PHY 203: Introductory Atomic

Physics, Heat & Optics

(2 Credit Hours)

Atomic Physics
Lecturer: Jerry Opoku-Ansah, Ph.D.

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What is Atomic Physics?

Write down your answer.

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Atomic physics
• field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated
system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. It is
primarily concerned with the arrangement of
electrons around the nucleus and the processes
by which these arrangements change

• branch of physics concerned with the structure of

the atom and the characteristics of subatomic
particles

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LECTURE OUTLINE

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• Nature of Atom
 Structure
 Different Theories
• Electromagnetic Waves
 Nature
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Light Sources
• X-rays
• Particle-Wave Duality
• Black-Body Radiation
• Photoelectric Effect
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The Nature of
the Atom

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The Discovery of the Parts of
the Atom
• Modern scientific usage denotes the atom
as composed of constituent particles: the
electron, the proton and the neutron

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Rutherford’s Model

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The Rutherford Model

Rutherford confirmed that the atom had a

concentrated center of positive charge and
relatively large mass

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Rutherford’s Model:

An atom: A small positively charged nucleus (radius ≈ 10-15 m)

Surrounded at relatively large distances (radius ≈ 10-10 m) by a
number of electrons.

In the natural state: It is electrically neutral

Nucleus contains a number of protons, each with a charge +e
that equals the number of electrons, each with a charge of –e

This model of the atom:

Most recent, is the Nuclear Atom Model
Also called the “Planetary” Model

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In its natural state, an atom is electrically neutral.
It contains equal numbers of +e and –e
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Thomson’s Model

Model suggested in the past:

Also known as the “Plum-Pudding” Model.

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John Joseph Thomson, 1897

Electrons are negatively charged particles that can be “pulled out” of any metal by
a strong electric field (the “thingies” pulled out are all identical and have a charge
to mass ratio about 2,000 times larger than hydrogen ions (which we now know to
be protons)

So atoms cannot be indivisible, if not

indivisible, they must have some
internal structure that is responsible
for the physical and chemical
properties of the atoms of the various
elements

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The Thomson Model

Thomson proposed that the atom is composed of

electrons surrounded by a soup of positive charge to
balance the electrons’ negative charges.

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Thomson’s Atomic Model

 Thomson’s “plum-pudding” model of the atom had the positive

charges spread uniformly throughout a sphere the size of the
atom, with electrons embedded in the uniform background.

 In Thomson’s view, when the atom was heated, the electrons

could vibrate about their equilibrium positions, thus producing
electromagnetic radiation.

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Other Models suggested in the past:

Thomson’s Model (Previous),

Also known as the “Plum-Pudding” Model.
No nucleus at the centre of an atom.

The positive charge was assumed to spread through-out the atom

forming a kind of Paste or Pudding
The negative electrons were suspended like plums.

This model was discredited by Rutherford’s α-particle experiment

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 A Rutherford scattering experiment
α-particles were Directed at a Thin gold foil

If the Plum-Pudding Model was correct:

the α-particles would be expected to pass nearly straight through the foil
as α-particles are relatively massive compared to the small mass of electrons

Screen (ZnS)
flushed
briefly when
struck by an
α-particle

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 Rutherford scattering experiment.
Observation:

Not all the α-particles pass through the foil.

Some were deflected at large angles, even backward.
Rutherford said:
“It was almost incredible as if you had fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue
and it came back and hit you”.

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 Rutherford scattering experiment.
Conclusion:
The positive charge, instead of being distributed uniformly
throughout the atom was concentrated in a small region
called the nucleus

Concerns:
How could e- in an atom be separated from +vely charged nucleus?
If the electrons are static, they would be pulled inward by
the attractive electric force of the nuclear charge.

HENCE:
The electron MUST be moving around nucleus in some fashion,
like planets revolving around the sun,
hence the “Planetary Model”.

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Difficulties with Planetary Model

An electron moving on a curved path has centripetal acceleration

Therefore radiates em waves.

These waves carry away energy and the electron would spiral
Inward and eventually collapse into the nucleus!

This however does not occur.

Question?
Under what Conditions will an atom emit radiation?
Concept of Spectrum – Line and Continuous

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ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES

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Electromagnetic waves, which are composed of fluctuating
electric and magnetic fields.
Electromagnetic waves in the form of visible light enable us to
view the world around us; infrared waves warm our
environment; radio-frequency waves carry our television and
radio programs, as well as information about processes in the
core of our galaxy.
X-rays allow us to perceive structures hidden inside our bodies,
and study properties of distant, collapsed stars.
Light is key to our understanding of the universe.

