physics 8.

0 4/14/03 6:27 PM Page 1

SPARKCHARTSTM

PHYSICS
“W
TH
SPARK
CHARTS TM

VECTORS W
OPERATIONS ON VECTORS 4. Cross product: The cross product a × b of two vectors WOR
SCALARS AND VECTORS is a vector perpendicular to both of them with magnitude
1. Scalar multiplication : To Work
TM

• A scalar quantity (such as mass or energy) can be fully |a × b| = ab sin θ .

SPARKCHARTS
multiply a vector by a scalar c Joules
described by a (signed) number with units. • To find the direction of accom
(a real number), stretch its axb
• A vector quantity (such as force or velocity) must be
length by a factor of c. The 1
a × b , use the right-hand a • Th
v 3v 2v –v –1.5 v a
described by a number (its magnitude) and direction. rule: point the fingers of your W
vector −v points in the direc-
In this chart, vectors are bold: v; scalars are italicized: v . right hand in the direction of b b
tion opposite to v.
a; curl them toward b. Your wh
VECTORS IN CARTE- 2. Addition and subtraction: Add vectors w thumb points in the direction • If F
x Right-hand rule
SIAN COORDINATES head to tail as in the diagram. This is v
v+w of a × b.
The vectors î, ĵ, and k̂ are the sometimes called the parallelogram v ENE
w
• Order matters: a × b = −b × a.
vector v
unit vectors (vectors of length 1) vy = v sin 0 method. To subtract v, add −v . • If a and b are parallel, then a × b = 0.
Energy
in the x-, y -, and z -directions, • Kin
0 3. Dot product (a.k.a. scalar product): • If a and b are perpendicular, then |a × b| = ab .
respectively. vx = v cos 0 The dot product of two vectors gives
y • Component-wise calculation:
a
a scalar quantity (a real number):
CE
• In Cartesian coordiantes, a 0 b a × b = (ay bz − az by ) î + (az bx − ax bz ) ĵ
vector v can be writted as v = vx î + vy ĵ + vz k̂ , where a · b = ab cos θ ; + (ax by − ay bx ) k̂ .
a cos 0
vx î, vy ĵ, and vz k̂ are the components in the x-, y -, and θ is the angle between the two vectors. CEN
This is the determinant of the 3 × � 3matrix
z -directions, respectively. • If a and b are perpendicular, then a · b = 0. �
� ax ay az � For a
• The magnitude (or length)� of vector v is given by • If a and b are parallel, then |a · b| = ab. called
� �
� bx by bz � .
v = |v| = + + vz2 . • Component-wise calculation: as if t
� �
vx2 vy2 � î ĵ k̂ �
a · b = ax bx + ay by + az bz . • Dis
ma
KINEMATICS an

Kinematics describes an object’s motion. PROJECTILE MOTION INTERPRETING GRAPHS

wh
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS A projectile fired with initial velocity v0 at angle θ to the Position vs. time graph s (m) • Co
1. Displacement is the distance traveled ground will trace a parabolic path. If air resistance is negli- • The slope of the graph 5
change in position of an gible, its acceleration is the constant acceleration due to gives the velocity. 4
object. If an object gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2 , directed downward. 3 wh
th
pa

moves from position s1 • Horizontal component of velocity is constant: 2

• Ne
to position s2 , then A vector AB vx = v0x = v0 cos θ. 1
B

RO
the displacement is displacement • Vertical component of velocity changes: t (s)
v0y = v sin θ and vy = v0y − gt. Veloctiy vs. time graph 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
∆s = s2 − s1 . It is a vector quantity.
• After time t, the projectile has traveled • The slope of the graph v (m/s) Rotati
2. The velocity is the rate of change of position.
• Average velocity: vavg = ∆s ∆x = v0 t cos θ and ∆y = v0 t sin θ − 12 gt2 . gives the acceleration. partic
∆t . 2
• If the projectile is fired from the ground, then the total • The (signed) area • Le
• Instantaneous velocity: v(t) = lim ∆s
= ds
dt . v2 1 so
∆t→0 ∆t horizontal distance traveled is g0 sin 2θ . between the graph
3. The acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: t (s) r=
y
and the time axis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
vy v = vo x
• Average acceleration: aavg = ∆v gives the displace- –1 ROT
50495

∆t
vo y vo vx vx
• Instantaneous acceleration: ment. –2
Radia
2
a(t) = lim ∆v ∆t
= dv
dt
= ddt2s . 0
vy
vx
∆t→0
vo x
Acceleration vs. time graph a (m/s2) Angul
EQUATIONS OF MOTION: CONSTANT a
vy = -vo y v = vo • The (signed) area motio
Assume that the acceleration a is constant; s0 is initial posi- 2
vx between the graph
I SBN 1-58663-629-4

x 1 arc of
tion; v0 is the initial velocity.
9 781586 636296

and the time axis

vf = v0 + at s = s0 + v0 t + 12 at2 vx is constant. t (s) Angu
gives the change in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
vavg = 12 (v0 + vf ) = s0 + vf t − 12 at2 |vy | is the same both times the –1 ment
velocity.
projectile reaches a particular height. vy –2 arc of
vf2 = v02 + 2a(sf − s0 ) = s0 + vavg t
• Av

DYNAMICS • In

Dynamics investigates the cause of an object’s motion. The maximum force of static friction is given by Angu
PULLEYS
• Force is an influence on an object that causes the object fs, max = µs FN , veloci
The left pulley is chang-
to accelerate. Force is measured in Newtons (N), where where µs is the coefficient of static friction, which eratio
ing the direction of the
• Av
1 N of force causes a 1-kg object to accelerate at 1 m/s2 . depends on the two surfaces. force (pulling down is
mg mg easier than up).
• In
• Kinetic friction: The force of friction resisting the relative T= F=
NEWTON’S THREE LAWS 2 2
NOTE:
Printed in the USA $4.95 $7.95 CAN

motion of two objects in motion with respect to each

T
SparkCharts is a registered trademark

1. First Law: An object remains in its state of rest or motion The right pulley is halv- up int
Copyright © 2002 by SparkNotes LLC.

other. Given by fk = µk FN ,
with constant velocity unless acted upon by a net exter- ing the amount of force accel
where µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction.
necessary to lift the at is t
A Barnes & Noble Publication

nal force. (If F = 0, then a = 0, and v is constant.)

