The specifications and list of materials can be sepa
rate from the drawings and should always be as com
plete as possible.
The impossibility of making ’drawings full size neces
sitates some ready and accurate method for reducing the
sizes of lines and parts evenly and in exact proportion
to each other.
It is absolutely necessary that the reduced size draw—
ing be made in such a manner that accurate measure
ments can be taken from it. The means adopted for
making the reduction is to use a scale upon which each
mark represents a certain proportion of the full-sized
measurement.
Thus, if it is desired to make a drawing one-quarter
the size of the full-sized piece the full-sized piece would
have to be measured with a full-sized rule, or scale, and
then the draftsman would transfer the measurements to
the paper by using a scale on which the divisions would
be spaced one-quarter of the full size measurement apart.
Such a scale would be termed a 3 inches to a foot scale,
because on each 3 inches of it there is shown the same
number of divisions, or marks, that appear on a I-foot
scale and all the divisions are one-quarter of the distance
they are on a full-sized scale.
The following is a_ list of the scales commonly used
in U. S. A. by machine and marine draftsmen.
3 inches = 1 foot. One foot appears on each 3
inches of the scale.
1% inches = 1 foot. One foot appears on each 1%
inches of the scale.
1 inch = I foot.
% inch : I foot.
12 inch : I foot.
%; inch : 1 foot.
% inch = I foot.
13 inch :- I fOOlC.
On all scales used in marine drafting the divisions
are marked to .permit inches and parts of an inch to be
read as well as feet.
Usually the first division is closely divided to permit
measuring inches and parts of an inch, the other divisions
being divided to permit measuring feet.
60.. SELECTING THE SCALE TO Use
Before preparing a set of plans the designer must
select the scale he will use and decide upon the size of
sheet he will make the drawings on. Both of these things
depend very largely upon the size of the boat, or vessel,
because the size of a sheet of drawing must be convenient
for handling. The larger the boat the smaller the scale.
It is not necessary to make all drawings to the same
scale, but it is desirable to make all drawings in a set the
same, or approximately the same size. The scales most
frequently used by naval architects are:
For lines and general construction plans:
% inch to a foot. . .% inch to a foot. .. % inch to a foot.
% inch to a foot... I inch to a foot. . ._1% inch to a foot.
For details that must be shown larger than possible on
general plans:
2 inches to a foot. . 3 inches to a foot. .6 inches to a foot.
We have found it advantageous to standardize scales,
and below I give list of scales used in our offices:
For boats 25 feet and under in length, we use a 1%-inch scale.
For boats between 26 and 35 feet, we use a 1-inch scale.
For boats between 36 and 45 feet, we use a §/4-inch scale.
For boats between 46 and 70 feet, we use a %-inch scale.
For boats between 71 and 95 feet, we use a %-inch scale.
For boats over 100 feet, we use a %-inch or a I/§-irich scale.
The most important things to remember are: To make
the size of sheet convenient for handling, and at the
same time have the scale sufficiently large to enable
details to be shown correctly.
On drawings of boats and vessels measurements are
marked in feet, inches and parts of an inch, in accordance
with the system explained below. You will note that
two distinct methods are used: One for measurements
marked on a_lines drawing, and the other for construc
tion and detail drawmg measurements.
61. EXPLAINING THE SYSTEM USED FOR MEASURING A
LINES DRAWING
All dimensions of a boat’s, or vessel’s lines are ex
pressed in feet, in inches and in eighths of an inch.
Thus:
1—0-0 Means One foot—n0 inches—no eighths.
1-1—0 Means One foot—one inch—no eighths.
\
 00 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
I-—I—-I Means One foot—one inch—one eighth. similar to the ones sent as a guide, the shape of profile
I—I—I y. Means One foot—one inch—one and a half is very different.
eighth (3/I6th). My outline shows a boat having a moderate raised
O—I—O Mi Means No foot—one inch—and one-quarter cabin with a low trunk extending over a portion of it,
thus the customer’s desire to obtain 6 feet headroom
eighth (1/32d). without an excessively high trunk cabin is achieved.
From these examples you can readily understand the The division of interior is outlined on drawing and
system. Prime marks and lettering to indicate feet and on it I have also marked weights of various principal
inches are omitted, therefore, the figure --0— must be parts of construction, and as each set of figures is placed
entered whenever a dimension is omitted from a column, at the point where the center of gravity of the part
and all figures must be entered in the manner shown, the weight is located both longitudinally or vertically, it is
dash between the figures indicating the division between an easy matter to keep track of the various centers of
feet, inches, and eighths. Also note that in place of weight. This is especially desirable should it become
entering measures smaller than one-eighth of an inch, as necessary to change the C.G. point location before mak—
I/I6th and so on, they are entered as fractional parts of ing the final calculations and drawings.
an eighth. Thus 3/I6th inch is expressed as 1% eighths. On the upper portion of drawing is shown the curve
The method is extremely easy to learn and is one that of areas, the outline of shapes of deck, of several prin
enables a workman to use an ordinary 2-f00t rule, that cipal water-lines and of cross—sections. The order in
has the regulation I/16th divisions, when he is laying which the work shown on this drawing is done is as
down the lines of a boat full size. ' follows:
After a lines drawing is completed, the designer first—The profile and deck outline is drawn to con—
measures the various lines and centers the figures, in the form with my ideas of form and dimensions and next
manner explained above, on a table called a table of the assumed L.W.L. position is marked, and both pro
offsets. file and deck outline views divided off into a suflicient
It is from this table that the builder obtains measure— and proper number of intervals for a Simpson’s rule
ments when enlarging the lines to full size. calculation. After the ordinate positions are marked,
On drawings that show construction details of boats I divide up the interior longitudinally and determine the
and vessels the necessary measurements are marked in interior arrangement that I will have. Next I select
feet, inches and parts of an inch, the measurements given the kind and dimensions of materials that I will use by
being the actual dimensions of materials used as well as referring to the tables, and after dividing the materials
the measures of details shown on drawings. I say into parts I calculate construction weights and make
“necessary measurements,” because in many cases the preliminary weight and C.G. calculation. The figures
measurements can be omitted because the boatbuilder obtained by making this calculation will be found in
can obtain them from the full-sized plan that he lays the following table:
down from the lines drawing and tables of ofisets. PRELIMINARY CONSTRUCTION WEIGHT AND CENTER OF GRAVITY
Thus on the keel construction drawings it is not CALCULATION
necessary to give the length measurements. Thickness ‘
longitudinally
Distance Distance
Vertically
Distance
and depth of material are all that is necessary. “'eight in C- C is C in
of in from above below
This also applies to such pieces as ribs, clamps, deck Part Part No.1 01.1. 1.. w. 1.. 1.. w. 1..
No. Lb. Feet Moment Feet Feet Moment
beams, floor timbers, keelsons, etc. I....... . 900 19.6 17,640 .. 1.00 *900
On the other hand, measurements of cabin details, 2 . . . . . . .. 4.000 18.0 72,000 1.00 4,000
cockpit, deck, etc., should always be given as accurately 3.. 1,700 12.3 21,250 1.50 2, 50
as possible; length, height, width, as well as dimensions 4. . . .. . .. 2,000 21.5 43,000 I
5. . . .. . .. 1,000 27.0 27,000 1.50 1.500
of materials used, being given. 6. . . .. . .. 1,000 16.0 16,000 4.00 4,000
All measurements of such details as spacing of ribs, ... .. . . . 400 28_o 11,200 1.50 600
distance from one end of a cabin to another, are always . . . . . . .. 1,000 16.0 16,000 0.25 250
given from center to center. Thus rib spacing is given 7 500 20.0 10,000 1.50 750
from center to center of ribs, cabin length from center to 12,500 Weight 234,090 Moment
center of bulkheads. It is important to remember this. Above Moment . . . . .. 13,650
Deduct below Moment 900
62. EXPLAINING THE PRELIMINARY DRAWING AND
CALCULATIONS Totzil alloment above
I have used the data and general dimensions given . .L. . . 12,750
by the customer as my starting point and working from Therefore:
2 0 . . .
this I have tried to produce a design for a boat having 34’09 I 18.72, the distance In feet the C.G. lS aft
similar dimensions, but shaped in accordance with my 12,500 of No. I ordinate.
ideas.
On Fig. 48—A I show an illustration of the completed 12 O . . .
’75 I 1.02, the distance In feet the C.G. is above
preliminary drawing. (See p. 62.) 1.2500 the L.W.L.
On this drawing I show, drawn to scale, my ideas of
the shape boat should have, and on the drawing is _ *This is below the L.W.L., therefore, it must be entered
In separate _column and deducted from abovewater moments.
marked locations of the principal center points, figures iThis item’s center point is estimated to be located at the
to denote weights of materials, and suflicient other data L.W.L., therefore, no moment is entered, because the L.W.L. is
to enable me to prepare my lines drawing accurately by the line from which we measure.
working from the preliminary one. Nora—The weights entered here are the estimated weights
measurements that centers of parts weights are from Ord. No. I, of construction. The distance measures are the estimated
measurements that centers of parts weights are from Ord, No. I,
and you Wlll note that while dimensions are somwhat or, from the L.W.L.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED OI

The construction weights ascertained by making the support; i.e., the boat will fill that portion of cavity into
preliminary calculation gives 12,500 tb as being the dis which the water cannot flow rapidly enough.
placement required, therefore, it is necessary that the I now know that if the immersed area of each ordinate
bulk of portion of boat below the marked L.W.L. be section from bow to stem is made in accordance with
sufficient to displace 195 cubic feet of water, and as the measures taken at ordinate locations on curve, the boat’s
preliminary C.G. calculation gives 18.72 feet as the dis displacement will be exactly as required and center of
tance C.G. point is aft of forward end of L.W.L., it is this displacement (C.B.) will be exactly the same dis
necessary to so shape the underwater bulk that C.B. tance from bow that center of weight is. Therefore,
point will be 18.72 feet from forward end of L.W.L. providing my weight estimate is correct, the boat must
The next preliminary work is to select area of midship float to the assumed load water-line. Below I give
section. This is readily done in this instance by using figures taken from my preliminary C.B. calculation.
for our preliminary calculation the midship section co
efficient mentioned by customer (0.625) and determin 63. PRELIMINARY DISPLACEMENT AND C.B. CALCULA
ing required area by making the preliminary calculation TION FOR CRUISER (FIG. 48-A)
already explained. This calculation tells me that the The preliminary calculation, made to determine the
required area of section in square feet is 9.44. required displacement, gave 12,500 lb as the weights of
Knowing} this and the underwater bulk, and also the construction, etc.
distance that center of underwater bulk (C.B.) must be By using the coefficients decided upon (see Prelimi
from the forward end of L.W.L., the fore-and-aft dis nary Data Sheet) I found that the midship section
tribution of bulk can be laid out. should have an area of about 9.44 square feet and should
The proper way to do this to lay out a preliminary be located about 19 feet from No. I ordinate.
curve of areas, using the selected midship sectidn area Using the above figures a curve of sectional areas
for diameter of generating circle. In this particular is laid out (see curve on Fig. 48-A) in the manner ex
instance, I have selected the wave form for my pre— plained in Chapter VII and the displacement and C.B.
liminary curve and have laid out on the upper half of calculation is made in the manner shown below.
drawing the wave-form curve, which, as you will note, NOTE—The curve of sectional areas shown was first
gives less than required volume, so it is necessary to in laid out as a true wave-form curve. The displacement
crease the area enclosed by curve, and this I have done contained in the wave-form curve was found to be too
by filling in the hollows forward and aft. The filled-in small, therefore, I corrected the curve by advancing the
portion of curve is indicated by cross lines. forward points and moving the after points aft a suffi—
The principal points to keep in mind when laying cient distance to give the required additional displace
out a curve of areas are: ment and at the same time bring the fore-and-aft loca—
Ist.—To make the curve fair from end to end. tion of the C.B. to the proper position (to correspond
2d.—To shape the curve so that the areas of succes with fore-and-aft position of C.G. of weight).
sive sections, from bow to midship, will increase in The measurements entered below are taken from the
correct ratios and the areas of the afterbody sections curve of areas marked on the drawing. This curve is for
will decrease in relatively the same proportion. half areas, therefore, the final figures are multiplied by 2.
If the afterbody curve does not balance the forward Ord. Arc: of S Function Moment
No. Scciinn X of Area X Moment
body curve, the boat will be hard to drive and will have
1 . . . . . . . . .. 0.00 I 0.00 0 0.00
a tendency to alter her “trim” when driven at speed. 2 . . . . . . . . .. 0.83 4 3.32 1‘ 3.32
To explain this, suppose that a certain boat is at 3 . . . . . . . . .. 2.42 2 4.84 2 9.68
rest floating in still water. Her displacement is known 4 . . . . . . . . .. 3.85 4 15.40 3 46.20
and she floats to her designed water-line. Now suppose 5. . 4.64 2 9.28 4 37.12
6 . . . . . . . . .. 4_72 4 18.88 5 94.40
she is moved forward. As she moves the forward body 7 . . . . . . . . .. 4.02 2 8.04 6 48.24
forces particles of water, that impede its motion, out of 8 . . . . . . . . .. 2.33 4 9.32 7 65.24
the way, and in doing this, some motion is imparted to ' 69.08 304.20
the particles of water' adjacent to hull. As the boat Interval is 4.25 feet Interval 4.25
advances the water moved aside by the forward body One-third interval is 1.417 Moment 1,292.8500
flows into the cavity left by the advance of the after Volume of half areas 97.86 cubic feet
2
body and the movement of water is along the lines of
\Vhole volume is . . . . . . . . .. 195.72 cubic feet
least resistance,—under and around the boat. If, owing \Veight of salt water . . . . .. i7 64 lb
to improper balance between forward and after bodies, Whole displacement . . . . . .. 12,526 lb
or to improper fore-and-aft distribution of their bulk, 1,292.85
the water moved by bow cannot flow freely into and = 18.71
entirely fill the cavity left by stern sections, then the, 69.08
boat will be hard to drive and if driven at sufficient Therefore, the C.B. point is located 18.71 feet aft of
speed, will change trim, or “squat” until by the alteration No. I ordinate. This point is (almost) identical with
in trim the balance is equalized; in short, particles of C.G. point, therefore, if the fore-and-aft distribution of
water put into motion must flow into the cavity left by displacement is as shown by curve the C.B. will be
stern with suflicient rapidity to keep the stem full sup— correctly located longitudinally.
ported. If the water cannot, because of improper shape The next preliminary calculation is one to determine
and distribution of bulk, flow into the stern cavity as the approximate distance C.B. point is below L.W.L.,
freely as it should, there will not be sufficient water and as the required area of L.WVL. plane is given on
support under the stem to keep the boat on a prpper preliminary data sheet, I can quickly make this calcula
water-line and she will “squat” or sink in water at the tion by using the short formula already explained.
stern, until buoyancy support under stem is sufficient for Complete figures of my calculation are as follow:
02 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED

~10
":10 fl_—m_ ing A ¢_-—— ‘
4
txvn' i‘_a’-t' antrv u)”.
1.91- i. i'fl 'T :7.“
""7

a“.
In.

0.. 2.1

l
l_

1‘13. 48-A

64. DETERMINING THE APPROXIMATE DISTANCE THE I 1.185 195.72

C.B. Is BELow THE L.W.L. —( + ) = .5328
In the early stages of the design the vertical position 3 2 194-58
In boats and vessels of ordinary form it will be found
of the C.B. can be located very nearly by making use of
the following formula: 9
that the approximate position will be between — and ——
+ Z): Distance the C.B. point is below the 20 20
L.\'V.L. plane. 9
2 A of the mean draught below the L.W.L. plane; — Of 1.185
(1 standing for mean draught to rabbet in feet. 20
V standing for displacement in cubic feet. is .5332, which coincides almost exactly with the figures
A standing for area of L.W.L. in square feet. obtained from the formula calculation.
For the Fig. 48—A design the figures are as follows: I next lay out the approximate shape of L.W.L. plane,
Volume of displacement is 195.72 cubic feet. being careful to get the area selected (194 square feet).
Area of L.\V.L. plane is 194.58 square feet. The shape of this L.W.L. can be selected by first laying
Mean draught* to rabbet is 1.185 feet. off a wave-line curve and correcting it, or it can be laid
By using these figures in the manner explained above off by using one of several other methods that I will
we find that the approximate position of the C.B. point explain later. In this particular instance, I used the
is 0.532 foot below the L.W.L. plane. wave-line curve as a starting point and filled in the ends
to bring the curve up to the required area and get a shape
*The mean draught to rabbet can be very accurately de that will conform to my ideas.
termined by measuring on your preliminary drawing the dis 65. PRELIMINARY STABILITY CALCULATION FOR CRUISER
tance from L.\V.L. to rabbet at each ordinate position and then
finding the average. For the Fig. 48-A design the figures are as After laying out the shape of L.W.L., I can measure
follows: its width at ordinate positions and then determine the
01d. Ord. Ord. approximate stability (M.C. height) of the boat. Below
No. Measure No. ' Measure N0. Measure
1 . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.00 5 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.83 9 . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.00 I give the complete calculation.
2 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.25 6 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.70 The displacement of the boat in cubic feet is 195.7
3 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.56 7 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.50 10.67 therefore, '
4 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.83 8 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.00 = 4.1, the height the M.C. point is above the C.B.
10.67 195,7 point.
= 1.185 feet mean draught.
9 The preliminary calculations give the following:
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED 03
CALCULATION '10 DETERMINE AREA, C.G. AND M.I. or THE L.W.L. PLANE or F10. 48-A. ALso M.C. HEIGHT PRELIMINARY CALCULATION
Ord. ’4 01d. 8 Function M Cube of S
No. Length! X of Length x Moment % Ord. X Moments
1. . . . . . . .. . 0,00 I 0.00 0 00.00 00.00 1 00.00
2. ......... 1.16 4 4.64 1 4.64 I_35 4 6.20
3. . . . . . . . .. 2.40 2 4.80 2 9.60 13.82 . 2 27.64
4. . 3.40 4 13.60 3 40.80 38.80 4 155.20
5. . . . . . . . .. 4.04 2 8.08 4 32,32 ‘ 65.95 2 131.86
6. . 4.12 4 16.48 5 82.40 69.92 4 279.68
7. . 3,88 2 7.76 6 46.56 58.93 2 I 16.78
8. . . . . . . . . . 3.33 4 13.32 7 94.24 36.89 4 147.56
9. . 0.00 1 0.00 8 00.00 00.00 1 000.00

