Electrical & Electronic Fundamentals

Electron Theory
In 1808, a scientist named John Dalton proposed that all matter was composed of atoms. Although the
assumptions that Dalton used to prove his theory were later found to be factually incorrect, the idea that all
matter is composed of atoms was adopted by most of the scientific world.

In 1897, J.J. Thompson discovered the electron. Thompson determined that electrons have a negative charge
and that they have very little mass compared to the atom. He proposed that atoms have a large, positively
charged massive body with negatively charged electrons scattered throughout it. Thompson also proposed that
the negative charge of the electrons exactly balanced the positive charge of the large mass, causing the atom to
have a net charge of zero. Thompson’s model of the atom proposed that electrons existed in a random manner
within the atom, much like firing BB’s from a BB gun into a slab of cheese. This was referred to as the “ plum
pudding model” of the atom.

In 1913, Neils Bohr, a Danish scientist, presented the most accepted theory concerning the structure of an atom.
In the Bohr model, electrons exist in specific or “allowed” orbits around the nucleus in much the same way that
planets orbit the sun. The orbit in which the electron exists is determined by the electron’s mass times its speed
times the radius of the orbit. These factors must equal the positive force of the nucleus. In theory there can be
an infinite number of allowed orbits.

Conductors and Insulators

Figure 1–1 Copper Atom

When an electron receives enough energy from some other source it “quantum jumps” into a higher allowed orbit.
Electrons, however, tend to return to a lower allowed orbit. When this occurs, the electron emits the excess
energy as a single photon of electromagnetic energy.

The arrangement of electrons around the nucleus determines most of the physical and chemical properties and
the behavior of the element. The electrons of the atom are often pictured in distinct layers, or shells, around the
nucleus. The innermost shell of electrons contains no more than 2 electrons. The next shell contains no more
than 8 electrons; the third, no more than 18; and the fourth, 32. Let us consider the model of a copper atom
shown in Figure 1–1.

The 29 electrons of the copper atom are arranged in four layers, or shells: 2 in the shell nearest the nucleus, 8 in
the next, and 18 in the third, for a total of 28 electrons. The single 29th electron circulates all alone in the fourth
shell.
This outermost shell is known as the valence shell, and electrons occupying this orbit are known as valence
electrons. These valence electrons, containing a series of energy levels, form an energy band which is called as
valence band. The valence band is the band having the highest occupied energy.

In this position (where it is relatively far from the positive nucleus and is screened from its attracting positive
charge by the other electrons), this single electron is not tightly held to the atom and is fairly free to travel. When
energy is applied to a valence electron, it may dislodge itself from its parent atom and is then known as a free
electron as they tend to move towards the neighboring atoms.

These free electrons are the ones which conduct the current in a conductor and hence called as conduction
electrons. The band which contains conduction electrons is called as conduction band. The conduction band is
the band having the lowest occupied energy.

The gap between valence band and conduction band is called as forbidden energy gap. As the name implies, this
band is the forbidden one without energy. Hence no electron stays in this band. The valence electrons, while
going to the conduction band, pass through this.

The forbidden energy gap, if greater, means that the valence band electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus.
Now, in order to push the electrons out of the valence band, some external energy is required, which would be
equal to the forbidden energy gap. Depending upon the size of the forbidden gap, the insulators, the
semiconductors and the conductors are formed.

The following figure shows the valence band, conduction band, and the forbidden gap.

Insulators
Insulators are such materials in which the conduction cannot take place, due to the large forbidden gap.
Examples: Wood, Rubber. The structure of energy bands in insulators is as shown in the following figure.

Characteristics of Insulators
1. The forbidden energy gap is very large.
2. Valence band electrons are bound tightly to atoms.
3. The value of forbidden energy gap for an insulator will be of 10eV.
4. For some insulators, as the temperature increases, they might show some conduction.
5. The resistivity of an insulator will be in the order of 10 7 ohm-meter.
Conductors
Conductors are such materials in which the forbidden energy gap disappears as the valence band and conduction
band become very close that they overlap. Examples: Copper, Aluminum. The following figure shows the
structure of energy bands in conductors.

Characteristics of Conductors
1. There exists no forbidden gap in a conductor.
2. The valence band and the conduction band get overlapped.
3. The free electrons available for conduction are plenty.
4. A slight increase in voltage increases the conduction.
5. There is no concept of hole formation, as a continuous flow of electrons contribute the current.