�
• For any pair of surfaces, µk < µs . (It’s harder to push an mg mg mass.
2. Second Law: Fnet = ma.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

object from rest than it is to keep it in motion.) • An

3. Third Law: For every action (i.e., force), there is an equal UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION co
FREE-BODY DIAGRAM ON INCLINED PLANE di
All rights reserved.

of SparkNotes LLC.

and opposite reaction (FA on B = −FB on A ). An object traveling in a circular path with constant speed

NORMAL FORCE AND FRICTIONAL FORCE

A free-body diagram shows all the forces acting on an object.
• In the diagram below, the three forces acting on the
experiences uniform circular motion.
• Even though the speed v is con-
vB B vA
GR
Normal force: The force caused by two bodies in direct con- object at rest on the inclined plane are the force of grav- stant, the velocity v changes A KEP
tact; perpendicular to the plane of contact. ity, the normal force from the plane, and the force of continually as the direction of 1. Fi
aB
• The normal force on a mass resting on level ground is its static friction. motion changes continually. The 0 ar
aA
weight: FN = mg . Free-body diagram of mass object experiences centripetal ca
• The normal force on a mass on a plane inclined at θ to m on an inclined plane FN acceleration, which is always directed on
Formulas: ƒ s
the horizonal is FN = mg cos θ . inward toward the center of the circle; 2. Se
FN + fs + mg = 0 v vA
in 0 v2 jo
Frictional force: The force between two bodies in direct con- FN = mg cos θ mg
s
its magnitude is given by ac = .
mg

vB
tact; parallel to the plane of contact and in the opposite fs = mg sin θ 0 r Su
cos

h • Centripetal force produces the centripetal in

0

direction of the motion of one object relative to the other. tan θ = hd L

mg acceleration; it is directed towards the center of the cir- 3. Th
• Static friction: The force of friction resisting the relative sin θ = Lh 0 cle with magnitude mv2 th
motion of two bodies at rest in respect to each other. cos θ = Ld Fc = .
r of
d

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 PHYSI
“WHEN WE HAVE FOUND ALL THE MEANINGS AND LOST ALL
THE MYSTERIES, WE WILL BE ALONE, ON AN EMPTY SHORE.” OS
SPARK DEFIN
CHARTS TM TOM STOPPARD
An oscill
restoring

WORK, ENERGY, POWER • Ampl

lating
roduct a × b of two vectors WORK • Work-Energy Theorem: Relates kinetic energy and work: POWER
both of them with magnitude Work is force applied over a distance. It is measured in W = ∆KE . Power (P ) is the rate of doing work. It is measured in Watts,
• Perio
Joules (J): 1 N of force applied over a distance of 1 m one c
• Potential energy is the energy “stored” in an object by where 1 Watt = 1 J/s .
of accomplishes 1 J of work. (1 J = 1 N·m = 1 m2 /s2 ) virtue of its position or circumstance, defined by • Average power: Pavg = ∆W ∆t . • Frequ
axb
and
a
a • The work done by force F applied over distance s is Uat A − Uat B = −Wfrom A to B . • Instantaneous power: P = dW = F · v. CALCU
Hertz
our W = F s if F and s point in the same direction. In general, Ex: A rock on a hill has gravitational potential energy relative
dt

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 1 Hz
n of b b W = F · s = F s cos θ , to the ground: it could do work if it rolled down the hill.
our where θ is the angle between F and s. A conservative force affects an object in the same way • Angu
Ex: A compressed spring has elastic potential energy: it
�
ion • If F can vary over the distance, then W = F · ds . regardless of its path of travel. Most forces encountered in per s
Right-hand rule could exert a push if released. See Oscillations and Simple introductory courses (e.g., gravity) are conservative, the major angu
ENERGY Harmonic Motion: Springs. exception being friction, a non-conservative force.
−b × a. • Gravitational potential energy of mass m at height h:
ly, ra
Energy is the ability of a system to do work. Measured in Joules. • Conservation of energy: If the only forces acting on a ω=2
n a × b = 0.
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion, given by Ug = mgh. system are conservative, then the total mechanical ener-
ar, then |a × b| = ab .
KE = 12 mv2 . • Mechanical energy: The total energy is E = KE + U . gy is conserved: KE 1 + U1 = KE 2 + U2 . Period, fr
n:
+ (az bx − ax bz ) ĵ
+ (ax by − ay bx ) k̂ . CENTER OF MASS, LINEAR MOMENTUM, IMPULSE
the 3 × CENTER OF MASS LINEAR MOMENTUM COLLISIONS
� 3matrix
az �� For any object or system of particles there exists a point, Linear momentum accounts for both mass and velocity:
p = mv.
Mass m1 , moving at v1 , collides with mass m2 , moving at v2 .
After the collision, the masses move at v1� and v2� , respectively.
WA
bz �� . called the center of mass, which responds to external forces A wave
• For a system of particles: Ptotal = i mi vi = M Vcm . • Conservation of momentum (holds for all collisions) gives
�
k̂ � as if the entire mass of the system were concentrated there.
over a di
• Disrete system: The position vector Rcm of the center of • Newton’s Second Law restated: Favg =
∆p
or F = dp
. m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 v1� + m2 v2� .
mass of a system of particles with masses m1 , . . . , mn
∆t dt move ve
p2 • Elastic collisions: Kinetic energy is also conserved:
and position vectors r1 , . . . , rn , respectively, satisfies • Kinetic energy reexpressed: KE = 2m
. energy is
2 2
� 1
m v2
2 1 1
+ 12 m2 v22 = 12 m1 (v1� ) + 12 m2 (v2� ) .
M Rcm = mi ri , Law of Conservation of Momentum DEFIN
APHS i
When a system experiences no net external force, there The relative velocity of the masses remains constant:
where M = i mi is the total mass.
�
v2 − v1 = − (v2� − v1� ) . • Trans
m) is no change in the momentum of the system.
• Continuous system: If dm is�a tiny bit of mass at r, then • Inelastic collisions: Kinetic energy is not conserved. oscill
5
M Rcm = r dm , IMPULSE In a perfectly inelastic collision, the masses stick together prop
4 Impulse is force applied over time; it is also change in momentum. and move at v = Vcm = m1m v1 +m2 v2
1 +m 2
after the collision. point
where M = dm is again the total mass.
�
3 • For a constant force, J = F∆t = ∆p.� v � −v �
• Coefficient of restitution: e = v21 −v12 . For perfectly elastic calle
• Newton’s Second Law for the center of mass:
2 • For a force that varies over time, J = F dt = ∆p. collisions, e = 1; for perfectly inelastic collisions, e = 0. • T
Fnet = M Acm .
1 e