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The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of

frequencies (the spectrum) of electromagnetic

radiation and their respective wavelengths and photon

energies

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Spectrum of Electromagnetic
Radiation

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 Spectra of Atoms: Line and Continuous

The hot filament of a bulb emits em waves that have a continuous

range of wavelengths, some are in the visible region.

The sun also gives a continuous spectrum

In contrast
Individual atoms emit only specific wavelength λ, not
continuous range
These λ are characteristic of the atom & give important clues
about its structure.
These can be identified as series of bright fringes, called line
spectrum.

The simplest line spectrum is that of atomic hydrogen

Under what Conditions is the spectrum observed? 26

 2500

2000

1500
Intensity

1000

500

0 200 400 600 800 1000

Pixel

A line spectrum of Hg Continuous spectrum of the sun

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The individual wavelengths (line spectrum) emitted by Ne and Hg
And
Continuous spectrum of the sun.

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The Line Spectrum of Atomic Hydrogen

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 The Line Spectrum of Atomic Hydrogen
Equations for the values of the observed wavelengths:
It gives the short and long wavelength limits of each series
1 1 1 
Lyman series  R 2  2  n  2, 3, 4, 
 1 n 

When an electron makes a transition from ni = 2 to nf = 1

Longest wavelength photon in the Lyman Series is emitted.
Energy change is the smallest possible.

When an electron makes a transition from ni = ∞ to nf = 1

Shortest wavelength photon is emitted. R:
Energy change is the largest possible. Rydberg constant
1.097 x 107 m-1
Lines are increasingly crowded towards the short wavelength limit.
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 The Line Spectrum of Atomic Hydrogen
The equations for the values of the observed wavelength are as follows:
It gives the short and long wavelength limits of each series

1 1 1
Balmer series  R 2  2  n  3, 4, 5, 
 2 n 

1 1 1
Paschen series  R 2  2  n  4, 5, 6, 
 3 n 

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Wavelengths in the Lyman series (n′ = 1) are in the ultraviolet band

Balmer lines (n′ = 2) are in the "visible" part of the spectrum

Paschen lines (n′ = 3) lie in the infrared band

Brackett series (n′ = 4) lie in the infrared region

Pfund series (n′ = 5) lie in the infrared region

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Use of The Equations
To Reproduce the wavelengths that hydrogen atoms radiate

But provides No Insight

WHY certain wavelengths are Radiated but others are Not.

Bohr’s Model
Provided that understanding!

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Bohr’s Atomic Model
The Rutherford model had a major drawback, it could not
explain why electrons do not fall into the nucleus by taking a
spiral path

It was in concurrence with the electromagnetic theory that

states "if a charged particle undergoes accelerated
motion, then it must radiate energy (lose)
continuously".

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 He depicts the atom as a tiny, spherical body which
consists nucleus at center and negatively charged
particles (electrons) revolving around nucleus in a
certain path known as orbit. He proposed some new
postulate with same basis concepts of Rutherford
theory.

Bohr suggested that electrons in hydrogen could have certain classical motions only
when restricted by a quantum rule.

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 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

This model of the atom is based on the following assumptions:

An atom is surrounded by electrons moving in circular orbits.
There can only be certain values of the total energy
(electron KE + PE).
These allowed energy levels correspond to different orbits
for the electron as it moves around the nucleus.
The larger orbits being associated with larger total energies.

An electron in an orbit does not radiate em waves.

Hence the orbits are called stationary orbits or stationary states.

A photon is emitted only when the electron changes orbits

from a larger one with a higher energy to a smaller one
with a lower energy. 38
 Ei  E f  hf
f is frequency
h is Plank’s constant

A photon is emitted when the electron drops from a larger,

higher-energy orbit to a smaller, lower energy orbit.

This is according to Einstein

Electrons get into the higher energy orbits

By picking up energy when atoms collide (when a gas is heated)
By acquiring energy when a high voltage is applied to a gas 39
 THE ENERGIES AND RADII OF THE BOHR ORBITS

For an electron of mass m and speed v in an orbit of radius r,

Total energy = kinetic energy KE + electric potential energy EPE.
If the nucleus contains Z protons the total energy will be

E  KE  EPE
1 2 kZe2 k is a Coulomb’s constant
 mv  = 8.988 x 109 N.m2/c2
2 r
A centripetal force acts on a particle in uniform circular motion
and this is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction

mv 2 kZe2

r r2
kZe 2
mv 2 
r
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Substituting into the Total Energy equation

1  kZe2  kZe2 kZe2

E  
2 r  r 2r
 

The total energy of the atom is negative because the

negative electric potential energy is larger in magnitude than the
positive kinetic energy.