68.68 310.56 864.92

4.25 Interval {53%
One-third interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I.416° 1,319.88 Moment 288.30 % Cube
1.416° 1; Interval
Half area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97.29 square feet
2 Half M.I. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 408.40
— 2
Whole area is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194.58 square feet
Whole M.I. 816.80
1,319.88
— = 19.21, the distance in feet C.G. is aft of No. 1 Ord.
68.68
The C.G. point is located 1.02 foot above the L.W.L. same scale that will be used for working drawings, it
plane. _ will be an easy matter to use preliminary drawing for
The C.B. point is located .66 foot below the L.W.L. a guide and transfer measurements from it direct to
plane. other drawings.
Therefore, the C.G. point is located 1.68 foot above the
66. THE LINEs DRAWING
C.B. point and by deducting 1.68 from the distance the
M.C. is above the C.B. point we get 2.34; 2.34 feet is, In Fig. 49 is reproduced the lines drawing of the 36
therefore, the M.C. height, or the distance the C.G. of foot cruiser.
weight could be raised without the boat becoming un The lines drawing illustrates the manner in which a
stable. This measurement is ample for a boat of this designer records his ideas of form.
type and size. On the lower part of that drawing is shown a profile,
The next part of the preliminary work is to roughly or longitudinal side, view of the form, and you will note
outline the shapes of cross-sections and water—line planes. that in addition to the lines that illustrate the form, or
The section shapes are laid out by first of all selecting shape, there are marked a number of straight parallel,
the shape of midship section and then working from. it vertical and horizontal lines. These straight lines are
(forward and aft) and laying out each successive section. for the double purpose of indicating where each line
It is important when doing this preliminary work to shown on the upper (water-line and cross-section views)
make each section exactly the area found necessary by portion of drawing is located on profile view, and also
laying out the curve of areas. The shapes will, of course, for dividing the boat into a proper number of parts to
have to merge into that selected for the midship section, enable the designer to measure the bulk below and above
and in laying out this section the designer’s idea of form the intended L.W.L., and the builder to correctly re
must be kept in mind and sections shaped so that these produce, full size, the shape shown on drawing.
ideas of form will predominate. After sections are laid This being the case, it is very necessary that the
out, the water-line planes shapes are marked. These designer divide the bulk into a sufficient and proper
are laid out from measurements taken from sections, number of parts. In this design the outline shape of
and when laying them out, it will always be found hull is a refinement of and an improvement over that
necessary to make some changes in shapes of sections, shown on the accepted preliminary sketch, and I began
because it is never possible to get both longitudinal and the work of preparing the lines by transferring to the
vertical shapes correct and fair at the first attempt. lines drawing paper the principal lines recorded on pre
The principal thing to remember is to keep the areas liminary sketch. Next I corrected the transferred lines,
of cross-sections as near as possible to the curve of faired them, and tested their accuracy by making the
area measurements. On drawing I show cross—sections calculations explained in previous chapters.
and water—line planes laid out and on each I have marked The principal thing to remember is to keep the areas
the approximate area. You will note that areas con ascertained and their accuracy proved by comparison with
form with those given on curve of area. The pre— data obtained from other similar boats, and by carefully
liminary calculations are now completed and the last calculating the weight of everything that enters into the
work is to divide the interior into its principal divisions construction and equipment of the boat and the location
and lay out the approximate shaft line. This is usually of the center of gravity of these weights.
done by marking dotted lines on profile view, the designer Next the area and center point of L.W.L. plane, and
using his judgment as to their locations and making the actual transverse stability of boat at various inclina
sure that sufficient room is left both for the propeller tions was determined and compared with my records of A
wheel to revolve in solid water and for the engine to stability of boats of similar dimensions and type. And
be installed. On the preliminary drawing these lines last of all I calculated the actual power required to drive
have been marked. This covers the preliminary calcu boat at the desired speed.
lations and drawing, and if the drawing is made to the As the principal elements of the design had already
04 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
P13. 49. Lines of a SIS-Foot Cruiser
been determined (Preliminary Data Sheet, Table No. I,
p. 39), it was necessary that the finished lines conform
to the ones shown 011 the accepted preliminary sketch;
and if you will compare the preliminary with the final
lines drawing you will see that the changes are not very
great.
I will now explain the lines drawing and the manner
in which a designer measures and transfers the shape
shown on a preliminary drawing to the paper on which
he prepares the lines drawing.
All original lines and other drawings of boats are
made with pencil and after tthencil drawing is com
pleted the lines are either’ifiked in, or a complete ink
tracing is made from'them. For original drawings use a
high—grade drawing pencil Of 4.5.6 H hardness and keep it
well and properly pointed. Bear in mind that each line
must be measured, therefore it is important to try and
make each line clear and distinct and of even thickness
from end to end.
The pencil should always be drawn, not pushed, and
should be held vertically and in such a manner that the
line will be marked close up to guiding straight edge or
batten.
Lines are generally drawn from left to right and from
top to bottom. . profile view, that indicate the water—line planes below
Another detail of importance is to begin and end all
lines at an exact point. Still another one is: Don’t press
too hard 011 the pencil. The pencil should make a clear
and distinct mark but should not dent the paper.
The first work to do is to locate the various views,
and having done that the base line can be drawn.
The base line is drawn in the following manner:
Place head of T—square against left-hand edge (as
you look at the board) of drawing board, press it firmly
against board and move it until upber edge of blade is
in the exact position that you want base line to be.
Use the edge of blade as a guide for pencil.
Next mark the vertical lines that indicate Otter-all
length of boat. These are drawn at exact right angles
tobase and the exact over—all length of boat apart.
Measure this distance accurately and mark the points
on base line.
Now place T-square against board, in position you
had it when base line was being drawn, and place a
triangle against upper edge of blade, moving it until its
vertical edge is in proper positiOn to use as a guide for
pencil when drawing the line.
The next line to draw is one that indicates position
of load water-line. This line is marked L.\\’.L. and must
be drawn exactly parallel to base line and a sufficient
distance above to leave a good margin between it and the
bottom of keel when profile view is marked.
It is usual to make the measure some even distance,
such as 3 feet 6 inches or the nearest full foot above
extreme draught of boat.
There should be an interval between base and bottom
of keel because measurements of height are all taken from
base line.
The next lines to draw are the horizontal ones, on
L.W'L.
It is necessary to space these evenly and to have the
number of intervals correct for the Simpson rule that will
be used when making the displacement calculation.
Therefore, beginning at L.W.L., space off the inter
vals by making marks along the verticals and then. by
using these marks as guides for T—square blade, the cor
rect position of lines can be located and lines drawn
correctly.
Next space off and mark the vertical ordinate lines.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIIlIPLIFIED
Fig. 50. Construction Plans, Showing Framing of Hull
These are drawn parallel with vertical lines and must
be suflicient in number for the Simpson rule displacement
calculation. _ and properly faired unless there are measurement points
The boat has a forward inclination of bow of about
9 inches, therefore measure with scale 9 inches from the
vertical, mark a point on base line and draw the first
vertical ordinate line. This line must always cross
L.lV.L. at the exact [Joint where L.l-V.L. and face of stem
intersect. Having marked the first vertical ordinate line,
and knowing the length boat is to be on the L.\V.L. it
is an easy matter to divide the L.W.L. length into the
required number of intervals (parts) and to mark all
other ordinate lines.
In this instance eight intervals (nine ordinates) are
used, and as the length on L.W.L. is 34 feet, interval
between ordinates must be 4 feet 3 inches, or 4.25 feet.
Therefore, measure along base line 34 feet from ordinate
N0. 1 and mark a point. This is for the purpose of
checking the spacing. Now set dividers for exactly 4
feet 3 inches and space 05 eight intervals from No. 1
ordinate. If dividers are set correctly the last mark
should coincide with the point. Make sure that spacing
is correct, then mark interval points and draw the verti
cal ordinate lines 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. 8, 9. These lines must
be at exact right angles to base line.
These straight lines are required for taking measure
ments for the calculations. You must now mark a few
additional lines above L.W.L., for the purpose of measur
ing and fairing the abovewater portion of boat. These
additional lines are marked on profile and section views.
See dot and dash lines marked above L.W.L.
It is just as important to have the abovewater portion
05
~i_. I" u.
Giff: 1:1-_____.
of a boat fair and properly shaped as it is to have the
underwater part. The abovewater part cannot be shaped
above L.W.L. It is not necessary that these measure
ment points be the same distance apart as underwater
points are, and, in fact, it is usual to space the above
water planes a greater distance apart than underwater
ones because by doing this the L.W.L. plane stands out
clear and distinct as the upper plane of the closer spaced
water-lines planes.
The abovewater planes are laid out and marked in the
manner explained for underwater ones.
All vertical ordinate lines can extend clear across
the paper, as they are also needed on half-breadth water
line and diagonal views. Also it is usual to mark all
vertical and horizontal ordinate lines in ink (red ink)
and thus eliminate the possibility of erasing them when
correcting and fairing the shapes of water-lines, etc.
Next draw a line parallel with L.\V.L. of profile view
and a sufficient distance above it to allow room for both
the upper portion of profile and the half-breadth water
line shapes. This line represents the center line of boat,
i.e., a line drawn longitudinally through the center of
keel.
It extends from vertical bow line to vertical stern line.
Mark the point on this line where the midship section
will be located. -
In cases where the midship section comes at an ordi
nate it is not necessary to do more than indicate position
by marking the identifying mark.
The next line to mark is one that represents half
width of keel at rabbet. This line can, at this stage of
00 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
Fig. 51. The 86-1‘001: Cruiser finished
the work, be drawn parallel with center of boat line and
exactly one-half thickness of keel from it.
Next select the position where body plan view will
be shown and mark the parallel water-plane lines.
These parallel water-plane lines must be exactly the
distance apart that water-lines on profile view are.
Next mark for body plan view at exact right angles
to water-plane lines, lines that indicate center line of
boat, the half—width of keel and stem at rabbet, and half
width of stem band.
All straight lines required for a lines drawing have
now been marked, and no matter whether you are copy
ing a preliminary drawing, as in this case, or preparing
an entirely new design you must mark all the lines I have
described before any actual design lines can be drawn.
I will now explain how to transfer measurements from
a preliminary drawing.
The first view to transfer is the profile.
When working from a preliminary drawing like this
one all that is necessary is to measure with a pair of
dividers at each ordinate line, transfer the measurement
to corresponding ordinate line on paper, and then by
bending a batten to measurement marks and using batten
to guide pencil you can copy the original line with great
exactness. As, however, the copy is only a preliminary
drawing you will have to fair each line before marking
it. Fairing lines simply means making them fair and
true.
The bottom of keel and outside line of stem should
be transferred and marked first.
Measurements for keel line are taken from base line
at each ordinate position, and measurements for curve
of stem are taken from vertical ordinate line along each
water-plane line. Measurements for transom and stem
outline should be taken from the vertical line along each
water—plane line.
Make each measurement by placing point of one leg
of dividers exactly on base, or other line, you are measur
Ing from, and the other point exactly on line you want
to transfer, then without moving setting of dividers lift
and set the points in a corresponding position on paper.
Where the measurement point of dividers reaches to
should be marked by making a slight prick into the paper
and surrounding it with a small circle drawn in pencil.
Transfer and mark points for one complete line before
attempting to measure for another one.
To draw a long curved line proceed as follows:
Bend a spline so that its edge touches each point, using
weights to hold spline in position after it is bent. After
spline is in position look along its edge, make sure that
it is fair and that curve is shaped like the original line.
The line made by edge of batten must be fair from end
to end and if it is not you must make it so, even if by
doing this the spline has to be moved away from one, or
more marks.
For keel line set spline to marks by beginning at after
end of keel and continuing up to about halfway between
the No. 2 and NO. 3 ordinate lines. Draw this portion of
line first, and then by making use of curves the curve
around forefoot can be completed.
After bottom of keel line and stem outline is marked,
complete outline to sternpost and transom by first trans—
ferring necessary measurement points and then drawing
the lines.
Next measure for sheer line.
The measurements for this line can be taken from
L.W.L. up or from base line up, whichever you prefer.
and after measurement points have been transferred, the
line is drawn with the aid of a spline bent to points and
held in position by weights.
The next line to transfer is outline of deck. This
line is shown on half-breadth water—line view immediately
above profile view. To transfer this line measure, at
each ordinate, the distance line is away from center line
and transfer measures in manner explained; then by
bending a spline to measurement points and using its
edge as a guide for pencil the line can be accurately and
properly drawn.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
It is important to remember that when using a spline
and weights to help when drawing a long curved line,
such as this one is, the spline must be allowed to extend
some distance beyond end of line, and weights placed on
extending portion in such positions that spline will not
make a flat curve at, or near to, ends of line.
When spline is properly bent mark line and then
transfer line on profile view that indicates where Plank—
ing of boat joins keel. This is called the rabbet line.
For transferring rabbet line measure distance from
base at each ordinate and then use edge of batten as a
guide for pencil.
Next draw some very light vertical lines, from
profile view up, for the purpose of indicating exact point
where each water-line on half-breadth water-line view
must terminate.
Each of these lines must begin from a point on profile
view where a water—line plane crosses stem, or keel, at
bow; or the rabbet and deadwood at stern.
Remember, that these lines are not a part of drawing,
therefore mark them as lightly as possible and erase after
water—line shapes on half—breadth water-line view have
been marked.
When forward termination lines have been drawn,
mark similar vertical lines to indicate where ends of
water—lines touch the rabbet. These lines are drawn up
from rabbet on profile view to half—width of keel line on
half-breadth water—line view.
All water—lines cross rabbet at half the thickness of
keel, stem, etc., out from the center line of boat.
After termination points have been located water
line measurements can be taken and transferred in the
manner deck outline was measured and transferred.
Make measures, transfer them, then place batten and
weights, and draw the lines.
After the curved portion of water-line from rabbet
forward to rabbet aft has been marked, the parts of each
water-line ahead and aft of rabbet can be marked.
Forward most of the water-lines continue in fair lines
until they reach the outline of stem, but aft nearly all
water-lines continue along a line parallel with rabbet
until their point of termination, which is the end of keel.
deadwood, etc.
Note this: The forward termination of water-lines
will never be at center line of boat, because front of stem
is width of stem band, and does not come to a knife edge.
Therefore, before drawing water-lines mark on half
breadth water-line view, at forward end, a short line
parallel to center line and distant from it the half-width
of stem band. If stem band is to be % inch, then this
line must be 3/16 inch out from center line, and if 7; inch
the measurement must be % inch. This line need not
extend back further than about No. I ordinate.
When water-lines have been marked, begin to measure
for body plan.
Bony PLAN
This view shows shape of boat if cut through trans
versely at each ordinate line.
You have already drawn the parallel water—plane lines
and the perpendicular center, width of keel, and width of
face of stem lines, therefore you can immediately proceed
to measure, transfer and draw the section shapes. To
do this proceed as follows:
Start with section shape No. I, and with a pair of
dividers measure on Profile view the distance rabbet line
is from base line at ordinate position y0u have selected
07
(the No. I ordinate). Transfer this measure to body
plan by placing one point of dividers on base line for
body plan and letting the other point rest on perpendicular
half-width of keel line. Mark this point, it being the
place where the curve of the No. I section will terminate
and join keel. ,
Next measure, on profile view, distance sheer line is
from base line at No. I ordinate, and transfer this
measurement to body plan by placing one point of dividers
on base line of body plan and the other point on perpen
dicular center line. The point where measure reaches
will indicate distance sheer line is above base line at
No. 1 ordinate. By marking this point and drawing a
short line from it and parallel with base line, you will
have a line on which to mark half-width at sheer. This
straight line need not extend a greater distance than half
width of boat at No. 1 ordinate.
Note this: It is never necessary to show more
than half-sections, because both sides of boat are alike.
In all cases the forward body sections are shown on one
side of body plan center line and after body on the other.
Next measure on half-breadth water-line plan dis
tance sheer line is away from center line at No. I ordinate
and transfer this measure by placing one point of dividers
at height of sheer point on center line of body plan, and
the other point on short straight height of sheer line
just made.
This measure indicates half-width of deck at section
No. I. Mark this point. Next measure, in succession,
along the No. I ordinate line on half-breadth water-line
view the distance each water-line is out from center line
and transfer measures to proper water-line on body plan.
Thus the No. 1 water-line measurement must be trans
ferred to No. 1 water-line on body plan, the No. 2 to
No. 2 water-line, and so on.
\Vhen all No. 1 ordinate water-line measurements
have been transferred you will have a series of marks,
one on each L.\V.L. and at sheer and rabbet, and a curved
line drawn through them will indicate the exact shape
of boat if cut through transversely at No. 1 ordinate
position. You will have to use small curves to guide
the pencil when marking the line.
It is in this manner that the shape of a boat, at
each ordinate position, is ascertained.
Take one ordinate (section) at a time, measure, fair,
and draw the curve before you proceed to the next one.
\Vhen all sections have been marked, buttock lines
can be marked and measured.
Buttock lines show shape of a boat if cut through
longitudinally at certain, marked, distances from its
center.
Note: To attempt to get all lines fair by means of
measurements taken at right angles to each other would
be an extremely lengthy proceeding, because there is no
means of indicating which of the two lines is the incorrect
one. But if three lines of measurement are used the
incorrection can be quickly located, and then if one more
line of measurement, taken at a different angle, is used,
inaccuracies can be very quickly located and corrected.
Buttock and diagonal lines are used for this purpose.
Having made. this explanation I will now explain the
way to measure and transfer buttock lines from one view
to another.
67. Burrocx LINEs
These lines are located any desired distance from
center line of boat and any number of buttock lines can
08 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
be used. The more there are the easier it will be to fair
the lines. For a small boat two buttock lines will be
sufficient.
To Draw the Buttock Lines.—Buttock lines show as
straight lines on half-breadth and body plans, and as
curved lines on profile view. The straight lines are
drawn first and then the curved ones are located and
drawn by transferring measurements taken from straight
lines, bending a batten to marks and drawing the lines.
First mark the straight lines on half-breadth water—line
view by measuring the desired distance out from center
line, marking points and drawing straight lines parallel
with center line and extending from outline of deck for—
ward to outline Of deck, or transom, aft. Next mark
the straight lines on body plan by measuring the same
distances out from center line and drawing straight lines
from base to sheer parallel with center line. Next trans—
fer measurements to profile view and mark the curved
lines. To do this proceed as follows:
Place T-square head against edge of'drawing board
and move it until one edge of T-square blade touches
the point where a straight buttock line on half-breadth
water-line view touches outline of deck, then draw a very
light pencil line from this point to sheer line on profile
view. The point where this line touches sheer line is
where that particular buttock line terminates at sheer on
profile view. Now move T—square along and transfer, in
the manner explained above, points where the straight
buttock line crosses each curved water'line marked on
half—breadth water-line view. The transfer is made by
drawing light lines down from curved water-lines of
half-breadth water-line view to correspondingly num
bered straight water—line plane on profile view.
When all points of crossing are transferred you will
have marked on water-line planes of profile view a series
of points, but as these points are not sufficiently close
to enable curve to be accurately drawn, some additional
measurement points must be transferred from body plan.
These measurement points are obtained and transferred
in this manner: With a pair of dividers measure the
perpendicular distance on body plan between base line
and point where each section outline crossed the straight
buttock lines, then transfer these measures to the proper
numbered ordinate line marked on profile view by plac
ing one end of dividers on base line of profile view and
the other on proper ordinate line. The point where
divider touches is the exact place where buttock line
being transferred should cross ordinate.
Measure and mark each point, then the spline is bent
to cut points, and as much of line as possible is drawn.
The ends of line (where curve is too abrupt for spline to
follow it) are completed by using curves.
Bear in mind that buttock line must out each measure
ment point. In case a point is out, go over measure again,
find out the mistake, and fair line. All buttock lines
are transferred and drawn in this manner.
68. DIAGONALs each half. It is these that must stand at similar angles.
After buttocks have been .drawn, diagonals can be By using a protractor you can get both lines alike, or you
transferred. These lines show on body plan as straight ' can measure along base line out from center line of
lines standing at varying angles, and on half-breadth body plan and thus get points for lower terminations of
water-line view (above it) as long curved lines. They all diagonal lines.
do not show on the profile view. The diagonals show
lines along which water will pass under and around hull. on body plan should be marked.
Locating Diagonols on Body Plan—As diagonals show
lines along which water will pass around hull, they must
be drawn at angles that will Offer the least resistance to
passage of water arOund and under boat. The angles
selected will vary with form of boat, but it is generally
safe to say that the chief diagonal will cross midship
section at about right angles to outline shape at point of
crossing._ The number of diagonals will vary with size
of boat. For a 36-foot boat three or four diagonals will
be sufiicient.
Measuring Diagonal Lines.—The straight diagonal
lines are first marked on body plan. Each line begins at
center line and terminates at base line.
Measurements are taken along the straight diagonal
lines, beginning at center line of body plan and terminat
ing at point where each section line crosses.
When taking measurements for laying out curved
diagonal lines shown above the W.L. plan proceed as
follows:
First locate and mark points at which the diagonal
curved lines will terminate. These points must be
marked the half-width of keel away from the center line.
To find these points use a pair of dividers and measure
on body plan the distances diagonal lines are up from
base line, at rabbet, and transfer these measurements to
profile view for the purpose of finding the point where
diagonal line will touch stem and stem of boat.
Suppose you have measured on body plan for diagonal
No. 1. Now move the dividers to profile view, place one
point on base line, and move dividers along until you
find the point on stem rabbet where the other point of
dividers will reach. The point where dividers touch will
be the place where diagonal terminates. When making
measures of this kind you must be careful to hold divider
points at exact right angles to base line.
It is next necessary to transfer the point from pro—
file view to above center line of half—breadth water-line
view by using T—square and drawing a light pencil line
from point marked on profile view up to half-width of keel
distance above center line Of half-breadth water-line view.
All terminating points for bow and stern ends of
diagonals are taken in this manner, then width measure
ments are taken and marked.
Width measurements are made on body plan by
measuring from center line to where a diagonal line
crosses a section shape line. The measurements must
be made along diagonal lines.
Measure and transfer all points for one diagonal,
then place spline and weights and draw curved diagonal
line. If the diagonal line has been correctly measured
and lines of boat are fair, the curved line will be fair
from end to end.
All diagonals are marked in this manner.
_ Note: It is necessary to have the straight diagonal
lines marked on body plan stand at similar angles for
forward and after bodies. The body plan shows half—
section views only, therefore the forward sections show
on one side of center line and after ones on other side,
and it is necessary to draw separate diagonal lines across
When all diagonal lines are marked, the sheer line
69. SHEER LINE
To get points for this measure profile view in this
manner: To get location for sheer line at stem, or center
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
line of body plan, measure height that top of stem on
profile view is above base line and transfer this measure
to center line of body plan. This measure indicates the
height of sheer at stem.
Measure height of stern and transfer measurement to
after portion of body plan. As this is a transom-stern
boat the stern height measurement must be transferred to
point where half-width of transom at sheer is marked
instead of to center line.
After stem and transom Sheer points have been indi
cated on body plan, you can mark the curve of sheer.
This will begin on center line at point where stem height
is shown, and will cut top of each section shape at their
half—width on deck points. Use curves and mark the
line, which you will note shows as a convex line forward
and a concave one aft.
70. SHAFT LINE
All lines of hull have now been drawn except shaft
line and projected shape of transom. . from it measurements for the calculations mentioned
The shaft line shows as a straight line on profile view
only; it does not show on the other views.
The line indicates position of shaft center and should
be drawn from point of engine position to after end of
propeller position.
After shaft line is marked on profile view a slight
correction must be made to the half-width of keel line on
both water-line and body plan views.
The half-width of keel line on these plans was drawn
parallel to center line and half thickness‘of keel away
from it. In most boats it is necessary to increase width
of keel, or deadwood, at point where shaft hole is, other—
wise boring out keel would so weaken it that necessary
strength could not be obtained; and in addition to this,
there must be sufficient solid wood each side of shaft
hole to permit fastenings to pass clear of shaft hole.
In the design the shaft hole is likely to be 1% inches
or over in diameter and if this amount of wood is bored
out of center of keel and log there will not be sufficient
wood left for strength. ‘ The wood is, therefore, increased
in thickness at shaft-hole position.
This addition to thickness must begin about one foot
ahead of, and end about the same distance aft of, point
where shaft hole crosses rabbet, the increase and decrease
in thickness being a gradual one.
This increase in thickness at shaft position shows
plainly on both half-breadth and body plan views.
COMPLETING LINES
If you look over drawing you will note that a few
lines are not completed. These lines are:
On half-breadth water-line view the line that indicates
half-width of face of stem and bottom of keel.
This line was completed up to point where it begins
to widen.
Starting at the top of stem its width is the half-width
of stem band out from center line of boat, and this width
is carried down until the point where the lowest water
line is marked on profile view.
From this place the width of face of stem will begin
to increase gradually until at about No. 2 ordinate posi
tion width has been increased to same width that keel is.
The after parts of the water-lines can now be com
pleted. Additional points to help get these lines shaped
correctly are obtained in the following manner:
09
The T—square head is held against bottom of board and
moved until edge of blade of square cuts one of the points
where a buttock line on profile view cuts a water-line
plane. By transferring this point up to water-line view
and marking where it cuts the corresponding buttock line
on that view you will get an additional point for one of
the after ends of a water-line.
Transfer points for all buttock lines and all water
line planes and then complete water-line shapes by using
these points as added guides.
71. KEEL OUTSIDE OF RABBET
The keel Outside of rabbet, on body plan, has not as
yet been shown. All you have to do is to measure at each
ordinate point, on profile view, the distance keel is outside
of rabbet and transfer measurements to body plan view,
marking short lines at the proper positions to indicate
amount of keel outside the sections.
The lines drawing is now complete and you can obtain
below.
72. CALCULATIONS You MUST Now MAKE
Measure the lines drawing and make the following
named calculations:
Areas of \Nater—Line Planes and Sections.
Volume and Displacement of Underwater Body.
C.B. Position Vertically and Horizontally.
The M.I. 0f the L.W.L. Plane and Both Trans
verse and Longitudinal Axis Drawn through C.G. point
of Plane.
The Transverse and Longitudinal M.C. Heights.
The Transverse Righting Moment at 10, 20, 30 and
40° Inclination.
The Volume of the Abovewater Body of Boat.
The Center Point of this Volume (above).
The Center of Lateral Resistance.
The Area of Immersed Surface.
The Power Required to Drive Boat at Named Speeds
in Still Water.
The Coeff. of Displacement, Prismatic Coeff, L.\V.L.
and Midship Coeff.
The lines drawing when completed shows these
views:
Profile view.
Half-breadth water-line view.
Body, or cross-section view.
Diagonal lines. Buttock lines. _
Measurements taken from all these views should
correspond with each other and the area of L.W.L. plane
and midship section, as well as the displacement, and
curve of areas should be identical, or almost so, with
those selected when you made the preliminary drawing.
73. TABLES 0F OFFSET
The table of offsets is a table of measurements made
up from measurements taken by the architect from the
lines drawing.
The designer completes lines drawing, fairs it and then
takes the offset measurements. Each measure must be
very accurately made with the proper scale (the scale of
drglwing) and then entered in its proper place on offset
ta e.
 70 NAV/IL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
Ist. The table of offsets is divided into two (or information about ordinate intervals, water-plane
three*) parts, one part being for height measures, intervals, etc.
another for half-breadth measures, and if a third part is Half-Breadth Table—On this table is entered all half
necessary, the diagonal measures are entered there. breadth of water-line measures. In first column is
2d. All measurements are made along ordinate lines, entered \Vater-line plane No., and at head of each of
water—plane lines and diagonal lines; height measurements other columns is entered the No. ordinate. Therefore,
being taken from base line up on profile view drawing, by reading measures entered along any line the half
width measurements being taken from center line out on breadth measures for one entire water-plane can be as
half-breadth water-line view drawing, and diagonal certained.
. measures being taken from center line out along diagonal You will note that at bottom of this table is entered
lines marked on body plan drawing. All measurements this remark: Lines are to outside of planking and top of
must be made, as carefully as possible, from center to sheer. .
center of lines and then entered in proper position on This indicates that lines are draw to outside of plank
offset table. ing, and therefore the boatbuilder will have to take off
3d. Measurements are entered in feet, inches, and thickness of planking and decking before he makes the
eighths of an inch, the —0— always being entered when moulds.
there is no other figure to enter under any heading, and The lines drawing is usually made to show shape of
measures less than one-eighth being entered as fractional outside of the boat, because all calculations are made by
parts of an eighth. Thus, if a measure is using measurements taken from outside, to outside of
Elet'en inches and three-si.rteenths of an inch, it is planking, etc. It, therefore, greatly simplifies the de—
entered signer’s work to make drawings in' this manner.
o—II—Iyz. Meaning No feet—eleven inches—one The boatbuilder also lays out the full—sized lines to
and one-half eighths. I outside of planking and after this has been done and lines
Or, in the case of a measure being exactly one foot properly faired he lays oFf on body plan lines to indicate
it would be entered thus: the thickness of plank and deck, and uses them when mak
ing the moulds, or templates, that are set up to help the
1—0—0. Meaning One foot—no inches—and no
builder shape the boat’s frame correctly.
eighths. Note—If a builder makes and sets up correctly shaped
4th. All essential particulars, such as interval between templates of cross sections shown on body plan and then
ordinates, interval between water planes, position of runs a few ribbands from stem to stem of boat, fasten
base line, measurements for diagonal lines, thickness of ing them to the outer edges of templates—called moulds
planking, etc., must be clearly marked on the table. —the ribbands will c10sely follow the diagonal lines of
I will now reproduce the table of offsets of the 36 by 9 boat, and if the templates are made to the inside of plank
design. The measures entered are taken from the ing then the inside of ribbands will indicate the shape of
original lines drawing of design. The original lines diagonals (and boat) inside of planking (outside of ribs)
drawing of a design is the drawing prepared by the de and ribs bent, or shaped, to touch the inside of ribbands
signer on heavy drawing paper. It is the drawing from will be correctly shaped.
which all calculations measures were taken and the one The Diagonal Table—On this part of the table of
used for tracing from. ' offsets is entered measurements of diagonal lines, taken
Offset measurements cannot be accurately taken from along each straight diagonal line marked on body plan.
a tracing or a blue print.
Orrssr TABLE rm: Desmn or 36 BY 9 CRUISER
Heights Above Base Line
EXPLANATION OF THE TABLES Ord. Cabin
No. Sheer Sheer Rubber 3. of Keel
Heights Above Base Table—On this table is entered Stern 8—1—2 7— 0—7
all height measures required by boatbuilder when he is . 1 8—0-4 7— H 3—11—0 3— 4—0
enlarging plans to full size. 2 7—9—7 6— 9—2 1—rr—6 1— 8—2
In the first column is entered Ordinate No. 3 7—7—0 6— 6—6 1— 7—6 1— 3—7
4 7—4—4 6— 4—5 I—— 5—4 I— 1—0
In second is entered measures of cabin sheer line above 5 7——2—2 6— 2—4 I— 4—5 o—ro—7
base line. 6 7—0—2 6— 0—6 1— 4—7 0— 8—6
In third is entered distances that sheer line is above 7 6—9—0 5—[1—4 1— 8—5 0— 7—0
8 6—6—2 5—10—0 2— 5—0 o— 5—4
base line. 9 5— 9—2 3— 4—3
In fourth is entered distances rabbet is above base line. T s— 9—0
In fifth is entered distances bottom of keel is above Ordinate No. I is 0—9—0 aft of bow.
base line. Ordinates are 4—3—0 interval.
Transom is 1—3—0 at sheer aft of No. 9.
In the second part of this table is entered measure L.W.L_ is 3—4—0 above base.
ments required to get outline of stem and to complete Water-lines below L.W.L. are 0—6—0 apart.
rabbet line up to sheer, as well as measurements required Water-lines above L.W.L. are 0—9—0 apart.
to complete outline of sternpost, horntimber and transom. Stem Measures Aft Transom Measure
You will note that at bottom of this table is entered '0f Vertical Line Aft of No. 9 Ord.
Front of Stem Rubber No.
*In cases when the water planes are closely spaced, diagonal Stem 0—0—0 0— 1—4 x— 2—2
line measurements can be omitted, because the builder can ac 2a 0—2—7 0— 6—0 I-- 0—6
curately lay down the lines without the diagonals, and after 13, 0—5—0 0— 8—4 0—10—6
lines are laid out full size, he marks a few diagonals on full L.W.L. 0—9—2 I— r~—7
sized body plan and uses measurements taken from them for W.L.2 1—3—1 1— 8—4
“fairing” the full-sized lines. \V,L_3 2—1—5 2—11—1
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED 7I
Half-Breadths
014.140. 1 2 s 4 s 6 7 s 9 -r
Cabin Sheer 0—11—2 3— 3—0 4—0—2 4— 4—6 4— 5—7 4—5—5 4— 2—3 3—8—0
Sheer 0— 6—4 2— 0—2 3—7—0 4— 2—0 4— 5—6 4—5—6 4— 2—6 3-8—0 2—11—2 2— 9—2
23. 0— 3—0 1- 9—0 3—0—4 3—11—4 4— 5—-o 4—5—4 4— 2—7 3-9-0 3— 1—2 2—11—0
1a 0— 2—4 1— 6—0 2—9—4 3— 9—4 4— 3—4 4—4—4 4— 1—4 3—8—0 2—11—-o 2— 8—2
L.W.L. o— 0—2 1— 2—4 2—,5—o 3— 5—0 3—11—5 4—1—0 3—10—0 3—3—6 0— 0—4
W.L.2 0—11—0 2—0—2 2—11—0 3— 6—0 3—7—0 3— 3—6 2—4—2
W.L.3 o— 5—7 1—4—4 2— 0—6 2— 7—3 2—6—0 2— 2—0
W.L.4 0—5—2 o-—II—4 1— 5—0 1—2—2 0— 6—3
Rbt_ o— 1—7 0— 1—7 0—1—7 0— 1—7 0— 1—7 0—1—7 0— 2—2 0—2—2 0— 2—2
B. K. o— 0—6 0— 1—7 0—1—7 0— 1—7 0— 1—7 0—1—7 0— 1—7 ends
1—3—0
aft of 8
Lines to outside of planking and top of Sheer—planking K-inch thick, decking 7/§-inch thick.