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t (s)
ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS p
v
Rotational motion is the motion of any system whose every • Find the direction of − →
ω using the right- Torque is the rotational analog of force. lo
m/s)
particle rotates in a circular path about a common axis. hand rule: if the fingers of the right hand • A force F applied at a distance r from the axis produces d
2 • Let r be the position vector from the axis of rotation to curl in the direction of rotation, then the torque lo
1 some particle (so r is perpendicular to the axis). Then thumb points in the direction of ω . τ = rF sin θ ,
p
t (s) r = |r| is the radius of rotation. • Equivalently, − →
ω points in the direction where θ is the angle between F and r.
2 3 4 5 6 7 • Long
–1
1 of r × v . The equation − →
ω = r×v r 2 gives
• Torque may be clockwise or counterclockwise. Keep track
ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS: DEFINITIONS of wa
–2 both the magnitude and the direction of − →
ω. of the direction by using the vector definition of torque:
Radians: A unit of angle measure. Technically unitless. −
→ tion
τ = r × F.
1 revolution = 2π radians = 360◦ ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS: EQUATIONS • L
• Analog of Newton’s second law: τnet = Iα .
m/s2) These equations hold if the angular acceleration α is constant. si
Angular displacement θ: The angle swept out by rotational
motion. If s is the linear displacement of the particle along the ωf = ω0 + αt θ = θ0 + ω0 t + 12 αt2 Angular momentum is the rotational analog of momentum. c
arc of rotation, then θ = rs . ωavg = 12 (ω0 + ωf ) = θ0 + ωf t − 12 αt2 • A particle moving with linear momentum p at distance r c
ωf2 = ω02 + 2α(θf − θ0 ) = θ0 + ωavg t away from the pivot has angular momentum m
t (s) Angular velocity ω : The rate of change of angular displace-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 L = rmv sin θ and L = r × p, Also see
–1 ment. If v is the linear velocity of the particle tangent to the ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS (f ), and
where θ is the angle between v and r.
–2 arc of rotation, then ω = vr . Moment of inertia is a measure of an object’s resistance to
• Average angular velocity: ωavg = ∆θ . • For a rigid body, L = I →
−
ω. • Wave
∆t change in rotation; it is the rotational analog of mass. sive c
• Instantaneous angular veloctiy: ω = dθ . • For a discrete system of masses mi at distance ri from • Analog of Newton’s Second Law: − →
τ net = dL
dt .
dt • Wave
the axis of rotation, the moment of inertia is • Conservation of angular momentum: If no net external
Angular acceleration α: The rate of change of angular the s
torque acts on a system, the total angular momentum of
�
velocity. If at is the component of the particle’s linear accel- I=mi ri2 . • Inten
The left pulley is chang- the system remains constant.
eration tangent to the arc of rotation, then α = art .
�
i
ing the direction of the • For a continuous system, I = r2 dm. Prop
• Average angular velocity: αavg = ∆ω . More rotational analogs:
force (pulling down is ∆t
mg • Instantaneous angular veloctiy: α = dω
2
= ddt2θ . particle sphere ring disk rod • Kinetic energy: KE rot = 12 Iω 2 . WAVE
easier than up). dt
2
The total kinetic energy of a cylindrical object of radius • Fixed
NOTE: The particle’s total linear acceleration a can be broken L
The right pulley is halv- up into components: a = ac + at , where ac is the centripetal r rolling (without slipping) with angular velocity ω is y(t)
R R R R
ing the amount of force acceleration, which does not affect the magnitude of v, and KE tot = 12 mω2 r2 + 12 Iω 2 . • Fixed
necessary to lift the at is the tangential acceleration related to α. y(x)
mass. • Work: W = τ θ or W = τ dθ.
�
• Angular veloctity and acceleration as vectors: It can be 2 1 1 • Vary
MR 2 MR 2 MR 2 MR 2 12
ML2
R MOTION convenient to treat ω and α as vector quantities whose 5 2 y(x,
• Power: P = τ ω.
ular path with constant speed directions are perpendicular to the plane of rotation. WAVE
motion.
is con-
vB B vA
GRAVITY • Princ
place
KEPLER’S LAWS Here a is the semimajor axis of the ellipse of revolution, M GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
hanges A the d
is the mass of the Sun, and G = 6.67 × 10−11 N·m2 /kg2
ion of 1. First Law: Planets revolve Gravitational potential energy of mass m with respect to
aB is the universal gravitational constant.
ly. The 0 around the Sun in ellipti- A
mass M measures the work done by gravity to bring mass • Interf
aA
ripetal cal paths with the Sun at Sun
m from infinitely far away to its present distance r . the p
focus focus
D
NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
lways directed one focus.
� ∞
Mm • C
Any two objects of mass m1 and m2 attract each other with U (r) = − F · dr = −G
r of the circle; v vA 2. Second Law: The segment planet
a
C
r p
force m1 m2 r
v2 joining the planet and the equal areas F =G 2 , w
ac = . B
r • Near the Earth, this reduces to U (h) = mgh .
vB m
r Sun sweeps out equal areas a = semimajor axis where r is the distance between them (their centers of mass).
the centripetal in equal time intervals. The trip from A to B takes as Escape velocity is the minimum surface speed required to • D
• Near the Earth, this reduces to the equation for weight:
towards the center of the cir- 3. Third Law: The square of long as the trip from C to D. completely escape the gravitational field of a planet. p
FW = mg , where g = GM 2
Earth
is the acceleration due to
For a planet of mass M and
mv2 � radius r , it is given by th
REarth
. the period of revolution (T ) is proportional to the cube gravity.
2 3
r of the orbit’s semimajoir axis a: T 2 = 4π a vesc = 2GM
. c
GM . r

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 PHYSICS
OST ALL
Y SHORE.” OSCILLATIONS AND SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
DEFINITIONS • Simple harmonic motion is any motion that experiences SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION:
TOM STOPPARD
a restoring force proportional to the displacement of the PENDULUM
An oscillating system is a system that always experiences a
system. It is described by the differential equation • Restoring force: At angle θ , F = mg sin θ .
restoring force acting against the displacement of the system.
d2 x k �
• Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of an oscil- + x = 0. • Period: T = 2π �
.
dt2 m g
lating system from its equilibrium position.
• Frequency: f = 1
�g
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION: 2π �.
• Period (T ): The time it takes for a system to complete
oing work. It is measured in Watts, MASS-SPRING SYSTEM
one cycle.
Each spring has an associated spring constant k , which
= ∆W
∆t . • Frequency (f or ν ): The rate of oscillation, measured in measures how “tight” the spring is.
P = dW = F · v. CALCULUS
Hertz (Hz ), II
or “cycles per second.” Technically, • Hooke’s Law: The restoring
dt

