KUET LAB Sheet

Experiment 1: Study of a transformer differential protection by using microprocessor based VAMP relay
and observe the different point on differential over current characteristics curve by injecting additional
differential current in one of the differential coil.
Theory:
A transformer is a static electrical device used in electric power systems to transfer power between
circuits through the use of electromagnetic induction. The term power transformer is used to refer to
those transformers used in the generator and the distribution circuits, and these are usually rated at 500
KVA and above. Power systems typically consist of a large number of generation locations, distribution
points and interconnections within the system or with nearby systems, such as a neighboring utility. The
complexity of the system leads to a variety of transmission and distribution voltages. Power
transformers must be used at each of these points where there is a transition between voltage levels.
For all larger rated and important distribution transformers, over current protection along with
restricted earth fault protection is applied. Differential protection should be provided in the
transformers rated above 5 MVA. Depending upon the normal service condition, nature of transformer
faults, degree of sustained over load, scheme of tap changing, and many other factors, the suitable
transformer protection schemes are chosen. Here we used a microprocessor based differential relay
VAMP 265 which is normally used in large power transformer to protect the transformer from any kind
of electrical fault like phase to phase and phase to neutral. In this experiment we also observe the
different point on differential over current characteristics curve by injecting additional differential
current into one phase. And finally we block the 2nd harmonic component of the magnetizing inrush
current which occurs primarily when the primary side is energized under no load condition by using this
relay.
Causes of phase to phase and phase to ground fault:

1. The most common type of fault being the winding to core faults because of weakening of insulation.
Phase faults inside the transformers are rare. However, such faults may occur on terminals, the phase
faults in an electrical transformer may be occurred due to bushing flash over and faults in tap changer
equipment.
2. Power transformers are generally provided with on-line tap changing (OLTC) gear. This is another
major area of occurrence of fault.
3. Transformers experience large inrush currents that are rich in harmonic content at the time of
switching on to unloaded condition.
4. A transformer may develop inter turn faults giving rise to local hot spots within the winding.
5. Transformers may suffer from over fluxing due to under frequency operation at rated voltage. Over
fluxing may also be caused when the transformer is subjected to over voltage at the rated frequency.
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Percentage differential Protection:
This scheme is employed for the protection of transformers against internal short circuits. It provides
the best overall protection for internal faults. However in case of ungrounded or high impedance
grounding it cannot provide ground fault protection.
The following factors affect the differential current in transformers and should be considered while
applying differential protection. These factors can result in a differential current even under balanced
power in & out conditions:
1. Magnetizing inrush current– The normal magnetizing current drawn is 2–5% of the rated current.
However during Magnetizing inrush the current can be as high as 8–30times the rated current for
typically 10 cycles, depending upon the transformer and system resistance. The percentage differential
scheme tends to mal operate due to magnetizing inrush. The inrush current waveform is rich in
harmonics whereas the internal fault current consists of only the fundamental component. So to solve
the problem of inrush current, we must block it from differential stage ΔI> menu by using VAMP setting
software.
2. Over excitation–This is normally of concern in generator–transformer units. Transformers are
typically designed to operate just below the flux saturation level. Any further increase from the max
permissible voltage level (or Voltage/Frequency ratio), could lead to saturation of the core, in turn
leading to substantial increase in the excitation current drawn by the transformer. The magnetic flux
increases when voltage increases. This results in increased iron loss and magnetizing current. The core
and core bolts gets heated and the lamination insulation is affected. Protection against over fluxing is
required where over fluxing due to sustained overvoltage can occur. The reduction in frequency also
increases the flux density and thus has the same effect of over fluxing.
The expression for flux in a transformer is given by
Φ = K E/f
Where Φ = flux, f = frequency, E = applied voltage and K is a constant.
To control flux, the ratio E/ f is controlled. When the ratio exceeds a threshold value, it has to be
detected. Electronic circuits with suitable relays are available to measure this ratio. Over fluxing does
not require high speed tripping and hence instantaneous operation is undesirable when momentary
disturbances occur. But the transformer should be isolated in one or two minutes at the most if over
fluxing persists.
3. CT Saturation – External fault currents can lead to CT saturation. This can cause relay operating
current to flow due to distortion of the saturated CT current.
4. Different primary and secondary voltage levels that are the primary & secondary CT’s are of different
types and ratios. So CT ratio’s is also given at scaling menu in vamp setting software.
5. Phase displacement in Delta-Wye transformers. That’s why vector group must me mentioned at
scaling menu in vamp setting software.
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Transformer Differential Relay
To account for the above variables less sensitive Percentage Differential Relays with percentage
characteristics in the range of 15 to 60% are applied to transformers. Additionally, in modern
microprocessor relays harmonic restraints can be applied
Apparatus:
132 V/ 33V Δ-Y Transformer -1Pc
125/1 CT -3Pcs
500/1 CT -4Pcs
Transformer breaker – 2Pcs
Relay Vamp 265 -1PC
Power supply for relay and breaker
Necessary load 100A/200A/300A
Circuit Diagram:
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Procedure:
• Connect the transformer with the CT’s like above figure.[Already given]
• CT’s output should be connected with the relay like above figure. [Already given]
• Output relay’s T1, A1 and T2, A2 should be connected with the breaker like the diagram which is
given on the back side of the panel. [Already given]
• T1 and T2 are used for trip operation and A1 and A2 are used for interlocking closing operation.
• Now configure the relay by using VAMP setting software.
• Connect the relay with the VAMP setting software by the supplied USB cable.
• After open the software set the required port. [Settings → communica
on se ng→ Port]
• And then click connect.
• Default password is 2.
• Now configure CT setting, transformer rating at the scaling menu.
• Configure differential protection stage.
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• Configure differential E/F protection stage.
• Configure unbalance protection stage.
• Configure output relay and output LED on the output matrix menu.
• You can see the disturbance recording on event buffer menu.