As diagonal lines marked on body plan stand at vary
ing angles, it is always necessary to enter on table of
offsets the correct heights of each diagonal, measured
from base line up along the center line, and also distances
along base that each diagonal is out from center line.
74.‘ CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS
After lines drawing is completed, drawings to illus—
trate construction details are prepared. The first of
these drawings to prepare is one to show a longitudinal
view of hull framing as viewed from one side of keel
out to side of boat. Fig. 50, Frame Profile, illustrates
this drawing of the 36-foot cruiser. (See p. 65.)
Before a longitudinal construction view drawing can
be prepared, the base, the L.W.L., the center line of half
-breadth water-line view, and all vertical ordinate lines
must be marked on the paper. Next, measurement points
for outline shape of keel, rabbet, and sheer lines of pro
file, and also for deck outline of half-breadth view are
transferred from lines drawing, and the lines marked in
manner explained above. The other half of deck out
line is next marked immediately above center of keel line
of half-breadth water-line view, this being necessary
because one-half of deck outline (the lower) is used to
record hull frame construction details of keel and lower
portion of boat, and the other (the upper) is used to
record details of deck framing.
After outline shapes are marked, measurements for
bearding line are taken from lines drawing and trans
ferred to frame profile view.
Bearding line indicates position where inside of plank
ing breaks contact with wood of stem, keel, deadwood,
etc.; the points of measurement for this line being
obtained partly from half-breadth Water-line view and
partly from cross-section body views of lines drawing.
I will now explain method of obtaining measurement
points for bearding line.
Points for stem portion of bearding line are obtained
by transferring measurements taken from half-breadth
water—line plan, and points for keel and deadwood are
obtained by transferring measurements taken from body
plan.
To obtain‘stem measurement point at deck set a pair
of bow dividers the exact thickness of planking, measured
by scale of drawing, and then place a batten, or curve,
to follow deck outline where it touches the half-width
of stem line of half-breadth water-line view. The curve
or batten need only follow line for a short distance.
Use edge of batten, or curve, as a guide for one leg
of bow dividers and let the other leg extend inside and
very lightly touch drawing paper. By moving bow
dividers along edge of guiding batten a very faint mark
can be made on the paper by inside leg, and this mark
will indicate line that inside of planking will follow near
stem. \Nhere this line touches half-width of stem line
will be the exact point where inside of planking will
leave stem, and will be a point for bearding line at deck.
(See Fig. 5o-A.) Transfer this point down to sheer
line profile view.
‘ A point for each water-line that crosses stem is
obtained and transferred in like manner, and then points
for keel are obtained. To obtain points for bearding
line along keel and deadwood move batten, or curve, to
cross-section view on lines drawing and place it to exactly
follow outline of one of the cross—section outlines where
it touches half-width of keel line. The dividers can then
be used, in manner explained above, and point for dis
tance bearding line is above rabbet 0f keel at that section
obtained; and then by measuring distance this point is
above base line and transferring measure to correspond—
ing ordinate of profile view a point for bearding line along
keel is obtained. When a point at each cross-section is
_ mac?—
/'~. I ‘—
.€/:c~rl r 611- - —.(“mug
_ Pharu 5 _/
Fig. 50-A
obtained and transferred there will be a series of points
marked immediately above rabbet on profile, and if a
batten is bent to cut these points it can be used as a
guide for pencil and bearding line marked with exact
ness. It is very important to remember that bow divi
ders must be held exactly at right angles to batten, or
curve.
You will note that bearding line does not run parallel
with rabbet but lies at varying distances inside of it.
This variation is due to the fact that angle of entrance
and run lines, and of cross-sections near keel, is not
alike at any two points.
In general a bearding line will be closest to rabbet at
stem, furthest away from it at or near to turn of fore
foot, and after forefoot is passed it will gradually move
closer to rabbet until section with least deadrise is
reached. (See Fig. 5o-A and Fig. 50-B.)
Usually the designer first marks bearding line on
lines drawing and transfers the measurement points
directly from profile view of that drawing to profile of
frame construction drawing.
72 NdVdL dRCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
After bearding line is marked, the inside of boat shape
of stem, keel, shaft-log, deadwood, and horntimber is
marked; and after this has been done scarphs and posi
tions of joints of the pieces that make up the longitudinal
keel structure are outlined and marked.
The factors that determine outline shape of inner
edge of longitudinal keel, stem, and deadwood structure
are:
Ist.—There must be a sufficient amount of wood to
enable all frames and floors to be securely fastened
above rabbet cut to receive planking.
2d.—There must be a sufficient amount of wood at
each joint and scarph to hold fastenings securely.
3d.——There must be a sufficient amount of wood in
the whole structure to insure that required strength is
there.
The shape of outside of stem and keel, and position
of rabbet and bearding lines are fixed by shape of boat,
therefore, they cannot be changed; but the inner shape
of pieces can be made any desired shape, and it is here
that the designer can, without changing lines of boat,
add any amount of wood required to give needed strength
to the structure. A designer frequently calculates the
strains a keel structure must withstand; but this is seldom
done when designing a small cruiser like _this because if
a designer knows the minimum depth and thickness that
keel must have for needed strength and does not allow
less than this minimum at any point he knows without
further calculating that the whole structure of keel will
be amply strong so far as amount of material is con
cerned.
A designer usually marks bottom of keel, rabbet and
bearding lines, then selects manner of fastening lower
ends of frames to keel and determines amount of keel
above rabbet needed to hold frames and their fastenings.
If he finds that this amount of wood added to depth of
keel below bearding line is ample to make total depth
of keel at its narrowest point equal to, or more than,
minimum keel depth required, he proceeds to mark top
of keel line parallel with bearding line and the selected
distance above it. But if depth of wood added above
rabbet will not make minimum depth of-keel equal to
requirements, additional depth must be added to keel
above bearding line.
The top of keel line is marked faintly at first, because
it will be necessary to make some changes to it at shaft
log and at horntimber on top of deadwood.
~The changes at shaft—log are caused by the necessity
of having a surface at exact right angles to shaft center'
line at end of log, for the purpose of fastening a bearing
to. Therefore, after drawing top of keel line faintly, the
designer decides upon width of shaft-log he will use and
draws lines above and below shaft center line and parallel
with it. These lines indicate top and bottom edges of
log are the selected width of log apart, and extend from
inboard end of top of keel line to where sternpost will
be located. The inboard end of lower line is used as a
point for commencing a line that will stand at exact right
angles to shaft center line, and a squared line extending
up to point where extension of upper log line will meet
it is drawn. The top of keel line that crosses log is then
erased and squared end of log outline takes its place.
The top of keel (horntimber) line immediately aft of
log has very often to be changed in order to insure that indicate details as viewed from center line of keel to
there is a'sufficient amount of wood at end of horn opposite side of boat, therefore, the floor timbers, the
timber to securely fasten it in place. This correction, if - engine cross timbers and deck beams that extend from
found necessary, is made after the scarph and joint lines
are marked along deadwood. On illustration of keel
construction (Fig. 50) scarphs and joints of keel con
struction of 36-foot cruiser are shown.
At stem and stem knee there must be a sufficient
amount of wood inside of bearding line to give ample
material for mortising frames into these pieces, and also
to give needed additional strength of construction. So
along stem and stem knee pesition the amount of wood
inside of bearding line is always greater than along keel.
(See Fig. 50, stem.)
After keel outline and construction details are marked,
the designer usually locates the ribs (frames) by mark
ing selected positions along base line drawn below the
frame profile view and then drawing vertical lines, from
top of keel to sheer, to indicate location of each rib and
its sided thickness.
Remember this: The measurement edge of frames
ahead of midship is always the after one, and for frames
aft of midship it is always the forward edge. Frames
are beveled, 0r shaped, so that inside of planking will
lay against outside of frames and touch the full width of
frame. This is called beveling and, of course, when a
pair of beveled frames are placed in position in a boat
their extreme width will be slightly less at one edge than
at the other. The widest edge 0f each flair of frames is
always the measurement edge.
After frame positions have been marked, floor timbers
are located and their p0sitions marked on frame profile
drawing.
In small cruisers it is usual to place a floor timber
across keel at each pair of frames; thus, a floor timber fits
alongside each frame, and as fioor timbers are always
placed against narrowest edge of frames, floor timbers
ahead of midship section must be placed ahead of frames
and those aft must be placed aft of frames. M measure of
floor timbers obtained from Table 2 indicates measure—
ment at center. The designer usually deducts from M
measure a proper amount of material for notching floor
timbers over keel and then draws a pencil line, from b0w
to stern, the required M distance (after deducting notch
ing measure) above top of keel line. This line indicates
where top of floor timbers will be located and by using
this line as a guide and drawing vertical lines from top
of keel to it, at a distance from frames equal to S measure
of floor timbers, the floor timbers will be properly shown
on plan. Of course, forward, at stem, and aft, at dead
wood, it may be necessary to increase depth of floor
timbers just as it was found necessary to increase the top
of keel line at those points.
After floor timbers are marked, the engine founda
tion can be planned, or if it is not possible to do this
because correct engine measurements are not available
the planning of engine foundation details can be put off
until later, and clamps can be laid out.
The general dimensions and arrangement of engine
foundation details depend largely upon shape and size
of engine. Fig. 48 shows details of two very satisfactory
foundations for engines of usual form, and on Fig. 50 I
show details of construction selected for 36-foot cruiser.
When drawing construction details bear this in mind:
All details, except keel, stem, and deadwood, shown on a
frame profile drawing, like lower portion of Fig. 50,
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED 73
and if you measure at each cross-section the distance
line is up from base and transfer measurement to proper
ordinate on profile construction view, you will have a
series of points for a batten to follow when you desire to
mark the line.
my}!!! Luv!
After clamps are detailed on profile it is usual to out
line keel and frame construction as viewed from above,
\—1 1 ’/ / / 1/(uf°‘°
/, /, 7°
I. -
~ r—y/lfill or looking down into interior of boat. These details are
,_ ’
shown on portion of upper drawing of Fig. 50 marked
Hull Frame, though in this instance the floors and por
tions of frames are shown on both Hull and Deck frame
portions of that drawing. The outline of deck and center
line of keel for this view was marked when drawing was
started, but before construction details can be drawn it
is necessary to ascertain the lines that ends of floor
timbers and that bilge clamps will follow. Measurement
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I i points for these lines are obtained from profile con—
struction and from body plan views on lines drawing.
Rnagrfwlz'
To obtain measurement points for ends of floor tim
"\C» __ bers proceed as follows: Measure on profile construc
Fig. 50-3 tion view distance, at each ordinate line, that top of floor
timber nearest to ordinate is above base and transfer
side to side of boat, must be shown as if cut through this measurement to center line of body plan view. Then
along a line drawn from stem to stern through center by squaring out from the point to cross-section outline
of boat, and of course the ends of each piece of material you will ascertain the exact distance that floor timber
that is cut must be cross hatched to indicate cutting. at that ordinate point extends out from keel center line.
Clamps are located along cabin sheer, along sheer, By transferring this measure to proper ordinate on hull
and along bilge. Clamps are merely long pieces of ma frame view, measuring the distance out from center line
terial bent to shape and fastened to all frames they cross. of keel, a point for a curved line is obtained. \Nhen
(For dimensions of material, see Table 2.) The cabin measurement points at all ordinate positions are trans
sheer clamps carry deck frames, the sheer Clamps streng ferred, a batten can be bent and a curved line drawn.
then boat along line of Sheer that extends from bow to This curved line will indicate the outer ends of floor
stern and carry after deck beams, and the bilge clamps timbers.
Strengthen construction along bilge line. As bilge clamps Points for bilge clamps on hull frame view are ob—
do not support any framing material they do not have tained by measuring, at right angles, out from center line
to follow an exact line but are located along a line of of lines body plan to where bilge Clamp line diagonal
least resistance to bending that is nearest to bilge. crosses each section outline and transferring the measure
Always place bilge clamps in such locations that they ment to proper ordinate at hull frame view. A curved
will not interfere with installation of engine foundation line drawn to cut the points will indicate distance that
timbers. bilge clamp is out from keel, but as a bilge clamp has
Clamps are fastened to each frame they cross with width it will be necessary to draw a second line a dis
bolts, or rivets, and nails or screws, the number and size tance from the first equal to width of clamp.
of fastenings depending upon dimensions of both clamps After bilge clamps are marked the designer usually
and frame. marks on his frame profile lines to indicate thickness of
All cabin sheer and sheer clamps follow sheer lines planking and deck clamps. Thickness of planking is
but must always be placed a sufficient distance above the easily shown by drawing a sec0nd line parallel with deck
sheer lines to permit beveling their tops to the crown that outline of hull frame view and the exact thickness of
deck beams will have. plank inside of it. Now if another line is drawn a
It is an easy matter to locate positions of sheer clamps distance from the inside of planking line equal to moulded
on drawing, but in the case of bilge clamps it is necessary measure of frames and a second line inside of this one,
to determine location at each cross~section view on lines the exact thickness of clamp distant, there will be four
body plan and transfer measurement point to the con parallel lines extending from bow to stem, the outer two
struction drawing. Generally it will be found that bilge of which will indicate thickness of planking, the inner
clamps forward will follow one of the diagonal lines, two thickness of clamp, and the space between clamp and
but aft they will follow lines that will terminate at stern plank lines will equal moulded measure of ribs, and ends
some distance out from keel. To lay out path that bilge of ribs can be shown there.
clamp is likely to follow mark on body plan, at its center Details of engine foundation as viewed from above
line, a point to indicate where you desire forward end are next outlined.
of clamp to terminate at stem. Next mark a point at Measurements for laying out these details are obtained
midship section outline to indicate where you desire by marking out cross-section outlines of lower portions
clamp to cross midship section, and then mark a point on of body plan shapes at engine foundation and transferring
transom outline, some distance out from keel, to indicate to these drawings height measurement points taken from
where you desire after end of clamp to terminate. This frame profile construction, and then by transferring width
point must be outside of end of floor timbers. measurement points, obtained from the cross—section
Diagonal lines, drawn across body plan, to cut these drawing, to hull frame construction drawing the width
points will indicate line clamp will follow along bilge, details can be outlined in their proper position.
74 A’leAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
Bear this in mind: On frame profile view construction
details of engine foundation appear as if cut through
along center line of keel, while on a hull frame view
looking down they show as viewed in their entirety. On
Fig. 50 I show an enlarged cross-section view of engine
foundation details as laid out for width measuring.
The deck framing is next detailed on frame profile
view.
Deck frame of a small cruiser of this kind usually
consists of: ' ends of planking. These filling-pieces are shown on
Ist.—Deck beams spaced the same distance apart that
frames are, a deck beam being placed alongside each
frame, let into clamp, and fastened to frame with nails,
or screws, and to clamp with bolts, or rivets.
2d.—A breast hook, located at forward end of clamps
and fastened between them with nails and rivets, the top
of breast hook being placed sufficiently above sheer to
permit it being beveled to the crown deck will have.
Fig. 52
3d.—F0re-and—aft stringer pieces and knees to carry
ends of short beams. This boat has a narrow deck each
side of house and the beams along this deck must be
held in place and properly supported. These things are
done by fastening inner ends of beams to stringers that
extend from last forward deck beam aft to end of deck
ing at side, and by holding beams and stringer in position
with a few lodge and hanging knees spaced as required,
the knees being riveted to beams and to frames they are
placed against.
4th.—Filling-pieces. These are placed where deck
fittings or pieces of equipment have to be fastened and
are merely pieces of wood fitted between deck beams.
The 36-foot cruiser has one filling-piece fitted where
samson post is located, another across stem at transom
for fastening chocks to and holding ends of decking, and
others where cleats and chocks will be located.
On deck frame view drawing (Fig. 50) details men—
tioned are clearly shown.
Note this—When port-light openings are cut through
planking of hull it is necessary to fit filling-pieces between
frames, these filling-pieces being used to hold fastenings
of port lights and any fastening required to hold cut
frame profile of Fig. 50 by means of hatching around
the port—light openings.
On Fig. 52 illustration I show three kinds of deck
frame construction.
The No. 10I8I construction shows deck beams fitted
between clamps and resting on a shelf piece fastened
along lower edge of clamps.
The details marked with-out shelf are similar to those
used for 36-foot cruiser, and the details shown on lowest
portion of illustration show how deck frames are fastened
in large cruisers.
Fig. 53 will serve to show the way a designer shows
cross-section details of construction. A designer generally
selects cross-sections located where some important
change of construction occurs, or where some important
detail of interior finish is located, and makes one cross
section drawing serve the double purpose of illustrating
details of both construction and interior arrangement.
For the 36—foot cruiser I have selected frames nearest
to No. 2, 4, 6 and 8 ordinates as points for illustrating
cross-section details, because at each of these points
there is some change in either construction or arrange
ment. It is never necessary, unless some important
change in arrangement necessitates doing so, to show
more than half—sections.
Fig. 54 illustrates interior arrangement profile and in
terior view as seen from above. As this drawing is only
intended to serve the purpose of illustrating details not
already shown on other views, construction details that
have already been shown are not outlined. You will note
that those details are obscured from view by assuming
that planking and decking cover them, the broken lines
indicating where planking and decking are broken away
to permit interior to be viewed.
Details shown on profile interior view are first marked
out and measurements taken from that view are used for
laying out cross-section and interior “looking-down"
views. \Vhen planning interior details, first select the
desired headroom and find out if a proper width of floor
ing can be obtained with that headroom. Next see if the
required width of seats and berths can be obtained with
out encroaching upon fioor width, and last of all, locate
the dividing bulkheads and plan details of each room or
space.
Bear in mind that a seat height of I4 inches is ample
when cushion is used; that a 24-inch width of berth
bottom is the minimum for a single berth, and that at
least 6 feet 2 inches below beams should be given when
standing headroom is desired.
CONCLUDING REMARKS ABOUT CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
Floor beams that carry cabin and cockpit flooring
can be fastened either on top of, or alongside frames.
They are usually spaced the same distance frames are
apart and do not have crown like deck beams have.
Cabin flooring is usually made of matched material
 Y!

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Fig.’ 53
70 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
and is laid fore—and-aft, the center portion being made in
Ehe form of a hatch to permit access to space beneath
oor.
Cockpit flooring in cabin cruisers is usually laid the
same as a deck, with seams that are caulked and payed.
If a cockpit is a watertight one and raised above the
water-line it is proper to fit scuppers that will drain over
board. These scuppers are fitted at lowest points, which
is usually at outboard forward end.
Seats and berths are usually framed and covered with
either matched 0r paneled material in front and plain
boards on top. Of course, as the space under is utilized
for storage, hinged lids or fronts must be fitted. If
fronts are hinged, make opening sufficiently large to take
in a suitcase. . The inside finish of a cabin should never be made of
Often the seats in a cabin are arranged to extend
and form berths at night time. In cases like this seat
top is made to extend and back of seat is fitted with a
cushion that fits into extending portion of seat.
Division bulkheads in cabins are made of either
matched material or of paneled sections. Doors at open
ings through bulkheads are generally made between 24
and 27 inches wide. Cabin roofing is generally made of
matched material laid with finished side to show inside
cabin, and covered with well-painted canvas. It is neces—
sary to give cabin roof beams more crown than deck has,
and to fasten canvas in such a manner that no nails are
driven through canvas that covers roof. This can be
done by tightly stretching canvas over roof and fasten
ing it with tacks driven around upper edge of side of
house. The half-round moulding that is placed around
upper edge of house covers edge of canvas and its
fastenings.
Sliding hatches should be made of hard wood and the
slides should be laid in white lead and screw-fastened
to the roof beams.
Coamings of other hatches should also be laid in white
lead, and screw-fastened, and the corners should be either
dovetailed or halved.
heavy material, because it is not there to add strength to
the structure.
Joinerwork details should be screw-fastened wher—
ever it is possible to use screws.
All construction detail drawings are first made with
pencil on drawing paper, and after every detail has been
checked and found to be accurate, tracings of the draw—
ings are made with ink on tracing cloth. This is done
because from tracings blue printed copies can be quickly
obtained.
 Chapter X
75.
Rudders are universally used to turn or steer boats
and vessels in motion, though it is also possible to steer
a sail vessel by handling the sails, or to steer a steam
driven craft by using the propeller.
While rudders are almost always placed at stern of
boats and vessels of usual form—because that position
is most advantageous for efficiency and protection-—-bow
rudders are often used for steering hydroplanes and craft
of unusual form. '
There are two kinds of stem rudders in general use:
Ist.—The ordinary type of stern rudder, which is
hung on a sternpost and rotates about an axis close to
its forward end, and
2d.—The balanced rudder, which difl‘ers from the
ordinary kind in having about one—third of its blade ahead
of the axis about which it rotates. Bear in mind that I
am referring to types and not to shaPes of rudders.
In Fig. 55, A, B, C, show balanced rudders, and D, E,
ordinary ones.
Both ordinary and balanced rudders can be regarded
as plane surfaces which can be moved at any desired
angle with center line of keel, the axis upon which they
turn being generally located on a continuation of center
line of keel and aft of sternpost.
Rudders are composed of two principal parts—post
and blades—and are controlled, or moved, by means of
suitably placed controlling mechanism attached to upper
end of rudder post in such a manner that any move
ment of controller will cause rudder to turn on its axis
and thus the blade is placed at any desired angle with keel.
It is customary on shipboard, when referring to angle
that rudder is placed, to speak of the position of helm
(the name of the controller directly attached to upper
end of rudder post) rather than the actual position of
rudder blade. Thus the command, “Helm-a-starboard,”
or “Hard-a-starboard,” or “Helm-a-port” or “Hard-a
port,” means that the helm or tiller is to be moved towards
the named side of vessel.
These commands are survivals of the old days when
vessels and boats were steered by hand by means of a
tiller attached to rudder post head and extending in a
direction 0Pfl0site to that of rudder blade.
Under those conditions, by moving tiller towards the
named side the rudder blade was moved towards opposite
side, and as the head of a boat, or vessel, always turns
towards the side rudder blade is, the bow of vessel is
turned in a direction opposite to side named in the order.
Thus a movement of tiller to starboard caused the vessel
to turn to port.
Under modern conditions the hand-controlled tiller
has been replaced by a steering wheel connected to tiller
by ropes, or by a power-driven steering gear, and it is
possible for the controlling mechanism to be arranged so
that rudder blade and head of boat will either move in
the direction that wheel is moved or in an opposite
direction.
Rudders
In many power-driven pleasure craft the practice is
to arrange the mechanism so that head of boat will al
ways turn in the direction wheel is turned; thus, a move
ment of wheel towards port will cause rudder blade to
move to port and head of boat to turn to port.
Having thus briefly described the rudder, I will next
explain the reason why the slightest movement of rudder
blade causes a vessel to turn. \
D Fig. 55 E
76. THE TURNING EFFECT OF RUDDERS
When a boat is moving ahead with rudder blade held
exactly in line withv center of keel the stream line motion
of particles of water influenced by forward movement
of hull is equal on each side, and as long as this condi
tion continues the boat will neither turn to the right nor
to the left but will move in a straight line ahead; but
just as soon as this perfect balance of stream line move
ment of water particles is disturbed the boat will swerve
from her original straight course, the turning movement
always being towards the side on which disturbing in
fluence is greatest. Thus, immediately a rudder is turned
on its axis the blade moves from center line of keel into
a position that is oblique to path of travel of stream line
particles, the equality of balance is disturbed because the
water particles on side that blade is moved to strike the
obliquely held rudder blade with a greater pressure than
those on opposite side, the difi’erence in pressure increas—
ing with each increase of the angle that blade makes
with center line of keel. Fig. 55-F shows the effect of
turning rudder.
Fig. 55-F shows a boat’s outline, as seen from above,
with rudder turned towards port side. Broken lines
indicate position of increased pressure, and arrows the
resulting action, or turning movement of vessel.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIIVIPLIFIED

_r
After a boat has been run a few times the angle of
Sass
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F \ greatest turning efficiency is learnt, and when once known
the rudder is seldom put over further than that angle.
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When making trials to ascertain this angle it is necessary
\\ to take into consideration the time factor as well as the
radius of circle described by boat, because it will often
be found that a boat will turn in a circle of large radius
in a shorter period of time than she will turn in one of
much- smaller radius.
Area.—~.-\rea of the effective rudder blade, meaning
Fig. 55-? by this the portion aft of turning axis, should always be
proportioned to resistance to rotation around an axis
'As soon as the rudder is turned to one side the for drawn vertically through the C.G. of boat, and as resist
ward motion of vessel will be checked and her ends will ance to rotation is always in proportion to area of longi
begin to turn about a vertical axis passing through the tudinal underwater plane, and to distance this area is
C.G. This turning movement, called angular velocity, distributed away from the axis, is can be said that the
increases with each increase of angle of rudder blade and two principal things to consider when selecting area of
at the same time the forward speed of boat decreases in rudder are:
a corresponding ratio. Ist.—Longitudinal plane area.
At first the angular velocity is small, but as pressure 2d.—Length on L.W.L.
on rudder increases angular velocity is accelerated until The greater the area of longitudinal underwater plane
pressure on rudder balances angular velocity and when
and the further it is distributed away from axis of rota
this condition is arrived at the angular velocity remains tion, the greater the resistance will be.
constant until a movement of rudder destroys the balance.
The greater the angle of rudder the greater the an An excess of area at extreme ends of the longitudinal
gular velocity will be, and the quicker the rudder is underwater plane will usually make a boat steer “hard”
moved over the quicker the maximum angular velocity (rotate slowly), and it is for the purpose of avoiding
will be attained. this defect that the ends of longitudinal underwater plane
are cut away.
The features chiefly affecting readiness to answer
rudder are: To determine approximate size of rudder required,
Ist.—The time occupied in putting rudder hard over. the following rules can be used:
2d.—The pressure on rudder when in that position. RUDDER BLADE AREA AND WIDTH TABLE or COEFFICIENTS
3d.—The Moment of Inertia of vessel about a vertical Area Area Coefi. Arc: Rudder = \Vidlh
of Reef. 0! Long. for of 1 of L {g 4* 1
axis through C.G. I. D L X D Plane Area Rudder Plane of L.\\'.L.
20 1.5 30 26 .10 2.6 I/IO 1.4
77. TIME REQUIRED TO PUT RUDDER OVER 20 I 2.0
30 2. 5 7o 60 _08 4.8 1/ 12 1.6
This depends largely upon arrangement of mechanical 50 4.0
details of controlling mechanism. In general, the shorter 40 3.0 120 100 .06 6.0 1/17 1.8
the time necessary to put rudder over to its extreme angle 80 4.8
the quicker turning moment will be. The speed reduc— 50 3.5 175 140 .05 7.0 1/20 2.0
130 6.0
tion factor must be considered, because the quicker the 60 4.0 240 200 .04 8.0 1/25 2.2
rudder is put over to a named angle the greater the speed 160 6.4
reduction will be, and it often happens that the time re— 70 5.0 350
320 .036 1 1.6 1/27 2.3
quired to turn a small diameter circle is greater than that v 280 10.8
75 8.0 600 500 .035 17.5 1/28 2.5
required to turn the vessel in a circle of much greater 450 15-7
diameter. L = Length of boat on L.W.L. D = Draught of water.
Therefore, the element of time should only be con L Plane = Longitudinal underwater plane.
sidered after the other features have been determined. Ist Rule—T0 find approximate width of rudder
necessary, take 1/50 of the L.W.L. and add I foot.
78. PRESSURE 0N RUDDER
Thus a power boat 50 feet on L.W.L. should have a
Pressure on rudder blade varies with angle, with
rudder 2 feet wide.
area, with shape, and with speed at which vessel is travel
ing ahead. The greater the angle rudder blade makes 2d Rule—To find area of rudder necessary multiply
with center line of keel and the larger the blade is, the area of immersed longitudinal plane by a suitable co—
greater the pressure will be. Also the higher the for efficient. Coefficients vary with length of boat, being
ward speed is the greater the pressure will be on each largest for boats of small size. On the accompanying
square foot of rudder blade. table I give coefficients for a number of power boats.
Three elements have, therefore, to be proportioned Explaining the Table.—In column one is entered
to each other: Speed, angle, and area. length on L.\\-’.L.
Speed—Speed is the speed at which the boat travels In column two is entered draught of water.
and, so far as maximum speed is concerned, is fixed. In column three is entered area of rectangle formed
Angle—Angle is simply a matter of control, though by length on L.W.L. multiplied by draught of water;
it is usual to fix stops on the rudder to prevent it tum i. e., the underwater longitudinal plane rectangle.
ing beyond angle of greatest efficiency, which is, in the In column four is entered area of boat’s underwater
majority of cases, below 40°. longitudinal plane.
 \
NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
In column five is entered coefficient multipliers for
area of rudder.
In column six is entered rudder area found by using
the coefficient.
In column seven is entered the % that rudder area is
of longitudinal underwater plane (column four).
In column eight is entered width of blade as found by
rule No. I.
79. SHAPE or RUDDER
The principal things to keep in mind when designing
a rudder are:
Ist.—To make rudder sufficiently large to control
boat at lowest speed.
2d.—To make area of rudder such that it will effec
tively control without having to be put over to an angle
that will seriOusly check speed through water.
3d.—To shape rudder so that power required to put
it over is a minimum and its effect when put over to
desired angle is maximum.
Experiments have proved that lower portion of a
rudder blade is most effective, but as the fineness of lines
near keel permits the water to flow more freely to rudder
it is usual to cut away the lower portion and thus bring
the center of rudder pressure at, or near to center of
blade area. By tapering the rudder in manner shown
on illustration B, or in rounding after edge as shown in
the other illustrations, effectiveness is not impaired, and
the power required to put helm over to a named angle
will be much less than required to put over the rudder C,
both being of equal area.
Of the two rudders A, B, shape A has a slight ad—
vantage, because when boat is pitching in a seaway the
widest part will not be lifted out of water. \Nith a shape
like B this will occasionally happen.
In all cases the balanced portion of blade should be
approximately equal to one—third the effective area of
blade.
Remarks About the Effect of Propeller Action on
Rudder.-—-A single-screw boat can always be turned more
quickly in one direction than in another, this being due
to turning action of propeller. The turning effect of
the action of a single propeller on hull is as follows:
The bow of a vessel always tends to turn towards
the side on which the blades of a propeller descend.
If a vessel is tied to a dock and engines turned over
in direction of ahead movement, rudder being left free
to move, the rudder blade will incline to the side of
least pressure, which will be on side of the ascending
blades. It is by making a test of this kind that the
inclination of rudder necessary to counteract propeller
action is ascertained.
If, however, propeller blades are not entirely im
mersed, the thrust of lowest blades will frequently be
greater than thrust of upper ones, and under this condi
tion the action will be reversed.
It must also be kept in mind that, when a vessel has
sternway, lower blades are likely to have greater thrust
than upper ones and the turning effect will be the same
as in No. I.
In the case of twin—screw vessels the propellers are
usually placed sufficiently out from center line of boat
to prevent their influencing rudder action, therefore the
rudder control of a twin-screw vessel is likely to be better
than that of a similar vessel having a single screw.
79
If the rudder is held amidships in a twin-screw vessel
and one screw working ahead and the other astern, the
vessel will turn in much the same manner as when rudder
is used, but the time of turning will be considerably
greater than when both ‘Screws are working ahead and
rudder is used.
When one propeller is stopped and the other worked
ahead and rudder put hard over, a twin—screw boat will
turn somewhat slower than when both propellers are
working ahead, the increase of time required being about
30%.
If, however, one screw is working ahead and the
other disconnected from engine and allowed to revolve
freely, the vessel will maneuver much better than when
one screw is used and the other stopped entirely.
Shafts that operate twin-screw propellers can be in
stalled parallel to each other and to center of keel, or
they can be installed so as to diverge from each other
with either their forward ends closer together than their
after ends, or with their after ends closest.
As regards efficiency and rudder control, it seems to
be an established fact that some slight advantage is
gained by having the shafts incline towards each other,
with their forward ends further apart than propeller
ends.
The moment of inertia of the mass around a vertical
axis drawn through C.G. affects the readiness with which
a boat answers her helm. The greater the M.I. is the
slower the boat will acquire angular velocity.
This stands to reason when you stop to consider that
the M.I. of a mass is determined by multiplying weight
by the square of distance, or in the case of a boat, the
weight of every part is multiplied by the square of its
distance from the axis of rotation, which is drawn verti
cally through the C.G.
In a vessel having weight concentrated near the C.G.,
the M.I. will be much less than when some weights are
located well forward and aft, and as the ends of boat
must rotate around the C.G. axis the heavier ends are
the greater resistance they will offer to turning movement.
A concentration of weight near the C.G. axis is, there—
fore, desirable.
On Fig. 55 is shown details of construction of
balanced rudder used on 36-foot cruiser. This type of
rudder is supported in a shoe, or extension of keel, and
turns in a socket placed at end of shoe to receive lower
end of rudder post.
The upper end of rudder post passes through a tight
rudder port and stuffing-box and revolves in stuffing-box,
which forces upper bearing, and in a lower bearing
fastened to underside of stern. To prevent the rudder
unshipping a small collar is keyed and fastened to rudder
post immediately below lower bearing and a retaining
nut or pin is fastened through rudder post below socket
in shoe.
Steering Control Methods—The simplest method in
use is to attach a bar or tiller securely to upper end of
rudder post and thus control movement of rudder by
directly moving the bar across deck.
At one time the tiller was in universal use, but with
increase in size of vessels sufficient power could not be
obtained to control the rudder in a seaway, so to the
tiller was attached ropes, blocks, and tackles in such a
manner that by pulling on ends of ropes added power
was obtained and the rudder more readily (but more
slowly) moved.
 80 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
Later it was found that, by passing the ends of con tance of application of this pressure out from the axis
trolling ropes around a drum and attaching suitable of rotation of rudder.
handles to drum, one man could stand in center of boat The center of rudder pressure is the center point of
and control rudder much more easily and with greater resistance, and for the purpose of this calculation it will
certainty. Thus the drum and steering wheel were be sufficiently accurate to assume that the center point
evolved. With the advent of steam and continued in of rudder area is also the center of resistance. We will
crease in size of vessels, it was found that more power assume, for the purpose of making an illustration calcu
was necessary to handle rudder, hence the mechanical and lation, that the center of resistance of rudder is located
steam-steering devices now in use were evolved. 2 feet out from axis, therefore, the strain on rudder head
The Advantages of Balanced Rudders—Balanced will be
rudders are superior to ordinary ones because their use 1,361 X 2 : 2,722 lb maximum strain. Moment to be
minimizes the work that has to be done in steering, and resisted. '
in addition to this, the balancing portion gives to the And knowing the maximum strain, the diameter of
rudder the power of righting itself rapidly when the rudder head can be calculated in this manner:
strain on the controlling mechanism is relieved.
Moment to be resisted X 16
The center of pressure on an ordinary rudder blade : Diameter in inches.
is located somewhere near to center of rudder area: but Safe strain for material
with a balanced rudder the center of pressure lies much
The safe strain for material being found by divid
nearer to turning axis by reason of the pressure on the
ing the tensile strength by the factor of safety for loads
balancing portion acting as a counterbalance and thus varying from zero to maximum in both directions. For
tending to relieve, or reduce, the pressure exerted on steel the factor of safety is 8, and for wood it is 15.
portion of blade aft of axis.
Force Required to Hold a Rudder at Any Angle.—
In many cases, especially at moderate angles, the This must be sufficient to overcome resistance, or pres—
center of pressure on a blade of a balanced rudder is sure on rudder. In the case of an ordinary rudder
only slightly aft of turning axis, and it is for this reason actuated by means of a direct-connected tiller the force
that a balanced rudder is much more easily handled than required can be ascertained in this manner: '
an ordinary one.
F X AT must overcome P X AC
While the balanced rudder minimizes the work of Where F : force applied at end of tiller.
steering, it must be remembered that it is more liable to
AT 2 length of tiller from rudder post to point
injury than an ordinary one, and the method of hanging of application of force.
is not nearly as strong. P : Pressure on rudder.
Resistance to be Overcome in Putting a Rudder Over. AC : Distance from axis to center of rudder
——To calculate this correctly the pressure on rudder should pressure.
be calculated for each instant as it moves from midship When tackles or steering gear are used, the combined
to extreme angle, but in practice this is not necessary, leverage obtained by their use must be added to tiller
because sufficient accuracy can be obtained by assuming leverage.
that the center of pressure is located at one-half of the When a boat is to be steered by means of a steering
mean breadth of an ordinary rudder blade out from axis wheel and lines it is usual to substitute a quadrant for
and that the pressure exerted on blade when it is at the the tiller, because by running the lines along properly
extreme angle is the mean pressure. shaped grooves in rim of quadrant they are kept taut at
Under these conditions, and neglecting the influence all inclinations of rudder, and thus a steadiness of rudder
of rotating propeller, the total resistance that has to be can be obtained that is not obtainable when one line is
overcome when an ordinary rudder is moved to right slack and the other taut.
angles can be calculated by making this simple calculation: On Fig. 55 I show a quadrant arranged properly with
11 lines run to sides of boat.
1.12 X — speed in feet per second X Rudder area in \Vhen a steering wheel is used the quadrant can be
10 much shorter than a direct-controlled tiller would have
square feet. to be, because all necessary additional leverage can be
And by multiplying the figures obtained by this cal obtained by using proper sheaves, by leading the lines
culation by the sine of angle rudder is moved to, the properly, and by the leverage obtained from the use of
pressure on rudder at any named angle can be ascer drum and steering wheel.
tained. TABLE FOR RUDDER PRESSURE
The following illustrates the application of this rule: Knots Miles Feet per Second‘
A power cruiser 150 feet long has a rudder area of 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6.91 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..10
65 square feet; speed is IO knots an hour; determine 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8.07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..12
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9.22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..13
resistance at right angles and also when rudder is placed \ 9.. 10.37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..15
at 40° inclination. 10 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..11.52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..17
11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..12.68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..19
1.12 X 18.7 X 65 : 1,361 lb pressure on rudder at right 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..13.83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
angles. ' 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1498 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
1,361 X 0.6427 : 874.9 lb pressure on rudder at 40°. 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..16.I4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..24
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1729 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
And knowing the pressure at right angles, the moment 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..18.44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
of resistance that rudder head must withstand can be 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..19.59 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..29
calculated by multiplying the pressure in pounds by dis *Decimals omitted.
 Chapter XI
80. Written Specifications

It is always necessary to attach to the drawings a Plans. Numerals without letters identify lines shown on
set of written explanations covering details and particu— profile view. Similar numerals with letter A identify
lars that cannot be fully explained by drawings. similar lines shown on half-breadth water-line view, and
These specifications can either be written on plain with the letter B similar lines on body view plan. Thus:
sheets of paper or they can be prepared on tabulated the numeral 4 on profile view indicates the L.W.L.; 4A
forms. on half-breadth water-line indicates L.\N.L. on that view;
and 4B on body plan the L.\/V.L. on body plan view.
I find that the tabulated form method is far more
On construction drawings each part is indicated by
convenient and accurate than the written sheets so I
name.
have used one of the RUDDER STANDARDIZED SPECIFICA
TION forms for the purpose of explaining the specifica— No. NAME or LINE
tions of the 36-foot cruiser.
iB} Base line
You will note that on this form is given in tabulated
form: 2 Indicating over—all length
Ist.—The dimensions of materials. 3 Indicating over-all length
2d.—The kinds of materials and fastenings. 4
4A Load water-line
3d.—Explanations of finish and details that need ex 4BJ
plaining.
And everything is set down in such a manner that the
5 .
5A \Vater—line blelow 1.w.l.
builder can quickly ascertain the things that he must 5BJ '
know before he can commence work.
O Ordin'Ite lines
To convey to the minds of others his ideas of form, 6A ‘
of construction and of finish is really one of the principal
reasons why a designer makes drawings and gets out 7 .
7A Above water-lines
specifications. 7B1
Center line of keel

Midship section position

é
Half-width of keel or rabbet
\l Curve of areas
\\
Face of stem

Bottom of keel

Transom

Sheer

No. 10181 Linea

Center line of deck
18 Forward end transfer lines
EXPLANATION OF No. 10181 DRAWINGS 19 After end transfer lines
These drawings are for the purpose of helping readers 2r
to identify each line of a power-boat lines drawing and 21A Buttock lines
each principal part of the hull construction. 2IBJ '
The numerals in circles on lines drawing are placed Diagonals
there to enable the reader to identify each line and study
the manner in which the lines are shown on the three Shaft line
views—Profile, Half-Breadth VVater-Line and Body
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No. 10181 Frame Construction

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No. 10181 Keel Construction
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No. 10181 Construction Details

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No. 10181 (3:08;; Sections—Construction Details

 val-r?
No. 10181 Rudder Detail.
 .Headroom
6-25
cabin
in
.9-16'.
a..Depth
of
Draft
hull.
m.3-08'.
beam.
.Extreme
iall.
.Length
Cabin
.36'.
.Raz'sed
dType
boat.
of
sover
h.ip.s..
Run
Log
Cedar
planking.
Virginia
Quality.
Pine.
.Y.
.Ist
Quality...
be.
is
Oak
.1st
by
Designed
to
.. ..
plwood
and
ucgHun-WIS
Heads
obacked.
and
riveted
eu..Butts
dn.t.er.s.u.nk..

wanted
“Galv-
VB”
wbam,
nails rteni.vxeo-.n'arl... wanted
Ahdeach
frame.
through
e..Bolt
P..Y
..l%"
4%”.
iDeck
clamps --Galv-
5%”
170115,
wnails
Ahdframe.
each
through
3%"
..Bolt
..I%"
e..Y
Pine
clamps
Bilge
irtei.xvo-~renal. "Go!"-
b0!“
and
"0515
clamp
frames
fastened
to
shape,
sawed
10",
2%”
..SPaccd
..I”
Cabin
frame
..Oak
to
and
beams
roof
.x.-~ .. clamp
"afls
“Gal”-
and
b0”!
frames
fastened
to
shape,
sawed
Io”,
..SPaced
.I"
2%"
to
Deck
frame.
and
beams
.Oak
..x- ....

"ails
keel
~and
frames
-10”,
fStmced
..l"
.5"...
to
..Oak
GatFloor
sSi.l.rat.mvweb-~tcnd.resd
BOAT
POWER
FOR
SHEET
SRUDDER
PTHE
TEACNDIAFRIDCAZETDION rwthen
bolts;
and
drifts
awith
i.“3%”
~00]?
blFStem
ae.)s.t-”~'.e:n-d~ed.-
awaits;
PFSi"
0!
Kind
Ind
alrtMflKind
0!
ilficof
uPart
Name
nleiafrnsiBl
r--Galv-
Mil!
and
elected
portion
eHM"
.mCabin
flooring
Pine
..W
oCv.ea.nblt.-e.r.
“Gal”-
be”:
I'“"
frames
and
floors
.to
..3%”
..Oak
TfEngine
horu..n..gd-'~h.abt.o.ilot.end
covered
“Galv-
"flil!
Canvas
e...%”
Vroofing
Cabin
Pine
..W
Mdge.
a.t.c.s-he-.d.
OF
WORK
JOINER
SPECOINFSITCRAUTCITOINSON
AND
HULL
Yi‘l/‘IS
and-
--V2”
901'"-
fitted
and
scarphed
"3%"
..Properly
..Oak
Keel
..-'-.... S-planking
r.c..I%”
..Oak
erGto
TMceflir.wlt.aie-v.nrYse..dom Mil-t,
--G¢Iv-
nails
with
frame
.whiten.
.I”
Planking
..Cedar
to
F“af.se.twe-n8.e'd., nails
..Galv.
house
cabin
and
hMoulding
..I%"
sheer
Along
hull
outside
..Oak
alf-..r.ou..n.d.
-nails
and
Tight
. ..W
SDecking
GPine
tsra.ceirla.gehvmt.w-s:.la.i.d. ..Galz'.
nails
side
of
..%"
floor
..From
ceiling
Cockpit
top
to
Pine
..W
.......
below:
entered
be
mof
qualities
and
details,
ato
cgeneral
dtits
boat,
of
Type
oas
are
ienmsrteirnausclitsons,
“Galv-
Mil:
Io",
.2%”.
Cockpit
..I%”
floor
..Oak
beams
crSi-xtp.-ae.trc.sed ..Galv.
nails
only
berths
.%"
Under
Cabin
Pceiling
Wine
..._.,_.,
nails
..Gala.
and
covered
...%"
board
Covering
..Oak
Csac..nr.'e.uw.as.. --Galv-
Mil-Y
caulked
..%”
..Seams,
Cockpit
floor
Pine
..W
...-...
"ail!
“Galv-
..I"
2%"
.10”
floor
Cabin
beams
..Oak
ce.rn.t.-et.r-.s
"all:
~-10”.
..1%”
I%”.....
.G..Oak
aFlSrx'a.sm~.pe-'’s.a—cB..endt

drift
<9
bolts.
.Wood
..4;/4”
.Oak
sShaft-log
c..r._,e_,.w..,l_s...
bolts..
drift
<9
..Wood
..3%"
.Oak
sDeadwood
c.r_.,.ew_,.s...
<9
bum--
drift
-..M”
..Oak
IsHocV.ro.ne-v.wtd.-ism.be.r.
~30!“
..3%"
knee
--Oak
knee
Stem
.~-e...-.. bolts
6'
..Wvod
...Oak
knee
and
3sTransom
c".post
.r:e.6-w".s—.3”

nails
..Galv.
2%"
Bridge
..I”
frame
deck
..Oak
.-x....

painting
for
suitable
quality,
pine.
White
material
Clear..
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 Bilge
..2"
Copper.
6'
..Brass
Dia
cin
bilge
cockpit
..Fitted
and
oto
pump
n et-c-.t.ed

c1eats..
Deck
..Bronze
.9”
with
bolts
brass
..Bolted
deck
to
..2..t._..

pWater
i..%"
Dia
.galley
Iron
cppipe
plate
and
pump
eoto
s.nGFa.iel..c't.u.ed.r

Steering
c.cockpit,
..24"
proPerly
Did
in
owheel
n.Bgear
Sretace.nt.ez.rd.ei.ng
' Plea.
Name
of
PMSize
Pieces
of
Number
arteicruilarls Toilet
Toilet.
Yacht
.inlet
outlet
and
with
sS..I..
.at
euIain-tsca-t~ob.-lc.kesd
sink
Galley
Iron..
.6011).
.8”
IO”.
oDrain
pipe
in
_Fitted
galley,
vto
e..1
.1“
rb-o.-a.rd,. fastenings
Hatch
..Brass
hatches
cabin
..Hooks
and
..To
fitted
be
eneyes
totr.a.n.ce

tank
Water
.1.
6'5
Gcockpit
iaunder
.lseat
nv 1sr4atn.oa..-l..glea.4"dxl60." Galley
.661'0-
-smake
Stove
.u--l--
2stove,
iK-etBrua.om-b~s.eIlfne brSeu'nlithkri..han.begcl..aeds entrance
dCabin
o..Brass
.doors
door~at
..At bolts
Flush
..Brass
.doors
door—at
bSulikt.ha.eb..aled.
..At fastenings
.1
Locker
..Brass
.all
doors
fitted
be
locker
..Turn:
to
Suit.a.b.le.
hinges
Locker
..Brass
.all
doors
locker
fitted
..Hinges
to
Suit..a.b.l.e Flagpoles
halyards
and
.12
..Oak
SPruce.
Dia.
..I%"
with
cleats
. orCom.p.l.cete
trucks band
Stem
Iron
.Galv.
fastened
..M"
. ..I..
galv.
Haslcf.r-.eo.wund, Shoe
..Bronze
place
in
fastened
.,5”
plan;
..I
Cscrewas.t.i.n,_g_,
Cabin
locks
door
.bulkhead
..Brass
doors
..At
Seunitrt.a.n.cbe.l—ea.t
fittings
Rudder
rudder
fastened
.Properly
“See
plans,
to.,,.te._,.
and
Leads
pulleys
Wire.
.Bronze
leads
Suitable
Wire
.3/16"
Dia.
rope.
....
Sampson
pin
..Brass
..M'
post
Dia
..4'4'4"
brass
oak
..I
Post;... .,. Flagpole
sockets
..Brass
Dia.
..I%'
aft
and
forward
Pr
..One
..Ione.... Quadrant
..Bronze
.deck
under
fitted
..'..t
SCeas.'t.pil..nag.n,s
Cabin
lights.
.Cport
..10.6"
4.4”
in
and
fitted
place
.Properly
o.I5
mbos..i.t.ion
C..%'
Iron
..Galv.
Dia.
on ect..i...o.nts.
hinges
Ice—box
..Brass
.lid.
ice-box
..Fitted
Sto
uit.a.b.le.
Galley
Dia.
..2”
..Brass
.galley
inpIunmsp.t.a.l..e.d chocks
Deck
..Bronxe
straight
Pr
Pair
.One
.2..,.. ‘ .4.. . . .
FITTINGS,
FURNISHINGS
EQUIPMENT
AND
Galley
hooks,
..Brass
.etc.
hooks
..Cup
S.12uit.a.bl.e

Rudder
...I
Se.p.l.a_ns
fastenings
Ice-box
.Brass
. .9
Suit.a..bl.e

..Cotton
Halyard.
..Y/é”.

Til fl'li-ne- -
 lines
Mooring
and
feet
Did.
.34"
spliced
properly
long,
whipped
..Mam'la
lanyards
with
cleats
and
..25
50.._.

Awning
..Khaki
Duck
fitted
properly
in
laced
dud
Canvas
place
8 oz...
Nltne
PPlace
of
Size
aNumber
Material
Pieces
rticular!

sform
Awning
in
fitted
and
..Bent
tframe.
place
pipe
HM"
a..Galv.
Iron
nto
chion..12
s. . ..._. Awning
fittings
size
..Deck
Battens
pipe
.34"
plates.
fitted
frame
..Galv.
Iron
over
..12..
Cabin
clights
..Over
..Yes
hung
ubrass
..Silk
rods
rport
taon
ins..-._,.
lines
Anchor
..Manila
and
..l%,"
Dia.
1"
feet
long
..Manilo
rope,
I50
200
..2.... DeCk
plates
in
..Fitted
Liverpool
for
hatch
Dia.
..5'
head
..Brass-...

Deck
plate
vfitted
and
..Cowl
Dia.
deck
Brass
6”
entonilato.r.

Fire
einspection
.xtto
..Makes
pass
Sinugiutias.bh.el..res. Anchor
light
i..Makes
.to
pass
nGsaplrec..1t_.rio.n_n Running
light
..Makes
i..Galv.
Iron
nto
pass
...2
spec.t. .ion Side
lights..
i..Makes
Iron
..Galv,
nto
pass
spec..t.i_,on
Flags
...U.
Jack
Yacht,
S.
Bunting
Club
and
Suita.bl_.e_

EFITTINGS,
FQUIRPMNEITS—(HCIonNtGinSued)
AND .Bwith
....1%"
handle
ash
Io.aF. ti.hi.toGe.a..lvdk..Iran
Side
ladder
fittings
brass
..With
I..Wood
..I.... Life
..To
inspection
..6.
. pass
Cparnveaseé'rC.voer.-ks. Life
rings
i..To
npass
spect..i..o.n Pails
.iFibre
..To
npass
Ssupietca.tb...il..eo.n ' .. ..To'fit
Cockpit
cushions
cockpit
fit
..To
..Yes
6'
..Canvas
Cork,
seats ccabin
Cabin
..Yes.
uG'Cork.
berths
.sChaino'n.u.as Whistle
Dia.
..IY/z.
..To
iBras;
npass
spec..t_,.i_o.,n Bell
inspection
..To
Brass
pass
..I.. ._.
Anchors
anchors
..chge
and
lb.
Iron
..Gal-u.
..25
35
...2...
Ca.blamps-“U
iF.ntl.aemd.ip_nsBc..arb.i._sn
Fenders
....for
..10"
. Casame
rkG'Can..z/.as.

-.-..- .-H l.-uice"ns.-' ."-“ .

 and
engine
with
supplied
equipment
complete
all
is
It
be
parts
to
any engine
soldered
and
c.oup
tube
screwed
with
tank
to
Sneaemcltesd

filter
cShut-of?
.also
cocks
and
tank
aat
r.boneujroei.tnetrs;.