OF ENERGY 1 Hz = 1/s. force is given by 0

fects an object in the same way F = −kx,
• Angular frequency (ω ): Frequency measured in “radians
travel. Most forces encountered in where x is the displace-
per second,” where 2π radians = 360◦ . The unit of 0
v=0
gravity) are conservative, the major ment from equilibruim.
angular frequency is still the Hertz (because, technical- U = max T v=0
non-conservative force. • Period: T = 2π m .
�
ly, radian measure is unitless). For any oscillation, k� KE = 0 U = max
KE = 0
gy: If the only forces acting on a ω = 2πf . • Frequency: f = 1
2π
k
m. –x 0
ve, then the total mechanical ener- v = max mg sin 0 mg cos 0
• Elastic potential energy: U = min
+ U1 = KE 2 + U2 . Period, frequency, and angular frequency, are related as follows:
1 2π 1 KE = max
T = = U = kx2 .
. 2 +x equilibrium
f ω –x 0
position mg

collides with mass m2 , moving at v2 .

sses move at v1� and v2� , respectively.
ntum (holds for all collisions) gives
v2 = m1 v1� + m2 v2� .
tic energy is also conserved:
2 2
= 12 m1 (v1� ) + 12 m2 (v2� ) .
of the masses remains constant:
1 = − (v2 − v1 ) .
� �
Kinetic energy is not conserved.
collision, the masses stick together
m =
m1 v1 +m2 v2
m1 +m2 after the collision.
v � −v �
n: e = v21 −v12 . For perfectly elastic
perfectly inelastic collisions, e = 0.
WAVES
A wave is a means of transmitting energy through a medium
over a distance. The individual particles of the medium do not
move very far, but the wave can. The direction in which the
energy is transmitted is the direction of propagation.
DEFINITIONS
• Transverse wave: A type of wave where the medium
oscillates in a direction perpendicular to the direction of
propagation (Ex: pulse on a string; waves on water). A
point of maxium displacement in one direction (up) is
called a crest; in the other direction (down), a trough.
• Transverse waves can y
displacement
• Reflection: When a wave hits a barrier, it will reflect,
reversing its direction and orientation (a crest reflects
as a trough and vice versa). Some part of a wave will also
reflect if the medium through which a wave is traveling
changes from less dense to more dense.
• Refraction: When a wave encounters a change in medi-
um, part or all of it will continue on in the same gener-
al direction as the original wave. The frequency is
unchanged in refraction.
• Diffraction: The slight bending of a wave around an obstacle.
STANDING WAVES
length of the wave as perceived by the observer (feff , λeff )
are different from those at the source (f , λ). This shift is
called the Doppler effect.
• For instance, an observer moving toward a source will
pass more crests per second than a stationary observer
(feff > f ); the distance between successive crests is
unchanged (λeff = λ); the effective velocity of the wave
past the observer is higher (veff > v ).
• Ex: Sound: Siren sounds higher-pitched when approach-
ing, lower-pitched when receding. Light: Galaxies mov-
ing away from us appear redder than they actually are.

either be graphed by
plotting displacement A standing wave is produced by the interference of a wave
versus time in a fixed A and its in-synch reflections. Unlike a traveling wave, a
nalog of force. x
location, or by plotting location standing wave does not propagate; at every location along vs
a distance r from the axis produces displacement versus
y = A sin 2πx a standing wave, the medium oscillates with a particular
location at a fixed
= rF sin θ , amplitude. Standing transverse waves can be produced on
point in time. Displacement vs. location graph. a string (Ex: any string instrument); standing longitudinal
between F and r. Doppler effect with moving source
• Longitudinal wave: A type Time is fixed. waves can be produced in a hollow tube (Ex: any woodwind
wise or counterclockwise. Keep track
of wave where the medium oscillates in the same direc- instrument). WAVES ON A STRING
ing the vector definition of torque:
−
→ tion as the direction of propagation (Ex: sound waves). • Node: In a standing wave, a point that remains fixed in The behavior of waves on a string depends on the force of
τ = r × F.
• Longitudinal waves are graphed by plotting the den- the equilibrium position. Caused by destructive inter- tension FT and�the mass density µ = length
mass
of the string.
econd law: τnet = Iα.
sity of the medium in place of the displacement. A ference. • Speed: v = FT
.
µ
e rotational analog of momentum. compression is a point of maximum density, and • Antinode: In a stand- antinode • Standing waves: A string of length L fixed can produce
h linear momentum p at distance r corresponds to a crest. A rarefraction is a point of ing wave, a point standing waves with
has angular momentum minimum density, and corresponds to a trough. that oscillates with node node λn = 2L f = nf1 , where n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
n and n
in θ and L = r × p, Also see definitions of amplitude (A), period (T ), frequency maximum amplitude. fundamental frequency
between v and r. (f ), and angular frequency (ω ) above. SOUND WAVES
Caused by construc-
antinode
= I→
−
ω. • Wavelength (λ): The distance between any two succes- tive interference. • Loudness: The intensity of a sound wave. Depends on
sive crests or troughs. the square of the amplitude of the wave.
econd Law: − →
τ net = dL
dt .
• Fundamental frequency: node node
• Wave speed (v ): The speed of energy propagation (not node • Pitch: Determined by the frequency of the wave.
lar momentum: If no net external The frequency of the antinode
the speed of the individual particles): v = Tλ = λf . standing wave with first overtone • Timbre: The “quality” of a sound; determined by the
m, the total angular momentum of
• Intensity: A measure of the energy brought by the wave. the longest wavelength that can be produced. Depends interference of smaller waves called overtones with the
onstant.
Proportional to the square of the amplitude. on the length of the string or the tube. main sound wave.
: • Beats: Two interfering sound waves of different fre-
= 12 Iω 2 . WAVE EQUATIONS DOPPLER EFFECT quencies produce beats—cycles of constructive and
rgy of a cylindrical object of radius • Fixed location x, varying time t: When the source of a wave and the observer are not sta- destructive intereference between the two waves. The
y(t) = A sin ωt = A sin 2πt
� �
pping) with angular velocity ω is T
. tionary with respect to each other, the frequency and wave- frequency of the beats is given by fbeat = |f1 − f2 | .
= 12 mω2 r2 + 12 Iω 2 . • Fixed time varying location x:
t,
y(x) = A sin 2πx DOPPLER EFFECT EQUATIONS
� �
λ
.
= τ dθ.
�
• Varying both time t and location x: motion of source
y(x, t) = A sin ω( xv − t) = A sin 2π( λx − Tt ) .
� � � �
motion of observer stationary toward observer away from observer
at velocity vs at velocity vs
WAVE BEHAVOIR
• Principle of Superposition: You can calculate the dis-
stationary v veff = v � veff = v �
placement of a point where two waves meet by adding
POTENTIAL ENERGY λeff = λ v−v λeff = λ v+v
� �
λ s s

the displacements of the two individual waves. � v � � v �

energy of mass m with respect to f feff = f v−v
v
feff = f v+v
v

ork done by gravity to bring mass • Interference: The interaction of two waves according to s s

ay to its present distance r . the principle of superposition.