• You can see the actual current, harmonics and phasor diagram from the respective menu.
Communication:
• Communicate with the relay to the given software and USB cable.
• Port selection must be OK to communicate with the relay.
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Observation:
• Device info
• Measurement
• Phasor diagram
• Event buffer
• Scaling
• Output matrix
• Differential stage
• Harmonics
• Scaling, Clock sync
• You can create fault line to line and line to ground by pushing of push button on the top of the
transformer diagram.
• You can create unbalance condition by removing one of the CT connections under load
condition.
• You can see the 2nd harmonic components of the magnetizing in rush current on relay setting
software.
• Vary the knob located on the bottom of the table to vary the differential current and observe
the different characteristics point on the differential characteristics curve under different load
conditions.
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Note: See the detail information of VAMP 265 relay on its catalog.
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Experiment 2: Transformer Over current Protection by using microprocessor based VAMP relay.
Theory: Over current protection is used for the purpose of providing back up protection for large
transformers (above 5MVA). It is also used for short circuits and heavy overloads. The over current
function of the VAMP relay measures the fundamental frequency components of the phase currents.
The protection is sensitive for the highest of the three phase currents. Whenever this value exceeds the
user pickup setting of a particular stage then the relay picks up and a trip signal is issued. Two phase
fault and one ground fault relay is sufficient to provide OC protection to star delta transformer. In this
case we use VAMP 265 relay for over current protection.
Causes:
In case of sustained overload conditions, the transformer should not be allowed to operate for long
duration. That’s why over current protection is necessary. Otherwise the winding temperature may
increase and eventually it turns into short circuit.
Apparatus:
132 V/ 33V Δ-Y Transformer -1Pc
125/1 CT -3Pcs
500/1 CT -4Pcs
Relay Vamp 265 -1PC
Desired Load 100A/200A/300A
Circuit diagram:
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Procedure:
• Connect the transformer with the CT’s like above figure.[Already given]
• CT’s output should be connected with the relay like above figure. [Already given]
• Output relay should be connected with the breaker like the diagram which is given on the back
side of the panel. [Already given]
• Connect the relay with the VAMP setting software by the given USB cable.
• After open the software set the required port.
• Now you should configure CT setting, transformer rating on the scaling menu.
• Configure Over current protection stage.
• You can see the disturbance recording on event buffer menu.