Type
engine
c.onPreoctpe..drly with
with
furnished engine
c.onPreoctpe..drly
supplied
Make
for
main
Engine
cbelow.
and
ready
is
equipment
iits
boat
properly
be
deonto
siuse.
up
tnieaoclnteadl 5'.
6'
I.
filler
brass
pipe
and
gal.
..60
make;
cap.
Made
by.. ..Fitted
stem
to
post.t cockpit
in
throetve.rls.e ,
spark,
..For
and
. at
Strainer
intake.
opening
Seovera-co.ck .above
and
muffler
Cto
out
water
on ect.e.d
Particuler ..As'
(hand-ope..rated)
engine
with
supplied
.exhaust
ovto
and
Weartbeora-.pridped
..Complete
and
engine
controls
to.
.inTswtoa-lth.erdow;
cockpit
in
The
ifor
engine
is
boat
in
be
H.P
using
marine
fuel.
...4-cycle
gasolene
.,.2~I
nto
s4a.
t-acyl ie.nd er c.onPreocpt.e.rdly
and
boxed ..As
maker..
engine
by
supplied
..Three
pitch
suitable
blades;.
engine..
with
supplied
..Size inside
. Fit .ed
shaft-log
of air
whistle
“From
to
pump. supplied
engine
..As..
with
engine..
with
supplied
..As
with
.Complete
rever.se
IENGINE
EQUIPMENT
ITS
AND
NSTAL ATION

. Scre'w.e.d

Number
Part
of
Name
Material
Pieces
Size

Propeller
.Bronse
Dia.
.24”
..I... pipe
G..Copper
tube....
_,%;"
Dia,
asole.n.e_, pipe
Air
Brass
34"
Du;
..I
pump,...__,

Magneto
supplied..
..Make
..I..,_
tank..
Gasolene
steel
..Galv.
..6.
Bat eri..es,_._
cells
..Dry Exhaust
Iron
pipe.. Exhaust
Galv. fittings
pipe
Iron..
.6011).
Shafting
Bronze
..t.., ..I..,_ S.Bronze
Bearings
..Bronse t..I
uffing.-,._box of
Wiring
Copper
engine... Controls
.Bronxe.
pipe
Fittings
..Brass
for
gas.. ,_‘ fittings
pipe
Air
Brass.. ,__.‘ pipes
.Brass
Water
engine
to.. pipe
fittings
Water
..Brass..
..Catalog
of.
number
size
or..

..I.,_. Device
..I.._., Reverse
Engine Starting
..z..,_ Coil
..I.,_ Switches
..I.,_.,

Mufiler..
Tools...
 Add B to .D. For each number up to 20 use % in. of material. When B + D number exceeds 20 use m 317,0
>4 in. of material for each number up to 20 and X in. for each number over 20 2.5; :5
\/ L + B + B in feet = M measure in inches and parts of inch. Use nearest )4 in. | Z 5‘— po mpeaq 06
‘"sum
wag '3)
OZ
01
wos;
Same as Keel S measure | m 5150::awlgl’oltie.
. \ I
As Required | Z Oak or Y Pine JOMOd
luaso;
Aseuipso
Spadeqs
sieoq
spue
elnuuod
iI0
[useilgoatsnoueaislandeiuwsatogrpua
o;
asn
'"l alPl Ml—-LM As Required ! oaghgl;'Yi.5;ne

(B + D) X Co. = S measure in inches and parts}Co. varies with Length of Boat. B and D measures w
of inch in feet and parts of foot
.10 .095 .09 .085 .08 g. fluiaeq
Ipflual
lsunpue
MeaH'uI
Io
meaq
[ensn
iuopgiauwo—nqsdiofisuoadgl
71 to 90ft. 56 to 70 ft. 41 to 55 ft. 31 to 40 ft. 30lt.and under IO: ..1
Length of boat Length of boat Length of boat Length of boat Length of boat m g
\/ L + B. + D X Co. = M- measure in}Co. varies with L + B + 'D number. L, Band D g 5;
>il m
Inches and parts of lflCll to be measured In feet and parts of foot I -
u U)
: ... a ..
'snseuiag-g H 8 9 8° 8 8‘ 3‘ ‘65 22 3 8. fi 8 ‘6 8! 3 K" 0%
3 '5 '5 8 '0' 8 8 8 8 8 3 '5 8 '5 8 5 +n g
.. _. =9 a?
8888$§$8$%%ofifi‘&fifig§§?
II II II II ll ll ll ll II II ll || II II II ll 3 Z 9
0 I o I . - u I I I I I r

L C.» i» :1.» u m N N m N N N N 8 ~ ~ 59
o \I a s. o 00 \I ca m a u ~ ~ 0 no r...Z '
\/ L in feet X Co. for 76
Length=Rib
to 90 ft. spacing
71 to 75ft.
in inches56and
to 70
parts
ft. of inch.
51 to 55
Co.ft.varies with
25 toLength
50 ft. length
of boat | mo

1.6
_~—/ I.64 to 1.6
C___.Y___J 1.65
\—-_.,.-__a \ I.66 to
Y 1.7 L 1.7
j 4 39.
3

S Rib dimension X .8 = S of floor timbers—Use nearest % in. In 2.,”

M Keel dimension X .8 =Same
M ofHSfloor timbers—Use nearest ,‘4 in. Z
Sp'e I' -‘

Twice S measure of floor timbers = Thickness of Keelson for Boats 40 ft. and over. Keelsons can be I H 3!“
omitted from boats under 40 feet _._._g2:
M measure of floor timbers = Width of Keelson Boats 40 ft. and over 2 ing?
Floor timbers to be notched to receive Keelson, and Keelson notched to set over fioor'timbers. Fastenings w 53-81:?
, to go through floor timbers and into Keel for at least % depth :'<
l, v/ B + D X Co. = Thickness in inches}C0. varies with Length of Boat. B and D measured in feet and a a;
l. and parts parts of a foot ,
953 u
8! to 90ft. 71 to Suit. 61 to 70ft. 56 to 60ft. 51 to 55 it. 46 to 50 ft. 4x to 45 ft. 36 to 40h. 31 to 35ft. 20 to 30ft. 133:“ 85;
s—Y.__J
I ;.__y—_J
s \—~____/
n \ Ve k i
o v _, \_v—_J
n ;__f—J
I \__Yn___J
I 5W
I co.' g
(I =

a: a x: =2 s e a e. a o. 5,3. =~
S measure of Keel = Thickness in inches and parts of inch l >1 .uo 02-2121
B
(\/_L—+
+ D measures
B) X Co.
In
- feet
= Thickness
and partsI ofina inches}Co.
foot = Minimum
- - variesLength
with Length
of foundation
of . Boat.
timbers
. L and
In
. feet
B measured
and parts in
of feet
foot I if}:
“In
- 5"'"~<=-g3:01:
'-?

and parts and parts of a foot "1'. -< U

o
80 to 90 it. 70 to 79 ft. 55 to 60 ft. 45 to 54 ft. 35 to 44 It. 26 to 34 it. 20 to 25 it. 032’“;
Y a Y “—*—'-’ ‘ ' ——’ r _’ r 4 Co. i-F, E! Q
"“1. L.N ..—- :..
O 8' '8.» 3‘ “f, a"
9. as
(\/_L-+ D) X Co. = Width in inches} Co. = .4. L and D measured in feet and parts of a foot | gt, apgsino
lea);
pue
Same as Deck Clamps | "1 QKQCJ
Deck clamp width measure X .8 = Width in inches and parts of inch 2 0515:
115."; I
“a ”
Rib 5 measure X .8 = Measure in inches and parts of inch I In EU
I.8 times rib M measure = M measure in inches and parts of inch | Z 3
Same as Ribs | Sp'e E" r
Same as Planking I a I Decking
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
T411111: or SQUARE, Cumzs, SQUARE Roo'rs, Cum: Roo-rs AND TWO-THIRDS POWER 01-" NUMBERS
Squire Cube 2/310 Squirt: Cube 2/3HI
' Cube R001 R001 i'uwcr N01 Square Cube R001 R001 Power
8 1.4142 1.2599 1.58 32 6.724 5511368 90554 4-3445 1837
27 1.7321 1.4422 2.08 83 6.859 571.787 9-1104 43521 19-05
64 2.0000 1.5874 2.519 84 7.959 592.794 9.1652 43795 192
125 2.2361 1.7100 2.924 85 7.225 614.125 92195 48963 193!
216 2.4495 1.8171 3.302 86 7.396 636.056 9.2736 4.4140 19.45

512
343 2. 2 4
2.3438 2.0000
1.9129 4.00
3.659 g 7.744
7.569 1.472
258.593 9-3
9.332% 4-44
4.4359) 19
19.35
729 3.0000 2.0801 4326 89 7.921 791.999 9.4349 4.4947 1995
1,000 3.162(3) 2.1544 4.641 90 729.000 9.4868 4.4814 20_1
1, 31 .31 2.22 0 . 6 91 .2 I 753.57I 9-5394 4-49‘9 20.25
1,928 3.4641 2.2834 92 8.464 778.988 55917 4.5144 29.52
2,197 3.6056 2.3513 5ng gs 2.349) 394.357 9.2337 4.53% 29%
2.744 37417 2.4101 5. 4 1 3 30.5 4 9. 54 4.54 20.
3.375 3.8739 2.4962 6.082 95 9.925 857.375 9.7498 4.5929 20.81
4.096 4.0000 2.5198 6.349 96 91216 834.736 9-7930 4-5739 2095
4,913 4.1231 2.5713 6.611 97 9.499 912.673 9. 46947 21 1
5,832 4.2426 2.6207 6.868 98 9.994 941.192 98995 49194 21-25
£859 4.3589 2.6684 7.12 99 9.891 979.299 9.9499 4.226(1) 21-4
,000 44721 27144 7.363 100 10,000 1,000,000 10.0000 4. 41 21.54
9,261 4.5826 2.75 7.611 no 121100 1.331.000 104881 47914 22
10,648 4.6904 28020 7851 120 14.400 1.728.000 10-9545 4-9324 24-33
12'167 4.7958 28439 8087 130 16,900 2,197,000 11.4018 5.0658 25.66
13,324 43990 213345 8_320 140 19,600 2,744,000 11.8322 5.1925 26.96
x5,625
17.2750 5.0000
5.0090 2,9240
2.9625 8. 549
8.776 150
133 22,500
351% 3,375,000
413321333 12.2474
36131 5.313 7
242 28.23
293;
, .0000 . . 4. . 93 4 .'39 39
;? 952 30366 180 32.400 8,832,000 13.4164 5.6462 31.88
24:389 $3852 3 0723 9 439 190 361100 18591000 13-7840 5-7489 33-05
27,000 5 4772 3'1072 9'654 200 40,000 8,000,000 14.1421 5.8480 34.21
29 791 5.5678 3.1414 9555 219 44.199 9.261.999 144914 5.9439 35-33
32:768 56569 31748 10:08 220 48,400 10,648,000 14.8324 6.0368 36.44
35,937 57446 32075 1038 230 52,900 12,167,000 15.1658 6.1269 37_ 54
39,304 58310 32396 1049 240 57,600 13,824,000 15.4919 6.2145 38.62

42.875
6,6 6 5.9161
.0000 3.2711
. 1070
. gi'ggg
1 17.57
1516221000
.000 I122311151
~I24 21396
.3 25 40.74
39-68
20 6‘23 2 0828 g 1? $8 270 72,900 19,683,000 16.4317 6.4633 41.78
54’872
591319 6'1644
62450 3'3620
3:39” 1I 1:5
1‘30 280
290 78,400
84,100 21,952,000
24,389,000 16.7332
17.0294 6.5421
6.6191 42.80
43.81
54,000
68921 33246
6403, 34200
34482 I“'9
I7 399
310 99.999
96,100 27.999.999
29,791,000 17.3295
17.6068 6.6943
6.7679 4481
45.80
741088 64807 3:4760 12:1 320 102,400 32,768,000 17.8885 6.8399 46.78
79,507 65574 3.5034 12.27 33° 198.999 35.937.999 181659 69194 47.75
85 184 6 6332 3 5303 ,2 48 349 115.699 39,394,000 184391 69795 48.71
911125 67082 35569 12.65 35° 122'500 42'875'000 187083 70473 49-66
97.336 67,823 36830 1285 360 129,600 46,656,000 18.9737 7.1 138 50.61
103 823 68557 6088 1 0 37° 1369‘” 5016531000 192354 7"791 51-54
119.592 6.9282 3.6342 $.23 38° 1441400 54872999 190936 7.2432 52.46
117.649 7.0000 3.6593 13 4 3% 168100 89619300 237484 7323‘ 5338
- 4 .999 4.999999 9999 7-3 1 51.29
7-0711 3-6840 3'58 410 168,100 68,921,000 2012485 74290 55.19
140’608 723‘," 37°24 :375 420 176,409 74,088,000 29.4939 7.4889 56.08
148'877 7- 80 37365 3-93 430 184.900 79,507,000 29.7364 7.5478 56.97
157’464 7'2 81 3'75 3 14'“ 449 193. 85,184,000 20.9762 7.6059 57.85
‘66’375 7-3465 35598 I4-3 450 202,500 91,125,000 21.2132 ‘ 7.6631 5&7:
1 {35''616 7-4 332
7'48 3- 259
3's 30 I425
“"46 470
460 220,900
211.699 103,823,000
97.336999 21.6795
214476 7.7750
77194 60.45
59.59
I 5'193 784% 33485 14' 489 230,400 110,592,000 21.9089 7.8297 61.30
195.I12 7.6;;5 3. 709 14.98 490 240,100 117,649,000 22.1359 7.8837 6115
208.379 7‘ 8) 3-3930 15-15 500 250,000 125,000,000 22.3607 7.9370 62.99
216000 754 391649 15-33 510 260,100 132,651,000 22.5832 7.9896 63,83
228.9% 7.8102 3.93 5 15.88 520 270,400 140,608,000 22.8035 8.0415 6466
23 132 7' 74° 3-9579 15- 530 280,900 148,877,000 23.0217 8.0927 6549
2 2%44
259.947 82200
E7g-9373 4-0000
39791 121°
15-83 550
540 302,500
291,600 166,375,000
157,464,000 234521
23.2379 8.1932
8.1433 67.13
66.31
254132 8- 23 42°2°7 16'17 569 313,699 175,616,000 23.6643 8.2426 67.94
7.46 81549 4%" 16-35 579 324.999 185193.909 23.8747 82913 68.74
300.7 3 8-1 24 4-08I5 1 -5 580 336,400 195,112,000 24.0832 83396 6954