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 To calculate E the value of r is obtained as follows:

According to Bohr the orbital angular momentum L is given as

L  I
Where
I = mr2 is the moment of inertia of the electron moving on its circular path
ω = v/r is the angular speed of the electron.

Bohr assumed the angular momentum can assume only certain discrete values
i.e., L is quantized and given as

h
Ln  mvn rn  n n  1, 2, 3, 
2

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Solving this equation for vn and substituting the results into the equation
kZe 2
mv 2 
r
Gives the expression
 h2  n2
rn   2 
2 
n  1, 2, 3, 
 4 mke  Z

Substituting the values of the constants

h = 6.626x10-34 Js,
m = 9.109x10-31 kg,
k = 8.988 x 109 Nm2/C2,
e = 1.602 x 10-19 C

Gives the Radii for Bohr Orbits, given by the final equation


rn  5.29 10 m
n2
11

Z
 n  1, 2, 3,  Radii for Bohr orbits
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 Radii for Bohr orbits

 
2
n
rn  5.29 1011 m n  1, 2, 3, 
Z

For the hydrogen atom (Z=1)

the smallest Bohr orbit (n=1)

The radius r1 = 5.29 x 10-11 m.

This particular value is the Bohr radius.

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Substituting the expression for r into the equation
for the total energy gives

 2 2 mk 2e 4  Z 2
En   2
 2 n  1, 2, 3, 
 h n

Substituting values for h, m, k and e yields

the energy in Joules and eV respectively

Energy in Joules

 
2
Z
En   2.18 1018 J 2 n  1, 2, 3, 
n

Energy in eV
Z2
En  13.6 eV  2 n  1, 2, 3, 
n
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 ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS

For the hydrogen atom Z = 1.

The highest energy level corresponds to n = ∞ with energy 0 eV.
For an atom when the electron is completely removed ( r = ∞) from the nucleus

The lowest energy level (Ground state) has n = 1 and value -13.6 eV.

Higher energy levels are called excited states.

From the ground state (n = 1) to the highest possible state (n = ∞)

a Minimum energy of 13.6 eV is required.
This is the Ionization energy and produces a +ve hydrogen ion H+

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ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS

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Spectral Evidence for Quantization Bohr Theory

1.When electron jumps from lower energy level to

higher energy level, it absorbs relevant amount of
energy and this results in the absorption spectrum.
2.When an electron drops to higher level from lower
level, it emits some amount of energy and emission
spectrum is observed.
3.Since there is only one electron in hydrogen atom,
there should be one line in hydrogen spectrum. But
in Bohr theory, there are infinite number of orbits, so
more than one line is observed in spectrum.

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Objection/Limitations of Bohr Model

1.Bohr model could not explain those atoms which have more
than one electron like lithium, helium. This model was
applicable only for those atoms which have one electron.
2.Bohr theory explained only spherical orbits. There was no
explanation for elliptical orbits.
3.This model failed to explain Zeeman Effect and stark effect.
4.Bohr model could not explain the uncertainty principle of
Heisenberg.
5.Bohr model was not related with classification and periodicity
of elements.
6.By using Bohr atomic model, one can’t explain the intensity
of spectrum line.

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 THE LINE SPECTRA OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
SUMMARY

Bohr’s Model shows that the Lyman Series occurs for

Transitions from higher energy levels with
ni = 2, 3, 4, …….∞ to the first energy level nf = 1.

When an electron makes a transition from ni = 2 to nf = 1

Longest wavelength photon in the Lyman Series is emitted
Energy change is the smallest possible.

When an electron makes a transition from the highest level

where ni = ∞ to the lowest level where nf = 1
Shortest wavelength photon is emitted
Energy change is the largest possible.

The higher energy levels are increasingly close together,

Hence lines in the series become more crowded towards short wavelength limit

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THE LINE SPECTRA OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

For transitions between energy levels

2 2 mk 2 e 4 2  1 1 
1

 3
hc
Z  2  2
n 
 f ni 

ni , n f  1, 2, 3,  ni  n f

nf is the final energy level, ni is the initial energy level

Substituting the values of constants (h, m, k, e, c) gives

R, which is Rydberg’s constant
For the Balmer Series ni = 3, 4, 5, ……. ∞ and nf = 2
For the Paschen Series ni = 4, 5, 6, …..….. ∞ and nf = 3

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 Emission lines
Produced when electrons change from
higher to lower energy levels resulting in the
release of photons.