Electronic / Electrical Circuit Laws

Voltage, Current, and Resistance
Voltage
It is the potential difference. When there occurs a difference in potentialities, between two points, there is said to
be a voltage difference, measured between those two points. It is indicated by V. It is measured in Volts.

Current
It is simply the flow of electrons. A continuous flow of electrons or charged particles can be termed as current. It
is indicated by I or i. It is measured in Amperes. This can be alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC).

Resistance
It is the property of opposing the flow of electrons. The possession of this property can be termed as resistivity.
It is indicated by R. It is measured in Ohms.

Ohm’s Law
The three quantities V, I, and R relate to one another in a very significant way. This relationship, first formulated
by the German scientist Georg S. Ohm, states that the current (I) is directly proportional to the voltage (V) but
inversely proportional to the resistance (R). In other words,

• Current goes up when voltage goes up.

• Current goes down when voltage goes down. } (with constant R)

• Current goes up when resistance goes down.

• Current goes down when resistance goes up. } (with constant V)

In the language of mathematics this is simply stated as

V
I=
R
This equation is known as Ohm’s law and can be algebraically transposed and rewritten into other forms, namely,

𝐕
V = IR and R=
𝐈

Ohm’s law is one of the most important formulas in electrical theory. This law is helpful in determining the values
of unknown parameters among the three which help to analyze a circuit.

Memorize Ohm’s Law, because you will encounter it time and again in your future studies of electricity and
electronics. A popular memory device, for some students, has Ohm’s law arranged in a triangle, as shown in the
figure above. To use this triangle, place a finger on the letter representing the unknown quantity. The other two
letters will show themselves in the proper arrangement to indicate either multiplication or division.

EXAMPLES
1. Given: A resistance (R) of 4 ohms connected to a 12-volt battery (V).
Find: The current (I).

Solution
Covering the letter I in the memory triangle suggests the correct formula:

V 12
I= = = 3A
R 4

2. Given: A current (I) of 6 amperes flowing through a 4-ohm resistance (R).

Find: The voltage (V) needed to force the current through the resistance.

Solution
Wanting to find the voltage (V), cover the letter V within the memory triangle. This would suggest that
V=IxR
V=6x4
V = 24 V

3. Given: A source of 6 volts (E) forcing a current of 1.5 amperes (I) through a resistor (R).
Find: The value of the unknown resistor.

Solution
Placing your finger on the unknown value (R) of your memory triangle will suggest that

V
R=
I
6
R=
1.5

R=4Ω
Ohm’s law is designed for use with basic units only. That means:
 Current must be expressed in amperes.
 Voltage must be expressed in volts.
 Resistance must be expressed in ohms.

Special precaution must be observed when given values are stated with metric prefixes instead of basic units. In
such cases it is recommended to convert the metric prefixes.
EXAMPLE
4. Given: An electromotive force of 100 volts and a current of 20 milliamperes.
Find: The resistance.
Solution