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343.000 88666 41213 16-98 610 372,100 226,981,000 24.6982 8.4809 51.9;
357'9“ 8426’ 4-‘4°8 "-15 629 384.499 238,328,999 248998 8-5270 72.71
373.243 814853 41602 17-30 630 396,900 250,047,000 25.0998 8.5726 7349
389.917 8.5449 4.1793 17-46 640 409,600 262,144,000 25.2982 8.6177 7426
405,224 8.6023 4.1983 17.67 650‘ 422,500 274,625,000 251495I 8-6624 75-03
421,875 8.6603 4.2172 17.8 660 435,600 287,406,000 2516905 8-7066 75-80
438.976 8.7178 4.2358 17-93 670 448,900 300,763,000 25. 8.7503 7657
456.533 3-7759 42543 18-1 680 462,400 314,432,900 26.0768 8.7937 77.33
474,552 883.8318 4.2727 18.25 690 476,100 323509900 26.2679 8.8366 78.08
4931039 83882 4- 1841 700 490.000 343,000,000 264575 8.8790 78.84
512.900 9443 +3229 18-55 710 504,100 357,91 1,000 26.6458 8.921 1 79.59
53I.441 9-0000 4-3 7 18.72 720 518,400 373,248,000 213-8323 8-9628 80.33
 Supplementary
Giving Additional Information about Measurement Rules and Formulae
Chapter 1-S
Drafting Instruments and Their Use
81. TOOLS REQUIRED BY A HULL DRAFTSMAN
I Ruling pen—About 5 inch.
I Plain dividers—About 5 inch.
1 Compasses—About 6 inches, with pen, pencil, and
needle points, also lengthening bar.
I Bow pen. About 3 inch.
1 Bow pencil. About 3 inch.
Bow dividers—About 3 inch.
HNNH T-Square.——\Vood, about 30 inches long.
Celluloid triangles, 45 degree.—6-inch and Io-inch.
Celluloid triangles, 30-60 degree.—6-inch and IO-inch.
Boxwood scale—12 inches long. Various scales.
Celluloid curves—Various shapes.
Celluloid splines—30 inches and 42 inches long.
.br-a Drawing board—About 23 by 32 inches or larger.
Or more lead weights—Can be made from pattern.
(See drawing.)
Waterproof drawing ink, pencils, erasers, pen, thumb
tacks.
1‘13. l-S
The Use of Drawing Tools
The Drawing Board is used for holding drawing
paper flat. (See Fig. 2-S.) The paper is tightly
stretched on board and fastened in place with thumb
tacks, one at each corner.
The T-Square.—The edge of T-square blade is used,
in manner shown on Fig. 2—S, for guiding pen, or pencil,
when drawing straight horizontal lines.
The head of square is held against left-hand edge of
board and upper edge of blade is used as a guide.
Remember that edges of board are generally straight
but they may not always be at right angles to each
other; therefore, do not attempt to use T—square blade
for the purpose of helping you to draw lines at right .
angles to each other.
The correct way to draw right angle lines is to use
blade of T—square as guide for horizontal line, and edge
of a triangle, held against blade of T-square, as guide for
the perpendicular line.
Triangles are used as guides when drawing oblique
and perpendicular straight lines. \Vhen using a triangle
it should be held firmly against uf>1>er edge of T-square
blade in manner shown on Fig. 2—S.
Bear in mind that the oblique edge of triangle should
always be to the right. Celluloid (transparent) triangles
are preferable to wood ones.
Curves are used as guides when drawing curves that
cannot be accurately drawn with compasses. Different
shapes of curves are needed by a marine draftsman.
Spline and Weights are used to help when drawing
long curved lines, such as water planes of boats. The
spline is bent to desired shape and held in position by
the weights. (See Fig. 2-S.) The weights have a pro—
jecting finger, or point, that can be rested on spline.
Weights must be placed in such a manner that the draw
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ing pen can be used and moved along spline without
touching the projections on weights.
When drawing a long curved line it is important to
have sufficient ink in pen to enable the whole line to be
drawn at one time without lifting pen or stopping it.
Ruling Pen is used for ruling lines. Ink is placed
between blades by means of another pen, or a quill, and
after lines are drawn the ruling pen must be wiped free
from ink and left .perfectly clean. Never let drawing
ink dry on the pen blades. Drawing inks rust steel very
quickly.
The blades of a drawing pen must be kept clean, free
from rust and sharp. A blunt pen, or one having rough
edges, or one with blades of uneven length, will not draw
lines of even thickness. _
The width of a line can be regulated by changing
opening between blades of pen. This is done by turning
the small adjusting screw placed on side of blades.
 94 NAVflL dRCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
When once the width is properly adjusted, do not Such drawings are called working drawings, and to
change it until all lines on drawing have been drawn. meet all requirements they must express all facts in re
To clean a pen use a piece of soft cloth or leather and gard to form, magnitude, and position of objects repre
clean inside of blades by passing cleaner between. sented. They must show figures in space yet the draw
If a pen gets dull sharpen it by rubbing points on a ing must be in one plane—that of the paper.
very fine grained oilstone. Such drawings are called projection drawings, or
Never try to wark with a dull pen. Orthographic projection drawings.
Compasses are used to draw circles that are too large 83. DESCRIPTION OF PROJECTION DRAWINGS
for the bow instruments. When using compasses the
needle point is attached to one leg, and the pen, or pencil, A projection drawing represents an object as it would
point to the other. The needle point is set firmly, by appear if the eye could be directly over each point of
pricking it through drawing paper, and the pen or pencil the drawing at the same time. A projection drawing
point is adjusted to stand square with surface of paper gives little or no idea of distance and represents the dis—
when compasses are opened the required distance. The tance in any direction on a plane surface squarely in
hand should describe the circle above the paper, care front of the observer.
being taken to keep pen or pencil point upright during the Projection drawings are nearly always made to show
whole revolution. views taken at right angles, and the sizes of parts ac
Adjusting and keeping the pen point clean is ex curately without foreshortening, as is usual in perspective.
plained under Ruling Pen heading. Fig. 3-S is a projection drawing.
The lead used in pencil point must be hard (about 6H)
and should be kept sharp and properly pointed. A piece . >12: 1 1. r» s mA -r 1' '
of 000 sandpaper or emery cloth is excellent for putting a N0 rg 1512 “wry 1391 E >
point on leads in compass points. W
Diz.1iders.—-These are used for transferring measure—
ments from one drawing to another, or from one part
of a drawing to another. Both legs of dividers are fitted
with pointed ends, or needle points, and when using
them one point is placed on one line and the other ad
justed to measurement or distance being measured.
Great care should be taken to get the center of points
exactly on lines or measurements, and also not to alter
adjustment when transferring from one drawing to
another.
Bow Pen, Pencil, Dividers—These are used in the
same manner as the larger compasses and dividers but,
being smaller, their usefulness is restricted to drawing
and measuring small circles and measurements. Bow
P15. 8-8
instruments are always fitted with adjustable points and
adjusting screws, therefore, very close adjustment can Prefiaring l/Vorking Drawings
be made. \Vhen a draftsman has to prepare working drawings
82. DRAWING PENCILS he first of all makes a general drawing, or drawings, to
You cannot make a clean, accurate drawing with a show the complete design with all parts in place. and
poor pencil. Pencils used for drawing must be good in from this drawing he obtains dimensions and shapes of
quality and should be drawing pencils. Ordinary lead the various parts. Two or more views of assembled
pencils will not do. parts are shown on the general drawing, and all measure—
Drawing pencils are made in many different degrees ments that cannot be given on detailed drawings of parts
of hardness, ranging from B, which is extremely soft, are plainly marked on general drawings.
up to 9H, which is extremely hard. For ordinary draw On general drawings multiplication of lines, and
ing 4H will be found excellent, and for drawings on dotted lines to indicate hidden parts that can be shown
which the lines are very fine, or closely spaced, a 6H on parts drawings, should be omitted.
will be best. Detail pencils are sometimes numbered Detailed Parts Drawings
from No. I up to No. 6. No. 6 is the hardest. These should show each part' and piece in sufficient
Drawing pencils should be sharpened to either a detail to enable a workman to reproduce the pieces and
needle point or to a very fine chisel point. there should be marked on them all necessary measure
For marine drafting I find the needle point best. ments and explanations. When necessary cross-section
Sharpen with a knife and then finish point with views should be shown on these drawings.
sandpaper 0r emery; It is necessary to place all measurements on detailed
parts drawings and to correctly indicate the points from
Working Drawings which measurements are taken.
Mechanical drawing is the art of making drawings For the purpose of avoiding confusion, the various
representing mechanical and architectural structures as lines used by a draftsman, such as cross-section, to in—
a whole and in detail so clearly and completely that dicate kinds of materials used, tapped holes, dimension
skilled workmen can make the structures exactly as they marks, threads, broken sections, etc., have all been
are intended to be, without any further directions than standardized and I will explain and illustrate a.number
those written on the drawings. of conventional lines.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED 05
84. CONVENTIONAL LINEs Broken Sections—Conventional methods of showing
These are shown on illustration 4—S. broken sections of beams, etc.
N0. I.—Is the ordinary line used for outlines and all Conventional Sectionings.—Sectionings adopted by
ordinary purposes. the U. S. Navy Department to illustrate on drawings the
No. 2.—Is the shade line used to show surfaces, or kind of material used.
edges, that are in shadow. * 85. LETTERING
No. 3.—Is the dotted line used chiefly to show details One of the most important features of a drawing is
obscured from view. the lettering placed thereon. Neatly executed and located
No. 4.—Is the dash line used mainly for dimension lettering will improve the appearance of any drawing.
lines? By lettering is meant the title, explanations, figures
N0. 5.—Is the dot and dash line used for center lines.
and remarks placed on a drawing. '
Measurement lines indicate points from which
The principal points to consider when lettering a
measures are taken. Dimension lines always should
begin and end exactly. Measurement lines are generally drawing are:
drawn as thin (faint) as possible, beginning from the Ist.—The location of lettering.
lines of drawing and extending a sufiicient length to 2d.—The size and style of letters.
permit dimension line to be marked well clear of all
drawing lines. AHCQ'EFGH/JkLNN'OP'QP'S'rL/MWX r2"
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Screw Threads.-——On Fig. 4-S are illustrations of con
ventional methods of showing screw threads on drawings.
The angle of thread indicates pitch and direction, whether
thread is right or left-handed.
TaPPed Holes.—Conventional methods of showing
tapped holes are also shown. The full line is drawn
depth of thread away from the broken line.
*In marine and mechanical drawing the appearance of a
drawing is much improved by taking into account the shadows
that would be cast by the sun if it were shining upon the object
in such a manner that the rays will come from above and from
the left at an angle of 45° with the horizontal and vertical.
Another use of shade lines is to indicate raised and depressed
surfaces. An example of this is shown on Fig. 4-S.
TOn Fig. 4-S dimensions and measurement lines are cor
rectly shown_
Dimension lines indicate lines along which dimensions are
taken. They should be drawn much lighter than lines of draw
ing-should never cross one another, and must always terminate
exactly at points where the measurement begins and ends, the
ends of lines terminating in a very sharp arrow point. (See
illustration.)
Dimension figures are always (if there is room) placed in a
blank space left at center of line. The figures (numerals) should
be plainly marked, the feet sign being represented by the letters
(Ft.) and the inches by the letters (In.). It is not good prac
tice to use the prime marks (’ and "). In case there is not
sufiicient room between arrow points to enter measurement
figures, they should be entered immediately above or below and
a light line drawn from the figures to blank space in line.
Fig. 5-8
Location of Lettering
No hard and fast rules can be laid down for this,
because the location of lettering must always be con
sidered with reference to each drawing and its details.
The following rules are safe ones:
A .—Before commencing to letter a drawing, decide upon
the amount of lettering you will have to place on
the sheet.
B.—Next locate the positions for principal lettering, such
as title, scale, description, keeping in mind the
necessity of locating this lettering so that the
drawing will have a balanced appearance. This
lettering should be larger than the descriptive let
tering.
C.—Next locate positions for all descriptive lettering and
measures.
D.—Mark all dimension lines first, then put in the figures,
and last of all put the descriptive lettering on
drawing.
E.—Never mark dimension lines in positions that will
cause confusion, or necessitate two dimension lines
crossing at right angles.
F. Always place explanatory lettering near to the part
of drawing it refers to and do not crowd the
lettering.
Title Lettering
This is the most prominent lettering placed on a
drawing and should clearly indicate these things:
The name of piece, or part shown.
The scale of drawing.
The name of firm, or designer.
The shop, or drawing numbers necessary to identify
drawing and part shown.
 90 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
The following rules are excellent ones to guide you
when lettering a title on drawings:
Place title lettering at top left-hand corner close in
side margin.
Place firm name immediately below title.
Place scale lettering and scale marks at lower left—
hand corner.
Place drawing and filing numbers at lower right—hand
‘ corner.
The Title lettering should be larger than the general
lettering and should be at least two times the size of
general lettering.
By title lettering is meant lettering that refers to
title of the drawing subject, firm’s name, drawing
numerals, etc.
By general lettering is meant the lettering that refers
to drawings and their details, dimensions, etc.
All figures should be the same size as the general
lettering.
Style of Lettering—For freehand lettering the
Gothic style is admirable. Either the vertical or sloping
letters can be used. The vertical style of letter is harder
to make accurately than the sloping.
The sloping letters are usually made to stand at an
inclination of 30° from upright. This is an advantage,
because the 30° side of triangle can be used for marking
the pencil guide lines.
Explaining Guide Lines—It is necessary that all
letters be uniform in height, stand at one angle, and be
spaced uniformly. To aid in doing this a draftsman
marks guide lines before he begins to letter a drawing.
These guide lines are marked in pencil and consist of
two sets of lines:
Ist.—The parallel lines drawn top and bottom of
letters for the purpose of aiding you to get all
letters on a straight line and to make them the
same height.
2d.—The inclined (or straight upright) guide lines
used for the purpose of helping you get the letters
to stand at the one inclination, and also to help
you get the letters spaced proper distances apart.
The guide lines are drawn with a soft lead pencil and
are marked before lettering. (See lines on upper line
of Fig. 5-S.) - held more upright than in writing.
I Spacing Letters—While the space between letters
must be regular, the space occupied by various letters
differs. The draftsman usually marks a few inclined
guide lines to help him get the letters to stand correctly,
and then spaces each letter by the eye alone. This is an
excellent plan for the experienced man but is likely
to be too difiicult for the learner. Therefore I suggest
that at first you try and space the inclined guide lines
proper distances apart for each letter.
The space between words should be at least twice
the letter spacing. Thus if letters are spaced %, inch,
words should be spaced y. inch. The space between lines
of letters should be about one-half the height of letters.
Figures should always be marked clear and legible.
Fractional measures should always be entered in the
manner fractions are marked, with a horizontal line divid
ing the upper and lower figures. Never use the inclined
line, thus: yz.
The following are good rules to keep in mind when
lettering freehand:
Ist.—The title lettering should be at least twice the
size of ordinary lettering on small drawings; and
proportioned to size of large ones.
2d.—All explanatory lettering should be one size and
one type.
3d.—-Locate lettering in positions adjacent to parts
of drawing it refers to, and at the same time try
to so arrange it that drawing will have a balanced
appearance.
4th.—Space letters evenly and the words a proper
distance apart.
5th.—Never letter freehand without first of all draw
ing guide lines, in pencil, top and bottom, of letter
size; and if you are in doubt about your ability to
keep letters at one inclination or spaced proper
distance apart, add guide lines to help you do
these things. No matter how skilled a draftsman
is he never letters without the aid of guide lines.
6th.—-The spacing of lines of lettering is usually about
one—half the height of letters.
7th.—Lines of lettering should always begin and ter—
minate evenly, and should, if possible, be placed to
permit all lettering to be read without turning the
drawing around.
86. Pans TO U51: FOR FREEHAND LETTERING
While nearly every draftsman has a preference of
his own, it will not be out of place to name some of the
pens that a number of draftsmen have found satisfactory
for general use.
A short stub, like Estabrook’s N0. 312.
A ball pointed pen.
A fine pointed pen like Gillott’s No. 170.
Many draftsmen use a short holder with either a cork
or rubber grip.
Holding the Pen
If a fine or a ball pointed pen is used the pen should
be held as in ordinary writing, except that it should be
If a stub pen is used it should be held in such a
manner that the side of pen is used for making all of
the down and up lines, and the horizontal ones should
be drawn without changing the position of pen. Thus
all horizontal lines will be drawn with the flat of pen
and show thicker than the vertical ones.
The pen should be held close to the pen point, with
thumb and forefinger, and steadied with the second
finger, then the down strokes of letters should be made
with edge of pen and all horizontal ones without chang
ing position. Thus the pen will make all letters without
any danger of your splashing ink.
One of the principal things to remember is to make
every letter rapidly and with firm, even pressure on pen.
Practice is all that is needed to make a good letterer.
 Chapter 2-S
Additional Measurement Rules
87. EXPLANATION OF SIMPsoN’s SEcOND RULE 88. SIMPSON’S TIIIRI) RULE
This rule can be used when the number of ordinates Sometimes called the Five-Eighth rule. This rule is
is not correct for the first rule. For this rule the num used to measure the area of a portion of a curvilinear
ber of intervals must always be 3 (four ordinates) or a figure contained between two consecutive ordinates.
multiple of three. Thus, the rule can be used when the In order to use the rule there must be three ordinates,
number of ordinates is an even number. 7 therefore, if you wanted to measure the portion of Fig.
You must, however, bear in mind that the multipliers 8 between ordinates N0. 6 and N0. 7 the ordinates N0. 5,
used for this rule vary with each change in the number 6, 7, must be measured, and then by using ordinate
of ordinates used. measures in the manner explained below the area of
If there are three intervals (four ordinates) the rule portion of figure between Nos. 6 and 7 ordinates is as—
and multipliers are: certained.
Rule—To the sum of the first and last ordinate Simflson’s Third Rule—T0 eight times the length of
measures add three times the sum of the length of ordi
the middle ordinate add five times the length of the near
nates No. 2 and No. 3, then add together and multiply end ordinate and then subtract the length of the far end
total by three—eighths of the common interval measure ordinate. Multiply the remainder by one-twelfth the in
ment.
terval between ordinates; : Area. It is very important
If, however, there are six intervals (seven ordinates) to name the ordinates correctly.
the rule is modified to permit the use of the multiplier 2
for the middle (N0. 4) ordinate; and if the number of The middle ordinate is always the center one of the
ordinates is increased to ten the multiplier 2 is used for three.
ordinates No. 4 and N0. 7; and if thirteen ordinates are The near end ordinate is always the one at the end of
used the multiplier 2 is used for ordinates Nos. 4, 7, 10. portion that is being measured. (See No. 7 below.)
Below I give in tabulated form the multipliers for each The far end ordinate is always the one that is furthest
number of ordinates: _ away from the portion that is being measured. (See
01d. Multiplier! Multipliers Multipliers No. 5 below.)
No. 7 0m. 10 om. 13 014.
I . . . . . .. . I . .. .. .. . I . .. .... . I Below I illustrate and calculate the area of a portion
2 . . . . . .. . 3 . .. .. .. . 3 . .. .... . 3 of Fig. 8—the portion between No. 6 and No. 7 ordinates.
3 . . . . . .. . 3 . .. .. .. . 3 . .. .... . 3
4 . . . . . .. . 2 . .. .. .. . 2 . .. .. .. . 2 N0_ 6 ordinate length is. 2.5
5 . . . . . .. . 3 . .. .. .. . 3 . .. .. .. . 3 N o t e.——In No. 7 ordinate length is... . 2.25
6 . . . . . . .. 3 . . . . . . .. 3 . . . . . . .. 3 all cases the No. 5 ordinate length is. 2.70
7 .. . .. .. . t . .... ... 2 . . . . . . .. 2 totals must be 2.5 x 8 = 20.00 Mid. Ord.
8 ... . . ... . .. .... . 3 . . . . . . .. 3 multiplied by %, 2.25 x 5 = 1125 Near Ord.
9 . .. . . .. . ... .. .. . 3 . . . . . . .. 3 the common in
IO . .. .. .. . . .... ... I . .. .. ... 2 terval. 31.25
II . .. .. .. . . .... ... ... ..... 3 Subtract .. 2.70
12 . .. .. .. . . .... ... ... ..... 3
13 . .. .. .. . . .. .. ... . .. . . . .. I _ 28-55
Interval is 4 feet; 1/12 = .33
Remarks
The Fig. 8 water plane in Chapter II is used to il Area 9.4215 square ft.
lustrate the second Simpson’s rule calculations, thus you Below I show the figure measured.
can compare results of the application of both rules.
The slight difference in totals is permissible when a
limited number of ordinates are used. The variation will
never exceed a few decimal points, and even this slight
\\ \ \ B
54»?
E/va
variation will be eliminated by introducing a greater
number of ordinates.
The more closely spaced ordinates are the more ac
curate the result will be.
SIMPsON’s SEcoNn RULE CALCULATION
\§.\\\§\s
\\
6
Simpson‘s Function
Multiplier Totals Fig. 6-8
. . . . . . . . . . .. I 0.00
. . . . . . . . . . .. 3 4.35
. . . . . . . . . . .. 3 6.75 89. CALCULATING AREA or FIGURE BOUNDED BY A
. . . . . . . . . . .. 2 5.20 CURvED LINE AND Two RADII
. . . . . . . . . . .. 3 8.10
. . . . . . . . . . .. 3 7.50
To measure the area of a figure like No. 7-S divide
. . . . . . . . - - .. I 2.25 the angle between bounding radii into an even number
of angular intervals by means of radii. Measure the
34.15
lengths of these radii, then square (multiply the measure
4 ft. Interval ag = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.5
by itself) each length, and using these squared lengths
Area = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51.225 as ordinate measures make a calculation in the manner
 98 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
shown below. The calculation is made by using a modii the circular measure of any angle is found by multiplying
fication of SimPson’s rule, the modification being: the number of degrees in it by .01745.
Ist.—The distance between ordinates is the angular Measuring Area of Irregularly Shapted Figures Having a
interval in circular measure. Baunding Line That Changes Its Shafie (Curve)
2d.—After the calculation figures are totaled, they Abruptly
are multiplied by one-half, in addition to the one—
When the curvature of the bounding line of a figure
third Simpson multiplier. The one-half multiplier
is used because the figure is triangular in shape. changes abruptly between ordinates its area cannot be
accurately measured by Simpson's rules unless the figure
(See Rule for Measuring Triangles.)
is divided into a large number of parts, or the spacing of
Explaining the No. 7-5' Calculation ordinates so arranged that the Portion of figure where
The angle between the bounding radii is 90°. By curvature changes will have a number of ordinates closely
dividing this into 15° intervals a correct number of or spaced.
dinates for the calculation is obtained. After the figure To closely space ordinates for the full length of a
is divided the length of the radii is measured and en long figure that has only a short portion of its bounding
tered into the proper column (headed Length of Radii). line abruptly curved and then make a calculation by using
These lengths are next squared and the squared figures at Simpson rule will entail a large amount of labor, the
are entered in the next column. Note: It is not necessary greater portion of which is unnecessary, because the area
to use more than one decimal. of such a figure can be accurately measured by using a
In the next column the regular Simpson rule multi— lesser number of ordinates, providing one or two of them
pliers are entered and in the last one the function of are spaced close together at the portion, or portions, of
squared lengths. figure where line changes abruptly. In other words, by
The figures in the function column are totaled and spacing ordinates at long intervals along the portion of
then multiplied by one—third the common interval in figure that is regular in shape and at close intervals where
circular measure and the result is multiplied by one-half.* the line changes abruptly, the area can be measured ac
The final figures give the area of the figure in the curately, and the amount of labor is greatly lessened. To
same terms as the measurements. explain this I have drawn illustration Fig. 8—S.
This rule is useful when measuring areas of wedge— The E1 part of the 8—S illustration shows an area
shaped plane figures that have a pronounced curved outer having a curved bounding line that changes shape abruptly
line. at one point. If you try to accurately measure this
If the curve is not too irregular the area of the figure figure by using one of Simpson’s rules and a limited
can be measured by dividing it into a triangle and a seg— number of ordinates spaced at regular intervals the re
ment of a circle, and calculating the area of each sepa— sult obtained will be very inaccurate, proof of which
rately, then adding totals. is given by means of illustrations E1, E2, E3, and ex
planations hereafter given.
90. REMARKS ON CIRCULAR MEASURE
The illustration E‘ shows a figure that we will meas
A degree is the unit employed when measuring angles.
ure by using five evenly spaced ordinates, making the
A circle is divided into 360 parts by drawing radii from
calculations by using Simpson’s first rule.
the center point to the circumference line. Each of these
parts is termed a degree. The black and shaded portions are marked on figure
An angle being the space near the point where two for the purpose of proving that measurement obtained
radial lines meet to measure an angle it is necessary to by making this calculation is inaccurate.
know the number of degrees contained between the lines. The ordinate measures and complete calculation are
The circular measure of one degree is .01745, therefore, as follows:
/
0rd. 5
*To multiply by one-half you can either multiply by .5 or No. Length M Product
you can divide by 2. I ........ 1.66 . .. .. .. . I ........ 1.66
2 ........ 2.00 . . . . . . .. 4 ........ 8.00
3 . .. .. .. . 2.20 . .... .. . 2 . .. .... . 440
. we: 4
5
. .... .. .
... . . . . .
1.75
0.00
. .. .. .. .
... .. .. .
4
1
. .... .. .
. .. .. .. .
7.00
0.00
0 25.20 Io.24 l 10.24
~ 21.06
15° 2.55 8.12 4 32 45 One-third mterval“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I
50" 280 784 2 15.€8
Area = 21.06 square feet.
45' 250 784 4 51 36 *Interval is 3 feet between ordinates.
60° 285 5.12 2 16.24 This total, 21.06, is without doubt greater than the
actual area of figure, as an examination of the black and
75° 3.04 9.24 4 56.96
shaded portions will prove.
The 90' 3,20 1a24. l 1024
Explanation of Black and Shaded Portions of Figure
x o l 155.20
MULTIPLY BY fig I5°ClRCULAR M = 0.08725 The heavy line indicates outline of figure and on it is
lass marked, also in heavy lines, the ordinates used for cal
g— "1’— 0.08725MEASURE = 0.26/75
l5°CIRCULAR culation.
The dash lines drawn parallel with ordinates indicat:
_ AREA 11~1 saves. Fl'.
divisions of figure into Simpson’s multiplier units—I, :,
Pig. 7-S 2, 4, I.
 NHVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED 99
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Ordinate numbers are marked below base line, the
interval being 3 feet. - parent that 2.20 feet is too large for these two units.
As the length of figure is 12 feet and the total of all
Simpson’s multipliers used in the calculation is 12, it is
apparent that each unit of the Simpson’s multiplier total
represents one foot of the length of figure. Bearing this
in mind, I will proceed to explain and prove that the cal
culated area is too great. The No. I ordinate length is
1.66 foot. This is supposed to be the length of each end
of the first unit of the figure (1 foot of its length in
this case) and by drawing a line, parallel to base, from the
point of No. I ordinate t0 the first unit of length mark
a portion of the figure (shown in black) is cut 05. This
Portion is the area of the first unit lost by the calculation.
Next we take the No. 2 ordinate. Its length is 2.00 feet
and f0ur units of length are supposed to be exactly the
length of the No. 2 ordinate (the Simpson multiplier for
No. 2 ordinate is 4). By drawing a parallel line from
the No. 2 ordinate point to include the four units of
length we find that the line cuts off a portion of two
of the units (the black portion) and adds a portion to the
others (the shaded portion). As these portions are about
equal it can be said that the four units of length covered
by the No. 2 ordinate measurement are accurately
measured.
The No. 3 ordinate length is 2.20 feet and two units
of length are supposed to be of this length. A parallel
line drawn from the point of N0. 3 to cover the neces
sary two units falls outside the figure, therefore, it is ap
The N o. 4 ordinate covers four units of length and the
parallel line shows that a much greater area is gained
than lost (compare the black and shaded portions); it,
therefore, is apparent that the area of this portion of the
figure should be less than the figures.
The No. 5 ordinate has no measure and it is apparent
that the area enclosed by the last unit of length is all lost
when making the calculation.
If you will now compare the black with the shaded
portions you will readily see that a larger area is gained
than is lost (the shaded portions cover a larger area than
the black ones), and it is evident that the gain has oc
curred at the part of figure near to the No. 4 ordinate—
at the Portion of the figure where the curve changes.
By using a very large number of ordinates the in
accuracy of calculation will disappear, and for the pur
pose of proving this I have drawn Fig. E2.
Explaining E2 Illustration and Calculation
This is the same shaped figure as E1 but it is divided
more closely, thirteen ordinates being used. The interval
between ordinates is 1 foot and each Simpson’s multi
plier represents 4 inches of length.
Length of figure expressed in inches is . . . . ..144 144+
Total of all Simpson’s mutlipliers . . . . . . . . . .. 36 36:4
The complete calculation follows:
IOO NflVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
CALCULATING THE AREA or E2 av Usmo THIRTEEN ORDINATES If full interval is subdivided into two parts, the or
Product
dinate mutlipliers for the subdivided portion are reduced
I ..... ... 1.66 one-half; and in the event of the subdivision being into
2 . . . . . . .. 7.00 quarters, the multipliers are reduced to one-quarter of the
3 . . . . . . .. 3.66 proper number.
4 . . . . . . .. 8.00
5 . . . . . . .. 4.18 The ordinate multipliers for the portion of figure not
(i . . . . . . .. 8.48 subdivided are not changed.
7 . .. .. . .. 4.40
8 ... .. . .. 8.64 I will explain the reduction of multipliers by making
9 ... .. . .. 4.04 tabulated charts of the Fig. E‘ and E“ ordinates.
10 ... .. ... 700
II . .. .. . . . 2.00
Compare the charts and note the way the subdivided
12 . . . . . . .. 1.20 multipliers are reduced.
13 . . . . . . . . 0.00 The E1 figure has five ordinates and is divided into
36 60.26 regular full intervals for its entire length, therefore, the
Interval is 1 foot; X; = .333 ordinate multipliers are the regular full interval multi
pliers for the Simpson’s first rule.
Area = 20.086 square feet.
This is less than the total obtained by the E1 calcula ORDINATE CHART FOR THE F10. E1. FULL INTERVAL OanmArrs
FOR FULL LENGTH
tion and you will note that the black and shaded portions
Ordinate number . .... 1 2 3 4 5
of the figure about balance each other. We, therefore
1 4 1
can say, that by using Simpson’s first rule and dividing 1 4 I
figure into twelve intervals, an accurate measurement of Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 2 4 1
figure can be made. For the E3 which has a subdivided interval between
The use of such a large number of ordinates entails
3 and 4 ordinates, the multipliers are:
a great deal of work and an examination of figure shows
Ordinate numbers .. I 2 3 ' 3% 4
that close spacing of ordinates is not really necessary
until portion of figure lying between No. 4 and No. 5 1 4 1
111 12 *2 1" I//_,
ordinates is reached (the No. 4 and No. 5 of E‘). It, Multipliers are . . . . . 1 4 1% 2 V2
therefore, is apparent that if Simpson’s rule could be *Subdivided.
modified in such a manner that ordinates could be spaced In the tabulation I have divided multipliers into blocks
closely at one part of a figure and widely at another, the of three, the point of division being at the 2 multipliers.
area of a figure like E1 c0uld be accurately measured with
out it being necessary to use such a great number of The 2 multiplier is set down as I and 1, because one
half of it belongs to the portion of figure ahead and the
ordinates.
Such a modification of the rules can be made and the other half to the portion aft of ordinate against which
Fig. E3 is drawn to illustrate the way this modification the 2 is placed. Therefore, when reducing multiplier
is made, the rule being named Simpson’s rule for measur figures because of subdivided intervals remember to re
ing when ordinates are placed at subdivisions of intervals. duce the part of the 2 multiplier that belongs to the sub
divided portion of the figure in exactly the same propor
91. To MEAsURE AN AREA BY SIMPSON’s RULES WHEN tion that the other multipliers are reduced.
ORDINATES ARE PLACED AT SUBDIVISIONS OF Another important thing to remember is: The sub
INTERVALS dividing ordinate (first one) must always be introduced
First divide the entire figure and erect ordinates at immediately after a 2 (whole) multiplier. The Fig. E2
regular full intervals. The number of ordinates spaced has one subdividing ordinate introduced between 3 and
at full intervals must be less than the number required 4 ordinates. This makes the interval for that portion of
for the rule by a total equal to the number of subdividing figure a half-interval. Therefore, the multiplier for the
ordinates you intend to use. 3% ordinate is reduced one-half (from 4 to 2) but only
Number these full interval ordinates from 1 up. the portion of the 3 multiplier that belongs to the after
Next erect the subdividing ordinates, placing them to (subdivided) part of figure is reduced, thus making the
subdivide the desired full intervals into equal parts and No. 3 multiplier 1% instead of 2.
using a sufficient number to make the total number of
The 4 ordinate multiplier is also reduced one-half as
ordinates correct for the rule used.
all of it belongs to the subdivided portion of figure.
Number the subdividing ordinates to correspond with
the subdivision of the full interval. Thus, supposing one The multipliers are tabulated.
subdividing ordinate is used between two full interval Now suppose that in place of introducing one half
ordinates, the subdividing ordinate must be placed mid— interval ordinate we introduce twO——0ne between 3 and 4,
way between full ordinates and numbered V2, thus in and one between 4 and 5.
dicating that the subdividing ordinate is one-half of a The multipliers would then 'be:
full interval from regular ordinates. Ordinate numbers 1 2 3 3% 4 4% 5
If three subdividing ordinates are placed between full 1 4 1
interval ordinates their numbers must be %,, V2, y, with % 2 V:
the addition of the proper full interval number. V: 2 %
The method of measuring and making the calculation Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 4 1% 2 1 2 34
is identically the same as in a usual Simpson’s rule cal The part of 2 ordinate multiplier that belongs to the
culation, except that the multipliers used for ordinate subdivided portion is reduced, but inasmuch as there are
measures at subdivided portion of figure are reduced to subdivided intervals both ahead and aft of the 4 ordinate
correspond with the subdivision. both portions must be subdivided.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED [0]