Electrons also make transitions in

reverse directions from lower to higher levels
in a process known as Absorption

An atom absorbs a photon that has exactly

the energy needed to produce the transition.

Thus if photons with a continuous range of wavelengths pass

through a gas and then analyzed, a series of dark absorption lines
appear in the continuous spectrum.

These dark lines indicate the wavelength that have been

removed by the absorption process.

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The Quantum Mechanical Picture
of the Hydrogen Atom

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 The Quantum Mechanical Picture of the Hydrogen Atom

Bohr’s Model uses a single integer number n to identify the various

electron orbits and the associated energies of an atom.

In contrast QUANTUM MECHANICS

reveals that 4 different quantum numbers are needed to describe
each state of the hydrogen atom.

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 The Quantum Mechanical Picture of the Hydrogen Atom

1. The principal quantum number n. This number determines the

total energy of the atom and can have only integer values.

n  1, 2, 3, 

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 The Quantum Mechanical Picture of the Hydrogen Atom

2. The orbital quantum number l. This number determines the

orbital angular momentum of the electron due to its orbital motion.
Values that l can take depend on n and given as:

  0,1, 2, 3, , n  1

e.g., if n = 1, l = 0
if n = 4, l = 0, 1, 2, 3

The magnitude L of the angular momentum of the electron is

L    1
h
angular
momentum
2

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 3. The magnetic quantum number ml. This number determines the
effect of a magnetic field on the energy of the atom.
In the absence of a magnetic field it is not considered

In either event it determines the component of the angular momentum

along a specific direction, called the z-direction.

The values of ml depend on the value of l and given as

m  ,  2,  1, 0, 1, 2, ,

e.g., if l = 2, ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2

The component Lz of the angular momentum in the z-direction is

h
z component Lz  m
of the angular 2
momentum
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4. The spin quantum number ms. This number is needed because
the electron has an intrinsic property called spin.
There are 2 possible values for the spin quantum number of the electron

ms   12 or  12

These are sometimes called spin up and spin down

NB: For each ml value, there are two possible spins – spin up and spin down

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 Summary

These numbers determine the states of the atom

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For n=1

n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = + ½
n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = - ½

Total number of states = 2

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For n=1

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For n=2, 8 states

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X-RADIATIONS

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 X-RAYS

It is called Röntgen radiation, after Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, its discoverer.

He named it X-radiation to signify an unknown type of radiation.

X-rays (x-radiation) are produced when electrons, accelerated through a

large potential difference, collide with a heavy metal target made from
molybdenum (Mo, 42), platinum (Pt), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni),
copper (Cu, 29), zirconium (Zr, atomic number 40), tungsten (W, 74),
Silver (Ag, 47), Gallium (Ga, 31), Indium (In, 49).
These are Heavy Metals (toxic has high density, specific gravity or atomic weight)

They are a form of electromagnetic radiation

Wavelength in the range of 0.01 nm to 10 nm,
Frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz)
Energies in the range 120 eV to 120 keV.

They are shorter in wavelength than UV rays and longer than gamma rays
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 X-RAYS

Classification Based on their penetrating abilities:

Soft X-rays
Energy from about 0.12 to 12 keV (10 to 0.10 nm wavelength)
Hard X-rays
Energy from about 12 to 120 keV (0.10 to 0.01 nm wavelength)

Hard X-rays can penetrate solid objects

Application: take images of the inside of objects,
e.g. in crystallography (determining the arrangement of atoms within a crystal)

By contrast, soft X-rays hardly penetrate matter at all

Attenuation length of 600 eV (~2 nm)
X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer
It is used in mammography

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 X-RAYS

Distinction between X-rays and gamma rays Based on their origin

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 X-RAYS

Distinction between X-rays and gamma rays Based on their origin:

X-rays are emitted by electrons outside the nucleus,

Gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus

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 X-RAYS
As electromagnetic radiation, X-rays follow the following laws:

•As a wave, the wavelength

f is the frequency of the radiation

v is its phase velocity (in a vacuum, v = c, the speed of light, 3×108 m/s)

•As a particle, the Energy of a Photon is E = hf,

f is the frequency and
h is Planck's constant,

Combined, the Energy of a photon is:

The measure of X-rays ionizing ability is called the exposure

The coulomb per kilogram (C/kg) is the SI unit of ionizing radiation exposure
It is the amount of radiation required to create one coulomb of charge
of each polarity in one kilogram of matter.
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 X-RAYS
Generation

X-rays can be generated by an X-ray tube (vacuum tube)

It uses a high voltage to accelerate electrons released by a hot cathode
(thermionic emission) to a high velocity.