∞ • Constructive interference: Two waves with the same toward source at vo veff = v + vo
Mm
F · dr = −G
r period and amplitude interefere constructively λeff = λ � veff = v ± vo
r
feff = f v+v o
�
when they meet in phase (crest meets crest, trough v
educes to U (h) = mgh .
λeff = λ v±v
� s
�
meets trough) and reinforce each other.
inimum surface speed required to • Destructive interference: Two waves with the same away from source at vo veff = v − vo � v �
gravitational field of a planet. period and amplitude interfere destructively when λeff = λ � feff = f v±v o
v±vs
M and
� radius r , it is given by they meet out of phase (crest meets trough) and feff = f v−v o
�
v
c = 2GM
. cancel each other.
r

CONTINUED ON OTHER SIDE

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 physics 8.0 4/14/03 6:27 PM Page 2

LIGHT WAVES AND OPTICS ELE

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES DISPERSION OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS: ELEC
Light waves are a special case of transverse traveling waves Dispersion is the breaking up of visible light into its compo- MIRRORS AND LENSES Electric
Lenses and curved mirrors are designed to change the direc- ber mul
called electromagnetic waves, which are produced by nent frequencies.
tion of light rays in predictable ways because of refraction because
mutually inducing oscillations of electric and magnetic • A prism will disperse light
fields. Unlike other waves, they do not need a medium, and because of a slight difference in (lenses) or reflection (mirrors). Because
can travel in a vacuum at a speed of refraction indices for light of dif- • Convex mirrors and lenses bulge outward; concave electric
c = 3.00 × 108 m/s . ferent frequencies: ones, like caves, curve inward. the amo
• Electromagnetic spectrum: Electromagnetic waves are nred < nviolet . • Center of curvature (C ): Center of the (approximate) a wire i
distinguished by their frequencies (equivalently, their sphere of which the mirror or lens surface is a slice. The wire. (A
DIFFRACTION
wavelengths). We can list all the different kinds of waves radius (r ) is called the radius of curvature. tal unit.
Light bends around obstacles slightly; the smaller the aper-
in order. • Principal axis: Imaginary line running through the center.
ture, the more noticeable the bending.
• The order of colors in the spectrum of visible light can be • Vertex: Intersection of principal axis with mirror or lens.
• Young's double-slit experiment demonstrates the wave-like Law of c
remembered with the mnemonic Roy G. Biv. • Focal point (F ): Rays of light running parallel to the
behavior of light: If light of a sin- destroye
principal axis will be reflected or refracted through the
ƒ = frequency (in Hz)
gle wavelength λ is allowed to
same focal point. The focal length (f ) is the distance Electric
108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 pass through two small slits a dis-
P between the vertex and the focal point. For spherical mir- an elect
radio gamma tance d apart, then the image on a
microwaves infrared ultraviolet X rays
rays
rors, the focal length is half the radius of curvature: f = 2r . • Two
waves screen a distance L away will be a ≈0
• An image is real if light rays actually hit its location. • A po
1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12 series of alternating bright and 0
= wavelength (in m) R O Y G B I V
d Otherwise, the image is virtual; it is perceived only.
dark fringes, with the brightest Coulom
= 780 nm visible light 360 nm
fringe in the middle. ≈ d sin 0 Ray tracing techniques charges
• More precisely, point P on the 1. Rays running parallel to the principal axis are reflected varies in
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION screen will be the center of a bright or refracted toward or away from the focal point (toward • The
fringe if the line connecting P with F in concave mirrors and convex lenses; away from F in dista
At the boundary of one medium with another, part of the
the point halfway between the two convex mirrors and concave lenses).
incident ray of light will be reflected, and part will be trans-
L 2. Conversely, rays running through the focus are reflected
mitted but refracted. slits and the horizontal make an whe
angle of θ such that d sin θ = nλ, where n is any integer. or refracted parallel to the principal axis.
• All angles (of incidence, reflection, and refraction) are • Simi
• Point P will be the center of a dark fringe if 3. The normal to the vertex is the principal axis. Rays run-
measured from the nor- equa
d sin θ = n + 12 λ , where n is again an integer.
� � ning through the vertex of a lens do not bend.
mal (perpendicular) to
incident ray 4. Concave mirrors and lenses use the near focal point;
the boundary surface. • Som
• A single slit will also produce a bright/dark fringe pat- convex mirrors and lenses use the far focal point.
angle of k=
• Law of reflection: The incidence 01 normal tern, though much less pronounced: the central band is 5. Images formed in front of a mirror are real; images
0' 0 2 angle of calle
angle of reflection equals angle of larger and brighter; the other bands are less noticeable. formed behind a mirror are virtual. Images formed in
refraction
reflection
the angle of incidence. The formulas for which points are bright and which are front of a lens are virtual; images formed behind are real. ELEC
refracted ray
dark are the same; this time, let d be the width of the slit.
• Index of refraction: Ratio reflected ray The con
of the speed of light in a the stre
LENSES AND CURVED MIRRORS
vacuum to the speed of light in a medium: n = vc . In If F is th
1 1 1 image size q
general, the denser the substance, the higher the index Formulas: + = =− a partic
p q f object size p
of refraction. that poi
Optical instrument Focal distance f Image distance q Type of image
• Snell’s Law: If a light ray travels from a medium with • The
Mirror:
index of refracton n1 at angle of incidence θ1 into a Concave positive p>f positive (same side) real, inverted 6 p • The
medium with index of refraction n2 at angle of refrac- p<f negative (opposite side) virtual, erect 5 tion
tion θ2 , then h
Convex negative negative (opposite side) virtual, erect 4 char
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 . F V
• Conv
• Light passing into a denser medium will bend toward Lens: elect
the normal; into a less dense medium, away from the Convex positive p>f positive (opposite side) real, inverted 3 q
F=
normal. p<f negative (same side) virtual, erect 2
• Total internal reflection: A light ray traveling from a 6 Electric f
Concave negative negative (same side) virtual, erect 1 of st
denser into a less dense medium (n1 > n2 ) will experi-
ence total internal reflection (no light is transmitted) if poin
the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, h h h q tive c
F V h h F
F V V V F V
which is given by F F Fie
p F p p q p q
p
θc = arcsin n2
. q q po
n1
1 2 3 4 5