A study of the tabulation will enable you to grasp the tions; and the second to find the volume. This method
meaning of the method. of procedure is followed in this calculation, but instead
The following is the calculation to find the area of of using the actual ordinate length measurements for the
E3 by using a subdividing ordinate placed between No. area part of calculation, the figures used are the ordinate
3 and No. 4: lengths squared. (To square a number you multiply it
Ord.
by itself.)
No. Length Product
The calculation can be made by measuring either the
I . .. ... . . . 1,66 radial planes, or by measuring the wedge-shaped sections,
2 . .. .. .. . 8.36
3 . . . . . . .. 3.03 and using the areas for the volume part Of the calculation.
3’; . . . . . . . . 2.00 As there is a slight difference in the method of mak
4 . . . . . . .. 0.00 ing the calculations, I will explain in detail how to cal
15.05 culate the volume by using radial plane areas, and after
Interval is 4 feet X; = 1.333 wards I will explain how to calculate volume by using
section areas.
Area = 20.066 square feet.
illeasuring Volume of Fig. 26 by Using the Radial Plane
No change in the one-third multiplier figures is Areas
necessary. . _
First find the areas of the radial planes by measur
The total, 20.066 square feet, is very close to total ing the ordinate lengths and squaring each measurement.
obtained by using thirteen ordinates and the amount of Enter these squared length measures as ordinate measure
work is very much less. A comparison of the black and ments and multiply each by its proper Simpson multi
shaded portions of E1,. shows that the lost and gained plier. The total of these multiplied squared lengths must
areas balance one another very closely. \Ve therefore then be multiplied by one-third the common interval
can say that the calculation determines the area closely. between ordinates. One-half of this total will be the
Explaining One—Quarter Interval Subdividing Multipliers figures to use for the second, or volume part of the
If it is necessary to introduce sub-ordinates at X; in calculation. (The figures are halved because the planes
tervals, or to introduce three sub-ordinates between No. 3 are a part of a triangular figure.) (See Measuring Area
and NO. 4 ordinates of Fig. E3 the ordinate numbers and of Triangle.) Each plane is measured in this manner
their proper multipliers are: and then the second, or volume part of calculation can be
Ordinate N0. . I 2 3 3% 3% 3% 4
made.
I 4 I When calculating volume, in the first, or ordinate
% I % column, is entered the angle of inclination each plane
A 54 I ‘A makes; in the second column is entered the total obtained
Multipliers . . . . . . I 4 1% 1 1/2 1 M; by making the radial plane area calculations in the manner
The subdivision is %, of a full interval, therefore, explained above; in thelhird column the usual Simpson
the reduction is to 1/i of the full interval multipliers, multipliers are entered, and in the fourth the product of
at the portion where sub-ordinates are introduced. the figures. The total of the product column figures
Always remember that the total number of ordinates multiplied by one-third 0f the angular interval between
after sub-ordinates are introduced must be proper fOr planes will be the volume of the wedge.
the rule selected, and that the multipliers must always Below I give complete calculations made to determine
follow in correct rotation. Thus: the volume of wedge—shaped portion of Fig. 26, this cal
Ordinate No. . . . . . . 1 2 3 3% 3% 3% 4 culation being made by first determining the areas of the
Rotation be fore 1 4 2 4 2 4 I radial planes and then using the radial plane areas for
reduction. ' the volume portion of the calculation.
92. EXPLAINING WAY TO MEASURE VOLUME OF A ~ CALCULATION TO FIND THE AREA OF THE EMERGED 20° RADIAL
WEDGE-511 APED PORTION OF AN IRREGULAR BODY PLANE or F10. 26
SucH As THE CRoss-LINED PORTION or Ord. Length Square of 5 Function
N0. 0rd. 0rd. Length M at Squares
FIG. 26 (CHAPTER IV) l . . . .. . . 01D . .. . . . . 0.00 . . . . . .. I . . . .. . . 000
Parts like this are called wedges of immersion and 2 . . . . . .. 1.12 . . . . . .. 1.25 . . . . . .. 4 . - . . . .. 5.00
emersion; meaning by this the wedge-shaped portion of 3 . . . . . .. 1.75 3.06 . . . . . .. 2 . . . . . .. 6.12
4 . .. .... 2.00 . . . . . .. 4.00 4 . . . . . .. 16.00
a boat that emerges from, or is immersed in water as she 5 . . . . . .. 1.92 . . . . . .. 3.68 . . . . . .. 2 ..... .. 7.36 '
inclines sideways (transversely). 6 1.50 . . . . . .. 2.25 . . . . . .. 4 . .... .. 9.00
7 . . . . . . . 1.00 . . . . . . . 1.00 . .. . . . . I . .. .. . . 1.00
The calculation is made by using one of Simpson’s
rules, therefore, the first thing to do is to divide the _ 44 .48
figure into a correct number of equally-spaced sections Interval IS 3 feet K; 2 t
and radial planes for a Simpson's rule calculation. I
have divided the figure into seven sections spaced 3 feet _ 44-48
One-half
square feet. of the. total 15 22.24 = i Area of radial plane in
apart, and into three radial planes* spaced 10° in circular
measure apart.
The area of the 0° and the 10° radial planes are
I have already explained that the calculation for a made in a similar manner. It is not necessary to give
volume consists of two separate and distinct calculations,
detailed figures. The totals are: 10° plane 2 26.92; 0°
the first to find the area of either the planes or the sec plane I 33.67.
*Planes radiating from a common center point are termed Using these figures the second part of the calculation
radial planes. is made in the manner shown below.
I 02 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
CALCULATION To DETERMINE THE VOLUME or EMERGED WEDGE The calculation explained in Chapter 3 determined the
Angle Function Product position of the center point of plane relative to one
Of of S for
Incline Totals M Volume selected point. A selected ordinate.
0° . .... . 33.67 . . . . .. 1 . ..... 33.67 In case of L.W.L. planes of boats we know that both
10° . .. .. . 2692 . ..... 4 . .... . 107.68 sides, or the halves each side of the longitudinal center
20° . . . . .. 22.24 . .... . I . .. .. . 22.24
line, are alike and therefore no further calculation is
. _ 163.59 necessary because we know that the center point must
One-third angular interval = 00581" lie on line drawn through the center of plane longitudi—
nally. But in case it is necessary, as it sometimes is, to
9.504 cubic feet volume.
find the center point of the half—plane that is one side of
‘IO° is the angular interval. The circular measure of 10° the longitudinal center line, like the half-plane Fig. 8,
is .1745. One-third of this = _0581.
then an additional calculation must be made for the
Therefore, the volume of emerged wedge portion of purpose of determining the location.
figure is 9.504 cubic feet as determined by first calculat This calculation is made in the following manner:
ing the areas of the radial planes and using the plane
areas for the second part of the calculation.
Square the ordinate lengths and enter one-half of the
squared lengths as ordinate measures for this calculation.
I will now explain and illustrate the way to determine Then by using these half-squared lengths as ordinates
volume of the same wedge by first of all calculating areas make a Simpson's rule calculation in the ordinary way.
of the section wedges and then using these areas for Then if the total of products of half—squares of lengths
the volume portion of calculation. is multiplied by one-third the common interval between
You will note that the final figures are almost exactly the ordinates the moment of the figure relative to the
the same as those obtained by making the other calcula center longitudinal line is ascertained. This moment,
tion. ' divided by the area of the half-plane, will give distance
CALCULATING VOLUME OE EMERGED WEDGE BY USING WEDGE the C.G. point of half-plane is out from the center longi
SECTION AREAS tudinal line. Below I give a complete calculation to de
No. I being the face of stem has no area, therefore it is termine the point for the half-plane shown on Fig. 29
entered as 0.00. illustration.
AREA CALCULATION OF No. 2 WEDGE SECTION CALCULATION TO FIND TIIE C.G. POINT TRANSVERSELY or
Ord. Length of Square of S HALF-PLANE 1:16. 8
No. Radii Lengths M Product
Ord. Length of Hall-Square 5 Products of
0° 1,25 1.56 I 1.56 No. On]. 0! ()rd. M Halt-Squares
10° 1.12 1.25 4 5.00 000 0.00 I 0,00
20" 1.12 1.25 I 1.25 2 1.45 1.05 4 4.20
3 2.25 2.53 2 5.06
_ _ 7.81 4 2.00 3.38 4 13.52
One-third angular Interval = .0581 5 2.70 3.65 2 730
0 2.50 3.14 4 12.56
. . 453 7 225 2.53 1 2.53
Multiplier for half-squares = .5 *
_ ‘ 45-17
Area of wedge section No 2 .226 square feet. One-third interval = 1.33
*The same result is obtained as if total were divided by 2.
60.22 moment
Areas of other sections are calculated in like manner. Moment 60.22 ‘
I Will not give detailed calculations because it is not = 1.17 foot distance that C.G. of half-plane is
necessary to do so. Area 51.133 out from the longitudinal plane.
The areas are as entered below. Now as the C.G. is 13.38 feet aft of No. 1 ordinate
Using the area figures the volume is determined by (ascertained by calculation in Chapter 3) we can say
making a calculation in the following manner: that the C.G. point of the half plane is located at a point
that is 13.38 feet aft of No. 1 ordinate and 1.17 foot out
VOLUME OE WEDGE BY USING SECTION AREAS
from longitudinal plane. '
Ord. Section 5
No. Area M Product
1 . . . . . . .. 0.00 . . . . . . .. 1 0.00
2 ....... . 0.226 . . . . . . . . 4 ........ 0.904
3 . . . . . . .. 0.503 . 2 . . . . . . .. 1.186
4 ........ 0.848 . . . . . . . . 4 ........ 3.392
5 . .. .... . 0.828 . . . . . . .. 2 . .. ..... 1656
4311
4H90H0
374/35
~/
6 ... .. .. . 0.583 . . . . . . . . 4 . . . .. ... 2.332
7 ... ..... 0.041 . . . . . . .. 1 ........ 0.041

Total Of products = 9.511

One-third interval = .1 *

Volume Of wedge portion = 9.511 cubic feet. .m

*The interval between sections is 3 feet. iNn

93. To FIND THE C.G. POINT TRANSVERSELY OF A HALE

WATER PLANE 024 b a *0 14.». 15 z.
The distance transversely means the distance it is out 6:54! raw 'Ews 25¢ I \c~ 1~ Toss
from the longitudinal center line. 1‘15. 9-8 and 12~S
 NAVAL dRCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
94. REMARKS ABOUT DISPLACEMENT CALCULATIONs 0F
PLEASURE AND CARGO BOATs
Calculations to determine the displacement and
L.W.L. of boats designed for pleasure purposes are
nearly always made for the purpose of ascertaining the
L.W.L. when boat is fully equipped and ready for use.
There being no variable cargo or weights to be added
this water-line will be the deepest such boats are likely
to be immersed to.
Of course the displacement weights must include all
weights on board, inclusive of crew, a reasonable number
of passengers, full load of fuel, stores and supplies.
In boats used for commercial purposes no fixed load
water-line is used and for this reason it is usual and
necessary to determine'the displacement to more than
one L.W.L., or to a water-line that will indicate the line
to which the boat will float when she is ready to take on
cargo, and the line to which she will float when loaded
with the heaviest cargo she is designed to carry.
These two extremes are termed the light and the
heavy load water-lines and the distance between them in
dicates the immersion, or the displacement due to cargo.
It is a valuable indication of the cargo-carrying capacity
of boat.
95. A CURVE 0F DISPLACEMENT
In boats and vessels designed to carry cargo the
draught of water will continually vary, owing to the
different weights of cargo carried, and as it is desirable to
have some means of determining the displacement to any
named draught of water, between the lightest and the
heaviest, a curve of displacement is laid out and by
using this curve in the manner explained below the dis
placement to any draught of water can be quickly ascer
tained without making any further calculations.
How to Lay Out a Curve of Displacement
By using one of Simpson’s rules the volume and dis
placement of the underwater portion of the vessel is
carefully calculated to several water-lines. It is usual
to use the planes marked for the volume calculation.
After the displacement calculations have been made
a sheet is prepared by marking off, at right angles to
each other, horizontal and vertical scales in the manner
shown on Fig. 9-S.
The vertical scale is evenly divided into spaces to
indicate inches, or feet Of draught, beginning at the
bottom with zero and continuing up to the greatest
draught of water the boat will sink to when loaded to
her load displacement.
The horizontal scale is evenly divided into spaces to
represent tons, or pounds, beginning at the point of junc
tion of the two scales and extending up to the heaviest
load displacement.
Having markedthe scales, the curve of displacement
can be laid out.
The distance each water-line, to which you have cal
culated displacement, is above keel is measured on the
vertical scale and lines drawn from the points across the
sheet.
Next from the horizontal scale, at each displacement
weight ascertained by making the calculations, vertical
lines are drawn to meet the horizontal lines.
The points of meeting of the vertical and horizontal
lines for each weight and its proper draught Of water
will give a series of points for a curve, and if you will
103
draw a curved line to cut all of these points a proper
curve of displacement for the boat will be laid out.
If the calculations have been accurately made the
curve will be a fair line from end to end.
After the curve is drawn the displacement to any
named draught, between the light and heavy L.W. lines,
can be ascertained by drawing a horizontal line from the
mark on scale that represents the named draught until
it touches the curved line, and then by drawing a vertical
line from this point until it touches the displacement scale
the displacement for the named draught of water can be
ascertained.
It is not necessary that the interval marks on top
scale be the same as those on the vertical one. Any
convenient interval can be used, providing all marks on
a scale are the same distance apart.
The measurements for both scales begin at the point
of junction of the scales.
On all displacement curves it is necessary to mark
scales and measurements clearly, because it is some
times necessary to determine displacement, or draught to
some intermediate point on the scale.
When estimating displacement from a curve or dis—
placement remember that the displacement taken from
curve is accurate only as long as the boat, or vessel, is
floating parallel to the plane of displacement the calcula
tion is made to.
1i 'i n 'i Luau
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Ie
:\ 1 -_::i-.~r~-> quvg i-..;~ an; ear JL‘~‘
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Fig. 9-3
96. EXPLAINING THE REAsON FOR DIFFERENCE IN A
BOAT’s DRAUGHT OF WATER WHEN MOVED FROM
SALT To FREsH WATER
Sea water is denser (heavier) than fresh and there- '
fore a stated volume weighs more than the same volume
of fresh water.
The difference in weight is about 1% lb per cubic
foot of bulk.
Salt water weighing 64 lb, and fresh water 62% lb.*
It is therefore necessary to know when designing a
boat whether she will be used in salt or in fresh water
and to make the calculation accordingly.
If the boat is to be used in salt water the displace
ment must be calculated in tons of 35 cubic feet, and if to
be used in fresh water the calculation is made in tons of
36 cubic feet.
*These are the figures used by naval architects and are
correct Within reasonable bounds of accuracy.
i
 Chapter 3-S
Explanation of Terms Used by Naval Architects
97. EQUlLIBRIUM
Stable Equilibrium
Means equality of weight, power, or force.
A solid is said to be in stable equilibrium for a given
direction and angle of inclination if, on being inclined in
that direction and to the named angle, it tends to return
to the original position of rest.
Unstable Equilibrium
A solid is said to be in unstable equilibrium for a
given direction and angle of inclination if, on being in—
clined in that direction and to the named angle, it tends
to move further away from the original position of rest.
Neutral Equilibrith
A solid is said to be in neutral equilibrium for a given
direction and angle if, on being inclined 'in that direc—
tion and to the named angle, it tends to neither move
further away from or to return to the original position
of rest. To explain these definitions I have made the
following illustrations:
- s
NEUTRHL STfiBl-E
1‘18. 10-S
This illustration shows solids, wheels or pulleys, made
of homogeneous material. The center of gravity of the
pulley A is located at the center point of the pulley but
B having been weighted with some lead placed at X has
its center of gravity point located at the point marked
C.G.
If the weighted pulley is placed on a shaft and turned
so that its C.G. point is immediately below the center of
the shaft the pulley will be in stable equilibrium, which
can readily be proved by using force to cause the pulley
to revolve until its C.G. point has moved to XX. If the
pressure is now removed the pulley will immediately
return to its original position of rest with its C.G. point
below shaft. Now turn the weighted pulley on the shaft
until its C.G. point is immediately above the center of
the shaft and then exert sufficient pressure to turn its
C.G. point to XXX. Now release the pulley and you
will find that it will not return to its original position
with C.G. above shaft but will move further away and
revolve until its C.G. point is immediately below the
shaft, thus proving that when the C.G. point is above
shaft the pulley is in unstable equilibrium. Now remove
the weighted pulley and place the unweighted one on the
shaft. You will find that any pressure exerted on the
unweighted pulley will cause it to revolve on the shaft
and when the pressure is removed the pulley will remain
stationary, thus proving that when the C.G. point and
the center of shaft coincide the pulley is in neutral
equilibrium.
The foregoing remarks prove that when an object
is suspended in air the relative positions of the C.G.
and [mint of suspension determines whether it is stable,
neutral or unstable. To be stable when suspended in the
air, the portion of object below the point of support must
be heavier than portion above it.
\Ve therefore can say that if we substitute a boat for
our pulleys and support it, clear of ground, on pivots
placed at each end of boat at the L.W.L. position it will
remain in an upright position providing the weight of
portion below the pivots is heavier than portion above.
Such an experiment, however, will not tell us whether
the boat will remain upright when she is placed in water,
because an object floating freely in water is subjected
to influences that do not act on objects supported, or
suspended, in air.
A boat, or object, suspended in air is acted upon by
gravity alone and the location of the C.G. point relative
to the supporting point determines whether the boat, or
object, will remain upright or topple over and tum
bottom up.
When a boat is afloat in still water the down pressure
(or pull) of weight continues to act in the same manner
that it acted on land, but as the portion of boat in water,
now receives support from the surrounding water a new
force, the upward support of the water, has to be con
sidered before we can determine whether the boat is
stable, neutral, or unstable, and it is the location of the
center of this upward support (called center of buoyancy)
relative to the surface of water and the center of the
boat’s weights (called center of gravity) that determines;
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
a boat’s stability when upright or when inclined to any
angle.
The power. that keeps a boat upright and stable when
afloat is the stability that the up-support of water on the
form of the boat imparts to the structure.
When a boat is afloat in an upright position the up—
ward support of the water centers at the center point of
the immersed bulk (called centers of buoyancy) and the
down pressure of the weights centers at the center of
gravity point of all the weight (called .C.G). These
forces are exact and equal and are equally proportioned
each side of keel, or center line of boat, and will con—
tinue so as long as there is no pressure exerted to force
the boat out of her upright position. But just as soon
as pressure, or force, is exerted on one side, or at one
end of boat, she will incline away from the pressure and
in doing this a portion of boat immediately above the
water, on the side or end furthest from pressure, will
become immersed and an equal sized portion on the op
? -C. LIN F R771 N l“!
Qwr' zm-V/v Q-G LINE
c c.‘ c‘
6 c 6 And this is the moment necessary to alter trim one
Mat; MC
MHQLE Q'G‘INE tea»: 9
NOTE THAT QGQ
Q'ZTHHN ‘; act/v5
Fiaovs /"-§ POINT
Fig. 11-5
posite side will emerge from the water. This, of course,
changes the shape of the underwater body and causes the
center of the tip-water support (the C.B.) tomove to
wards the side or end furthest from the pressure and thus
increases the tip-support on the side, or end, to which the
boat is inclining. This increase of support will, if suffi
cient, prevent the boat from utisetting and will tend to
cause her to return to the upright when the inclining
pressure is removed.
98. MOMENT To TRIM
Means the weight times distance necessary to alter
the trim, or line of flotation, of a vessel. The calcula
tion is made in the manner explained.
105
Change of Trim
By trim is meant the difference between the draught
Of water forward and aft. Thus a vessel floating to a
draught of IO feet forward and II feet aft is said to
trim I foot by the stern. It is possible to calculate the
weight necessary to change the fore—and-aft trim of a
boat, or vessel, and as a knowledge of this is valuable,
especially when stowing cargo, I will explain how to
make this calculation.
If a vessel is floating on an even keel (drawing the
same amount of water forward and aft) and it is de
sired to make her trim I foot by the stern, the easiest
way to do this would be to move some of the weight on
board until she trims in the desired manner. Unless the
amount of weight that must be moved is known the trans
fer would be a lengthy one, but if the amount of weight
required to be moved is known the transfer could be
quickly and accurately made.
It is usual to calculate the weight necessary to trim
I inch, the weight being the product of weight and dis
tance, for it stands to reason that I ton moved 50 feet will
have the same effect as 50 tons moved I foot.
To change trim I inch—called moment to alter trim
I inch—is done by moving a named amount of weight
a certain distance, the formulae for ascertaining the
amount of weight being:
Displacement in tons, or pOunds X longitudinal GM.
Length on L.W.L. X 12
=Moment to trim I inch.
G.M. being the vertical distance between C.G. and
M.C. points.
Or the formula 132 on page 108 can be used.
Below I make a calculation to determine the moment
necessary to trim:
Displacement of boat is . . . . ..15,360' lb.
Longitudinal GM. is . . . . . . . . ..16.09 feet.
Length on L.W.L. is . . . . . . . . ..20 feet.
15,360 X 16.09
Therefore, —— I 1,030 foot-pounds.
‘20 X 12
inch.
Note this: \Vhile trim means difference in draught
forward and aft, change in trim means the alteration in
draught, both forward and aft, caused by some change
in location of weights, or by the addition, or removal, of a
some weight.
When change of trim is not excessive it is sufficiently
accurate to assume that one—half of the change is forward
and one-half aft.
‘ 99. CENTER OF FLOTATION
Is a term used when making longitudinal stability
calculations and calculations to determine change in trim,
etc.
When used in this manner it means the C.G. of the
water plane to which the vessel is floating. When a
vessel is slightly inclined transversely, or longitudinally,
the line of intersection of the new (inclined) water plane
must pass through the center Of flotation 0f the original
(upright) water plane.
For transverse inclinations, this line of intersec
tion is along the center longitudinal line, and for longi
tudinal inclinations it is along a transverse line drawn
through the C.G. of the original plane.
100 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
When the center of flotation is not located at the 101. WATER PRESSURE
middle of length the change will not be one-half at each is another term for weight of water.
end but will be in proportion to the percentage of length
102. BUOYANCY OF \NATER
forward and aft of the center of flotation.
is the power water has to buoy up, or carry anything
_ In the foregoing I assumed that weight already on afloat. It is always measured by the weight of water
board is moved, but if a moderate amount of weight is displaced by the body.
placed on board, such as cargo or ballast, and you wis
to find out what effect the added weight will have on the 103. DISPLACEMENT
trim, then it will be necessary to first of all ascertain the is the weight, or volume, of water displaced by anything
increase in draught of water due to the addition of afloat. Displacement can be expressed in terms of bulk,
weight, and then to ascertain the change in trim. or in terms of weight.
If the added weight is placed with its center verti— 104. BULK
cally over the center of flotation, no change in trim will means the same as volume when the term is applied to a
take place, because the fore-and-aft location of the C.G. boat. Bulk of the underwater body of a boat is generally
of added weight will coincide with the location of the expressed in cubic feet. '
C.G. of boat, and it is assumed, as the weight is a mod 105. LOAD WATER—LINE
erate one, that the fore-and-aft position of the center of
bulk that will be immersed by the additional weight is is the line to which a boat floats when loaded and in
also located at the center of flotation. sailing trim. It is generally written L.W.L.
When these conditions prevail, and they do in nearly 106. WATER-LINES
all cases when the weight is a moderate one, the boat will are lines drawn parallel with the L.W.L., spaced equal
sink to a new water-line parallel to the original one and distances apart and dividing the underWater body of a
the distance she will sink can be ascertained at once if boat into planes. They are used for aiding the designer
the amount of added weight and the tons of displace— in making calculations when determining displacement,
ment per inch of draught at the original water-line is etc.
known. ' 107. C.G. or WEIGHTS
100. T0Ns PER INCH means the center of gravity of weight. It is the center
point of all weights—construction, lading, crew, etc. The
is the weight necessary to sink a vessel one inch deeper calculation is a weight one.
in the water. I
108. C.B.
This weight will vary with each change in depth of
means the center of buoyancy, and is the center point of
immersion, being smallest at the lightest draught and the underwater bulk of the 'boat. This is a bulk, or
greatest at the deepest draught. It is usual to lay out volume, calculation.
a curve of tons per inch for all draughts of water from
lightest possible to deepest. 109. COEFFICIENTS OF FINENEss
A curve of tons Per inch of immersion is usually laid express the ratio that the underwater bulk of a boat, the
out when the displacement is being calculated. It is con area of a section, or the area of a water plane bears to a
structed in this manner: rectangular-- body; or plane, having the same length,
breadth and depth, or the same length and breadth as the
A vertical line is marked and divided off, by scale, boat, plane, or section has.
into intervals to indicate feet and inches of draught, and
a horizontal line is drawn to meet it and divided off into _ 110. T0N
intervals to represent tons and parts of a ton, or, in the The ton weight as used in naval architecture is always
case of a small boat, into hundreds of pounds. the long ton of 2,240 lb.
To obtain points for the curve take the area of each 111. BASE LINE
water plane, from keel up, and divide it by 420.* is the name given to the straight line from which the
This will give the tons and fraction of a ton required ordinates commence. In cases when the figure is en
to sink vessel one inch at the various water planes and if tirely bounded by irregular curved lines, the base line
points are marked on the diagram at the intersection of should be drawn through figure and the portions each
the proper draught and weight figures a series of points side of line measured separately. Then by adding totals
will be obtained, and by drawing a line to cut these a the area of the whole figure can be calculated by using
curve of tons per inch of immersion at any draught of Simpson’s rule.
water will be markedfl' 112. ORDINATES
The formula ion the calculation is: are the perpendicular li-nes erected at right angles to base
Area of water plane -line. Ordinates must be spaced equal distances apart,
-——~—-— : Tons per inch of immersion. must be at right angles to base, and must be correct in
number for the rule used.
35 X 12
On the illustration I have laid out a curve of tons per 113. INTERVAL
inch of immersion. (See Fig. 12-S, p. 102.) is the distance ordinate lines are apart. The closer the
ordinates are the more accurate the calculation will be.
‘The 420 is obtained by multiplying 35x12. The 35 stands (See Fig. S-S for illustration and explanation.)
for the number of cubic feet of water (salt) in a ton, and the I 14. MULTIPLIERs
12 the number of inches in a foot. If vessel is floating in fresh
water it is necessary to use the figures 36 in place of 35. The Simpson multipliers are the numerals 1, 4, 2, used
TH displacement is in pounds it will be necessary to convert. for multiplying the ordinate lengths by.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
115. ONE-THIRD INTERVAL
is one-third of the distance the ordinates are apart.
116. STABILITY
\Nhen applied to a boat, or vessel, means the moment
of force by which the boat, or vessel, endeavors to right
itself when inclined out of the upright by some external
force. Stability is usually measured in foot-tons, or in
foot-flaimds.
Therefore, if you hear any one say that a certain
boat has a righting moment of stability of 2,000 lb when
she is inclined transversely to an angle of 10° from up
right, you will know that this is the righting force
possessed by the boat when she is inclined to the named
angle, and that this tendency to right is due entirely to
weight and leverage.
The weight being the weight of the boat and all on
board, which of course remains the same whether the
boat is upright or inclined. And the leverage being due
to the fact that the 'underwater form, or shape, of the
boat alters just as man as she commences to incline,
while the weight remains stationary, and as this alteration
in shape varies with each Change in inclination the lever
age must also alter. ~ Ist.—By giving the vessel a small M.C. height.
1 17. STATICAL STABILITY
means the amount of force, or effort by which a body
endeavors to regain its upright position after having been
deflected from it.
118. DYNAMICAL STABILITY
means the amount of work done, or force exerted, on
any body in order to deflect it from the upright.
119. TRANSVERSE INCLINATIONs
mean inclinations to one side, or sideways.
120. LONCITUDINAL INCLINATIONs
mean inclinations lengthwise, or -fore and aft.
121. METACENTER
is a term used to indicate the point in a boat, or vessel,
to which its C.G. point can be raised without the boat, or
vessel, becoming unstable. The term should only be ap
plied when boat is upright, or inclined to very slight
angles.
Note this: The C.G. point of a boat is the point where
all weights center—hull, cargo, passengers, etc., (every—
thing on board). It is important to bear in mind that the
C.G. point of a vessel when light (without cargo) is
seldom in the position that it is when vessel is loaded, and
that the position will vary with each change in lading and
cargo.
122. STIFFNESS
is caused by a vessel having a large transverse M.C.
height. A stiff vessel is very hard to incline, but when in—
clined and pressure is removed she will come back to
upright very suddenly. Stiffness is not desirable because
it causes excessive strains on the hull structure.
123. TENDERNESS
means a tendency to incline. A tender boat is easily in
clined. It is due to the M.C. height being too small. To
107
correct tenderness the C.G. point should be lowered by
placnig ballast on board, or by stowing cargo in such
a manner as to lower the C.G. point.
124. STEADINEss
when applied to a boat, or vessel, means a tendency to
incline slowly and to return to upright without shock or
strain. It is obtained by giving a moderate M.C.
125. DEADWEIGHT
is the weight of cargo carried. It is the difference
between the weight of a vessel when light and when
loaded.
126. OSCILLATION
is a term used to express the rolling motion of a vessel
from side to side.
By oscillation is meant a complete roll from port to
starboard, and the time occupied in making this oscilla
tion is called the period Of oscillation.
Great stiffness creates rapid oscillation, while tender
ness conduces to slow ones.
A slow rolling motion can be obtained in three ways:
2d.—By means of placing resistance agents on the
outside of the underwater body, such as bilge-keels.
3d.—By stowing heavy weights, or ballast, well out
from the center line of vessel.
127. GENERAL TERMs L'sED IN GEOMETRY
A Definition is an explanation of the properties of any
term or object. .
A Problem is something proposed to be done, as the
construction of a figure, or the solution of a question.
A Point is represented by the smallest visible mark or
dot, but as geometrically understood it occupies no space.
A point has positiOn but no magnitude.
A Line has length without breadth or thickness and
consequently a true geometrical line cannot be exhibited.
In practice a line is indicated by means Of a mark of
even width. Lines may be drawn in any direction, and
are termed straight, curved, mixed, concave or convex,
according as they correspond to the following definitions.
A Straight Line is one that lies in the same direction
from end to end and is, Of course, the shortest distance
between two points. All lines that bound the figures
I to 9 on Fig. 4-5 are straight lines. (See p. 95.)
A Curr/ed Line is one of which no portion, however
small, is straight. The lines bounding Fig. 10-5 are
curved lines.
A ilfixed Line is composed of straight and curved
lines. The line bounding the upper part of Fig. 7-S is a
mixed line.
Concat'e and Conc'er Lines are curved lines that can
not be cut by a straight line in more than two points. If
the hollow side is turned tO the straight line the line is
called concave, while if the swelling side is away from it
the line is called convex. The inside of a basin is con
cave, the outside convex.
 Chapter 4-S
Tables and Formula '
128. RECAPITL'LATION OF FORMULAE
B2
Transverse M.C. abot'e C.B. I A X ——
D
A is a coefficient varying with form of boat.
B is breadth on the L.W.L. .
D 'is mean draught from L.WVL. to rabbet.
(B2 : Breadth squared.)
The coefficient for vessels of ordinary form vary
from 0.008 to 0.01.
M.I. of L.W.L. plane
Or the formula —— can be used.
Displacement in C. Ft.
. A2 X L
Longitudinal M.C. Above C.B. I 0.0785 _—
B X V
A2 being the area of L.W.L. plane squared.
L being the length on L.W.L.
B being the moulded breadth.
V being the volume of displacement in cubic feet.
129. M.I. or L.W.L. PLANE ABOUT
Center Line Longitudinally : CO X L X B3.
C0 being a coefficient which varies with form.
L being length on the L.W.L.
_ B3 being breadth cubed.
The coefficient for this formula varies from 0.06 to
0.04, the high figures being for full formed ships.
Or the Formula
M.I. Of L.\V.I.. plane around transverse Axis can be
Displacement in C. feet
V
130. WETTED SURFACE : 1.7 -—
D C.G. point of a vessel will move vertically when a
I. being the length on L.W.L.
D being mean draught to rabbet.
V being volume Of displacement in cubic feet.
I D V the distance the C.G. of vessel rises when all coal is
131. C.B. BELOW THE L.W.L. : __ (_ + _)
2 A
D being the mean draught to rabbet.
V being the volume Of displacement.
A being the area Of L.\V.L. in square feet.
132‘ MOMENT To _ Length on L.\/V.L. X displacement
CHANGE TRIM
CO X draught
Co being a coeflicient varying with form.
For fine formed ships Co : 190 (about).
For full formed ships Co : 170 (about).
133. VERTICAL C.G. or A SHIP’s STRUCTURE
is located between 0.65 and 0.8 Of moulded depth amid
ships above keel.
ILLUSTRATED CALCULATIONS
NO. 1.——A calculation to illustrate the method of as
certaining the effect a movement Of weight transversely
has on a vessel’s C.G. point.
Question NO. 1.——A vessel of 1,000 tons displacement is
floating upright. 50 (fifty) tons of the weight that
is on board is moved transversely a distance of 10
feet. What effect will this movement of weight have
on the C.G. point of vessel?
Weight X distance 50 X 10
Answer No. I I I .5 ft.
' Displacement 1,000
Therefore the C.G. point will move 0.5 foot, from the
center line towards the side to which the weight is
moved.
NO. 2.—A calculation to ascertain the GM. when a
known weight is moved transversely across deck a
suflicient distance to incline the vessel to a known
angle. (Angle must be less than angle of accuracy
for NC. method of calculating stability. About 10°.)
Question No. 2.—A weight of 50 tons is moved across
a vessel's deck a distance of 10 feet. This causes
her to incline transversely 5°. The displacement of
boat is 1,000 tons. Find the GM. height (Trans
verse G.l\l.) '
Answer No. 2.—
Height X distance 50 X 10
_ I *2573 ft.
used.
Displacement X tangent 1,000 X 0.0872
Therefore, the transverse GM. is 5.73 it.
*This is the tangent of 5°.
No. 3.—A calculation tO ascertain the distance the
known weight is removed from the vessel.
Question NO. 3.—A vessel Of 1,000 tons displacement has
100 tons of coal stowed in bunkers so that the C.G.
point Of the coal is 2 feet below the C.G. point of the
vessel. The coal is used‘ up during the voyage. Find
consumed.
Answer No. 3.—First deduct from the displacement the
amount of weight removed, then by making use of this
formula the distance C.G. of vessel will move can be
ascertained.
C.G. X Weight moved
Dis. C.G. wgt. moved:—————
Displacement
Displacement after weight removed is deducted.
Displacement is 1,000 — 100 z 900 tons.
2 X 100 200
_— : —— : 0.22 foot.
900 900
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE SIMPLIFIED
Therefore the C.G. of vessel will move 0.22 foot, and
as the weight removed was placed so that its C.G.
was below the C.G. of vessel the movement will be
nflwards.
Note this.—If C.G. of weight removed is below C.G.
of vessel the movement will be up, but if it is above
the movement will be down.
Question NO. 4.— Vhat is the formula for expressing the
moment of statical stability when inclination is within
the metacentric limit? Also state expression when
angle is above the metacentric limit.
Answer No. 4.—\Vhen angle of inclination is within the
metacentric limit the formula is:
Moment of statical stability 2 G.Z. X Displacement.
\Vhen the angle exceeds the metacentric limits the ex
pression is,
Moment of statical stability : G.M. X Sine X Dis
placement. ' Therefore, it requires 639.97 lb to sink the boat 1 inch.
G.Z. being the distance between verticals drawn
through C.B. inclined and C.G. points.
Sine 0 being the sine of the angle of inclination.
Displacement being the displacement in tons, or in
pounds.
100
Question No. 5.—A boat having a displacement of 15,360
lb has 640 lb placed on board; find out how much this
added weight has increased her draught.
’ The area of the L.W.L. plane is 120 square feet.
Note—It is assumed that the weight is placed over
the center of flotation.
Answer No. 5.—First calculate the weight required to
sink the boat 1 inch, using the formula:
Area of L.W.L. plane to which boat is floating
*
420
Knowing this it is an easy matter to complete the cal—
culation.
120
-—- : 0.2857 of a ton : 639.97 fb.
420
The added weight, 640 lb, will increase the draught a
very small fraction over 1 inch: '
*For slight additions of weight the tons per inch of immer
sion is practically equal to 1/420 of the area of the L.\V.L. plane
to which boat is floating. This is for salt water. For fresh
water the figures are 432.
 DECIMALS OF'A FOOT FOR EACH 3 QFAN INCH.