• You can see the actual current, harmonics and phasor diagram from the respective menu.
• You can select different delay curve like very inverse, normal inverse and extremely inverse, long
time inverse etc.
• Now vary the load and record the tripping time under different delay curve.
Communication:
Observation:
• Device info
• Measurement
• Phasor diagram
• Event buffer
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• Scaling
• Output matrix
• Scaling
• Clock sync
• Create the over load condition by varying the load and observe how the trip signal is issued
during over load condition.
• You can also select the IDMT curve and observe tripping time by varying the load.
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Note: See the detail information of VAMP 265 relay on its catalog.
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Experiment 3: Transformer Incipient fault protection by using microprocessor based VAMP relay.
Theory:
INCIPIENT FAULTS: Faults which are not serious at the beginning but which slowly develops into serious
faults are known as incipient faults. There are many kinds of incipient fault may occurs in transformer
like overheating, below oil level, oil pressure increases etc. In this experiment we show how incipient
faults are detected by using digital input of VAMP relay through a transducers and how it is operated.
PROTECTION AGAINST OVERHEATING:
The rating of a transformer depends on the temperature rise above an assumed maximum ambient
temperature. Sustained overload is not allowed if the ambient temperature is equal to the assumed
ambient temperature. The maximum safe overloading is that which does not overheat the winding. The
maximum allowed temperature is about 95°C. Thus the protection against overload depends on the
winding temperature which is usually measured by thermal image technique.
In thermal image technique, a temperature sensing device like silicon resistor (thermostat) is placed in
the transformer oil near the top of the transformer tank. A CT is employed on the L.V. side to supply
current to a small heater. Both the temperature sensing device and the heater are placed in a small
pocket. The silistor is used as an arm of a resistance bridge supplied from the stabilized dc source. An
indicating instrument is energized from the out of balance voltage of the bridge. Also the voltage across
the silistor is applied to a static control circuit which controls cooling pumps and fans, gives warning of
overheating and ultimately trips the transformer circuit breakers. Another contact is coming from
thermostat relay to the digital input of the main differential relay and it senses the abnormal condition
and then an alarm signal is generated from the relay and if the temperature is further increases then trip
signal is issued.
BUCHHOLZ RELAY:
It is a gas actuated relay. When a fault develops in the winding slowly, it produces heat, thereby
decomposing solid or liquid insulating material in the transformer. The decomposition of the insulating
material produces inflammable gases. The Buchholz relay gives an alarm when a specified amount of gas
is formed. The analysis of the gas collected in the relay chamber indicates the type of the incipient fault.
There is a chamber to accommodate Buchholz relay, in between the transformer tank and the
conservator. The Buchholz relay is a slow acting device, the minimum operating time is 0.1 s and the
average time is 0.2 s. Too sensitive settings of the mercury contacts is undesirable because they are
subjected to false operation on shock and vibration caused by conditions like mechanical shock to the
pipe, tap changer operation and heavy external faults. There are two signal are taken from Buchhoz
relay. One is for alarm signal for small fault and another signal is taken for trip signal for heavy faults.
Both signals are going to digital input of the differential relay for protection.
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Working: When an incipient fault such as a winding-to-core fault or an inter-turn fault occurs on the
transformer winding, there is severe heating of the oil. This causes gases to be liberated from the oil
around 350°C. There is a build-up of oil pressure causing oil to rush into the conservator. A vane is
placed in the path of surge of oil between the transformer and the conservator. A set of contacts,
operated by this vane, is used as trip contacts of the Buchholz relay. This output of Buchholz relay may
be used to trip the transformer.
The Buchholz relay also has another set of contacts operated by a float. These contacts stay open when
the transformer tank is filled with oil. However, in case of leakage of oil or decomposition of oil, the float
sinks causing the contacts to close. Loss of oil will no doubt cause the transformer temperature to rise
but does not warrant immediate tripping. Hence, normally these contacts are wired to an alarm which
alerts the operator.
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
An oil pressure relief valve is fitted at the top of the transformer tank. It is a spring controlled valve
located at the end of an oil relief pipe protruding from the top of the tank. Whenever a surge in the oil is
developed, it bursts, thereby allowing the oil to discharge rapidly. It operates when the pressure
exceeds 10 psi but closes automatically when the pressure falls below the critical level. This avoids the
explosive rupture of the tank and the risk of fire. We can also take a contact from the valve to the digital
input for alarm or trip signal.
Apparatus:
132 V/ 33V Δ-Y Transforemer -1Pc
125/1 CT -3Pcs
500/1 CT -4Pcs
Relay Vamp 265 -1PC
Desired Load 100A/200A/300A
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Push switches for generating various incipient faults -4 Pcs
Circuit diagram:
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Procedure:
• Connect the digital inputs through the push switch with the relay like above figure.[Already
given]
• Here internal voltage from X3:1 is used only for all digital inputs.
• Output relay should be connected with the breaker like the diagram which is given on the back
side of the panel. [Already given]
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• Now configure CT setting, transformer rating on the scaling menu.
• Give name for the Digital inputs.
• Configure digital inputs settings from output matrix menu.
• Now assign the breaker which should be trip during these fault conditions.
Communication:
Observation:
• Measurement
• Phasor diagram
• Event buffer
• Scaling
• Output matrix
• Scaling
• Clock sync
• Now push the fault switches for generating fault signal which is actually comes from Buchholz
relay, Pressure release device and thermostat contacts.
• Now observe how this protection system works.
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Experiment 4: Generator Over current and reverse power protection by using microprocessor based
VAMP relay.
Theory: A modern generating unit is a complex system comprising the generator stator winding
and associated transformer and unit transformer, the rotor with its field winding and exciters, and the
turbine and its associated condenser and boiler complete with auxiliary fans and pumps. Faults of many
kinds can occur within this system for which diverse protective means are needed. The amount of
protection applied will be governed by economic considerations, taking into account the value of the
machine and its importance to the power system as a whole. In this experiment we will show how over
current and reverse power may occurs in a generator and how the protections are given by using
microprocessor based VAMP RELAY.
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Over current protection I> (50/51)