convert 20 milliamperes into Amperes V

R=
20 I
= 0.02 A
1000 100
R=
0.02

R = 5,000 Ω or 5 kΩ

5. Given: A 3-kilohm resistor is connected to a 12-volt power source.

Find: The current.
V
I=
R
12
I=
3,000

I = 0.004 A or 4 mA

6. Given: A current of 2 milliamperes is flowing through a 5-kilohm resistance.

Find: The voltage.
Solution
V=IXR
V = (0.002 A) (5,000 Ω)
V = 10 V

CHECK-UP
1. Given voltage = 120 volts and current = 4 amperes, find resistance.
2. Given resistance = 6 ohms and current = 3 amperes, find voltage.
3. Given voltage = 24 volts and resistance = 8 ohms, find current.
4. Given voltage = 150 volts and resistance = 450 ohms, find current.
5. Given current = 5.5 amperes and voltage = 440 volts, find resistance.
6. Given voltage = 6 volts and resistance = 0.05 ohms, find current.
7. Given current = 0.022 ampere and voltage = 660 volts, find resistance.
8. Given voltage = 60 volts and current = 0.01 ampere, find resistance.
9. Given resistance = 48 ohms and current = 2.5 amperes, find voltage.
10. Given voltage = 12 volts and current = 0.002 ampere, find resistance.
11. Given resistance = 50,000 ohms and voltage = 250 volts, find current.
12. Given current = 0.01 ampere and resistance = 3,000 ohms, find voltage.
13. Given resistance = 7.5 ohms and current = 4.5 amperes, find voltage.
14. Given resistance = 31.4 ohms and current = 3.99 amperes, find voltage.
15. Given resistance = 480 ohms and current = 220 milliamps, find voltage.
16. Given current = 50 milliamps and resistance = 2 kilo ohms, find voltage.
17. Given resistance = 30,000 ohms and current = 3 milliamps, find voltage.
18. Given voltage = 100 volts and resistance = 10 kilo ohms, find current.
19. Given voltage = 240 volts and current = 8 milliamps, find resistance.
20. Given current = 0.002 ampere and voltage = 6.62 volts, find resistance.
Series Circuits
When any number of devices are connected so that there is only a single circuit path for electrons, the devices
are in series. Each device has the same amount of current in it.

Figure 2.1 Series circuit

The eight lamps shown in Figure 2.1 share the 120 volts supplied and, assuming all lamps in the circuit to be of
equal size, they will share alike. In other words, each lamp has a potential difference of 15 volts (120/8) across
its terminals. These individual voltages appearing across each resistance of a series circuit are known as voltage
drops.

To reinforce this idea, let us consider the circuit in Figure 2.2. Let us first examine the nomenclature used in this
schematic diagram. Note that all resistors have been labeled with subscripts: R1, R2, and R3. Since all the resistors
are equal in size, we may assume that they will share the supply voltage of 24 volts equally among themselves.
These voltage drops of 8 volts each are labeled correspondingly: V1, V2, and V3. After 8 volts are dropped at R1,
only 16 volts are left for the remainder of the circuit.

Figure 2.2 The total voltage is equal to the sum of all voltage drops

These examples should confirm that

The total voltage of a series circuit is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops.

Mathematically stated,
ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + . . . + En

This equation is sometimes explained by saying that the sum of the voltage drops equals the sum of the voltage
rises. In this case, E1, E2, E3, etc., represent the voltage drops, and ET the voltage rise. A voltage rise can thus be
explained as a voltage source.

Resistance and Current in Series Circuits

Compare the circuit in Figure 2.2 with that of Figure 2.3. Can you detect the similarities and the differences? Both
circuits consist of three resistors attached in series to a 24-volt supply. Both circuits have 2 amperes flowing
through the resistors. By Ohm’s law, we compute the total resistance (RT) that is connected to the battery.
VT
RT =
IT
24
RT =
2
RT = 12 Ω
 The total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of all individual resistors.

Mathematically stated,
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + . . . + Rn

Figure 2.3 The total resistance is equal to the sum of all individual resistors

The current in these two circuits is 2 amperes at any given point. Yet it is customary to label the current with
different subscripts as it flows through different components. We refer to it as I1 when it flows through resistor R1
and, correspondingly, I2 when it flows through R2. The current in the supply line is named IT to correspond to the
supply voltage VT. Some people prefer to use the subscript S for the word supply, and write IS and VS. Just
remember, by whatever name you call it,

The current in a series circuit is the same everywhere.

Mathematically stated,
IT = I1 = I2 = I 3 = . . . = In

Now let us have a quick look at the difference between the two circuits. Have you noticed? The voltage drops are
different when the resistors are different. In fact, the voltage drops are proportional to the values of the resistors.
For instance, if one resistor is twice as large as another, its voltage drop, too, will be twice as large. This, of
course, can be confirmed by use of Ohm’s law. We compute the following for the circuit in Figure 2.3:

E1 = I 1 X R1 = 2 X 2 = 4 V
E2 = I 2 X R2 = 2 X 4 = 8 V
E3 = I3 X R3 = 2 X 6 = 12 V
ET = IT X RT = 2 X 12 = 24 V

We must use matching subscripts whenever we use Ohm’s law or the power equations.

The characteristics of series circuits can be summed up in three rules, which can be employed using Ohm’s law to
solve the values of any series circuit that contains only one power source. These rules are:
1. The sum of the voltage drops across the individual circuit components is equal to the applied voltage.
(Voltage drops add.)
2. The current is the same through all components in a series circuit. (Current remains the same.)
3. The total resistance is equal to the sum of all resistive components in the circuit. (Resistance adds.)