1" 2‘ 8' 4' 5' 6“ 7' 8' 9' 10' 11'

O .0855 J66? .2500 .5533 -4l67 -5000.5855 .6667 .7500 .8533 9l67' LOGO

8' .0104 .0987 .1771 .2604 .8487 .4271 .8104 .5987 .6771 .7604 .8487 .9271

4" .0208 .1042 .1875 .2708 .8542 .4875 .5208 .6042 .6875 .7708 .8542 .9875

'8” .0812 .1146 .1979 .2812 .8646 .4479 .5812 .6146 .6979 .7812 .8646 .9479

'2"~ .0417 .1250 .2088 .2917 .8750 .4588 .5417 62507088 .7917 -8750 .9588

8" .0521 .1854 .2188 .8021 .8854 .4688 .5521 6354-7188 .8021 .8854 .9688

-%' .0625 .1458 .2292 .8125 .8958 .4792 .5625 .6458 .7292 .8125 .8958 .9792

82' .0729 1562 .2896 .8229 .4062 .4896 .5729 .6562 .7896 .8229 .9062 .9896

K
TABLE 019 NATURAL SINE'S AND TANGE'NTS.

ANGLE 51m:- 6 TANGENT ANGLE 511459 TANGENT ANGLE 5INE6 TANGENT

DEG ° SIN 6 TAN 8 DEGO 5m 6 TAN 6 Dee." 5m 6 TAhl 9
I .0175 .0175 16 .2756 .2867 31 .5150 .6009
2 .0349 .0349 17 .2924 .3057 32 .5299 .6249
3 .0523 .0524 18 .8090 .3249 33 .5446 .6494
4 .0698 .0699 19 .8256 .8443 34v .5592 .6745

5 .0872 .0875 20 .3420 .3640 35 .5736 .7002

6 .1045 .1051 21 .3584 .8889 36 .5878 .7265
7 .1219 .1228 22 .8746 .4040 87 .6018 _7536
8 .1892 .1405 28 .8907 .4245 38 .6157 .7818
9 .1564 .1584- 24 -4—O67 .4452 89 .6293 .8098
I0 .1786 .1763 25 .4226 .4663 4.0 .6428 .3891
11 '.1908 .1944 26 .4884 '4877 41 .6561 _8693
12 .2079 .2126 27 .4540 45095 42 .669L .9004
18
14 .2250
1.2_4_19 .2809
._2498 28 .484'8’T55’48
29 -4695 :55I'I7‘ 48
:44; .6820
.6947 .9825
.9657
15 .2588 .2679 80 .5000 5774 45 .7071 1.000
 Chapter 5-S
Proof of Knowledge—Questions and Answers
134. MEAsUREMENT or AREAs boat shown on Fig. IZ-S. Dimensions, in feet and
No. 1.—Using a scale of V2 inch to 1 foot draw a decimals of a foot, at each ordinate are as given below:
rectangle 12 feet long by 6 feet wide, then measure Cross—sections are 3 feet apart and numbered 1, 2, 3,
its area. Ans—72 square feet. 4, 5, 6, 7; water-lines are 0.333 foot apart and lettered
No. 2.—Draw a triangle of these dimensions: a, b, c, d, e.
Length of base 15 feet, height from base to apex 6 Q'- A, y“: D r7"
r.— a. ‘
feet 6 inches, then measure its area. Ans—48.75 J/j“ c i-\
square feet.
No. 3.-—Draw a Trapezoid of these dimensions:
Height of perpendicular 6 feet 3 inches, length of
parallel sides are 14 feet 6 inches and 10 feet 6 inches. ;m
15 I; 14 I: ~ I 0,, 9 a 7 o s r .I 9 I
Measure its area. Ans—78.125 square feet. Duncan tr:- 4"

No. 4.—Draw this figure and measure its area by

using the trapezoidal rule: Base line length is 20 feet.
Ordinatesare spaced at 4 feet intervals. Lengths of 511:: a'rn. lie 44

the numbered ordinates are as follows: /" I I I

/1/ I I | l l |
II I l I
NO. 1 ordinate length is 5 feet 9 inches. |
I I
l
'
l
l l l
l
|
I
I
I
l
~\
I
No. 3 ordinate length is 6 feet 3 inches. I l | | | l I
No. 5 ordinate length is 6 feet 3 inches. I l l I l l l l l i
No. 2 ordinate is 6 feet 3 inches.
No. 4 ordinate is 6 feet 6 inches.
______-_- I z a ice/Ac
No. 6 ordinate is 6 feet. .i i W/FIIJi’Az-VIPM' SION 24: \ :3
Ans—124.5 square feet. L__________ a. —l, w
No. 5.—Measure the area of this half-water plane l 1

by using Simpson's First Rule: Length of figure is

18 feet. There are seven ordinates spaced 3 feet
apart and numbered from 1 to 7. Measunement
(length) of each ordinate is as follows (measures are
given in feet and decimals of a foot):
I I 0.00 5 : 2.41
2 : 1.25 6 : 2.12
3 : 2.00 7 : 0.12
4 2.41 Ans—32.06 square feet.
No. 5a.—N0w measure the figure [again by using
Simpson’s Second Rule.
No. 5b.—Now introduce V2 interval ordinates be
tween Nos. 5 and 6, and between Nos. 6 and 7, then
measure the figure by using Simpson’s First Rule.
The newly introduced ordinates must be measured a.... 0.00 1.25 2.00 2.41 2.41 2.12 0.12
and subdivided interval rule used for measuring the b . 0.00 1.10 1.79 2.16 2.15 1.79 0.12
figure.* c.... 0.00 0.84 1.58 1.91 1.87 0.52 0.12
No. 5c.—Measure, by using the Five-Eighth Rule, d.... 0.00 0.54 1.04 1.18 0.75 0.12 0.12
portion of Fig. 8 that is between Nos. 2 and 3 ordi e.... 0.00 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
nates. Ans—5.662 square feet. Ans. is 51.40 cubic feet by planes.
51.28 “ “ “ sections.
135. MEAsUREMENT OF VOLUME Measure body twice: The first time measure the
No. 6.-—-Measure the bulk of this: A rectangular areas of the planes and use these areas for the second,
block 4 feet 6 inches long, 4.5 feet wide and 24 or volume part of the calculation. Now check the
inches deep. Ans—40.5 cubic feet. - accuracy of the calculation by measuring the areas
No. 7.—Calculate the volume of a column 16 feet of the sections and using the section areas for the
long and having a cross—section area of 121 square second, or volume part of the calculation.
inches. Ans—23,232 cubic inches, 13.44 cubic feet.
N0. 8.—What is the volume of a sphere 12 inches 136. CENTER OF GRAVITY
in diameter? Ans—904.780 cubic inches. No. 10.—On a I 5-lb lever two men exert themselves
No. 9.—Calculate volume of underwater bulk of to lift a weight placed at the other end of the lever.
One man exerts a force of 100 lb 15 feet from the
*There will be a variation of a fraction of a foot in three fulcrum, and the other uses a force of 100 lb at 12 feet
answers, due to there being too few ordinates for absolute from the fulcrum.
accuracy.
The weight to be moved is 1,300 lb and it is placed
[[2 NAVflL AR CHITEQTURE SIMPLIFIED
on the opposite end Of the lever, which is 2 feet dis Fig. 12—S around a longitudinal axis drawn through its
tant from the fulcrum. Can the men move the weight? C.G. Ans.—-97.22 M.I.
Ans—Yes; there is 100 lb Excess. . . M.I.
NO. 23.—[)5ng the Formula mt cal
NO. 11.—On a lever these weights are placed at the
points named. Calculate the moment Of the combined culate the distance M.C. is above C.B. Ans—1.896
weights and find Center of Gravity point of the com foot.
bined weights. ' N0. 24.—-Using above figures determine the True
100 lb placed at a point 10 feet out from support. transverse M.C. height. Ans.—I.454 foot.
75 lb placed at a point 8 feet 6 inches out from NO. 25.—Assuming that the following inclined ordi
support. nate measures are taken when boat Fig. 12-S is in
125 lb placed at a point 7 feet out from point of clined transversely to 25° calculate
support. The length of B.R.
200 lb placed at a point 5 feet 2 inches out from The length of G.Z.
point Of support. Ans—3,545.84 Moment. 7.091 feet And the righting moment in foot-pounds.
C.G. from support.
NO. 12.—Calculate the center point in a fore-and F10. ~12-S. INCLINED PLANE MEASURES AT 0°, 12%°
aft direction of the L.W.L. plane measurements in AND 25° INCLINATION TRANSVERSELY
Question N0. 5. Ans—9.76 feet aft of No. I ordinate Length of Immersed \Nedge Ordinates
or 0.76 foot aft of No. 4 ordinate. Ord. No. 0° 121/20 25°
NO. 13.—The weight Of a certain boat is 3,307 Tb. 1 0.00 0.00 0.00
How many cubic feet Of salt water will she displace? 2 1.25 1.41 1.62
Ans—51.671 cubic feet. 3 2.00 2.20 2.54
NO. 14.—The following are the weights of con 4 2.41 2.58 2.92
struction Of a boat: Calculate the C.G. point longi 5 2.41 2.62 2.83
tudinally from No. I and vertically below L.VV.L.-A. 6 2.12 2.39 2.62
7 0.12 1.66 2.08
TABULATION FOR C.G. CALCULATION
From L. W. L.-A. From No. 1 Station
Length of Emerged \Vedge Ordinates
Weight Below in Above in Lever. in Ord. No. 0° 12I/2° 25°
in Feet and Feet and Feet and
Item Pounds Decimals Decimals Decimal! 1 0.00 0.00 0.00
Deck . . . . . . . . . . 400 1.0 8.0 2 1.25 1.16 1.08
Keel . . . . . . . . . . 250 1.0 11.0 3 2.00 1.83 1.66
Frame and plank 700 0.5 9.0 4 2.41 2.12 1.83
Joiner . . . . . . . . . 550 at L.W.L. 11.0 5 2.41 2.12 1.79
Engine 500 1.0 9.0 6 2.12 1.75 1.33
Shaft. etc. . . . . . . 70 0.75 14.0 7 0.12 0.00 0.00
Crew 500 1.0 11.0 Ans.—B.R. : 0.749 foot. G.Z. : 0.561 foot.
Gasolene .. . .. 275 0.5 3.5 Righting Moment 2 1,840.6 foot-pounds.
Total . . . . . . . . .. 3,245 tb
Ans—9.319 feet from No. 1 ordinate. 0.035 foot
GENERAL QUESTIONS
below L.\V.L.-A. N0. 26._A cruising power boat 80 feet x 20 feet x
N0. 15.—A vessel weighing 10,500 tons floats at a 6 feet mean draught has a block Coefficient of fineness
certain water-line in sea water. What is her displace— of 0.65. Calculate displacement in salt water. Ans.—
ment in cubic feet in salt water? Ans—367,500 cubic I78.28 tons.
feet. N0. 27.__Using the formula explained (moment of
inertia) calculate the M.I. about a longitudinal axis
137. CALCULATIONS To DETERMINE DISPLACEMENT, C.G., through center of a rectangular plane (supposed to be
C.B., AND STABILITY OF BOAT SHOWN ON F10. 12—S a water-line plane) of these dimensions: Length 40
feet, Breadth 12 feet from outside to outside. Ans.—
NO. I6.—What is the block Coefficient of Fig. I2-S? 5,76o M.I.
Outside dimensions are: 18 feet x 4.83 feet x 1.33 feet. NO. 28.—Having found the above, calculate the
Ans.——0.443. distance Transverse M.C. point is above C.B. point,
N0. I7.—\Vhat is the Prismatic Coefficient of Fig. the displacement of the boat being 1,440 cubic feet.
12-5? Ans—0.65. ' A ns.—4.0 feet.
NO. 18.—\\1’hat is the Coeflicient of L.W.L. Plane NO. 29.—~The C.B. point of the boat is located 1.5
A of Fig. 12-5? Ans—0.736. foot above the bottom of the boat. Determine the
NO. 19.—\1Vhat is the Coefficient of Fineness 0f distance the M.C. point iS above bottom of boat. Ans.
Midship Section? Ans.—o.682. —5.5 feet.
No. 20.—Calculate the displacement of boat shown N0. 30.—\Ve will now assume that the C.G. point
on Fig. 12-S. The displacement t0 L.W.L.-A in salt is located at a height of 4 feet above the bottom Of the
water. Ans—3289.60 tb by planes. 3281.92 ID by boat. IS the boat stable and what is the true M.C.
sections. " height? Ans—Yes. 1.5 foot.
N0. 21._N0w calculate the longitudinal and verti— No. 31.—N0w suppose that a weight of 6,400 tb is
cal location of C.B. point when boat is _floating to taken from inside Of this boat and placed 4 feet higher
L.W.L.-A. Ans—9.22;, feet from NO. 1 ordinate. than it was. Is the boat stable? Make the calculation
0.477 foot below L.\V.L.-A. in detail. Arm—Yes. C.G. moves up 0.275 foot. New
NO. 22.—Calculate the M.I. of L.W.L. Plane A of M.C. height is 1.225 foot.
 - Paragraph Reference Index
PIL
Subject of figure bounded by curved line
Area calculation Page Subject No. Page

Drawing pencils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 82 94
and radii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89 97 Effective H.P. explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27 29
Area center points explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13 15 Engine foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59 58
Area. Curve of area explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62 ‘ 60 Equilibrium explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 104

Area measurement rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 8 Fastenings for cruisers (Table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35 39

Base line explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..111 106 Floor timbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58 57
Block coefficient of fineness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42 44 Flotation. Center of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99 105

Body plan drawing explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66 67 Flotation. Why a boat floats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1

Brake H.P. explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26 29 Formulm to determine dimensions of material to
Bulk explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .104 106 use (Table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
Buoyancy and C.B. explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 5 Formula for ascertaining distance M.C. is above C.B.. 128 108
“ “ “ “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 Is Formula for determining distance C.B. is below
“ “ “ “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102 106 L.W.L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..131 108
“ “ “ “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108 106 Formula for determining moment to trim . . . . ..132 108
Buoyancy, C.B. point calculation explained . . . . .. 15 16 Formula for determining M.I. 0f L.W.L. plane ..129 108
Buttock lines explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67 67 Formula for determining wetted surface . . . . . . . . . . ..130
Calculations to make . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72 69 Freeboard necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48 50

Center of Buoyancy explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Io 13 Freeboard tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48 5o

“ “ “ “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15 16 Frictional resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3o 32

“ “ “ “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64 62 Geometrical terms explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..127 107

Center of gravity explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9 is Gravity and C.G. explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 13
Center point of volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14 16 “ “ “ “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
C.G. transversely of a half water plane. Calculating. 93 102 Gravity. Calculating C.G. of weight of a boat . .. 12 I4
Circular measure explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 98 . Horntimber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55 56
Coefficient. Block coeff. explained . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42 44 Indicated H.P. explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25 29
Coefficient. L.W.L. coeff. explained . . . . . . . . . . .. 4o 43 Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113 106
Coefficient. Midship section coeff. explained .. .. 38 41 Interval. One-third . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..115 107
Coefficient. Prismatic coeff. explained . . . . . . . . .. 43 45 Keel construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51 S4
Keel outside of rabblet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
Coefficients explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41 44 69
“ “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109 106 Lettering and lettering pens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85 95
Construction drawings explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 74 71 “ “ “ “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86
Conventional lines explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84 95 Lines drawing explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66 63
Deadweight explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..125 107 Longitudinal inclinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..120 107
Deadwood explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53 56 L.W.L. explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..105 106
Designing preliminary calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34 39 L.W.L. plane coefficient. (Table) . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4o
Diagonals explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68 68 L.W.L. Predetermining a L.W.L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
Dimensions of materials for cruisers (Table).... 35, 39 L.\V.L. shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44 45
“ “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103 106 L.\~V.L. Wave form theory explained . . . . . . . . . . .. 45 45
Displacement and C.B. preliminary calculation .. 63 61 Material weights. (Table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37 43
Displacement and C.G. preliminary calculation .. 62 60 Materials. Dimensions to select . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35 38
Displacement curve explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 95 103 Materials. Kinds to use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36 39
Displacement explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 Measuring :1 lines drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 61 59
Displacement necessary. How to determine'it .. 37 40 Metacenter point explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
Displacement of pleasure and cargo boats . . . . . .. 94 103 M.C. height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20 2:1
Displacement performance coeff. table . . . . . . . . .. 33 35 M.C. height formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46 47
Drafting materials required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81 93 M.C. height preliminary calculation. (Table) 65 63
Draught in salt and in fresh water. Reason for M.C. height table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 96 103 M.I. calculation explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47 48
 [14 PARAGRAPH REFERENCE INDEX
Per. PM
Subiect N01 Page Subject No. Page
Midship section. Area necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38 41 Ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 57
Midship section coefficient table . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38 42 Rudders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..75, 76 77
Midship section location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 40 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..77, 78 78
43
Midship section shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39 42 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79 79
Moment of Inertia explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46 47 Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60 59
Moment of weights explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11 13 Shaft line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70 69
Multipliers. Simpson’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..114 106 Shaft-log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52 55
Offset tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . .. 73 Sheer line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69 68

Ordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 106 Simpson’s Rules explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..87, 88 97

Oscillation explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..126 107 Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80 81
Power explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24 29 Square, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, and
Power. E.H.P. explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26 29 Two-thirds Power of Numbers, (Table)... 92
Power. E.H.P. explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27 29 Stability explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16 18
Power. I.H.P. explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25 29 “ “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22 27
Power required to drive a boat at a named speed. 31 32 “ “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..116, 117, 118 107
Stability. Mechanical method for determining .. 23 28
“ “ “ " “ “ “ " . 33 35
Preliminary data sheet. (Table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34 Stability. Preliminary calculation explained 65 62
39
Preliminary designing calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34 Stability. Range of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21 27
37
Preliminary displacement and C.B. calculation .. . 63 61 Steadiness explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..124 107
“ “ “ “ " 64 62 Stem and stem-knee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56 57
Preliminary drawing and calculations . . . . . . . . . .. 62 Sternpost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
Preliminary H.P. calculation explained . . . . . . . .. 49 50 Stiffness explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..122 107
Preliminary stability calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65 62 Stream line resistance theory explained . . . . . . . .. 32
Preliminary weight and C.G. calculation . . . . . . .. 62 60 Structural strains explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5o
Prismatic coefiicient of fineness. (Table) . . . . . .. 43 45 Tenderness explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..123
Projection drawing explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83 94 Ton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Proof of Knowledge—Questions and Answers: Ton per inch of immersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..100 106
Measurement of Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..134 III Transverse inclinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..119
“ “ Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..135 III
Trim and moment to trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 98
Center of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..136 III
Volume. Center point of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14
C.G. Calculation, (Table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 112
Volume measurement rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7
Calculations to determine displacement, C.G., C.B.
Water-lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
and stability of boat, Fig. 12-S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..137 112
\Vater weight and pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2
Inclined Plane Measures, (Table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 112
“ “ “ “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 106
General Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 112
Propulsivc coefl-icient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28 30 \Vave form theory of resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32 33
Resistance explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29 31 \Vave form water-lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45 45
Resistance. Frictional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30 32 \\"edges of immersion and emersion . . . . . . . . . . .. 19 21
Resistance. Stream line theory explained . . . . .. 32 33 Wedge-shaped volumes. Rules for measuring 92 IOI

Resistance table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29 31 Why a boat floats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1