Over current protection is used against short circuit faults and heavy overloads. The over current
function measures the fundamental frequency component of the phase currents. The protection is
sensitive for the highest of the three phase currents. Whenever this value exceeds the user's pick-up
setting of a particular stage, this stage picks up and a start signal is issued. If the fault situation remains
on longer than the user's operation delay setting, a trip signal is issued. To create overload we increase
the frequency under synchronize condition. Under this condition frequency will not increase, so the
stator current increases and trip the breaker.
Reverse power and under-power protection P< (32)
Reverse power function can be used for generators against motoring to protect the prime mover against
over-speeding or to disconnect a motor in case the supply voltage is lost and thus prevent any power
generation by the motor. Under-power function can be used to detect loss of the mechanical load of a
motor. Reverse and under power function is sensitive to active power. Whenever the active power goes
under the pick-up value, the stage picks up and issues a start signal. If the fault situation stays on longer
than the delay setting, a trip signal is issued. The pick-up setting is proportional to the nominal power of
the prime mover parameter Pm , which is part of the basic configuration.
If two or more generators are run in parallel then if one of them drags behind due to any reason,
instead of delivering electric power to the bus, it takes power from the bus acting like a motor and trying
to drive the engine. Then generator can enter a state called "motoring", where the prime mover is no
longer providing the power for the generator to the electric grid. Under this condition the generator is
using power instead of providing power. Hence power flows in reverse direction. This condition is known
as reverse power.
Reasons of Reverse power
There are mainly two reasons for which reverse power can occur.
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I. Motoring
The failure can be caused to a starvation of fuel in the prime mover, a problem with the
speed controller or other breakdown. When the prime mover of a generator running in a
synchronized condition fails. There is a condition known as motoring, where the generator
draws power from the bus bar, runs as a motor and drives the prime mover. This happens as
in a synchronized condition all the generators will have the same frequency. Any drop in
frequency in one generator will cause the other power sources to pump power into the
generator. The flow of power in the reverse direction is known as the reverse power relay.
II. Synchronization
Another cause of reverse power can occur during synchronization. If the frequency of the
machine to be synchronized is slightly lesser than the bus bar frequency and the breaker is
closed, power will flow from the bus bar to the machine. Hence, during synchronization
(forward), frequency of the incoming machine is kept slight higher than that of the bus
bar i.e. the synchro-scope is made to rotate in the "Too fast" direction. This ensures that the
machine takes on load as soon as the breaker is closed.
III. Load variation problem
Effects:
I. Steam unit: Overheating of turbine and turbines blades.
II. Hydro unit: Cavitation of the blades.
Protection:
Over current:
Over current protection is used against short circuit faults and heavy overloads.
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Reverse Power:
Reverse power relays are used on generators to trip them if this condition occurs. A reverse power relay
is a directional power relay that is used to monitor the power from a generator running in parallel with
another generator or the utility. The function of the reverse power relay is to prevent a reverse power
condition in which power flows from the bus bar into the generator.
The reverse power relay operates by measuring the active component of the load current, I cos φ. When
the generator is supplying power, the I x cos φ is positive, in a reverse power situation it turns negative.
If the negative value exceeds the set point of the relay, the relay trips the generator breaker after the
preset time delay.
Equipments:
Generator 2KW: 1
VS Drive motor 2KW: 1
Unit transformer 0.6KVA 3
R.P.M adjustment mechanism Load control device. 1
Voltage adjustment mechanism/Excitation control device. 1
Synchronizing mechanism:
1
Analog synchroscope.
Multifunction digital meter 2
Miniature CB 20A 1
Magnetic contactor 20A 4
CT 10/5 A
6
5VA
PT 400/110
2
5VA
PT 220/110 V
2
5VA
Fault simulators 10
Control switches 6A 10
Neutral grounding resistance
1
200 ohm
Generator protection relay: Vamp210 1
Circuit diagram:
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Procedure:
• Connect the Generator with the CT’s and PT’s like above figure.[Already given]
• CT’s and PT’s output should be connected with the relay like above figure. [Already given]
• Output relay should be connected with the breaker like the diagram [Already given]
• Now configure CT setting, generator rating from the scaling menu.
• Configure over current protection stage.
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• Configure reverse power protection stage.
• Configure output relays and output LED on the output matrix menu.
• Now synchronize the generator with the line. [Note: To synchronize the generator with the line
you should match the voltage frequency, phase sequence and phase angle. Everything should be
approximately same.]
• Match the phase sequence of the line and generator. If the phase sequence of the generator is
different from the source, then the phase sequence meter given an un-even movement. To
match the sequence you should interchange any two phases. This is done by phase sequence
switch. Then you can show the even movement of the phases from the sequence meter.
• Now vary the excitation by tuning excitation knob to match the generated voltage with the
system voltage.
• Now vary the frequency by tuning frequency knob to match the generated frequency with the
system frequency. Here we change the frequency by varying the coupling voltage of the VS drive
motor.
• You can see the system and generated voltage and frequency in the two digital multifunction
meters.
• Synchroscope is used to detect the phase displacement between system and generator.
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• When the synchronizing conditions are satisfied then green LED of the Synchroscope will be
enlightened, then ON the generator breaker instantly.
• Now after synchronizing condition if you increase the frequency by tuning frequency knob you
can see the over current scenario happens and if it is cross the threshold value of the relay
setting it will instantly pick up and trip the breaker and alarming a signal.
• Synchronize the generator again.
• Now after synchronizing condition if you decrease the frequency by tuning frequency knob you
can see the reverse power scenario happens and if it is cross the threshold value of the relay
setting the relay will instantly pick up and trip the breaker and alarming a signal.
• You can see the actual current, harmonics, phasor diagram from the respective menu.
Communication:
Observation:
• Device info
• Measurement
• Phasor diagram
• Event buffer
• Scaling
• Output matrix
• Over current stage
• Reverse power stage
• Harmonics
• Scaling
• Clock sync.
• You can create stator fault line to line and line to ground by pushing of push button on the top
of the Generator diagram.
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Experiment 5: Generator earth fault protection by calculating zero sequence current and zero sequence
voltage by using microprocessor based VAMP relay.
Theory:
Causes of stator ground fault:

• Transient over voltage due to lightning.
• Temporary over voltage.
• Degraded insulation due to high temperature or ageing.
• Mechanical impact.
Impact:
• Damages on the stator iron.
• Increase voltage on healthy phases.
• Small fault currents.
In case of short-circuits between phases in the stator winding or between the generator terminals, the
machine must quickly be disconnected from the network and brought to a complete shutdown in order
to limit the damage. Phase short-circuits on the generator bus, in the unit transformer or in the high
voltage winding of the unit transformer, must also be quickly disconnected from the network. The
generator must be brought to a complete shutdown in case of a transformer fault if there is no circuit-
breaker between the machine and the transformer.
Earth fault protection I0 > (50N/51N)
Un-directional earth fault protection is used for generator's stator earth faults in low impedance earthed
networks. In high impedance earthed networks, compensated networks and isolated networks un-
directional earth fault can be used as back-up protection. The un-directional earth fault function is
sensitive to the fundamental frequency component of the residual current 3I0 . The attenuation of the
third harmonic is more than 60 dB. Whenever this fundamental value exceeds the user's pick-up setting
of a particular stage, this stage picks up and a start signal is issued. If the fault situation remains on
longer than the user's operation time delay setting, a trip signal is issued.
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Zero sequence voltage protection U0 > (59N)
The zero sequence voltage protection is used as unselective backup for earth faults and also for selective
earth fault protections for generators having a unit transformer between the generator and the bus bar.
This function is sensitive to the fundamental frequency component of the zero sequence voltage. The
attenuation of the third harmonic is more than 60 dB. This is essential, because 3n harmonics exist
between the neutral point and earth also when there is no earth fault. Whenever the measured value
exceeds the user's pick-up setting of a particular stage, this stage picks up and a start signal is issued. If
the fault situation remains on longer than the user's operation time delay setting, a trip signal is issued.
Measuring the zero sequence voltage
The zero sequence voltage is either measured with three voltage transformers (e.g. broken delta
connection), one voltage transformer between the generator's neutral point and earth or calculated
from the measured phase-to-earth voltages according to the selected voltage measurement mode
Third Harmonic Protection Method
Generally, the output voltage of the generator is not a pure sinusoidal, but distorted by harmonic
components. The whole harmonic components generated can be found in triple harmonics as the third
harmonic, 9th, 15th and so on. The triple components can be found in all phases and have a large and
the same phase angle, which may cause the common point during this phase triple components not to
add up to zero for each phase. Therefore, the components appear as triple amount of zero sequences.
The third harmonic voltage (THV) is commonly greater than most others triples. Under normal
conditions, the characteristics of THV in the stator windings are shown in following figure.
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Third harmonic voltage at normal condition
When the GF occurs close to neutral at the generator, the THV at the terminal point will be equivalent to
the total third harmonic generator yield. While the voltage of harmonics is in the neutral point, the sum
reaches down to zero. The model of THV during GF at a neutral point is shown in Figure 17
Third harmonic voltage during ground fault at neutral
The opposite occurs when a GF develops in terminal point on the generator. The THV in the terminals
will drop to zero, while the THV in neutral point increases to a total of all the THV of the generator
produced. These characteristics are shown in this Figure.
Third harmonic voltage during ground fault at a terminal
Based on the above characteristics, when a GF occurs close to the terminal point, the THV at the neutral
will decrease, while the terminal will be enlarged. Similarly, the opposite occurs when it crashes near the
terminal point.
Equipments:
Generator 2KW: 1
1
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Miniature CB 20A 1
CT 10/5 A
6
5VA
PT 400/110
2
5VA
PT 220/110 V
2
5VA
Fault simulators 10
1
200 ohm
Generator protection relay; Manufacturer: VAMP Vamp210 1
Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
• Now you should configure CT setting, transformer setting on the scaling menu.
• Configure Earth fault protection stage for I0.
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• Configure Earth fault protection stage for U0.
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• Now start the generator.
• Now observe the third harmonics components of current and voltage.
• Now push the stator earth fault switch by selecting knob at Io.
• Observe the third harmonics of the current wave shapes.
• Observe how this protection system works.
• Now observe the third harmonics components of current and voltage.
• Now push the stator earth fault switch by changing knob position to Uo.
• Observe the third harmonics of the voltage wave shapes.
Communication:
Observation:
• Device info
• Measurement
• Phasor diagram
• Event buffer
• Scaling
• Output matrix
• Earth fault current I0 stage
• Earth fault current U0 stage
• Harmonics
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Experiment 6: Generator rotor fault and U/F detection and protection by using microprocessor based
VAMP relay.
Theory:
Rotor earth fault: I02