THERMODYNAMICS
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 2. Convection: Method of heat transfer in a gas or liquid in Carnot theorem: No engine working between two heat reser-
which hot fluid rises through cooler fluid. voirs is more efficient than a reversible engine. The effi-
Temperature measures the average molecular kinetic energy
3. Radiation: Method of heat transfer that does not need a ciency of a Carnot engine is given by εC = 1 − TThc .
of a system or an object.
medium; the heat energy is carried in an electromagnetic
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy to a system via ther- wave. GASES
mal contact with a reservoir. Ideal gas law: P V = nRT , where n is the number of moles

Heat capacity of a substance is the heat energy required to

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS of the gas, T is the absolute temperature (in Kelvin), and MA
0. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: If two systems are in R = 8.314 J/ (mol·K) is the universal gas constant.
raise the temperature of that substance by 1◦ Celsius. MAGN
thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in ther-
• Heat energy (Q) is related to the heat capacity (C ) by the The ideal gas law incorporates the following gas laws (the A magn
mal equilibrium with each other.
relation Q = C∆T. amount of gas is constant for each one): affects m
1. First Law of Thermodynamics: The change in the internal
Substances exist in one of three states (solid, liquid, gas). energy of a system U plus the work done by the system • Charles’ Law: P1
= P2
if the volume is constant. in Tesla
T1 T2
When a substance is undergoing a physical change of state W equals the net heat Q added to the system: Magneti
• Boyle’s Law: P1 V1 = P2 V2 if the temperature is constant.
referred to as a phase change: Q = ∆U + W . exert
• Solid to liquid: melting, fusion, liquefaction 2. Second Law of Thermodynamics (three formulations): Translational kinetic energy for ideal gas:
• Liquid to solid: freezing, solidification 1. Heat flows spontaneously from a hotter object to a N (KE ) = N = 32 N kT = 32 nRT ,
�1
mv2
�
2 avg on a
• Liquid to gas: vaporization cooler one, but not in the opposite direction.
where N is the number of molecules and the f
• Gas to liquid: condensation 2. No machine can work with 100% efficiency: all k = 1.381 × 10−23 J/K is Boltzmann’s constant. • Dete
• Solid to gas (directly): sublimation machines generate heat, some of which is lost to the
(align
• Gas to solid (directly): deposition surroundings. van der Waals equation for real gases:
towa
an 2
� �
3. Any system tends spontaneously towards maximum P+ (V − bn) = nRT
Entropy (S ) is a measure of the disorder of a system. V2 in th
entropy.
Here, b accounts for the correction due the volume of the right
THREE METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER The change in entropy is a reversible process defined by Because
molecules and a accounts for the attraction of the gas mol-
1. Conduction: Method of heat transfer through physical �
dQrev the part
∆S = . ecules to each other.
contact. T