The high velocity electrons collide with a metal target (the anode)
creating the X-rays.

The Maximum Energy of the produced X-ray photon is limited by

the energy of the incident electron, which is equal to the voltage on the tube,
so an 80 kV tube cannot create X-rays with an energy greater than 80 keV.

It is assumed that all the kinetic energy of the incident electrons goes into
producing the x-ray photon.

Kinetic Energy = Energy of Photon

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Electrons are emitted from a heated filament (thermionic emission), are
accelerated through a large voltage and strike the target, resulting in the
emission of X-rays.

When they strike the target, X-rays are emitted.

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 X-RAYS

When the electrons hit the target,

X-rays are created by two different atomic processes:

1: X-ray fluorescence:
If the electron has enough energy it can knock an orbital electron out of the
inner electron shell of a metal atom, and as a result electrons from
higher energy levels then fill up the vacancy and X-ray photons are emitted

Process produces an emission spectrum of X-rays at discrete frequencies

sometimes referred to as the spectral lines.
The spectral lines generated depend on the target (anode) element used
and thus are called characteristic lines.

Usually these are transitions from upper shells into K shell (called K lines),
into L shell (called L lines) and so on.

K shell is n = 1, L shell is n = 2 etc 71

 X-RAYS

X- ray fluorescence: electrons from higher energy levels fill up vacancy

resulting in the emission of X- rays at discrete frequencies

They are called characteristic lines or characteristic X- rays because

they are characteristic of the target material. Feature 1
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 X-RAYS

2: Bremsstrahlung: (“braking radiation”)

This is radiation given off by the electrons
as they decelerate or “brake” upon hitting the target
These X-rays have a continuous spectrum. Feature 2

Resulting output of a tube therefore consists of 2 main Features:

Continuous Bremsstrahlung spectrum falling off to zero at the tube voltage 2

Plus

Several spikes at the characteristic lines – Feature 1

Kα lines arises when an electron in the n = 2 level falls into the vacancy
that the impinging electron has created in the n = 1 level
Kβ line arises when an electron in the n = 3 level falls to the n = 1 level
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The sharp peaks are called characteristic X-rays because they are
characteristic of the target material.

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Feature 2:
A sharp cutoff that occurs at a wavelength of λ0 on the short-wavelength side
of the Bremsstrahlung.
This cut-off wavelength is independent of the target material
but depends on the energy of the impinging electrons.

An impinging electron cannot give up any more than all its kinetic energy
when decelerated by the metal target in an X- ray tube.

Thus at most an emitted X-ray photon can have energy equal to

the kinetic energy of the electron.

hc
KE  hf 


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The KE acquired by an electron in accelerating from rest through a
potential difference V is eV.

hc
KE  hf   eV


A maximum photon frequency f0 corresponding to a minimum wavelength,

which is a cutoff wavelength λ0 can be defined as:

hc
0 
eV

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Both of these X-ray production processes are significantly inefficient,
with a production efficiency of only about one percent.

Hence, to produce a usable flux of X-rays, most of the electric power consumed
by the tube is released as waste heat.

The X-ray tube must be designed to dissipate this excess heat.

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Application
A patient is positioned in front of a piece of photographic film
and a single burst of radiation is directed through the patient and onto the film

The dense structure of bones absorbs X-rays much more than soft tissues
A shadow-like picture is recorded on the film, with some inherent limitations

Limitation
The image on the film is a superposition of all the shadows that result
as the radiation passes through one layer of body material after another.
Interpretation is therefore difficult.

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A new technique: CAT

Computerized Axial Tomography or Computer Assisted Tomography (CAT)

has greatly extended ability of X-rays to provide images from specific locations
within the body.

In this the X-ray source is rotated to different orientations

and the computer used to construct a highly resolved image of the
cross-sectional slice that is perpendicular to the body’s long axis.

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(a) and (b): Patients in CAT scanners
CTA: Computer-Assisted Tomography

3-D CAT scans of the

(c): skull and Brain
(d): Pelvis and part of the spine

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END OF LECTURE 1

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