While the winding in the rotor is insulated from the ground during normal operation, the Rotor is
subjected to stresses due to vibration, heat, etc. These stresses can cause the winding to give way in a
particular place and the winding can get earthed.
Reasons of Rotor Earth Fault:

Failures in the rotor, caused by low exciting voltage do not occur that often and single earth faults are
not that dangerous. But it was obvious, that in case of a second breakdown of isolation, the turn-to-
turn-fault exerts a force on the axle. The detection of turn-to-turn faults is difficult. With a low exciting
voltage they occur in case of operation of the machine only. Centrifugal forces and heating utilize the
winding mechanically and thermally.
This explains why a turn-to-turn fault occurs during special load conditions and not if the generator was
out of service. Measurements are difficult due to a low resistance of the rotor winding. Only a careful
assembly of the winding was a sufficient protection because the isolation was aged by the de-excitation.
Effects of Rotor Earth Fault:

The currents produced during a rotor earth fault can cause excessive vibration and disturb the magnetic
balance inside the alternator. These forces can cause the rotor shaft to become eccentric and in extreme
cases cause bearing failure.
Protection Method:
There are several methods of power system grounding. These include low-resistance grounded (LRG),
effectively grounded, reactance grounded, high-resistance grounded (HRG), and ungrounded. Source
grounding may be accomplished by the grounding of the generator(s). The rotor earth fault protection
can be realized with the non-directional earth fault stage using the energizing current input I02 in
combination with a simple current injecting device. Here we used transformer to inject a small amount
of current in the rotor conductor through a capacitor. If the rotor is ungrounded (floating) then no
current will flow in the rotor coil so I02 is zero. And in case of rotor ground fault I02 is not zero and thus
detected in generator protection relay.
Over Excitation (V/F)

A synchronous generator is driven by a prime mover to run at a constant speed.
Based on the dc excitation current flowing through the rotating poles, the stator armature coils generate
more and more current all at a constant voltage. Voltage is dependent on the speed, which is constant,
because it is being run at synchronous speed. But the process has a limit. After a certain stage, sending
higher and higher dc current through the poles (Over-excitation) will make the generator unstable! It
will start hunting, and there is even risk of the generator falling out of synchronism.
Reasons of Over Excitation Fault:
Excessive dc excitation causes over excitation.
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Effects of Over Excitation Fault:
The excitation flux in the core of the generator and connected power transformers is directly
proportional to the ratio of voltage to frequency (V/Hz) on the terminals of the equipment. The losses
due to eddy currents and hysteresis and hence, the temperature rise, increase in proportion to the level
of excitation. The core laminations can withstand relatively high over fluxing without becoming
excessively heated, but non laminated metallic parts can experience severe heating in a short time.
Over Excitation Protection: Volts/hertz over-excitation protection Uf>(24)
The saturation of any inductive network components like transformers, inductors, motors and
generators, depend on the voltage and frequency. The lower the frequency, the lower is the voltage at
which the saturation begins.
The volts/hertz over-excitation protection stage is sensitive to the voltage/frequency ratio instead of
voltage only. Figure 2.13-1 shows the difference between volts/hertz and a standard overvoltage
function. The maximum of the three line-to-line voltage is used regardless of the voltage measurement
mode. By using line-to-line voltages any phase-to-ground over-voltages during earth faults have no
effect. (The earth fault protection functions will take care of earth faults.)
The used net frequency is automatically adopted according the local network frequency.
Over excitation protection is needed for generators, which are excited even during start up and shut
down. If such a generator is connected to a unit transformer, also the unit transformer needs volts/hertz
over-excitation protection. Another application is sensitive overvoltage protection of modern
transformers with no flux density margin in networks with unstable frequency.
Setting groups
There are two settings groups available. Switching between setting groups can be controlled by digital
inputs, virtual inputs (mimic display, communication, logic) and manually.
Figure1: This figure shows the difference between volts/hertz and normal overvoltage protection. The
volts/hertz characteristics on the left depend on the frequency while the standard overvoltage function
on the right is insensitive to frequency. The network frequency, 50 Hz or 60 Hz, is automatically adopted
by the relay.
36 | P a g e
Equipments:
Generator 2KW: 1
1
Miniature CB 20A 1
CT 10/5 A
6
5VA
PT 400/110
2
5VA
PT 220/110 V
2
5VA
Fault simulators 10
1
200 ohm
Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
37 | P a g e
• Configure Rotor earth fault protection.
• Configure over fluxing protection stage for Uf.
38 | P a g e
• Now push the rotor earth fault switch.
• Now fix the voltage at approximately 234 Volt and frequency approximately at 48 Hz. Now
observe how this protection works.
Communication:
Observation:
• Device info
• Measurement
• Phasor diagram
• Event buffer
• Scaling
• Output matrix
• Rotor fault
• U/F
39 | P a g e
Experiment 7: Generator unbalance loading and under excitation protection by using microprocessor
based VAMP relay.
Reduction or loss of excitation to the field winding is an abnormality rather than a fault. If the field
winding is completely lost, then in principle, synchronous generator will try to mimic an induction
generator. This mode of operation is possible provided that power system to which generator is
connected is strong enough to provide necessary reactive power support. Recall that an induction
generator has no field winding and hence it cannot generate reactive power. If adequate reactive power
support is not available (a strong possibility!), then the generator will have to be shut down. It is likely
that field winding will be accidentally shut off and usually loss of synchronism will require appreciable
time to take effect. Hence, it is preferable to first raise an alarm for operator to restore field, failing
which, generator has to be shut down.
Causes of under excitation:

• Open field circuit
• Field short circuit
• Accidental tripping of field CB
• AVR
• Loss of field at the main exciter
Consequence:
• Machine speed higher than synchronous speed
• Asynchronous running of synchronous machine without excitation
• Stator end core heating
• Induced rotor current
40 | P a g e
Reasons of Negative-sequence
When the generator is connected to a balanced load, the phase currents are equal in magnitude and
displaced electrically by 120°. The ampere-turns wave produced by the stator currents rotate
synchronously with the rotor and no eddy currents are induced in the rotor parts.
Unbalanced loading gives rise to a negative sequence component in the stator current. The negative-
sequence current produces an additional ampere-turn wave which rotates backwards, hence it moves
relatively to the rotor at twice the synchronous speed. The double frequency eddy currents induced in
the rotor may cause excessive heating, primarily in the surface of cylindrical rotors and in the damper
winding of rotors with salient poles.
Effects of Negative-sequence fault
The approximate heating effect on the rotor of a synchronous machine for various unbalanced fault or
severe load unbalance conditions is determined by the product I22 t = K, where I2 is the negative
sequence current expressed in per unit (p.u.) stator current, to the duration in seconds and K a constant
depending on the heating characteristic of the machine, i.e., the type of machine and the method of
cooling adopted. The capability of the machine to withstand continuously unbalanced currents is
expressed as negative sequence current in percent of rated stator current.
Protection
Here protections of unbalanced loading and under excitation are given by microprocessor based VAMP
relay 210.
Equipments:
Generator 2KW: 1
1
Miniature CB 20A 1
CT 10/5 A
6
5VA
PT 400/110
2
5VA
PT 220/110 V
2
5VA
Fault simulators 10
1
200 ohm
41 | P a g e
Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
• Configure under excitation protection.
42 | P a g e
• Configure phase unbalance protection stage.
• Now synchronize the generator with the line. [Note: To synchronize the generator with the line
you should match the voltage frequency, phase sequence and phase angle. Everything should be
approximately same.]
• Match the phase sequence of the line and generator. If the phase sequence of the generator is
different from the source, then the phase sequence meter given an un-even movement. To
match the sequence you should interchange any two phases. This is done by phase sequence
switch. Then you can show the even movement of the phases from the sequence meter.
• Now vary the excitation by tuning excitation knob to match the generated voltage with the
system voltage.
• Now vary the frequency by tuning frequency knob to match the generated frequency with the
system frequency. Here we change the frequency by varying the coupling voltage of the VS drive
motor.
• You can see the system and generated voltage and frequency in the two digital multifunction
meters.
• Synchroscope is used to detect the phase displacement between system and generator.
• When the synchronizing conditions are satisfied then green LED of the Synchroscope will be
enlightened, then ON the generator breaker.
43 | P a g e
• Now after synchronizing condition if you reduce the excitation by tuning excitation knob you can
see the under excitation scenario happens and if it is cross the threshold value of the relay
setting it will instantly pick up and trip the breaker and alarming a signal.
• For creating unbalance condition you have to open one phase or just rotate the unbalance
switch position and observe how this protection system works.
Communication:
Observation:
• Device info
• Measurement
• Phasor diagram
• Phase unbalance protection
• Under excitation protection
• Output matrix
• Harmonics
• Scaling
• Clock sync.
44 | P a g e
Experiment 8: Generator over voltage and over frequency protection by using microprocessor based
VAMP relay.
Over frequency:
Over frequency results from the excess generation and it can easily be corrected by reduction in the
power outputs with the help of the governor or manual control.
Under frequency operation:

Under frequency occurs due to overload, generation capability of the generator increases and reduction
in frequency occurs.
Protection:
The power system survives only if we drop the load so that the generator output becomes equal or
greater than the connected load. If the load increases the generation, then frequency will drop and load
need to shut down to create the balance between the generator and the connected load. The rate at
which frequency drops depend on the time, amount of overload and also on the load and generator
variations as the frequency changes. Frequency decay occurs within the seconds so we cannot correct it
manually.
Therefore automatic load shedding facility needs to be applied.
These schemes drops load in steps as the frequency decays. Generally load shedding drops 20 to 50% of
load in four to six frequency steps. Load shedding scheme works by tripping the substation feeders to
decrease the system load. Generally automatic load shedding schemes are designed to maintain the
balance between the load connected and the generator. The present practice is to use the under
frequency relays at various load points so as to drop the load in steps until the declined frequency
return to normal. Non-essential load is removed first when decline in frequency occurs. The setting of
the under frequency relays based on the most probable condition occurs and also depend upon the
worst-case possibilities. During the overload conditions, load shedding must occur before the operation
of the under frequency relays. In other words load must be shed before the generators are tripped.
The under-frequency relay is basically a protection for various apparatuses in a network, which in case
of a disturbance, may be separated from the rest of the system and supplied from one generator.
Operation at low frequency must be limited, also, in order to avoid damage on generators and
turbines. An example on turbine frequency limits is shown.
Figure: Example on off-frequency limits for a steam turbine (f = 60 Hz)
45 | P a g e
In practice, prolonged generator operation at low frequency can only occur when a machine with its
local load is separated from the rest of the network.
The necessity of under-frequency protection has to be evaluated from knowledge of the network and
the characteristics of the turbine regulator.
Over voltage protection:
Over voltage
During the starting up of a generator, prior to synchronization, the correct terminal voltage is obtained
by the proper operation of the automatic voltage regulator (AVR). After synchronization, the terminal
voltage of the machine will be dictated by its own AVR and also by the voltage level of the system and
the AVRs of nearby machines.
Effects of over voltage fault
Generally, the rating of one machine is small in comparison with an interconnected system. It is,
therefore, not possible for one machine to cause any appreciable rise in the terminal voltage as long as
it is connected to the system. Increasing the field excitation, for example owing to a fault in the AVR,
merely increases the reactive Mvar output, which may, ultimately, lead to tripping of the machine by
the impedance relay or the V/Hz relay. In some cases, e.g. with peak-load generators and synchronous
condensers, which are often called upon to work at their maximum capability, a maximum excitation
limiter is often installed. This prevents the rotor field current and the reactive output power from
exceeding the design limits.
Protection
If the generator circuit breaker is tripped while the machine is running at full load and rated power
factor, the subsequent increase in terminal voltage will normally be limited by a quick acting AVR.
However, if the AVR is faulty, or, at this particular time, switched for manual control of a voltage level,
severe over voltages will occur. This voltage rise will be further increased if simultaneous over speeding
should occur, owing to a slow acting turbine governor. In case of a hydroelectric generator, a voltage
rise of 50 - 100 % is possible during the most unfavorable conditions.
Modern unit transformers with high magnetic qualities have a relatively sharp and well-defined
saturation level, with a knee-point voltage between 1.2 and 1.25 times the rated voltage Un. A suitable
setting of the overvoltage relay is, therefore, between 1.15 and 1, 2 times Un and with a definite delay
of 1-3 s. An instantaneous high set voltage relay can be included to trip the generator quickly in case of
excessive over-voltages following a sudden loss of load and generator over-speeding.
For high impedance earthed generators, the over-voltage relay is connected to the voltage between
phases to prevent faulty operation in case of earth-faults in the stator circuits.
46 | P a g e
Equipments:
Generator 2KW: 1
1
Miniature CB 20A 1
CT 10/5 A
6
5VA
PT 400/110
2
5VA
PT 220/110 V
2
5VA
Fault simulators 10
1
200 ohm
Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
47 | P a g e
• Configure over voltage protection.
• Configure over frequency protection stage.

• Increase the voltage by increasing excitation.
48 | P a g e
• Observe the protection system.
• Now increase the frequency by varying frequency knob.
• Observe over frequency protection stage.
Communication:
Observation:
• Device info
• Measurement
• Phasor diagram
• Event buffer
• Scaling
• Output matrix
• Over voltage stage.
• Over frequency stage.
49 | P a g e

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Experiment 1: Study of a transformer differential protection by using microprocessor based VAMP relay

Causes of phase to phase and phase to ground fault:

The expression for flux in a transformer is given by

Where Φ = flux, f = frequency, E = applied voltage and K is a constant.

132 V/ 33V Δ-Y Transformer -1Pc

Transformer breaker – 2Pcs

Relay Vamp 265 -1PC

Power supply for relay and breaker

Necessary load 100A/200A/300A

• Configure differential protection stage.

• Configure unbalance protection stage.

• You can see the disturbance recording on event buffer menu.

132 V/ 33V Δ-Y Transformer -1Pc

Transformer breaker – 2Pcs

Relay Vamp 265 -1PC

Power supply for relay and breaker

Desired Load 100A/200A/300A

• You can see the disturbance recording on event buffer menu.

PROTECTION AGAINST OVERHEATING:

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

132 V/ 33V Δ-Y Transforemer -1Pc

Transformer breaker – 2Pcs

Relay Vamp 265 -1PC

Power supply for relay and breaker

Desired Load 100A/200A/300A

• Configure digital inputs settings from output matrix menu.

Reverse power and under-power protection P< (32)

Reasons of Reverse power

III. Load variation problem

• Configure over current protection stage.

Causes of stator ground fault:

Earth fault protection I0 > (50N/51N)

Measuring the zero sequence voltage

Third Harmonic Protection Method

Third harmonic voltage during ground fault at neutral

Third harmonic voltage during ground fault at a terminal

Rotor earth fault: I02

Reasons of Rotor Earth Fault:

Effects of Rotor Earth Fault:

Over Excitation (V/F)

Reasons of Over Excitation Fault:

Excessive dc excitation causes over excitation.

Over Excitation Protection: Volts/hertz over-excitation protection Uf>(24)

• Configure over fluxing protection stage for Uf.

Causes of under excitation:

Effects of Negative-sequence fault

Under frequency operation:

Therefore automatic load shedding facility needs to be applied.

Figure: Example on off-frequency limits for a steam turbine (f = 60 Hz)

Over voltage protection:

Effects of over voltage fault

• Configure over frequency protection stage.

• Now start the generator.

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