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 ELECTRICITY MA
ELECTRIC CHARGE FLUX AND GAUSS’S LAW 1 1 1 1 Biot-Sava
NTS: • Resistors in parallel: = + + + ···
Req R1 R2 R3 a curre
ES Electric charge is quantized—it only comes in whole num- Flux (Φ) measures the number and strength of field lines
eral st
e designed to change the direc- ber multiples of the fundamental unit of charge, e, so called that go through (flow through) a particular area. The flux
a curre
ble ways because of refraction because it is the absolute value of the charge of one electron. through an area A is the product of the area and the mag-
a tiny
s). netic field perpendicular to it: R1 R2 R3
Because the fundamental unit charge (e) is extremely small, (positi
ses bulge outward; concave ΦE = E · A = EA cos θ .
electric charge is often measured in Coulombs (C). 1 C is vector
ward. • The vector A is perpendicular to the area’s surface and
the amount of charge that passes through a cross section of and r̂
Center of the (approximate) has magnitude equal to the area in question; θ is the Resistors in series
a wire in 1 s when 1 ampere (A) of current is flowing in the contrib
or or lens surface is a slice. The angle that the field lines make with the area’s surface.
wire. (An ampere is a measure of current; it is a fundamen- R1
dius of curvature. tal unit.) Gauss’s Law: The relation between the charge Q enclosed in
ine running through the center. e = 1.602210−19 C some surface, and the corresponding electric field is given R2
ncipal axis with mirror or lens. by
�
Q
light running parallel to the
Law of conservation of charge: Charge cannot be created or ΦE = E · dA = , R3
destroyed in a system: the sum of all the charges is constant. s ε0
ected or refracted through the where ΦE is the flux of field lines though the surface.
cal length (f ) is the distance Electric charge must be positive or negative. The charge on
e focal point. For spherical mir- an electron is negative. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL Resistors in parallel
the radius of curvature: f = 2r . • Two positive or two negative charges are like charges. Just as there is a mechanical potential energy, there is an
rays actually hit its location. • A positive and a negative charge are unlike charges. analogous electrostatic potential energy, which correspons The power dissipated in a current-carrying segment is given
rtual; it is perceived only. to the work required to bring a system of charges from by V2
Coulomb’s law: Like charges repel each other, unlike P = IV = I 2 R = .
infinity to their final positions. The potential difference and R
charges attract each other, and this repulsion or attraction
he principal axis are reflected energy are related to the electric field by The unit for power is the Watt (W). 1 W = 1 J/s . To find
varies inversely with the square of the distance.
ay from the focal point (toward dV = dU
= −E · d�.
• The electrical force exerted by charge q1 on charge q2 a q
Kirchhoff’s rules magne
convex lenses; away from F in The unit of potential energy is the Volt (V).
distance r away is q1 q2 Kirchhoff’s rules for circuits in steady state: whole
ve lenses). F1 on 2 = k 2 , • This can also be expressed as
r � � • Loop Rule: The total change of potential in a closed cir- Magnetic
through the focus are reflected ∂V ∂V ∂V
where k = 8.99 × 109 N · m2 /C2 is Couloumb’s constant. E = −∇V = − î + ĵ + k̂ . cuit is zero.
e principal axis. ∂x ∂y ∂z
• Similarly, q2 exerts a force on q1 ; the two forces are • Junction Rule: The total current going into a junction where
is the principal axis. Rays run- ELECTRIC CURRENT AND CIRCUITS point in a circuit equals the total current coming out of
equal in magnitude and opposite in direcion:
f a lens do not bend. the junction.
F1 on 2 = −F2 on 1 . Symbols used in circuit diagrams
ses use the near focal point;
• Sometimes, Coulomb’s constant is expressed as Capacitors
s use the far focal point. + –
k = 4πε1
, where ε0 is a “more fundamental” constant A capacitor is a pair of oppositely charged conductors sepa-
of a mirror are real; images 0
called the permittivity of free space. rated by an insulator. Capacitance is defined as C = VQ ,
are virtual. Images formed in battery resistor capacitor switch
where Q is the magnitude of the total charge on one con-
images formed behind are real. ELECTRIC FIELDS
V ductor and V is the potential difference between the con-
The concept of an electric field allows you to keep track of
ductors. The SI unit of capacitance is the Farad (F), where
the strength of the electric force on a particle of any charge. A
R 1 F = 1 C/V .
If F is the electric force that a particle with charge q feels at ammeter voltmeter • The parallel-plate capacitor consists of two conducting
a particular point, the the strength of the electric field at measures measures
current voltage drop plates, each with area A, separated by a distance d. The AMPER
that point is given by E = F. ε0 A
q capacitance for such a capacitor is C = . Ampere’s
• The electric field is given in units of N/C. d
Current • A capacitor stores electrical potential energy given by electrosta
6 p • The direction of the field is always the same as the direc-
Current (I ) is the rate of flow of electric charge through a U = 12 CV 2 .
5 tion of the electric force experienced by a positive
h cross-sectional area. The current is computed as I = ∆Q . • Multiple capacitors in a circuit may be replaced by a sin-
4 charge. ∆t
F V
Current is measured in amperes, where 1 A = 1C/s. gle equivalent capacitor Ceq .
• Conversely, a particle of charge q at a point where the
In this chart, the direction of the current corresponds to the • Capacitors in parallel: Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + · · ·
electric field has strength E will feel an electric force of
3 q
F = Eq at that point.
direction of positive charge flow, opposite the flow of electrons. • Capacitors in series: C1eq = C11 + C12 + C13 + · · · MO
2 Ohm’s Law: The potential difference is proportional to the
6 Electric field due to a point charge: A charge q creates a field THE AT
1 1 |q| current: V = IR, C1
of strength E = 4πε 0 r
2 at distance r away. The field Thompson
points towards a negative charge and away from a posi- where R is the resistance , measured in Ohms (Ω ). negativ
C2
tive charge. 1 Ω = 1 V/A. positiv
F h V F • The resistance of a wire is related to the length L and
F Field lines for a Field lines for a pair C3
p q
positive charge. of unlike charges cross-sectional area A of the current carrying material
5 by L Rutherford
R=ρ , centra
A
where ρ is resistivity, which depends on the material and Capacitors in parallel charge
+q orbit th
+q
is measured in ohm-meters (Ω · m).
–q
orking between two heat reser- • De
Resistors
wh
a reversible engine. The effi- • Combinations of resistors: Multiple resistors in a circuit C1 C2 C3
iven by εC = 1 − TThc . par
may be replaced by a single equivalent resistors Req .
The electric field is stronger when num
• Resistors in series: Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + · · ·
the field lines are closer together. Capacitors in series
where n is the number of moles
temperature (in Kelvin), and MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Bohr's mo
distinc
e universal gas constant. MAGNETIC FIELDS affects the direction. (Much like centripetal force affects Magnetic field due to a moving charge: with m
only the direction of velocity in uniform circular motion.) µ0 q (v × r̂) discret
es the following gas laws (the A magnetic field B is created by a moving charge, and B= ,
• A charged particle moving in a direction parallel to the 4π r2 An ele
each one): affects moving charges. Magnetic field strength is measured
field lines experiences no magnetic force. where µ0 is a constant called the permeability of free space. the dif
he volume is constant. in Tesla (T), where 1 T = 1 N/(A·m) .
• A charged particle moving in a direction perpendicular light o
Magnetic force on a moving charge: A magnetic field B will Magnetic field due to a current-carrying wire: The strength
if the temperature is constant. to the field lines experiences a force of magnitude
exert a force of the magnetic field created by a long wire carrying a
F = q (v × B) , of magnitude F = qvB . A uniform magnetic field will cause this par-
or ideal gas: current I depends on the distance r from the wire: where
F = qvB sin θ ticle (of mass m) to move with speed v in a circle of µ0 I
= 32 N kT = 32 nRT , on a charge q moving with velocity v at an angle of θ tto radius r = mv B= .
avg qB . 2π r
mber of molecules and the field lines. Quantum
Magnetic force on a current-carrying wire: A magnetic field • The direction of us at a
oltzmann’s constant. • Determine the direction of F using the right-hand rule
B will exert a force the magnetic field be foun
(align fingers along v, curl towards B; the thumb points F = I (� × B) , of magnitude
eal gases: lines are deter- the ele
towards F). If the charge q is negative, then F will point F = I�B sin θ
− bn) = nRT mined by another is obse
in the direction opposite to the one indicated by the on a wire of length � carrying current I and crossed by right-hand rule: if a wave
rection due the volume of the right-hand rule. field lines at angle θ . The direction of � corresponds to you grasp the wire with the thumb pointing in the direction sponds
the attraction of the gas mol- Because this force is always perpendicular to the motion of the direction of the current (which in this SparkChart of the (positive) current, then the magnetic field lines form upon m
the particle, it cannot change the magnitude of v; it only means the flow of positive charge). circles in the same direction as the curl of your fingers.

This downloadable PDF copyright © 2004 by SparkNotes LLC. SPARKCHARTS™ Physics page 5 of 6
 MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (continued)
Biot-Savart Law: The formula for the magnetic field due to BAR MAGNETS • Lenz’s Law is a special case of conservation of energy: if
+ ···
a current-carrying wire is a simplification of a more gen- the induced current flowed in a different direction, the
eral statement about the magnetic field contribution of A bar magnet magnetic field it would create would reinforce the exist-
→
− →
−
a current element d � . Let d � be a vector representing has a north pole ing flux, which would then feed back to increase the cur-
a tiny section of wire of length d� in the direction of the and a south pole. rent, which, in turn would increase the flux, and so on.
(positive) current I . If P is any point in space, r is the - + As the bar magnet
N S
- +
vector that points from the the current element to P ,
- +
The magnetic field moves up throught
and r̂ = rr is the unit vector, then the magnetic field lines run from the the loop, the upward
contribution from the current element is given by north pole to the magnetic flux

TM

SPARKCHARTS
�
→
−
� south pole. decreases.
µ0 I d � × r̂
dB = . By Lenz’s law, the cur-
4π r2
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION rent induced in the
N loop must create
• Just as a changing electric field (e.g., a moving charge)
more upward flux
creates a magnetic field, so a changing magnetic field counteracting the
can induce an electric current (by producing an electric changing magnetic
d field). This is electromagnetic induction. field.
r
P
S
ment is given • Magnetic flux (ΦB ) measures the flow of magnetic field, The induced current
and is a concept analogous to ΦE .. See Electricity: Flux runs counterclockwise
and Gauss’s Law above. The magnetic flux through area (looking down from
A is the top).
/s. ΦB = B · A = BA cos θ .
To find the total magnetic field at point P , integrate the
Magnetic flux is measured in Webers (Wb), where An inductor allows magnetic energy to be stored just as
magnetic field contributions over the length of the
1 Wb = 1 T · m2 . electric energy is stored in a capacitor. The energy stored in
whole wire.
an inductor is given by U = 21 LI 2 . The SI unit of induc-
a closed cir- Faraday’s Law: Induced emf is a measure of the change in
Magnetic field due to a solenoid: tance is the Henry (H).
magnetic flux over time:
B = µ0 nI ,
o a junction where n is the number of loops in the solenoid.
∆ΦB dΦB
|εavg | = or |ε| = . MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
ming out of ∆t dt
Qenclosed
�
• A metal bar rolling in a constant magnetic field B with 1. Gauss’s Law: E · dA =
s ε0
uctors sepa- velocity v will induce emf according to ε = vB�. The �
as C = VQ , change in flux is due to a change in the area through 2. Gauss’s Law for magnetic fields: B · dA = 0
on one con- which the magentic field lines pass. s

en the con- ∂ΦB ∂

� �
Lenz’s Law: The direction of the induced current is such that 3. Faraday’s Law: E · ds = − =− B · dA
d (F), where ∂t ∂t
the magnetic field created by the induced current oppos- c s

es the change in the magnetic field that produced it. �

conducting • Lenz’s Law and Faraday’s Law together make the 4. Ampere’s Law: B · ds = µ0 Ienclosed
ance d. The AMPERE’S LAW formula c
∆ΦB dΦB
. Ampere’s Law is the magnetic analog to Gauss’s Law in ε=− or ε=− .
∆t dt 5. Ampere-Maxwell Law:
y given by electrostatics:
∂
� �
• Right-hand rule: Point your thumb opposite the direc-
�
B · d� = µ0 Ienclosed . B · ds = µ0 Ienclosed + µ0 ε0 E · dA
tion of the change in flux; the curl of the fingers indicat- ∂t
ced by a sin- s
c s
ed the direction of the (positive) current.

Contributor: Ashish Ahuja, Anna Medvedovsky

Series Editors: Sarah Friedberg, Justin Kestler

C3 + · · ·
MODERN PHYSICS

Illustration: Matt Daniels, Dan O. Williams

+ ···
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
1
C3

THE ATOM SPECIAL RELATIVITY Acceleration due to gravity g 9.8 m/s2

Thompson's "Raisin Pudding" model (1897): Electrons are Postulates
negatively charged particles that are distributed in a 1. The laws of physics are the Avogadro’s number NA 6.022 × 1023 molecules /mol

Design: Dan O. Williams

positively charged medium like raisins in pudding. same in all inertial reference

$7.95 CAN
Coulomb’s constant k 9 × 109 N·m2 /C2
frames. (An inertial reference
frame is one that is either Gravitational constant G 6.67 × 10−11 N·m2 /kg 2
Rutherford's nuclear model (1911): Mass of an atom is con-
standing still or moving with
centrated in the central nucleus made up of positively Planck’s constant h 6.63 × 10−34 J·s
a constant velocity.)

$4.95
charged protons and neutral neutrons; the electrons
2. The speed of light in a vacuum
orbit this nucleus in definite orbits. Ideal gas constant R 8.314 J/ (mol·K)
is the same in all inertial ref- = 0.082 atm ·L/ (mol·K)
• Developed after Rutherford's gold foil experiment, in

0
erence frames:
which a thin foil of gold was bombarded with small
c = 3.0 × 108 m/s . Permittivity of free space ε0 8.8541 × 10−12 C/(V·m) www.sparknotes.com/errors
particles. Most passed through undeflected; a small

20593 36294
number were deflected through 180◦ . Lorentz Transformations Permeability of free space µ0 4π × 10−7 Wb/ (A·m)
Report errors at:

If (x, y, z, t) and (x� , y � , z � , t� )

Speed of sound at STP 331 m/s
are the coordinates in two
Bohr's model (1913): Electrons orbit the nucleus at certain
inertial frames such that the the Speed of light in a vacuum c 3.00 × 108 m/s
distinct radii only. Larger radii correspond to electrons
second frame is moving along
with more energy. Electrons can absorb or emit certain Electron charge e 1.60 × 10−19 C
the x-axis with velocity v with
discrete amounts of energy and move to different orbits.
respect to the first frame, then Electron volt eV 1.6022 × 10−19 J
An electron moving to a smaller-energy orbit will emit
• x = γ(x� + vt� )
f free space. the difference in energy ∆E in the form of photons of
7

• y=y � Atomic mass unit u 1.6606 × 10−27 kg

light of frequency = 931.5 MeV/c2
he strength ∆E • z = z ��
f= ,
e carrying a h Rest mass of electron 9.11 × 10−31 kg
�
x� v me
• t = γ t� + c2
wire: where h = 6.63 × 10−34 J·s is Planck's constant. = 0.000549 u
1 = 0.511 MeV/c2
Here, γ = � .
v2
Quantum mechanics model: Rather than orbiting the nucle- 1− c2 ...of proton mp 1.6726 × 10−27 kg
us at a specific distance, an electron is “more likely” to = 1.00728 u
Relativistic momentum and energy
be found in some regions than elsewhere. It may be that = 938.3 MeV/c2
the electron does not assume a specific position until it • Momentum:
m0 v …of neutron 1.6750 × 10−27 kg
is observed. Alternatively, the electron may be viewed as p= � = 1.008665 u
2

a wave whose amplitude at a specific location corre- 1 − vc2 = 939.6 MeV/c2

• Energy:
he direction sponds to the probability of finding the electron there m0 c2
E=� Mass of Earth 5.976 × 1024 kg
d lines form upon making an observation. 2
fingers. 1 − vc2 Radius of Earth 6.378 × 106 m

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